THE ROLE OF SMART POWER IN U.S.-SPAIN RELATIONS, 1969-1986 By DAVID A. JUSTICE Bachelor of Arts in History Athens State University Athens, Alabama 2012 Master of Arts in History University of North Alabama Florence, Alabama 2014 Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate College of the Oklahoma State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY May, 2020 THE ROLE OF SMART POWER IN U.S.-SPAIN RELATIONS, 1969-1986 Dissertation Approved: Dr. Laura Belmonte Dissertation Adviser Dr. Douglas Miller Dr. Matthew Schauer Dr. Isabel Álvarez-Sancho ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation, this labor of love, would not be complete if it were not for a number of people. First, I would like to thank my dissertation committee of brilliant scholars. My advisor Laura Belmonte was integral in shaping this work and myself as an academic. Since my arrival at Oklahoma State, Dr. B has crafted me into the scholar that I am now. Her tireless encouragement, editing of multiple drafts, and support of this ever evolving project will always be appreciated. She also provided me with numerous laughs from the presidential pups, Willy and James. Doug Miller has championed my work since we began working together, and his candor and unconditional support was vital to finishing. Also, our discussions of Major League Baseball were much needed during coursework. Matt Schauer’s mentorship was integral to my time at Oklahoma State. The continuous laughter and support during meetings, along with discussions of classic films, were vital to my time at Oklahoma State. Finally, Isabel Álvarez-Sancho provided brilliant insight into Spain, and offered encouragement throughout the writing process. Le estoy agradecido. In addition to my committee, numerous academics helped develop me as a graduate student. I was taught or worked with in some capacity faculty members at iii Acknowledgements reflect the views of the author and are not endorsed by committee members or Oklahoma State University. Oklahoma State that influenced me as an educator and a scholar. They include Richard Boles, David D’Andrea, James Huston, Jason Lavery, Michael Logan, L.G. Moses, Richard Rohrs, Kristen Shedd, Elizabeth Williams, and Anna Zeide. Jeffrey Bibbee at the University of North Alabama also deserves special recognition as his impact is both professional and personal. He was pivotal in making me believe that I could achieve a Ph.D., helping me at various junctures along my doctoral journey, and happily officiated my wedding. Also at UNA, I would like to thank Scott Infanger, Alejandra Alvarado- Brizuela, and Pat Sanders for the study abroad trip to Spain in the summer of 2016. This was a fantastic opportunity to immerse in Spanish culture, and not a day goes by that I don’t think of my time in Salamanca. Additionally, I would like to thank Igor Contreras Zubillaga and Giulia Quaggio for organizing the Arts and Models of Democracy in Post- Authoritarian Iberian Peninsula at the University of Huddersfield. This was such a pivotal conference for me as it gave me the final push I needed for my dissertation. I am forever grateful for the opportunity they gave me and the support from the conference participants. Also, I would like to thank the group in Life Sciences East 213. Your support and Dungeons and Dragons games will be treasured forever. Finally, I would like to thank all the graduate students that have walked the hallow halls of Murray Hall. I especially would like to thank the constant presence of Jared Eberle and Andy Moser. My research was vast and brought me in contact with a number of archives and archivists. They include Vanessa Lee at Columbia University, Mark Fischer at the Gerald R. Ford Library, Brittany Parris at the Jimmy Carter Library, Elisabeth Thomas at the Museum of Modern Art Archives, David A. Langbart at the National Archives II, John Zarrillo at New York University Archives, Meghan Lee-Parker at the Richard Nixon iv Acknowledgements reflect the views of the author and are not endorsed by committee members or Oklahoma State University. Library, Renee Pappous at the Rockefeller Archive Center, Michael Pinckney at the Ronald Reagan Library, Geoffrey Stark at the University of Arkansas Library, and Laura Beth Schnitker at the University of Maryland Library. I was lucky to receive funding to travel to these archives. I would like to graciously thank the Gerald Ford Library for the Presidential Foundation Research Travel Grant, the Oklahoma State Graduate College for the Robberson Summer Research Fellowship, the Ashley Fund at Oklahoma State University for numerous travel grants, the Department of History for a Graduate Research Fellowship and various travel grants, and the Rockefeller Archive Center for a Research Stipend. There are a number of family and friends that deserve recognition. Throughout this doctoral journey, they have been ever present in their love and support. First, I would like to thank my best friends, Evan & Chelsea Carter and Arron & Shayna Frasier. It is through their constant conversations on movies, music, and SEC football that I was able to survive this process. Additionally, I would like to thank my mother-in-law Ramona Shelton consistently offered love, support, and Chex Mix. My uncle Danny Fisher is always a person that I can go to for love and support, and I am happy to offer him with a history text that is not related to the Civil War. My cousin Micah Fisher deserves mention as well for his undying support. Finally, I would like to thank my parents Robbie and Tommy Justice. They sacrificed so much to provide me with a great education and worked hard to make sure I accomplished my undergraduate and graduate degrees debt free. They helped make this possible through their love, strength, and determination. I am forever in debt to them and I will carry them forever. v Acknowledgements reflect the views of the author and are not endorsed by committee members or Oklahoma State University. Last, but not least, is my beautiful wife and best friend, Caitlin. From the outset, I told her that her dedication would continue to grow with every major or minor step along the way. At this point I owe her a 100-page dedication, but I will try to be concise in my gratitude. Caitlin was my research assistant, my sounding board, and my greatest champion for this project. If not for her, this dissertation would be a totally different adventure. Her patience, kindness, and understanding throughout has been a beacon of light. Anyway, here’s Wonderwall: “Because maybe you’re gonna be the one that saves me, and after all, you’re my wonderwall.” I dedicate this dissertation to her. vi Acknowledgements reflect the views of the author and are not endorsed by committee members or Oklahoma State University. Name: DAVID A. JUSTICE Date of Degree: MAY, 2020 Title of Study: THE ROLE OF SMART POWER IN U.S.-SPAIN RELATIONS, 1969- 1986 Major Field: HISTORY Abstract: This dissertation offers a dual inquiry into the balance of U.S. defensive and cultural diplomacy with Spain during the transition to democracy mainly from an American perspective. First, it explores how the United States used hard power with Spain to maintain control of the military bases but employed soft power to offset anti- Americanism. These negotiations provided Spain with economic assistance and promised integration into the West via the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the European Community (EC), both of which Spain coveted, However, once the Spanish transition began, the United States emphasized soft power. These tactics included public diplomacy, educational exchanges, television, and human rights rhetoric. The United States Information Agency (USIA) utilized public diplomacy on themes as diverse as the Apollo space program, democracy promotion, and economic rights to build goodwill in Spain for Americans. The Fulbright program attempted to win hearts and minds in Spain through American Studies programs and educational exchanges. The USIA engaged television as a method to reach the Spanish general public with documentaries and programs that illustrated U.S.-Spanish cultural understanding. For human rights, the presidents often used Spain as an example to the world of how to transition to democracy peacefully and promote human rights. Second, this study examines how nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) played a role in the development of U.S. soft power. Through education, the Ford Foundation (FF) helped Spain develop and institute educational reforms while the preoccupation of Fulbright was with American Studies promotion and educational exchanges. For television, Children’s Television Workshop (CTW) developed an international co- production of Sesame Street for Spain that Televisión Española (TVE) intended to use to develop a national identity. However, the American NGO’s lack of cultural understanding of Spain nearly caused Barrio Sésamo to end prematurely. Amnesty International (AI) along with other NGOs provided evidence of human rights violations in Spain while American presidents made speeches about how Spain’s transition represented the importance of human rights. Each of these NGOs directly or indirectly influenced the development of U.S. soft power in Spain. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................... iii CAST OF CHARACTERS .......................................................................................... vi ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................................................................x