BOOK EXCERPT PASSAGES The Kennedy-Nixon debates: television comes to politics

Conrad Black

In this excerpt from The Invincible Quest: The Life of Richard Milhous Nixon, Conrad Black weaves a narrative of the Kennedy-Nixon debates, the seminal event of the 1960 presidential campaign, which vaulted modern politics into the television age. Who won? Kennedy on appearance on television, Nixon on substance on radio. Though Nixon lost, barely, he would be back eight years later and finally won the White House.

Dans cet extrait de The Invincible Quest: The Life of Richard Milhous Nixon, Conrad Black retrace les faits entourant les débats Kennedy-Nixon, événements décisifs de la campagne présidentielle de 1960 qui aura marqué le passage de la vie politique moderne à l’âge télévisuel. Le vainqueur ? Kennedy au petit écran pour l’image, Nixon à la radio pour la substance. Ce dernier allait rater de justesse la Maison-Blanche avant d’y faire son entrée huit ans plus tard.

he first presidential debate was Kennedy found it so refreshing, he that the Eisenhower years had shown a in Chicago on September 26. insisted on the same preparatory therapy good deal more progress than had the T Nixon prepared the day before for all the debates. As is notorious, Truman years. The fifties were not and flew to Chicago, touring the wards Kennedy won the battle of appearances. slow-motion times, he pointed out, in a motorcade when he arrived and He wore a dark suit, was tanned and con- but in fact the greatest years of speaking to the Carpenters’ Union in fident, while Nixon seemed haggard and progress and generally improving liv- the morning. He studied the issues in at times a little nervous. Nixon’s five ing standards in the country’s history. the afternoon and arrived at the studio o’clock shadow, jowls, dark eyes, and ten- Nixon extolled Republican faith in the in a light suit with a shirt collar too dency to perspire under television lights private sector and unlocking America’s large, which made him appear drawn were all in evidence. Both candidates creative energies, and only lightly and fatigued, as his clothes seemed to knew the material, and the contrast broke out the violins on the issue of hang on him like a bat. He had light between the 1960 encounters and future the poor, saying that he had been poor makeup only. Nixon had bumped his presidential debates, which have been himself, but having the taste to avoid knee again as he got out of his car (per- sound-bite exchanges circumscribed to saying that Kennedy had not. haps if he had not eschewed Cadillacs superficial treatment of subjects, is strik- for reasons of image, he would have ing. Yet they were not so much debating ixon handled very competently had the legroom to spare his knees the as answering reporters’ questions that N the inevitable questions about severe battering they suffered). He was they had addressed many times before. whether he had really done anything standing uncomfortably as a result of They had an unprecedented audi- in the administration or just been an the bump he had sustained. Kennedy ence of over 80 million people. observer, referring to the reports he had prepared in his own fashion, Kennedy opened with his “get America gave on returning from foreign trips, relaxing on a sun deck and enjoying moving again” theme. “I am not satis- the setting up of the inter-American the pleasures of a professional woman fied, as an American, with the progress lending agency, the admission of procured for him by the specialists on we’re making.” He wanted faster Hungarian refugees, his role in various his staff who supplied him in this progress on everything from steel pro- foreign exchange programs, and his regard before, during, and after the duction to civil rights to teachers’ pay. work on the Cabinet Committee on campaign. Nixon replied defensively, but argued Price Stability for Economic Growth.

POLICY OPTIONS 109 JULY-AUGUST 2007 Conrad Black PASSAGES To the follow-up question of Sander lost Cuba. Nixon denied that it was lost, administration. Nixon pointed out Vanocur (who was intermittently paid reminded Kennedy that there was a non- that the Democrats had expended a by the Kennedys while working for intervention treaty in the Americas great deal of effort claiming that he NBC) about Ike’s inability the month (which the frequently vio- had played almost no role in it. before to think of an initiative of lated and which had not received much Kennedy attacked the Quemoy- Nixon’s that he had adopted, Nixon consideration as Eisenhower and Nixon Matsu policy and said the islands, which said that Ike was “facetious” and that planned the invasion of Cuba by exiles), were only five miles offshore from China, he had suggested a great many things. and said that the Cubans “who want to were militarily useless and should be “Sometimes my advice has been taken. be free are going to be supported and ... abandoned. Nixon scored well on this Sometimes it has not. I do not say that they will attain their freedom.” point that the United States must not I have made the decisions.” oblige its nationalist allies to give They had an unprecedented up territory: “This is the same he candidates repeated their audience of over 80 million people. kind of woolly thinking that led T positions on a number of Kennedy opened with his “get to disaster for America in Korea.” issues, Kennedy generally favor- Nixon a couple of times empha- ing government action to remedy America moving again” theme. “I sized that he did not question all problems, and Nixon favoring am not satisfied, as an American, Kennedy’s sincerity and he the same ends but through the with the progress we’re making.” He hoped that Kennedy would private sector, incentivized, if wanted faster progress on accord him the same courtesy. necessary, by the federal govern- Kennedy did not respond, and it ment. They agreed almost exactly everything from steel production to seemed slightly importunate of on civil rights. When Nixon civil rights to teachers’ pay. Nixon Nixon. The press and the polls returned to his hotel, feeling fair- replied defensively, but argued that concurred in Nixon’s own judg- ly good about his performance, the Eisenhower years had shown a ment that he had done well and he was advised by Rose Mary had a slight edge. The audience Woods and others that he had good deal more progress than had had declined from eighty million spoken well but looked sick. It the Truman years. The fifties were in the first debate to sixty million quickly became clear that he had not slow-motion times, he pointed in the second. lost on appearance but not on out, but in fact the greatest years of content. Those who heard the he third debate was on debate on the radio felt, by a progress and generally improving T October 13, with the candi- slight margin, that Nixon had living standards in the country’s dates on different coasts: Nixon won. For television viewers, there history. Nixon extolled Republican in Los Angeles and Kennedy in was an edge, though not a deci- faith in the private sector and New York. The Quemoy-Matsu sive one, to Kennedy, and this policy was again a big issue, as was more a press consensus than unlocking America’s creative both candidates demonstrated a genuine opinion sampling. energies, and only lightly broke out the brilliance of the Republicans who had expected the violins on the issue of the poor, Eisenhower-Dulles Formosa Nixon to eviscerate Kennedy saying that he had been poor Resolution and Doctrine, which were disappointed, and gave the president authority to Democrats were correspondingly himself, but having the taste to use any means he wished to happy, but the race was still close avoid saying that Kennedy had not. defend Formosa and “closely and all was still to play for. related localities,” a formulation The second debate was in There were frequent references to that enabled Eisenhower, a specialist in Washington on October 7. Nixon did not Khrushchev. Nixon said that the dissimulation, to play poker with Mao rest much before the debate, but had the United States could not allow Tse-tung and Chou En-lai. temperature reduced in the studio, Khrushchev to point to the mistreat- The policy differences between the arranged for minimal lighting in his face, ment of black Americans, and candidates were relatively subtle, and and wore adequate makeup. His clothes debunked Kennedy’s claim that centered on the role of the public sector. fit properly and he was in sharper form. American prestige had sunk. When Both candidates favored construction of The whole tenor of the exchange was Kennedy was asked why he attacked low-cost housing, extension of medical more aggressive. Kennedy started with the administration but not care, and aid to education, but Nixon the allegation that if the Republicans Eisenhower, he replied that he had thought the private sector could be were going to claim that the Democrats been given to understand that Nixon incentivized to deal with the first two had “lost China,” the Republicans had was a prominent member of the and that money should be given to the

110 OPTIONS POLITIQUES JUILLET-AOÛT 2007 The Kennedy-Nixon debates: television comes to politics BOOK EXCERPT states to address educational needs. except for medicine and food, and the case. The trouble was, he did not Kennedy was for direct federal govern- recall of the ambassador from Havana. believe a word of what he said.” Nixon ment funding and operation of these Kennedy replied that these measures would have done better, since Castro programs, including supplements to were inadequate and late, and that there had publicly predicted an American- teachers’ salaries. In foreign policy, should be stronger sanctions (presum- sponsored invasion, to state that a vari- Nixon accused Kennedy of being an ably the cut-off of supplies of medicine), ety of options were under apologetic appeaser and Kennedy aid to the democratic exiles, and a gener- consideration, that Kennedy had had a accused Nixon of being a warmonger. al aid program for Latin America. This full intelligence briefing, and that he Kennedy claimed the country’s defenses was all very frustrating for Nixon, as he knew as a result that what he was alleg- were in disarray; both put on an inva- had been advocating such an aid pro- ing against the administration was dis- sion-tease in respect of Castro, and they gram since his first visits to Latin honest. It could have been a knockout blow. The other main point There was extensive debate about the debates. If it had been of contention was expected that Nixon would win, he lost, because he did not Kennedy’s claim that Nixon win. But this reasoning is overused. The two candidates were was suppressing a report running neck-and-neck going into the debates, and they were showing the decline of American prestige in the in the same position at the end of them, so there cannot have world. Nixon said the been a great disappointment in Nixon or adherence of new report referred to was obso- believers to Kennedy. To the extent that neither candidate lete and that American pres- flattened the other, as Jimmy Carter was deemed to have done tige was in fine fettle, and then tore into Kennedy for with in 1976, or Ronald Reagan did with Carter “running America down,” four years later, or Bill Clinton did with George Bush Sr. and citing a speech of nine Bob Dole in 1992 and 1996, both failed and both succeeded. months before when Kennedy had claimed “sev- said virtually the same things about civil America, and an outright invasion of enteen million Americans go to bed rights and stimulative tax cuts. Cuba by the exiles. Kennedy claimed hungry every night.” Kennedy replied that the exiles were being given no sup- that he didn’t “need Mr. Nixon to tell ennedy was exploiting Cuba to try port, even though he had had intelli- me what my responsibilities are as a cit- K to turn the tide on Nixon as a paper gence briefings from Allen Dulles at izen.” He said that he was running tiger, and on October 17, Nixon met Eisenhower’s instruction, clearly stating down the country’s leadership, not the with Eisenhower and Undersecretary of that they were being assisted and pre- country — regarding, for example, State C. Douglas Dillon and urged that pared. The crowning irony of this Nixon’s statement to Khrushchev that something be done about Cuba and exchange came in the fourth and last the U.S.S.R. was ahead in rockets and that, for political reasons, Nixon be seen debate, on October 21, when Nixon gave the United States was ahead in color to be involved in it. Eisenhower agreed a brilliant answer to a question about television. “I think that color television on both counts. While this was being Cuba and excoriated the whole idea of is not as important as rocket thrust.” concerted, Kennedy spoke to the an invasion of Cuba, which he had, in American Legion in Miami and accused fact, been advocating, and which here was extensive debate about Nixon of “vicious distortions” over Kennedy did, in fact, carry out with dis- T the debates. If it had been expected Quemoy and Matsu. Nixon spoke to the astrously humiliating results. Nixon that Nixon would win, he lost, because same audience the next day and emphasized the problems of violating he did not win. But this reasoning is described Castro’s regime as “an intoler- the 1948 Organization of American overused. The two candidates were run- able cancer” and promised “the States Treaty, which pledged noninter- ning neck-and-neck going into the strongest possible economic measures.” vention in the internal affairs of signato- debates, and they were in the same posi- (The Legion was composed of veterans ry countries, and predicted that any such tion at the end of them, so there cannot of the armed forces and had about fif- course would alienate all of Latin have been a great disappointment in teen million members; they tended to America, open that continent up to the Nixon or adherence of new believers to be fairly hawkish, and liked both candi- Russians, and probably fail militarily. Kennedy. To the extent that neither can- dates because of their tough stances and As Stephen Ambrose wrote, “In his didate flattened the other, as Jimmy distinguished war records.) long political career, Nixon made any Carter was deemed to have done with The following day, October 19, the number of predictions, some of them Gerald Ford in 1976, or Ronald Reagan United States announced the imposition amazingly accurate, but never was he did with Carter four years later, or Bill of a complete trade embargo on Cuba more exactly on the mark than in this Clinton did with George Bush Sr. and

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Montreal Gazette Archives John F. Kennedy and chat after one of their debates during the 1960 presidential campaign, which brought television to politics. The debates, which Kennedy won on appearance, may have decisively swung a narrow outcome in his favour.

Bob Dole in 1992 and 1996, both failed tion day, and went to the Royal suite of tient, but Kennedy’s lead, as the last and both succeeded. the Ambassador Hotel, which was tart- polls had predicted, dropped to almost ed up in all the vulgarity L.A. could nothing. At about midnight in ith one week left, Kennedy had muster, in gold, purple, violet, pink, California, Nixon and his wife descend- W the lead, though narrowly. All and red. His wife and daughters stayed ed to the ballroom to thank the cam- polls showed Nixon narrowing the lead a floor above, and his mother one floor paign staff. He said that “If the present to a statistical dead heat on the last above that. Nixon slept only two trend continues, Senator Kennedy will days. He was alone, except for his wife, hours, and then drove with Pat to be the next president of the United with defeatism afflicting his staff. The Whittier to vote. He and a couple of States ... and if he does ... he will have Kennedys were rampaging in their irri- aides drove to Tijuana in an open con- my whole-hearted support.” Pat, the tating, noisy, physical Irish way, like a vertible for lunch, and Nixon took the strongest, most dignified, most caricature of boisterous Boston wheel for the return trip, stopping at admirable of political soul mates, wept Southies (except for the elegant JFK the mission at San Juan Capistrano. silently and motionlessly. But there was himself). Nixon oddly liked to be the He returned to the Ambassador no concession, and none was called for. underdog, and in any case thought it Hotel at 5 p.m., as the polls were closing He expected to win California, and did, his destiny, and strove mightily to sal- in the East. Kennedy leapt to an early as the Golden State voted for him for vage his supreme life’s effort. He flew lead, which shrank as the votes moved the fourth time in ten years. If he had with his family from Chicago to Los west. As in all things, Nixon’s tenacity won Illinois and Michigan or Angeles and had a final campaign rally was formidable. The Kennedys and Minnesota or Texas, he would have in the City of Angels at 1 a.m., on elec- their friends in the media became impa- won the election. (Lodge, an ineffable

112 OPTIONS POLITIQUES JUILLET-AOÛT 2007 The Kennedy-Nixon debates: television comes to politics BOOK EXCERPT defeatist, had prepared his concession tial.” “Substantial,” in this case, was to an insufferable ogre, the Herblock statement some days before, though he prove one of the great understatements sewer rat. He said to Peter Flanigan, did not release it prematurely.) of American political comment. “This campaign has laid to rest forever He had fought a brave struggle, the issue of a candidate’s religion in t was only after another two hours’ almost alone personally, comparative- presidential politics. Bad for me, per- I sleep, at 6 a.m. — 9 a.m. in the East ly undersupported by celebrities, intel- haps, but good for America.” Nixon — that Nixon learned that he had lost lectuals, and the media. His frictions would be fifty-five eight years later, Illinois by 9,000 out of 4.757 million, with Eisenhower had been in evidence when Kennedy would have had two and Minnesota by 22,000 out of 1.542 throughout the campaign, from the terms. The presumptuous Democratic million ballots cast. Texas was carried August 12 presidential request for a notion that Nixon was finished and by Kennedy and Johnson by 46,000 out of 2.312 million With John F. Kennedy and his family, a mighty legend was ballots cast. This appeared born. Lyndon Johnson, too, would prove an epochal figure. on its face to be convincing enough, but the Johnson- But Richard Nixon, whom The Reporter magazine had not Rayburn machine in the wished to “be bothered with again” in 1952, would prove state had performed prodi- the most durable American political leader since Jefferson, gies of electoral mischief. leading an army of the awkward, the ordinary, the There is little doubt that Chicago mayor Richard J. unflamboyant, silent masses of millions of decent, Daley cheated Nixon out of unexceptional people, through important decades of victory in Illinois, then the American history. country’s fourth state in population. The real winner of the 1960 week to think of a contribution Nixon would not be heard from again was presidential election has never been made to the administration, through one of American political history’s clear. The official popular vote was to the small role of Eisenhower in the colossal underestimations. Nixon had 34.221 million for Kennedy to 34.106 campaign, and his wife’s plea for her had a toss-up election, and lost the million for Nixon, the electoral vote husband’s health at the end. Nixon toss. Without his affecting the balance 303 to 219. Nixon ran five points ahead said to the author: “Eisenhower told in the Republican Party, or Eisenhower of his party, and the Republicans gained me that his friends, by which he playing a role, the party was approxi- twenty-two congressmen and two sena- invariably meant his rich friends, mately half divided between tors. Kennedy’s popular margin was, in would pay for a challenge and a Goldwater conservatives and fact, very doubtful, because the recount. I thought it would be irre- Rockefeller liberals. His party needed Alabama Democratic vote was partly for sponsible to leave the country without him, and so would his country, and electors pledged to Kennedy and partly a government for six months.” Nixon would be back, much stronger for Dixiecrat Harry Byrd’s electors. A Without most of the benefits of and of surer judgment than in this reasonable division of the Democratic incumbency, representing a tired gov- campaign, and almost certainly Alabama vote would have given Nixon ernment led by an admired leader with against a less attractive opponent. an overall national plurality. The states non-transferable popularity, Richard With John F. Kennedy and his won with a margin of approximately or Nixon had run about even against the family, a mighty legend was born. less than a one-point swing were: by the most naturally attractive Democratic Lyndon Johnson, too, would prove an Republicans, Alaska, California, Hawaii, leader, apart from FDR, since Jackson. epochal figure. But Richard Nixon, and Montana; by the Democrats, whom The Reporter magazine had not Delaware, Illinois, Michigan, y not campaigning on anti-com- wished to “be bothered with again” in Minnesota, Missouri, Nevada, New B munist innuendoes, wealth-envy, 1952, would prove the most durable Jersey, New Mexico, and Texas. Kennedy’s sexual indiscretions, the American political leader since Theodore White, and the Kennedy Kennedy intelligence scam on Cuba, Jefferson, leading an army of the awk- camp generally, assumed that Nixon any pitch to religious prejudice, ward, the ordinary, the unflamboyant, was riding into the sunset, and they Kennedy’s severe health problems and silent masses of millions of decent, doffed their hats to a gallant foe. White addiction to painkillers, and finally, unexceptional people, through impor- referred to “the fight that Richard M. the theft of votes on such a scale that tant decades of American history. Nixon had so valiantly waged, under JFK was moved to exclaim (of Daley such personal suffering ... Nixon’s skills and Johnson): “Thank God for a few Excerpted from The Invincible Quest: The in politics were enormous, his courage honest crooks,” Nixon had been so Life of Richard Milhous Nixon. By per- unquestioned, his endurance substan- gentlemanly that he shed his image as mission of McClelland & Stewart, 2007.

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