US-UK Relations in the Era of Détente, 1969–77
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A strained partnership? partnership?A strained A strained US-UK relations in the era of détente, 1969–77 partnership? This book is an international history of the US-UK ‘special relationship’ during the 1970s which analyses the security, diplomatic, economic and political interaction, co-operation, competition and coercion between the two nations. It is the first monograph-length study to chart the coercive diplomacy practiced by the administrations of Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford against its British ally US-UK relations in the during the ‘era of détente’, 1969–77. This included attempts to persuade Edward era of détente, 1969–77 Heath’s government to follow a more amenable course throughout the ‘Year of Europe’ and to convince Harold Wilson’s governments to lessen the severity of proposed defence cuts. As this book shows, such diplomacy proved effective against Heath but rather less so against Wilson. By drawing on a wide variety of American and British sources, including recently declassified archival material from both sides of the Atlantic, this volume provides a fresh interpretation to the study of the ‘special relationship’ that challenges a number of existing views. It argues that relations between the two sides were often strained, even to the extent that the most ‘special’ elements of the relationship, that of intelligence and nuclear co-operation, were suspended. A strained partnership? offers new perspectives on US and UK policy towards British membership of the European Economic Community, demonstrates how détente policies created strain in the ‘special relationship’, provides new insights on defence co-operation and re-evaluates the US-UK relationship throughout the IMF Crisis. It will be invaluable to both scholars and students interested in international relations, Cold War History, the US-UK ‘special relationship’ and US and UK political and diplomatic history during the twentieth century. ROBB Thomas Robb is Senior Lecturer in History at Oxford Brookes University www.manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk ISBN 978-0-7190-9175-9 9 780719 091759 THOMAS ROBB A strained partnership? 00_Strained_partnership_i-x.indd 1 18/11/2013 09:36 00_Strained_partnership_i-x.indd 2 18/11/2013 09:36 A strained partnership? US–UK relations in the era of détente, 1969–77 Thomas Robb Manchester University Press Manchester and New York distributed in the United States exclusively by Palgrave Macmillan 00_Strained_partnership_i-x.indd 3 18/11/2013 09:36 iv Copyright © Manchester University Press 2014 The right of Thomas Robb to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Published by Manchester University Press Altrincham Street, Manchester M1 7JA www.manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk British Library Cataloguing- in- Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978 0 7190 91759 hardback ISBN 978 1 5261 29383 open access First published 2014 This electronic version has been made freely available under a Creative Commons (CC-BY-NC-ND) licence. A copy of the licence can be viewed at https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/ The publisher has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for any external or third- party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. Contents Acknowledgements vii Abbreviations ix 1 Introduction 1 2 Re-assessing foreign policy, 1969−72 24 3 A year of discord, 1973–74 73 4 Wilson returns, 1974–76 128 5 All out of money, 1976–77 175 6 Conclusion 210 Select bibliography 221 Index 227 00_Strained_partnership_i-x.indd 5 18/11/2013 09:36 00_Strained_partnership_i-x.indd 6 18/11/2013 09:36 Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge the financial support from the University of Wales, Aberystwyth, which largely funded the writing of this book. I would also like to thank Dr R. Gerald Hughes and Professor Len Scott for reading numerous drafts during the writing process. I also send my appreciation to Professor Matthew Jones and Professor Campbell Craig for reading through the entire manuscript and providing detailed and compelling commentary on it. I would also like to acknowledge the insightful commentary provided by the three anonymous reviewers of the manuscript. Those that have assisted in the finding of materials at the various archives I have visited in the writing of this work deserve my thanks. Special mention goes to the staff at the Gerald R. Ford presidential library in Ann Arbor, Michigan who went beyond the call of duty in locating material. Their dedica- tion and professionalism serves as a fine model for all to follow. Dr David Gill, Dr Christopher Curran, Mrs Alison Curran and Dr Michael Seibold all deserve a mention for reading through various drafts. Special mention should be given to Dr Gill for reading through the entire manuscript, various drafts, and for discussing the project at length. As an emerging scholar himself, I know that he greatly benefitted from our discussions on all things to do with Richard Nixon and Henry Kissinger, but I would like to thank him for his time nonetheless. I would like to thank my parents, Gail and Keith, for their financial and logistical support in writing this book. Without the use of their motor vehicles, I could not have travelled to and from the multiple train stations that have become such a highlight of my life. Likewise, without the storage facilities provided at Rutland I could not have stored all of my various books and documents that were needed in the writing of this book. As it is appar- ently standard practice, I should also acknowledge my two siblings, Hilary and Alec, for annoying me immensely throughout the writing of this book. 00_Strained_partnership_i-x.indd 7 18/11/2013 09:36 viii Acknowledgements Mr Kitty, the neighbour’s cat, deserves a mention for keeping me entertained during the final drafting of the book. Finally, I would like to thank Donna who has supported me throughout my entire academic career (and, for her sins, continues to do so). Without her insisting I actually attend lectures or visit the library, then I would simply have never started, let alone finished, the writing of this book. It is to her that I dedicate this book. 00_Strained_partnership_i-x.indd 8 18/11/2013 09:36 Abbreviations ABM Anti-Ballistic Missile BAOR British Army of the Rhine CBMs Confidence Building Measures CDS Chief of the Defence Staff, UK CSCE Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe DBPO Documents on British Policy Overseas DEFCON Defense readiness condition (US) DEFE Defence Files, UK National Archive EEC European Economic Community FCO Foreign and Commonwealth Office, UK FO Foreign Office, UK FRG Federal Republic of Germany FRUS Foreign Relations of the United States FY Financial Year G10 Group of Ten GCHQ Government Communications Headquarters, UK GDP Gross Domestic Product GFL Gerald Ford Library HAK Henry Alfred Kissinger HAKTELCONS Henry A. Kissinger Transcripts of Telephone conversations HWP Harold Wilson Papers IDF Israeli Defense Force IMF International Monetary Fund JCP James Callaghan Papers JCS Joint Chiefs of Staff, US JIC Joint Intelligence Committee, UK MBFR Mutual and Balanced Force Reductions 00_Strained_partnership_i-x.indd 9 18/11/2013 09:36 x A strained partnership? MDA Mutual Defence Agreement MOD Ministry of Defence, UK NAII National Archives II, College Park, Maryland, US NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NPMP Nixon Presidential Materials Project, US NSA National Security Agency NSAMC National Security Adviser Memorandum of Conversations NSC National Security Council, US NSCDM National Security Council Decision Memorandum NSCIHF National Security Council Institutional (H) Files NSDM National Security Decision Memorandum NSSM National Security Study Memorandum PRC People’s Republic of China PREM Prime Minister Files, UK National Archives PSBR Public Sector Borrowing Requirement (UK) RAF Royal Air Force SALT Strategic Arms Limitation Talks Telcon Telephone Conversation Transcript TNA The National Archives, Kew, UK UNSC United Nations Security Council USAF United States Air Force USSR The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics WHY White House Years (Henry Kissinger’s memoir) WSAG Washington Special Actions Group YOR Years of Renewal (Henry Kissinger’s memoir) YOU Years of Upheaval (Henry Kissinger’s memoir) 00_Strained_partnership_i-x.indd 10 18/11/2013 09:36 1 Introduction American leaders saw it [to be] in their self-interest to obtain British advice before taking major decisions. It was an extraordinary relationship because it rested on no legal claim; it was formalized by no document; it was carried forward by succeeding British governments as if no alternatives were conceivable. Britain’s influence was great precisely because it never insisted on it; the ‘special relationship’ demonstrated the value of intangibles. Henry Kissinger’s assessment of the US–UK ‘special relationship’1 Introduction The above quote from Henry Kissinger, who served as US national security adviser (1969–75) and US secretary of state (1973–77) under presidents Richard M. Nixon (1969–74) and Gerald R. Ford (1974–77), gives the impres- sion that the US−UK special relationship functioned in a cooperative manner during his years in office. Moreover it suggests that British policy-makers could also exercise a decisive influence upon the course of US foreign policy. Readers will find that a quite different