Different Methodologies in the Teaching of Foreign Languages

UNIVERSIDAD DE JAÉN Centro de Estudios de Postgrado

Master’s Dissertation/ Trabajo Fin de Máster

DIFFERENT METHODOLOGIES IN THE TEACHING OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES. DESIGN OF AN ECLECTIC DIDACTIC UNIT.

Student: González Vieites, Ana Isabel

Tutor: Dr. Antonio Bueno González Dpt.: English Philology

Centro de Estudios de Postgrado

February, 2021

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract and keywords / Resumen y palabras clave 1

1. INTRODUCTION 2

2. THE LITERATURE REVIEW 4

2.1 Teaching methodologies 4

2.1.1 Overview 4

2.1.2 Traditional methodologies 5

2.1.2.1 The Grammar-Translation Method 5

2.1.2.2 The Direct Method 6

2.1.2.3 The Audiolingual Method 6

2.1.2.4 The Audiovisual Method 6

2.1.2.5 The Reading Method 7

2.1.2.6 Cognitive Theory 8

2.1.2.7 The Natural Approach 8

2.1.2.8 Total Physical Response 9

2.1.3 Modern methodologies 10

2.1.3.1 The Silent Way 10

2.1.3.2 Suggestopedia 10

2.1.3.3 Community Language Learning 11

2.1.3.4 The Communicative Approach 11

2.1.3.5 Task-Based Teaching 12

2.1.3.6 Project-Based Teaching 12

2.1.3.7 The Lexical Approach 13

2.1.3.8 Multiple Intelligence Theory 13

2.1.3.9 Cooperative Learning 14

2.1.3.10 Content-Based Instruction 15

2.1.3.11 CLIL 15

2.1.3.12 The Flipped Classroom 16

2.1.3.14 Computer-Assisted Language Learning 17

2.1.4 Learning styles and needs 17

3. DESIGNING A DIDACTIC UNIT: “TOWN AND AROUND” 19

3.1 Context 19

3.2 Legal background 20

3.3 Key Competences and Objectives 21

3.4 Contents 23

3.5 Cross-curricular elements 25

3.6 Interdisciplinarity 26

3.7 Step-by-step planning 26

3.8 Methodology 50

3.9 Attention to diversity 51

3.10 Resources 53

3.11 Evaluation: criteria and tools 53

4. CONCLUSIONS 57

5. REFERENCES 59

6. APPENDICES 66

Appendix I. Objectives in Decreto 86/2015 66

Appendix II. Contents in Orden ECD 65/2015 68

Abstract The aim of this Master's Thesis is to design a didactic unit whose contents are worked on through the application of an eclectic methodology in the language classroom, specifically while teaching English in the third year of Compulsory Secondary Education.

We will begin by presenting a theoretical framework in which we will talk about the different methodologies that have been followed in the area of language teaching as a foreign language over the years. Next, we will present a context in which we will later base ourselves to develop our proposal for a didactic unit, which will be adapted to the needs of the students that make up that context. After presenting the didactic unit, we will analyze its relationship with the context for which it was designed and we will justify each of the decisions made in this regard. Finally, we will present the conclusions that have been reached during the performance of this work and we will analyze its pedagogical implications. Likewise, we will list the possible limitations that have affected our work and the hypothetical lines of research that could continue, using our work as a starting point.

The purpose of our teaching unit is to promote the development of all basic skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing, and interaction) by using a wide variety of methodologies that can bring different positive issues to students. For this purpose, we will take into account the methodologies considered more traditional and also those of a more innovative nature; the combination of all of them will allow us to develop a didactic unit suitable for a teaching- learning process that can suit the different learning styles of the students.

Key words: methodology, traditional, innovation, compulsory secondary education, learning styles, teaching of English, foreign language.

Resumen

En el presente Trabajo de Fin de Máster se pretende plantear una unidad didáctica cuyos contenidos se trabajen mediante la aplicación de una metodología ecléctica en el aula de idiomas, concretamente en la enseñanza de inglés en el tercer curso de Educación Secundaria.

Comenzaremos exponiendo un marco teórico en el que hablaremos sobre las diferentes metodologías que se han seguido en el área de la enseñanza de idiomas como lengua extranjera a lo largo de los años. A continuación, presentaremos un contexto en el que posteriormente nos basaremos para desarrollar la unidad didáctica, que se adaptará a las necesidades de los

1 estudiantes que conforman dicho contexto. Tras presentar la unidad didáctica, analizaremos su relación con el contexto para el que ha sido diseñada y justificaremos cada una de las decisiones tomadas al respecto. Finalmente, expondremos las conclusiones que se hayan alcanzado durante la realización de este trabajo y analizaremos sus implicaciones pedagógicas. Asimismo, consignaremos las posibles limitaciones que hayan afectado a nuestro trabajo y las hipotéticas líneas de investigación que podrían seguirse, utilizando nuestro trabajo como punto de partida.

La finalidad de nuestra unidad didáctica es la de potenciar el desarrollo de todas las destrezas básicas (comprensión oral, comprensión escrita, expresión oral, expresión escrita, e interacción) mediante el uso de una amplia variedad de metodologías que puedan aportar diferentes aspectos positivos a los estudiantes. Para ello, tendremos en cuenta las metodologías consideradas más tradicionales y también las de carácter más innovador; la combinación de todas ellas nos permitirá elaborar una unidad didáctica apta para un proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje, que se adapte a los diferentes estilos de aprendizaje del alumnado.

Palabras clave: metodología, tradicional, innovación, educación secundaria obligatoria, estilos de aprendizaje, enseñanza de inglés, lengua extranjera.

1. INTRODUCTION

In the field of language teaching, throughout history there have been a series of different approaches and methodologies focused on different aspects of the language, depending on the time and the social context. From traditional methodologies focused on the written dimension of the language, based on the teaching of classical languages, to approaches focused on the oral use of the language. Today, the communicative approach is widely implemented. It advocates for giving priority to the ability to communicate before grammatical and lexical correction (Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, 2001: 9). However, up to this point, language teaching has undergone major changes in focus in a relatively short period of time. Nevertheless, today any classroom is characterized by the presence of different learning styles among the students that form it. For this reason we consider that it is not realistic to follow a single methodology, since each student presents certain needs that we must take into account, and in order to make the teaching-learning process as profitable as possible, we must adapt it to the needs of the students.

The teaching of foreign languages has undergone great changes over the years, reflecting political, economic and social situations. For this reason, a series of methodologies have been developed: some are already considered obsolete and have given way to others considered more innovative. In order to know the reason for these differences, we have investigated several of them, carrying out applied research in order to develop a specific didactic unit. This secondary and holistic research has allowed us to know aspects about different methodologies and to be able to use them in a practical way towards a heuristic purpose.

In this Master's Thesis, we intend to carry out a comparative study of this variety of methodologies and, based on the principles of each one, design a didactic unit in which the basic skills are worked equally (listening, speaking, reading, writing, and interaction) while addressing diversity in the classroom. Our objectives are the following:

- To know about the different methodologies that have appeared in the area of language teaching.

- To differentiate and understand the particularities of each of these methodologies.

- To design a didactic unit for a specific context using the different language teaching methodologies as a tool for attention to diversity.

Therefore, we will provide a didactic unit designed for a specific concept following an eclectic methodology that will combine different aspects of the previously studied methodologies. However, due to timing and means, it has not been possible to implement this teaching unit in a classroom to check its effectiveness.

The structure of this work will revolve around the following sections:

First, there will be an introduction where the general aspects of the MA dissertation are mentioned. Next, a theoretical framework will be developed on the aforementioned topic that will also serve as the basis for the next part of the work: the development of the didactic unit. In this practical part, we will present a fictitious context and develop a didactic unit that is adapted to the students who make up this context. Finally, we will present the conclusions reached during the research on the topic of teaching methodologies and the design of the practical part, as well as the limitations of our work. We will also propose possible lines for future research that may clarify those limitations. The last section will show the list of references that have helped us carry out this work, as well as the set of appendices that will help to understand some aspects.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Teaching methodologies

2.1.1 Overview

Due to the social, economic and cultural changes that are constantly taking place between generation and generation of students, and particularly and more reasonably, since the appearance of the first digital generations, teaching methodologies have also evolved to adapt to the needs of the new students.

Thus, starting from the Age of Enlightenment, we could divide these methodologies into two main groups: traditional methodologies (those corresponding to the Traditional School) and innovative methodologies (those corresponding to the New School).

• The Traditional School: forged throughout the 17th century and focused on the transmission of knowledge mainly to bourgeois students. However, the characteristics of the Traditional School that we know today did not settle until the 18th century, although it is true that they have remained practically until the present time. These characteristics would be magistrocentrism, encyclopedism, verbalism, and passivity according to Ceballos (2004: 1). In the specific case of Spain, these characteristics have been maintained until the establishment of democracy, at which time educational improvements began to be adopted successively until reaching the current educational model.

• The New School: although in the 17th century there were authors who defended a variety of methodologies different from the traditional ones (an example may be Emile, or on Education, by Jean Jacques Rousseau in 1762), it was not until 1875 when this movement began. The end was “the transformation of school reality” (del Pozo, 2002: 199). This current reached its peak during the first half of the 20th century and has continued to evolve until the present. Thus, among the characteristics of innovative methodologies are the central position of the students in the teaching-learning process and their active role, the carrying out of activities based on observation and manipulation, cooperation, individuality, the flexibility of the educational system, the importance given to the interests of the student, among others. In addition, they emphasize its practical nature oriented towards an increasingly global world and the use of methodologies of an active nature.

With this new perception, in the context of language teaching, a communicative approach emerged in Europe in the 1980s. This new approach was born as a result of the political, social

4 and economic circumstances of the time as well as the technological innovations that started to emerge. The communicative approach is defined in the Cervantes Virtual Center as follows:

[…] con este modelo didáctico se pretende capacitar al aprendiente para una comunicación real -no sólo en la vertiente oral, sino también en la escrita- con otros hablantes de la LE; con este propósito, en el proceso instructivo a menudo se emplean textos, grabaciones y materiales auténticos y se realizan actividades que procuran imitar con fidelidad la realidad de fuera del aula. (Centro Virtual Cervantes: s.f.)

However, the teaching-learning processes have not stopped evolving. Students face new communicative situations and in order to be successful they must develop a series of competences, which arise in Europe as a heritage of the three areas derived from the old taxonomies: cognitive, affective and psychomotor (Bloom, 1956). Its objective is to ensure all students “la adquisición de los conocimientos, capacidades, destrezas y actitudes necesarias para prepararles para la vida adulta” (Cantón, 2011: 141). Thus, new methodologies have emerged; they help students, in addition to acquiring knowledge, to deepen in developing a practical spirit.

We are going to analyze both traditional and innovative methodologies in further sections.

2.1.2 Traditional methodologies

2.1.2.1 The Grammar-Translation Method

This method, whose origin resides in the study of classical languages, was the most widely used at the beginning of the 20th century.

According to Richards and Rodgers (2001: 3, 4), the two main goals of this method are the following: one is to develop students' reading ability so they can appreciate literature in the target language; the other is to enhance their writing skills by means of studying the foreign language’s grammar. This causes that oral skills (speaking and listening) are not worked on in an appropriate way, thus generating great differences between the development of the students’ abilities in the oral and written areas.

Following this method, lessons develop in the students' native language. Grammatical rules are learned deductively, as stated by Richards and Rogers (2001: 3, 4) and are later practised in writing in translation exercises, either direct or reverse. However, as we have already mentioned, little attention is paid to the communicative aspects of language.

2.1.2.2 The Direct Method

This method, also known as the Natural Method, began to gain popularity in the late 19th century. The first notable difference when compared to the Grammar-Translation Method is that, in this case, the use of the mother tongue in the classroom is forbidden. Therefore, meanings are transmitted directly through other means such as images or the use of realia.

As stated by Krause (1916: 101-103), students do not work in writing on anything that has not previously been worked on orally. In addition, special importance is given to real communicative situations (that is, those that students could face in their day to day). Another aspect opposed to the aforementioned method is the learning of grammar, which in this case occurs inductively: students internalize the rule thanks to previous exposure to examples of it.

2.1.2.3 The Audiolingual Method

This method was born in the USA during the period of World War II, with the aim of speeding up the language learning process given the circumstances of the time. Thus, the objective of the Army Specialized Training Program was “attain conversational proficiency in a variety of foreign languages” (Richards and Rodgers, 2001: 44). The Audiolingual Method has its roots in Structuralism and Behavioral Psychology: grammar is considered “a set of rules that governs structures and other isolated elements” (Richards and Rodgers, 2001: 48-50) and the stimulus- response-reinforcement set implies the constant use of drilling patterns.

Thus, students acquire vocabulary and grammar through dialogue, and internalize through imitation of the teacher and repetition. Grammar rules are not usually taught explicitly and oral work is the basis for further work on written skills. Hockett (1959, n.p., as cited in Richards and Rodgers, 2001: 46) defined it as "drill, drill and more drill, and only enough vocabulary to make such drills possible".

2.1.2.4 The Audiovisual Method

The Audiovisual Method appeared in France in the early sixties. According to Tejada Molina, Pérez Cañado and Luque Agulló (2005: 167), “The audiovisual method rejects the emptiness of formal structures of language and applies a meaningful and contextualized solution”. In other

6 words, the context takes on great importance and plays an essential role in the learning process. Therefore, the objective of this method is to achieve a type of communication as close to real life as possible.

According to this methodology, foreign language learning occurs starting on a general view and moving towards more specific aspects, following the principles of Gestalt psychology, as stated by Tejada Molina, Pérez Cañado and Luque Agulló (2005: 168). For this purpose, audiovisual materials are used, so image and sound are key to help students understand the context in which the language is found. However, due to the inductive nature of this method, students can “misinterpret the relationships between language and image” (Tejada Molina, Pérez Cañado and Luque Agulló, 2005: 168), which does not guarantee its total effectiveness.

2.1.2.5 The Reading Method

This traditional method is based on cognitive theory, which was originally conceptualized by Albert Bandura (1989: 1-60). Its main goal is to help students identify meaning rather than words or simply letters.

Reading is a crucial skill in learning and communication. Current trends in education consider reading lessons to be an important early step in the development of mental and linguistic abilities. Reading methods include reading silently, reading using subvocalization (forming the sounds of the words while reading silently), and reading orally to oneself. (Alshumaimeri, 2011: 186).

If applied to the learning and/or acquisition of a second language, reading requires more cognitive capacity for word identification than reading in one’s native language. As stated by Monash University (n.d), the following reading techniques should be mentioned:

 Skimming, which helps to quickly extract the general idea of a text.  Scanning, which is useful to find specific information within the text.  Detailed reading, aimed to “critically consider aspects of the text” (Monash University, n.d).  Revision reading, aimed to confirm knowledge from already familiar texts.

2.1.2.6 Cognitive Theory

Cognitivism involves “the study of mental processes such as sensation, perception, attention, encoding, and memory that behaviorists were reluctant to study because cognition occurs inside the ‘black box’ of the brain” (Jordan, Carlite & Stack, 2008:36). “Cognitivism” is a term often used to describe methods in which students are asked to think rather than repeat.

As stated by Chomsky (1959), language is not a form of behavior. It is a rule-based system that largely affects language acquisition. There is a finite number of grammatical rules with which an infinite number of sentences can be performed. This competence is gradually acquired and it allows learners to become creative language users.

Jean Piaget (1976) and Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (1978) made advances in cognitive science and educational psychology that influenced language teaching theories that can be seen in today’s tendencies. Greater attention is paid to reading and writing as complements of listening and speaking due to the huge differences in form and use between oral and spoken language. According to Suharno (2010: 60), “the basic techniques associated with a cognitive theory of language learning may cover the following activities: problem based learning, discovery learning, cognitive strategies and project based learning”. However, this method shows some limitations as well: it can be time consuming and it can be difficult to formulate problems (Suharno, 2010: 62).

This method can be applied in the classroom by means of activities such as “review and revision, […] analysis and discussion of language and topics or the use of inductive approaches” (British Council, n.d). Other examples are “asking students to reflect on their experience, helping students find new solutions to problems, encouraging discussions about what is being taught, helping students explore and understand how ideas are connected, asking students to justify and explain their thinking, using visualizations to improve students’ understanding and recall”. (GradePowerLearning, n.d.)

2.1.2.7 The Natural Approach

The principles and practical applications of this approach were published in The Natural Approach (Krashen and Terrell, 1983). In the book, Krashen prepared theoretical sections while Terrell developed the practical ones.

According to the Natural Approach, adults can still acquire second languages (except for the phonological aspect) since the ability to “pick up” languages does not disappear with age.

Krashen’s theory consists of five main hypothesis:

- The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis, where acquisition and learning play fundamental and independent roles. Acquisition is a subconscious process, while learning is given by the process formal instruction. - The Monitor Hypothesis is the one that explains the relationship between learning and acquisition. - The Natural Order hypothesis suggests that the acquisition of grammar follows a “natural order”. - The Input hypothesis’ goal is to explain how learners acquire a second language. - The Affective Filter hypothesis is based on the variables that influence language learning: motivation, anxiety and self-confidence (Richards and Rodgers: 2001: 131- 133).

Krashen regards communication as the main function of language. As stated in Tejada Molina, Pérez Cañado and Luque Agulló (2005: 176), there are a series of activities that provide meaningful and comprehensible input (listening and reading), such as dialogues, interviews, problem-solving activities and games.

2.1.2.8 Total Physical Response

Total Physical Response (also known as TPR) is based on the coordination of speech and action. According to Richards and Rodgers (2001: 88), its goal is to make students learn a foreign language in a similar way as a child learns their mother tongue, which means that students must learn to understand by listening before they start speaking.

At the beginning, students remain silent and the teacher does all the speaking by means of commands to which students respond through movement, which increases retention. Little by little, more language elements are added and students will be able to command one another and start speaking themselves. Once the commands have been understood, students also learn to read and write them; in this way, the four basic skills are worked on during the learning process.

Despite the many benefits of this method, especially while working with children, it is considered that there are a number of disadvantages that make it difficult to use with older

9 students, such as the lack of creativity or the need to combine it with other methods to make it work.

2.1.3 Modern methodologies

By the middle of the 20th century, a series of methods started to appear as successors to the aforementioned ones. All these methods share their “primacy of affective and emotional factors within the learning process.” (Tejada Molina, Pérez Cañado and Luque Agulló, 2005: 180)

2.1.3.1 The Silent Way

In order to develop this method, Gattegno (1972, as cited in Tejada Molina, Pérez Cañado and Luque Agulló, 2005: 182) proposed a method based on the purpose of making students responsible for their own learning. In this method, physical moves are key in order to learn the foreign language in a similar way to children acquiring their mother tongue.

Students begin by learning sounds, which are associated with colors. They advance towards spelling using color charts and later on, they start learning basic structures. Throughout most of the teaching-learning process, the teacher remains silent, allowing students to take an active role. To achieve this goal, “self-correction is fostered”. (Tejada Molina, Pérez Cañado and Luque Agulló, 2005: 182)

2.1.3.2 Suggestopedia

Georgi Lozanov defended the idea that students were “capable of prodigious feats if under the appropriate conditions” (Nunan 1991b, as cited in Tejada Molina, Pérez Cañado and Luque Agulló, 2005: 183). For this purpose, this method defends the importance of the space / classroom, which must be as comfortable as possible, together with a relaxed and calm environment and the use of music for the stimulation of students’ left hemispheres, in order to promote holistic learning. Students are exposed to a high level of oral input they receive through listening to texts. They are also assigned fake identities so that they can interpret different roles using L2, thus favoring interaction, according to Tejada Molina, Pérez Cañado and Luque Agulló (2005: 183).

2.1.3.3 Community Language Learning

In this case we are facing a method that focuses on the acquisition of a second or foreign language in adult students, unlike the two methodologies previously mentioned.

“Adults show more inhibitions, they tend to analyze what they learn in a conscious way, and have a fear of making mistakes” (Tejada Molina, Pérez Cañado and Luque Agulló, 2005: 180). These features led to a method in which the affective plane becomes relevant and in which "traditional and innovative techniques are combined" (Tejada Molina, Pérez Cañado and Luque Agulló, 2005: 181). Some of these techniques are translation, group work, analysis and self- correction of recordings made in the classroom. In addition, to promote group interaction, classrooms are usually arranged in a U-shape.

2.1.3.4 The Communicative Approach

In the 1980s, the Communicative Approach included more interactive views of language teaching. According to Richards and Rodgers, it shares a set of principles such as:

- Learners learn a language through using it to communicate.

- Authentic and meaningful communication should be the goal of classroom activities.

- Fluency is an important dimension of communication

- Communication involves the integration of different language skills.

- Learning is a process of creative construction and involves trial and error. (Richards and Rodgers, 2001: 67, 68)

Howatt (1984: 279) distinguishes between a "strong" and a "weak" version of Communicative Language Teaching:

There is, in a sense, a 'strong' version of the communicative approach and a 'weak' version. The weak version, which has become more or less standard practice in the last ten years, stresses the importance of providing learners with opportunities to use their English for communicative purposes and, characteristically, attempts to integrate such activities into a wider program of language teaching. ... The 'strong' version of communicative teaching, on the other hand, advances the claim that language is acquired through communication, so that it is not merely a question of activating an existing but inert knowledge of the language, but of stimulating the development of the language system itself. If the former could be described as ‘learning to use’

English, the latter entails ‘using English to learn it.’ (Howatt, 1984: 279, as cited in Richards and Rodgers, 2001: 66)

As stated by Nunan (1991: 279-295), learners share personal experiences with partners, and instructors teach topics in order to promote language skills in different of situations. These experiences are incorporated into the student’s language learning environment, so they can focus on the learning experience in addition to the learning of the target language.

Some of the most frequently used activities in this method are games or role-plays in which there is an information gap that allows students to make decisions and receive feedback when they have finished. Furthermore, the activities must be framed in a clear context and have a communicative purpose (OnTESOL: n.d).

2.1.3.5 Task-Based Teaching

In Task-Based instruction, students work on communicative tasks using the foreign language.

These tasks “can stand alone as a fundamental unit and require comprehending, producing, manipulating or interacting while attention is principally paid to meaning rather than form” (Nunan, 1989: 10).

In Task-Based teaching, pair and group work are often used to increase students’ interaction and collaboration. The general aim here is to carry out the final task. According to Tejada Molina, Pérez Cañado and Luque Agulló (2005: 191), some examples of tasks can be “going shopping, completing someone else's family tree, or solving a riddle, among others”.

2.1.3.6 Project-Based Learning

Project-Based Learning consists in “formative work with strong student participation” (Sánchez, 2011: 201) [my own translation] that can also be understood as “a proposal for action to solve a problem and / or satisfy a need” [my own translation] (Arias, 2006: 134). A project is developed in more or less extensive periods of time; they are very broad in nature and usually include practical activities in addition to research activities. This methodology allows students to design their own work and learning mechanisms as well as to relate to reality.

Project-Based Learning can bring great benefits to students, since by promoting group work, interaction and solving real problems can lead to a greater increase in motivation. This can be

12 defined as “[…] a set of elements involved in the activation, direction and persistence of behavior. Motivation is one more link in the learning process” (Segovia, 2007: 41) [my own translation].

2.1.3.7 The Lexical Approach

The British Council gives the following definition to this approach:

The lexical approach is a way of analysing and teaching language based on the idea that it is made up of lexical units rather than grammatical structures. The units are words, chunks formed by collocations, and fixed phrases. (British Council, n.d.)

As cited in Tejada Molina, Pérez Cañado and Luque Agulló (2005: 193), Michael Lewis (1997: 3) mentions that “The Lexical Approach can be summarised in a few words: language consists not of traditional grammar and vocabulary but often of multi-word prefabricated chunks”. In his own words, “Language consists of grammaticalised lexis, not lexicalised grammar” (Lewis, 1993: 89). The basis of this method lies in the concept of lexical chunks, which can be defined as “a group of words that are commonly found together. Lexical chunks include collocations but these usually just involve content words, not grammar” (British Council, n.d).

Some examples of activity within this method could be “to spend time at the end of a reading comprehension exercise identifying and analyzing chunks, or identifying other contexts where they might be found” (British Council, n.d).

2.1.3.8 Multiple Intelligence Theory

This theory was developed by cognitive psychologist Howard Gardner in 1983. According to Tejada Molina, Pérez Cañado and Luque Agulló (2005: 196), “he prefers to expand the number of ways in which human beings are intelligent, identifying at least eight kinds of intelligences which work together so that we all possess a mixture of multiple intelligences.”

The eight kinds of intelligences within this theory are the following: Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, Logical-Mathematical, Musical, Linguistic, Spatial, Naturalistic and Bodily- Kinaesthetic.

In the table below, some activities related to each of the multiple intelligences can be seen (Scholastic, n.d):

Intelligence Related Activities Intrapersonal Writing essays on different topics Keeping journals Interpersonal Working in groups Working in pairs Logical-Mathematical Playing Math games Using Math and Science software Linguistic Writing short stories, letters, poems… Listening to a storyteller Telling stories Participating in debates Musical Writing songs and/or music Listening to different types of music Using rhythm to memorize Spatial Using virtual reality Taking photographs Illustrating texts Bodily-Kinaesthetic Performing or acting

Naturalist Observing natural surroundings Caring for animals and plants Table 1. Multiple Intelligences and related Activities.

2.1.3.9 Cooperative Learning

Cooperative Learning is based on the use of small teams to achieve instructional purposes. This way, students work together to boost their learning. The teacher gives instructions and then, students are organized into small teams. They are expected to work on the task until all members understand and complete it. No team member will have all the necessary information, skills or resources in order to achieve, so all students will depend on each other.

This type of learning usually results in “higher achievement and greater productivity, more caring, supportive and committed relationships and greater psychological health, self-esteem and social competence”. (Cooperative Learning Institute, n.d.)

When this method is followed, possible groupings of students must be taken into account, since this is a determining factor regarding the use of this methodology. As Samsudin, Das and Rai (2006: 2,3) mention, students can be divided into two main types of groups: homogeneous and heterogeneous regarding the students’ backgrounds. The choice of the type of grouping should be marked by the type of task that students must carry out: homogeneous groups tend to work well on tasks in which a closed question is posed, while heterogeneous groupings work better on tasks of a more open nature, due to the greater number of different points of view that may arise. Some activities that correspond to this methodology can be discussions, projects or debates, since these activities encourage interaction between the participants and also between the different groups.

2.1.3.10 Content-Based Instruction

In Content-Based Instruction, students practise all language skills at the same time they learn Science, Mathematics and Social Studies. With this model the language skills are integrated into the study of a topic (cross-cultural differences, natural wonders of the world, peace, the environment, violence…). The topic must be interesting for the students so they can widely practice a variety of language skills, always in order to communicate about the topic.

“CBI is based on the premises that people learn languages more successfully when they engage in meaningful activities” (Curtain, 1995, as cited in Tejada Molina, Pérez Cañado and Luque Agulló, 2005: 200).

2.1.3.11 CLIL

CLIL stands for Content and Language Integrated Learning, which could be defined as the situation where certain subjects are taught by means of a foreign language. The term CLIL was created in 1994 by David Marsh. It was intended to be a methodology both similar and different from Content-Based Instruction and language immersion.

In this way, students get the possibility to learn the contents of those subjects as well as a foreign language simultaneously. It is different from bilingual education, which involves the use of two languages while teaching academic contents.

We could say, then, that CLIL is an approach to bilingual education. They are close concepts but they show important differences as well: CLIL is content-driven while bilingual education is not. To distinguish CLIL from bilingual education or other approaches we should check on Coyle’s 4 Cs framework, where he defines CLIL as a “planned pedagogic integration of contextualized content, cognition, communication and culture into teaching and learning practice” (Coyle et al. 2010: 6). However, bilingual education is defined as “the use of two languages as media of instruction for a child or a group of children in part or all of the school curriculum” (Cohen, 1975: 18).

With regard to the CLIL situation in our country, Coyle (2010: 8) points out that “Spain is rapidly becoming one of the European leaders in CLIL practice and research”. However, the situation is different in the different autonomous communities, depending on their monolingual or bilingual character.

2.1.3.12 The Flipped Classroom

Following Acosta (2009: 7), the Flipped Classroom is a learning modality that aims to use two strategies, virtual and face-to-face, taking the best of the two of them.

It is a pedagogical model in which part of the teaching and learning process takes place outside the classroom, so class time is used for the development of more complex cognitive processes. While following this approach, students are supposed to study and prepare the lessons at home, so that later in the classroom, they can interact and carry out more participatory activities and debates, analyze ideas... All of this relying on new technologies and following the teacher’s guidance.

This methodology presents a series of positive and negative aspects.

The Flipped Classroom encourages the development of creativity, allows more personalized learning and involves families, which translates into an increase in student motivation. However, this methodology is conditioned by the possibility of internet access for students, which will generate differences among them. There are also no guarantees that students will do their homework, which would immediately affect the teaching-learning process. (Santiago: 2015, n.p.)

2.1.3.13 Computer-Assisted Language Learning

Known as CALL by its acronym in English, Levy (1997: 1) defined it as "the search for and study of applications of the computer in language learning and teaching."

It started with the “traditional” practice and repetition programs from the CALL of the 60s and 70s, until its latest versions, such as the use of the internet in distance learning. Its use is also extended to the interactive whiteboard, Computer-Mediated Communication (also known as CMC) or Mobile device-Assisted Language Learning (MALL).

The current CALL philosophy pays special attention to student-centered materials that permit learners to work by themselves. Such materials usually have two main characteristics: they are both interactive individualized. Good uses for CALL tools are reinforcing aspects already learned or as tool for students who need additional assistance.

The fact that technology is increasingly present in our society is a reality, and no other method adapts to it like CALL. While it is true that technology has evolved greatly since the earliest indications of CALL, today there is one of the four main skills of foreign language learning where this method is not considered effective: speaking. There is no tool that allows us to work on this skill (Derakhshan, 2015: 118). Furthermore, it can make students feel their teaching- learning process as isolated given the strong student-computer interaction. However, this method allows the learning of the foreign language in real contexts, access to original documents, the intensive practice of input skills (reading and listening) and is interesting and attractive for students.

2.1.4 Learning Styles and Needs

According to Keefe (1988: 40), as quoted in Alonso et al. (2007: 104): “los estilos de aprendizaje son los rasgos cognitivos, afectivos y fisiológicos que sirven como indicadores relativamente estables, de cómo los alumnos perciben interacciones y responden a sus ambientes de aprendizaje”.

There is a diversity of theoretical conceptions that have approached the different learning styles. In this case, we will take into account the input channels, so we will consider the visual, auditory and kinesthetic styles. These three styles have Neurolinguistic Programming as a frame of reference. The creators of Neurolinguistic Programming claim there is a connection “between

17 neurological processes (`neuro’), language (`linguistic') and learned behavioural strategies (`programming’)” (Dilts et al, 1980: 2, as cited in Tosey and Mathison, 2006: 2).

This technique allows the improvement of the level of communication between teachers and students through the three access routes to information: visual, auditory and kinesthetic, as stated by Cazau (n.d.) All three systems of representation are included in the person. The predominant use of one does not exclude the others, in such a way that in the case of a person in whom a certain system predominates this does not mean that they cannot process the information through the other channels.

As stated by Romero (2016: 2), the visual representation system is usually the most common among students. In the study carried out by Romo et al (2006: 3, as cited in Romero, 2016: 2), 90% of the students used this system to study. Within our society, most of the information transmissions are carried out in a visual way and this has had an impact on our way of processing information. Visual students learn best when they read or the information is represented in a format that allows them to view it as a whole (Cazau, n.d., as cited in Romero, 2016: 2). The auditory representation system, unlike the visual one, organizes information “in a sequential and orderly way” (Romo et al., 2006: 1, as cited in Romero, 2016: 2). Auditory learners prefer listening to lessons and transmitting the information learned to someone, so receiving and transmitting information is their main mode of learning. Finally, the kinesthetic representation system is the most complex one, since "kinesthetic students process information associating it with sensations and movements" (Pérez, 2012: 16, as cited in Romero, 2016: 2).

Therefore, each of these learning styles is also identified with certain activities. For a visual learner, activities that include images will be very positive, as they allow them to retrieve information more directly. In the case of students in whom the auditory learning style predominates, activities that include a high oral component, such as listening to an interview or watching a movie, will be positive. Finally, in the case of students whose learning style is characterized by being kinesthetic, activities that allow physical movement, such as role-plays, will have very positive effects.

3. DESIGNING A DIDACTIC UNIT: “TOWN AND AROUND”

3.1 Context

Our didactic unit is addressed to a group of the 3rd year of Compulsory Secondary Education (Educación Secundaria Obligatoria or ESO).

The group is made up of 25 students aged 14-16; 14 of the students are girls and 11 are boys. According to the characteristics of students at this stage (deep physical and psychological changes), we must carefully consider the activities and materials chosen so they result as attractive and motivating as possible for them.

The interaction in the group is positive and all the students know each other from previous years.

Two of the students are repeating the same grade, so it is the second time they are trying 3rd of ESO. In addition, three of the students did not pass English the previous school year but none of them is in need of curricular adaptations in this subject. One of the girls suffers from attention deficit disorder; the decisions taken in this regard will be specified in further sections.

Regarding the students’ linguistic profile, there are not any native English students in the group, so all the students have Spanish and Galician as their mother tongues.

The High school this didactic unit is addressed to is located in a semi-rural area, in one of the outlying districts of the city, Vigo. The socioeconomic background is a low middle class one, since most of the students come from several surrounding rural areas. Nevertheless, the high school is well connected to the city centre thanks to public transport and the road network.

Among all the facilities existing in the centre (gym, computer classroom, café…) it is important to mention the library, which has available materials in English. All these facilities comply with the requirements specified in Real Decreto 132/2010, de 12 de febrero, por el que se establecen los requisitos mínimos de los centros que impartan las enseñanzas del segundo ciclo de la educación infantil, la educación primaria y la educación secundaria.

Regarding Information and Communication Technologies, the centre is provided with services such as AbalarMóbil and TokApp, apart from active blogs for the different departments, an official webpage and a Facebook page that is updated on a regular basis. A computer room also exists, provided with 30 computers, a screen, a sound system and different gadgets.

The classroom where most of the teaching-learning process will take is well-lit and adequately ventilated. The students’ desks are distributed in pairs and in threesomes facing the teacher’s table and both the traditional and the digital whiteboard, but this disposition can be modified according to specific needs. The classroom counts with specific resources such as a computer, loudspeakers, and dictionaries.

This centre is located in a big city in the South-West of the Galician coastline, Vigo. This city and its metropolitan area are one of the most important economic agents of the region; the main economic activities are linked to industry, trade, the fishing sector as well as tourism and services, both domestic and international. Due to its commercial activities and its proximity to Portugal, the knowledge of foreign languages is essential for its development.

The sociocultural level of the city is high, since a great offer of different cultural activities exists. There is also an Official Language School and a huge variety of private English language schools, apart from the organization of Summer camps and exchange programmes.

The city’s airport has regular connections with Spain’s main cities and with different European destinations, which leads to great opportunities to travel abroad and make use of foreign languages.

3.2 Legal background

Regarding the legal framework, the main organic laws on which this didactic planning is based are Ley Orgánica 2/2006, de 3 de mayo, de Educación (LOE). And Ley Orgánica 8/2013, de 9 de diciembre, para la mejora de la calidad educativa (LOMCE). LOMCE is a revised version of LOE.

LOE was made more concrete in Real Decreto 1105/2014, de 26 de diciembre, por el que se establece el currículo básico de la Educación Secundaria Obligatoria y del Bachillerato, and in a more specific way, in Decreto 86/2015, del 25 de junio, por el que se establece el currículo de la educación secundaria obligatoria y del bachillerato en la Comunidad Autónoma de Galicia.

Apart from these organic laws and decrees, more legislation related to specific contents regarding this didactic planning will be mentioned in further sections.

3.3 Key Competences and Objectives

A key competence is “the ability to integrate skills, knowledge and attitudes in a practical way, with the aim of solving problems and reacting in an appropiate way in different contexts or situations, whether it is inside or outside the academic context” (Pla i Novell, 2009: 2). The integration of the key competences in the curriculum allows a type of learning aimed atthe practical application of the knowledge acquired.

These key competences have their origin in the late 1990s, in the key competences established by the European Union. They are also mentioned in the Delors Report (UNESCO, 1996) and in the DeSeCo Project (OCDE, 1999). They appear in our educational system with the LOE (2006) and are maintained in the LOMCE (2013). They are also defined in Decreto 86/2015, del 25 de junio, por el que se establece el currículo de la educación secundaria obligatoria y del bachillerato en la Comunidad Autónoma de Galicia. The Key Competences are the following ones: Competence in Linguistic Communication, Mathematical Competence, Sense of Initiative and Entrepreneurship, Competence in Learning to Learn, Digital Competence, Social and Civic Competence and Competence in Cultural Awareness.

It is also important to mention Orden ECD/65/2015, de 21 de enero, por la que se describen las relaciones entre las competencias, los contenidos y los criterios de evaluación de la educación primaria, la educación secundaria obligatoria y el bachillerato. Besides, Decreto 86/2015, del 25 de junio por el que se establece el currículo de la educación secundaria obligatoria y del bachillerato en la Comunidad Autónoma de Galicia establishes several goals that the students will have accomplished by the end of the Compulsory Secondary Education, which are specified in its 10th Article. These goals, better known as stage objectives, have a compulsory character for the whole educative stage of the ESO and are common to the different subjects that conform it. The stage objectives related to our subject are the ones specified below, which will be developed along our didactic unit. The full list of objectives is included as an attached document (see Appendix I).

a. To assume their duties responsibly, to know and exercise their rights in respect for others, to practise tolerance, cooperation and solidarity among people and groups, practicing dialogue to strengthen human rights and gender equality as common values of a plural society and to prepare them for the exercise of democratic citizenship.

c. To value and respect the difference between sexes and the equal rights and opportunities between them. To reject stereotypes involving discrimination between men and women.

d. To strengthen their emotional skills in all areas of personality and in their relationships with others, and reject violence, prejudice of any kind, sexist behavior and resolve conflicts peacefully.

e. To develop basic skills in the use of information sources, with a critical eye, to acquire new knowledge. To acquire a basic preparation in the field of technology, especially in information and communication.

i. To understand and express oneself properly in one or more foreign languages.

o. To know and appreciate the importance of the Galician language as a key element to preserve Galician identity and as a way of interpersonal relationship and cultural richness expression within a multilingual context which allows communication in other languages, specially with those related to the lusophone community. [My own translation]

We must also mention the specific objectives of this didactic unit, more closely related to its contents. They are as follows:

 To know the vocabulary related to the city: places, buildings, types of cities...  To identify and produce recommendations, obligations and prohibitions by using modal verbs.  To get familiar with the structure and use of the Present Perfect tense.  To understand the importance of the foreign language in the city of Vigo given its consideration as a tourist place.  To understand texts narrating familiar events.  To answer questions related to aspects of their city that are familiar to them.  To appreciate the cultural richness of their city thanks to the use of different languages (English, Spanish and Galician).

3.4 Contents

According to Decreto 86/2015, del 25 de junio, por lo que se establece el currículo de la educación secundaria obligatoria y del bachillerato en la Comunidad Autónoma de Galicia, contents are “the group of knowledge, abilities, skills and attitudes that contribute along the objectives of each educational stage” [my own translation]. In every subject, contents are organised around different groups. This does not lead to a fixed sequence or to an established organisation but it allows to organise, in different ways, the curricular elements, while it also allows the teacher to adopt the appropiate methodology for the different characteristics of the students’ group they are addressed to. This structure has its origin in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFRL). Also from the CEFRL come the three principles on which these contents are based: to know (related to both general and specific knowledge), to know how to do (related to technical and procedural skills) and to know how to be (related to the development of attitudes). In the case of the autonomous community of Galicia, we will find five different groups of contents: two related to the input skills (listening and reading), two related to the output skills (speaking and writing) and a fifth group which is related to topics such as lexis, grammar or structures. These contents are closely related to the previously mentioned key competences, as established in Orden ECD/65/2015, de 21 de enero, por la que se describen las relaciones entre las competencias, los contenidos y los criterios de evaluación de la educación primaria, la educación secundaria obligatoria y el bachillerato.

The contents from Decreto 86/2015, del 25 de junio, por el que se establece el currículo de la educación secundaria obligatoria y del bachillerato en la Comunidad Autónoma de Galicia we will deal with in our didactic unit are the following ones:

B1.1. Comprehension strategies:

- Providing prior information on the topic and type of task.

- Inferring and stating hypotheses about meanings.

B1.2. Tolerance of partial or vague understanding in communicative situations.

B1.3. Persevering in achieving oral comprehension requesting repetition or reformulations of what has been said.

B2.1. Production strategies:

- Adapting the text to the addressee, to the context and to the channel, applying an appropriate discourse structure and register.

- Activating prior knowledge about interaction patterns and sequences, as well as already assimilated linguistic elements.

- Expressing a clear and coherent message.

- Support and maximum use of previous knowledge.

- Request for help or clarification.

- Use of prosodic elements (pauses, rhythm and intonation) in order to indicate to the listener the parts of the speech that must be co-interpreted.

B2.2. Routines or basic interaction models according to the type of communication situation typical of their age and school level.

B2.4. Attitude of respect towards oneself and towards others.

B3.1. Comprehension strategies:

- Identifying the type of reading required by the task.

- Identifying the textual type and adaptation of the understanding to it.

- Distinguishing different types of understanding.

- Reformulating hypotheses after understanding new elements.

B3.2. Underlining or taking notes in order to understand the structure and content of the text.

B4.1. Production strategies:

- Using linguistic resources in an appropriate way.

- Preparing a draft.

- Structuring both the text and its content.

- Organizing the ideas in different paragraphs within the text.

- Expressing a clear message.

- Being able to readjust the message or the whole task if necessary.

- Identification of problems, attention to spelling conventions and punctuation marks.

B4.2. Textual characteristics.

- Using basic resources to develop texts with coherence, cohesion and adaptation, typical of their school level.

B5.1. Sound, accent, rhythm and intonation patterns.

B5.2. Graphic patterns and spelling conventions:

- Using basic rules of word and sentence spelling.

B5.5. Communicative functions:

- Describing places.

- Narrating specific and habitual past events.

- Requesting and offering information, advice, and warnings.

–Expressing prohibition.

B5.6. Using common use lexicon related to the environment (oral and written).

(My own translation)

3.5 Cross-curricular elements

Cross-curricular elements are based on the idea that education should lead to the intellectual, personal and social development of the student. In a world in constant evolution, students must be prepared as individuals and as members of society, able to achieve their goals as well as to contribute to their communities without stop learning. This is on the basis of holistic education.

Ley Orgánica de Educación (2006) establishes that one of the main goals of education is to help students become democratic citizens. Thus, they will be able to understand and respect the fundamental rights and liberties and the equality of opportunities by means of principles like tolerance and freedom to prevent and solve conflicts peacefully.

In order to develop this education, we must also consider Decreto 86/2015, del 25 de junio, por el que se establece el currículo de la educación secundaria obligatoria y del bachillerato en la Comunidad Autónoma de Galicia, since its 4th article contains specifications regarding these cross-curricular elements that have to be included in the general plan of any school. From now onwards, we will focus on the second point of this article.

Our didactic unit is aimed at working on these cross-curricular topics by means of different activities. The students will take part in activities dealing with learning about and respecting other cultural backgrounds and different ethnic groups, always from a tolerant perspective. All these values that we want to inculcate in students will be reflected in much of the working materials of the units: images that reflect different realities, texts that promote inclusion etc. In addition, respect for others, regardless of gender, race or ideology, shall always be promoted during class development.

To this end, students will work both individually and in groups of different dimensions and of a mixed character. This will build capacity for adaptation, tolerance and teamwork.

In this way, by including these cross-curricular topics in the unit we will promote the students’ education in values, which is essential for them to broaden their minds and become respectful and tolerant citizens of their democratic society.

3.6 Interdisciplinarity

To promote the use of ICT tools, we will use different resources in our didactic unit: digital blackboard, computers, web pages, applications focused on gamification as KAHOOT, among others. Responsible use of technologies within and outside the classroom will also be promoted.

Given the special importance that we give to language learning from our subject, activities related to other languages will be carried out, in this case, the official ones of the autonomous community in which we are located. Students will have the opportunity to work in a multilingual environment using, in addition to English, Spanish and Galician, putting into practice the knowledge acquired in their corresponding subjects in some of the activities of the unit.

3.7 Step-by-step planning

This didactic unit will start with a warm-up activity. This premise has a double purpose: to stimulate the students thanks to attractive materials, and, on the other hand, to check their initial level. They do not score or qualify, their sole purpose is to check the students’ communicative level and previous knowledge of the topic.

The rest of the activities will be different from each other, but always following a common structure: the first activities will always be controlled, guided by the teacher. As their level of difficulty and the students’ autonomy increase, we will move towards semi-controlled activities, until reaching free production activities, in which the students will be able to demonstrate the knowledge acquired throughout the unit.

We will also find two different complementary activities: on the one hand, a remedial activity, aimed at students who have had difficulties in reaching the contents of the unit. On the other hand, a follow-up activity aimed at students who have managed to achieve the objectives of the unit and who can delve a little more into the contents. Their purpose is to adapt the teaching and learning process to the diversity of the group. The unit, Town and around, will be structured as follows:

SESSION 1

In the first session of our unit, students will have their first contact with the topic of the unit as well as with the vocabulary related to it. Activities will be mainly based on orality even if textual support will be used too. All the activities will be controlled by the teacher.

Activity 1. Warm up. Can you recognize these places?

Students will be shown different photographs of places in the city in which their school is located, easily recognizable for them. Questions such as “What can you see in the photo?”, “Where is this place located?”, “Have you ever been to this part of the city?” will be asked, which will serve to check the students' initial knowledge regarding the vocabulary of the unit. The teacher will emphasize the correct pronunciation of each item while showing it, and will clearly state the terms that they want the students to know. They will be asked to repeat them as well. The participation of the students will be encouraged, which will allow checking the initial knowledge of the group.

With this activity, students acquire vocabulary and grammar through dialogue, and internalize through imitation of the teacher and repetition. Therefore, we are facing an activity characteristic of the Audiolingual Method, which will help students with both auditory and visual learning styles thanks to the dualism of image and orality. The following pictures are some examples:

From Concello de Vigo

From Diario Atlántico

From La Voz de Galicia

From Gran Vía de Vigo

From La Voz de Galicia

Activity 2. Controlled activity. Match the words and the definitions.

Two types of cards will be distributed among the students: green cards in which a term related to the elements of the city appears, and red cards in which the definitions of each of these terms is shown.

(My own design)

Each student will receive a single card, either green or red. Students must move around the classroom and interact with their classmates to find the term or definition that corresponds to their card, thus forming a pair of green and red cards. In this activity, we incorporate traces of the Silent Way (the use of a colour code for term and definition, for example). Through this activity we promote the learning of students with a kinesthetic learning style, since while students move freely around the classroom, they interact with their classmates orally and receive written input from other people's cards. Since it is a controlled activity, students who think they have found the corresponding card should consult with the teacher to check if they are right.

Activity 3. Controlled activity. Classify the words.

The following activity, also controlled, will be carried out on the digital blackboard. Students will have a series of terms that they will have to classify depending on their nature: actions, streets or roads, types of settlements, or facilities.

(My own design)

This will allow them to consolidate the vocabulary from the previous activities and expand it with some new words. As it is an activity guided by the teacher, students will be exposed to the oral and written form of words at the same time. When a word is unknown, the teacher will try to convey its meaning through images, mimicry, oral definition and / or the use of a monolingual online dictionary, that is, the students' mother tongue will not be used. Under this premise, we are faithfully following the Communicative Approach in addition to favouring the three main learning styles (visual, thanks to the use of images; auditory, thanks to orality; and kinesthetic definitions, by the use of mimicry).

SESSION 2

During the second session of the unit, students will be exposed to some grammar aspects. To do so, the teacher will act as a guide through different semi-controlled activities.

Activity 4. Semi-controlled activity. Classify.

In this activity the students will continue working with the help of the teacher. First, he/she will explain the difference between the concepts "obligation", "prohibition", "supposition" and "recommendation", relying on examples as well as on intonation and facial and body expressions. In this way, following the Communicative Approach, the students will begin to infer the grammatical constructions on which they are going to work. Next, the teacher will ask the students to classify the following statements:

 The students must learn new vocabulary. They'll use a dictionary.  She must go to the doctor. She's feeling unwell.  The car is damaged. You must repair it.  You mustn't touch the paintings in a museum.  The train should be on time.  It's too late. I think you shouldn't do your homework now.  You shouldn't watch the film.  I think you should tidy your room.

(My own design)

Students will be given the opportunity to debate and decide in which category they place each statement, which the teacher will write down and finally, the teacher will give the necessary feedback to the group.

Activity 5. Semi-controlled activity. Try to place the rule or recommendation where it corresponds

We begin to give students more freedom by moving to a semi-controlled activity. In this activity we will introduce the use of the modal verbs of recommendation and obligation (should, shouldn’t, must, mustn’t).

From Maisqueauga

From Concello de Vigo

You must be quiet.

You must turn off your mobile phone.

You mustn’t talk to other people.

You must walk, not run.

You must return books on time.

You must take care of the books.

You should wear appropriate shoes.

You must return all equipment after use.

You shouldn’t wear jewelry during workout.

You should drink water regularly. (My own design)

To do this activity we are inspired by the Silent Way, since we use a colour code: each of these modal verbs is represented with a different colour. We introduce them contextualized in clear sentences and we explain that all of them are included in the rules of use of different public spaces in the city (parks, sports centers, libraries...). The teacher reads each of the sentences emphasizing the modal verb, and writes them marking the latter with its corresponding colour. Then, students will be asked to map each of these standards or recommendations to the place where they would be found by means of pictures hanging on the wall and the statements previously used written in individual pieces of paper. This activity will be positive for all students, whatever their learning style is, since there are both oral and written components and also promote circulation in the classroom to place each statement in its corresponding image.

Activity 6. Semi-controlled activity. Look at the examples and play Kahoot.

The aim of this activity is to introduce the use of IT as a transversal element while the students continue to be exposed to English language.

First, students will be provided with some examples of the Present Perfect tense, so they can infer its formation and use. After presenting the examples both in a written way and orally, highlighting the elements that characterize this tense, the students will go to the computer room to put into practice the knowledge they have just acquired. There they will use the Kahoot application to answer a series of questions contextualized in the topic of this unit.

(My own design)

This activity is clearly focused on the acquisition and learning of a grammatical structure, so it corresponds to the traditional Grammar-Translation Methodology. However, by presenting it through Kahoot, it is transformed into a much more innovative and attractive activity for students. The activity, specifically created for this unit, will be especially useful for students in whom the visual learning style predominates, since the written language is constantly being worked on and each of the questions is accompanied by a representative image. Furthermore, we are using Computer-Assisted Language Learning, which is directly related to the use of IT.

SESSION 3

In the third session of the unit, students will start to work individually through free activities. They will work mainly on their input skills, both listening and reading.

Activity 7. Free activity. Listen and choose the correct option.

Now, students will focus on their listening skill. To do so, the teacher will play an advertising video about the city of Vigo narrated in English. In this way, students will be exposed English within a familiar context, since it is their own city. This contrast will allow them to understand the importance of the foreign language to make their city known as a tourist place, bringing it closer to the world. The video will be played twice, so that students have the opportunity to listen while they see the images and thus be able to relate both elements. During the second listening, they will have to answer some questions related to the video.

From TurismoDeVigo

1. What kind of video is it?

a) A trailer

b) A short film

c) A promotional video

d) A review

2. Which famous writer is mentioned?

a) JK Rowling

b) Julius Verne

c) William Shakespeare

d) Stephen King

3. According to the speaker, Vigo is the ideal place to rest after any…

a) Party

b) Football match

c) Battle

d) Trip

4. According to the narrator, Vigo is a mixture of…

a) Tradition and fashion

b) Seafood and Albariño

c) Cultures and religions

d) Beautiful and ugly landscapes

5. In the video, some spots of the city are more present than others. Which ones?

a) Balaidos.

b) Cíes Islands and some beaches.

c) Castrelos Park and O Castro.

d) Rande Bridge.

(My own design)

This activity corresponds to the premises of the Audiovisual Method, since the context plays an essential role and a real material, which combines image and sound, is used. It will be effective for students with both visual and auditory learning styles, and will help the perception of cultural aspects of both the culture of origin and the Anglo-Saxon culture. Once the students have finished the activity, it will be collected for evaluation.

Activity 8. Free activity. Read and classify the highlighted fragments.

From Turismo de Vigo

(My own design)

The second activity for this session is a reading activity where students are expected to classify the highlighted fragments in a chart. In this way, we follow the Grammar-Translation Method communicatively: students will be able to infer the use of the different tenses that are present in the text. This activity will be specially useful for students with the visual learning style.

SESSION 4

In session 4 students will continue working on reading and writing skills, putting into practice the knowledge previously acquired throughout the unit.

Activity 9. Free activity. Reading comprehension.

Students will be provided with a press article about the visit of a group of adolescents to the city during an exchange. The original article is available in the archive of the official website of the Real Club Celta de Vigo, although it has been slightly modified to adapt it to the level of the students, so it is a semi-real material.

24 Slovakian youngsters visit Vigo on a solidarian trip

17 May 2018

Adapted from Vavel

1. How many people have visited the city thanks to this initiative? Where do they come from?

2. Who organized this initiative?

3. What activities have the visitors already done?

4. How did the NGO select the participants?

5. Which famous football players have been very involved?

6. Find synonyms for…

-young people:

-topic:

-match:

(My own design)

In this case, after reading the text, students will have to answer a series of questions related to it by means of writing. Given the semi-real nature of the text, we could relate this activity to the Communicative Method. With this activity students will be able to start working on their written production thanks to the comprehensible input presented in the text.

Activity 10. Free activity. Write and complete.

In this case, students will use the digital board to practise some grammar aspects that might still be difficult for them. In this way, we are following the Grammar-Translation method combined with CALL. Students will do the activity by themselves and then they will check their answers using the digital board. The role of the teacher will be to observe and analyze the level of understanding of the students to clarify possible questions.

These are some examples of different procedures: reordering and completion.

(My own design)

SESSION 5

Along this session, students will get the opportunity to work in groups and put into practice all the four skills as well as their ability to interact with their partners. To do so, fun and engaging activities based on games have been designed.

Activity 11. Free activity. Running dictation.

This activity will be carried out in groups and all skills will be worked on. The procedure will be as follows: the teacher will place the same printed text at different points in the classroom (for example, on the wall) and each copy of the text will be assigned to a group. The groups will be located as far away as possible from the copies. One student from each group must approach the text, read a fragment, memorize it and transmit it to the rest of their classmates, one of whom will be in charge of transcribing it on paper. Then the same sequence is repeated, changing the roles of the students, so that everyone participates. The objective is to transcribe the complete text as faithful to reality as possible.

(My own design)

In this activity the students will work on the four basic skills (listening, reading, speaking and writing) in addition to doing an exercise of attention and memorization. In this way, we favour the learning of all students, whatever their learning style is, since we use movement, listening and reading.

Activity 12. Free activity. Play Jenga.

In order to carry out this activity, students will be divided into small groups (5 students per group), and provided with a Jenga. Its pieces have three different colours: pink, blue and green. Students will have to roll a coloured dice and, depending on the colour they get, they will have to remove a piece of the tower after answering a question from a card of the same colour, as can be seen below:

What places have you travelled to?

(My own design)

Thanks to this activity, which will help students with all learning styles, they will be able to practise the structures and vocabulary acquired throughout the unit. The teacher’s mission will be to check on the different groups and to make sure that English is spoken as long as the students are playing.

SESSION 6

Along this session students will expected to elaborate their Free Production Activity. To do so, they will have some preparation time as well as access to monolingual dictionaries. The activity will have to be carried out individually and will have evaluable character.

Activity 13. Free production activity.

This written activity will be carried out individually and will be assessed as a final task of the unit. For its evaluation a specific rubric will be used. Students will receive clear instructions on what to include in their written productions: they must use words related to the vocabulary of the unit, use modal verbs to make recommendations, and use, at least once, the present perfect structure. In this case, we follow a more traditional approach, opting for the specific mention and use of grammatical aspects. This will help the teacher to check at what level the students have internalized the grammar and vocabulary dealt with in the unit and, at the same time, check their communication skills. The following image shows an example of the result the students are expected to achieve.

(My own design)

SESSION 7

In this last session of the unit students will carry out two different activities: a follow-up activity (Activity 14), aimed at those students who have understood and been able to apply the contents of the unit, and a Remedial activity (Activity 15) aimed at those students who might need some extra practice.

14. Follow-up Activity

This activity will only be carried out by those considered “strong students”, that is, those who have managed to meet the objectives of the unit. These students are going to work in small groups in order to make a multilingual tourist brochure about the city. To do this, they will access the official website of the Vigo Tourism Office (www.turismodevigo.org), select the

49 information in Spanish and / or Galician and then adapt and translate it into English. Finally, they will prepare the brochure using the CANVA design tool, adding the chosen information and the images that they decide. In this way, we will use translation as a facilitating tool for communication and multiculturalism, highlighting the importance of different languages and the richness they provide.

15. Remedial Activity

This activity is intended for those considered “weak students”. The objective is the same as in the Follow-up Activity, but in this case we will provide the students with cues (some vocabulary items, examples of grammatical structures etc.) to suit their needs.

The ultimate goal of these two activities is to send the pamphlets to the Vigo tourist office. In this way, we apply Task-Based Teaching and attend to the diversity of the group by adapting activities to the different needs of the students.

3.8 Methodology

Throughout history, there have been numerous changes in the field of teaching methodologies: from the already obsolete expository approaches to the participative approaches that are more and more in use nowadays, as we have stated in the theoretical framework.

Today, an eclectic approach based on the communicative approach is advocated, since this is the one recognized by the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Following the premises of this approach, we assume that a student can learn a foreign language in the same way as children learn their L1. To this end, all four skills must be worked out naturally through direct exposure to the target language: language must be a means of learning, not a goal.

To be able to apply this approach in the classroom there are certain premises that must be fulfilled. Firstly, grammar will not be taught directly: students will infer the contents from the communicative situations that arise in the classroom. For this purpose, “the foreign language whenever possible, the mother tongue only when necessary” is a useful recommendation.

If doubts arise, they will be resolved by means of images, mimicry or synonyms. However, if a problem cannot be solved by using any of these resources, the L1 will be used only to avoid an interruption of the rhythm of the class and to prevent a communication breakdown. After all, the main objective is for students to acquire knowledge. However, we have included the use of the students' mother tongues (Spanish and Galician) in some activities in the unit. We consider that the use of various languages and translation as a means of understanding and relating them to each other can be very positive and enriching for students if used in appropriate contexts.

Real or semireal materials will be used. This kind of materials contribute to the development of all skills (both input and output), as well as to foster the development of the capacity to reflect on the language. This means that students will be able to overcome difficulties as L2 is used in the classroom.

It is also important to note that, as in any teaching-learning process, students can make mistakes. These mistakes will not be corrected automatically; students will be provided with feedback highlighting what they have done well and giving them instructions on what could be improved. Errors are one more element of the language learning process and should be treated as such.

Therefore, we can conclude that by using the communicative approach, the student becomes the protagonist of his own learning, while the teacher acts as a guide throughout the process. However, as innovative elements, we will also include brushstrokes corresponding to other methodologies, both traditional and innovative, which will allow greater attention to the diversity of the group, giving rise to an eclectic methodology based on the communicative approach.

3.9 Attention to diversity

As previously mentioned in the Context section, we are dealing with a heterogeneous group of 25 students. This heterogeneity is not only based on physical, social or cultural differences; another important factor is the variety of rhythms and learning styles that can be found in the classroom.

According to LOMCE, there are different cases of students with special needs: those “who require educational attention different from the ordinary, due to special educational needs, learning difficulties, ADHD, high intellectual abilities, because they have been incorporated into the educational system late, or because of personal or school history conditions. They can

51 achieve the maximum possible development of their personal abilities and, in any case, the objectives established with a general character for all students.” [My own translation]

The same resource, however attractive it may be, can have very differing effects on different types of students. Because of this, we can consider that some students have more ease when learning by using visual resources, while others are more receptive to sound resources. To this diversity we must also add the variety of interests that exists in the classroom. This factor is closely related to the motivation of the learners towards the learning process, so we must also bear this fact in mind.

To address this diversity and to ensure that all students get their chance to make the most of the lessons, the following measures have been taken:

• Very different activities are included in the unit. This makes it possible to meet the needs of students with different learning styles, including visual, kinesthetic or auditory.

• Attention should also be paid to the different paces of learning. Each student has a different rhythm and we must respect it as much as possible. Therefore, the time of the activities will be flexible and these will have different levels of difficulty. This will allow students to adapt themselves to a common rhythm.

• As for the variety of levels in the classroom, a warm-up activity shall be carried out at the beginning of the unit. This activity will serve as an initial evaluation that will allow the teacher to know the level at which each student is.

• Finally, we must also mention the materials. Since we are following mostly the Communicative Approach, we must use real or semireal materials. These materials will be inclusive: they will always reflect the existing diversity both inside and outside the classroom.

As we have previously mentioned, in the group there is a student with TDHA. This disorder is characterized by impulsivity, hyperactivity and neglect. To encourage her proper participation in the classroom, we will follow the measures proposed in the Consensual protocol on ADHD in children and adolescents in the educational and health fields (2014).

These measures include:

• firstly, setting classroom rules and enforcing them;

• placing the student in the front row, away from doors and windows to lessen possible distractions;

• surrounding the student with others with a calmer character in order to avoid being disturbed or nervous;

• attracting his/her initial attention before undertaking an activity;

• monitoring their work and implementing positive reinforcement;

• using short and clear phrases in explanations and relying on visual elements;

• leaving more time for written tasks.

3.10 Resources

The resources needed to carry out the teaching-learning process following the didactic unit that we have designed are the following:

- As human resources, both teachers and students.

- As space resources, we have the group’s reference classroom and computer room.

- As material resources, board, digital whiteboard, specific materials for the activities that require them, internet connection as well as computers will be needed.

3.11 Evaluation: criteria and tools

A series of criteria based on Decreto 86/2015, del 25 de junio, por el que se establece el currículo de la educación secundaria obligatoria y del bachillerato en la Comunidad Autónoma de Galicia, Chapter 4, will be followed to evaluate both students and the teaching practice. Evaluation will be continuous, since its purpose is to improve the teaching process.

First, the teaching practice will be assessed in accordance with the third point of Article 21. To this end, a set of indicators of achievement will be established. These indicators will be included in the following checklist, which the teacher will cover.

ACHIEVEMENT INDICATORS

(My own design)

In addition, students will be presented the following questionnaire:

“I CAN” CHECKLIST

(My own design)

By means of this questionnaire, students can express their views on the teaching process. In this way, the teaching practice is assessed from the point of view of the teacher and also from the point of view of the students, which allows greater feedback and therefore greater possibilities for improvement in the areas where it is necessary.

Secondly, it is necessary to carry out the assessment of students. To this end, an initial evaluation shall be carried out at the beginning of the didactic unit. This activity (warm-up activity) will not, under any circumstances, be qualifying. Its function will be to provide guidance on the initial level of knowledge on the topic.

Furthermore, the free production activity will be evaluated. For this purpose, this specific rubric will be used.

(My own design)

In other words, the students will be evaluated through different tools: a monitoring diary for the collection of tasks and the continuous observation of the work of students during the lessons, and the specific rubric for the final task. In this way, both the students’ and the teaching process’ evaluation will be initial, continuous and final.

In order to follow the students’ learning process, a scale will be used. The teacher will take notes regarding the activities carried out during the sessions as well as the participation and

56 interest shown by the students, which will represent a 60% of the final grade. The remaining 40% will be represented by the mark obtained in the final task.

This could be an example:

(My own design)

4. CONCLUSIONS

After consulting a variety of sources, we have found that in the area of language teaching there are clear differences between the more traditional approaches and those considered more innovative. These differences are due, to a large extent, to changes in society's needs for learning a foreign language. Thanks to our theoretical research, we have understood the importance of each of the aforementioned methods: all of them have been essential and can continue to be followed in the classroom, always based on the needs of the students.

However, we have observed that it is possible to combine different aspects of all the aforementioned methodologies to give rise to different activities that adapt to current students, their learning styles and the context that surrounds them. Thus, we have taken into account the characteristics of our reference group to develop a didactic unit in which traditional methodologies and modern methodologies converge. This has allowed us to understand the strengths and weaknesses of each methodology used and to make the most of all of them. For example, the Grammar-Translation method does not allow us to adapt to different learning styles; however, it does help us greatly to value the sociolinguistic situation of the Autonomous Community of Galicia and for students to value and internalize the importance of official languages regarding the use of a foreign language.

Another aspect that we have verified during the development of this MA Thesis is the importance of adapting the teaching methodologies to the specific characteristics of the students. This didactic unit has been designed for a specific group, but it would cease to be valid if the characteristics of a single student were different (for example, if there was a student with visual or hearing impairment in the group).

Therefore, we have been aware of the importance of observation and knowledge of students to choose one or more methodologies that facilitate and / or contribute to a better teaching-learning process that gives all students the same possibilities. We consider that sticking to a single method or approach does not meet this objective and also limits students who do not have the same cognitive characteristics as the rest. For this reason, we believe that methodology and attention to diversity are two essential pillars in any process and that aspects such as content, objectives or competences must be adapted to these two pillars. We are also aware that today's groups of students present more and more diversity, which is why sticking to a single methodology or a single learning style does not seem like a good option when teaching a foreign language.

However, we believe that to see if our proposal is effective, we must subject it to a careful evaluation. For this reason, we have presented a series of different assessment tools that allow us to know the point of view of the students about their learning, the evolution of each one and the difficulties that arise, in addition to allowing constant and close observation in the different skills that are worked on during the acquisition and / or learning of a foreign language. Thus, we defend the idea that evaluation is an essential part of the process and not its final goal.

After studying some of the different methodologies used throughout history in the area of teaching foreign languages and their practical application within the current teaching model, we can affirm that the main limitation we have faced is the impossibility of putting the designed teaching unit into practice. The current global situation caused by the Covid-19 pandemic makes it impossible to apply all the activities designed in the classroom, since many of them are based on contact and interaction between students. This makes it impossible to know with certainty if our eclectic didactic unit would work in a secondary education classroom such as the one described in the context of this work, at least until the current situation ends.

Thus, an interesting line of research as a result of this work would be the adaptation of our didactic unit to the new situation in the classrooms, replacing the activities of interaction or those in which there is physical contact with others that are more appropriate and that respect

58 safety measures imposed today. One of the questions that would be interesting to answer is whether there is the possibility of using other tools or other types of activities that allow obtaining the same results while avoiding physical contact and direct and close interaction between students.

Another interesting aspect that could be studied as a result of our work is the implementation of more activities related to other methodologies, traditional or innovative, from those mentioned in our theoretical framework. There are many more approaches and methods of language teaching that, for reasons of space and time, we have not been able to include in our study, but that can contribute innumerable positive aspects to the teaching-learning process.

Carrying out this MA Thesis has allowed us to investigate in depth many of the contents of the “Online Master in English Studies” and, at the same time, put all the knowledge acquired into practice to design a complete didactic unit, including the materials to be used during the sessions, appropriate to a specific context. Finally, and as a very relevant aspect, we have been able to relate the theoretical knowledge with its practical application. We consider this essential, in this case, for a correct teaching practice, since theory and practice must always go hand in hand. We would like to end our MA Thesis by quoting Albert Einstein: "Learning is an experience. Everything else is just information".

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7. APPENDICES Appendix I. Objectives in Decreto 86/2015.

Decreto 86/2015, de 25 de junio, por el que se establece el currículo de la educación secundaria obligatoria y del bachillerato en la Comunidad Autónoma de Galicia

Artículo 10. Objetivos de la educación secundaria obligatoria

La educación secundaria obligatoria contribuirá a desarrollar en los alumnos y en las alumnas las capacidades que les permitan: a) Asumir responsablemente sus deberes, conocer y ejercer sus derechos en el respeto a las demás personas, practicar la tolerancia, la cooperación y la solidaridad entre las personas y los grupos, ejercitarse en el diálogo, afianzando los derechos humanos y la igualdad de trato y de oportunidades entre mujeres y hombres, como valores comunes deuna sociedad plural, y prepararse para el ejercicio de la ciudadanía democrática. b) Desarrollar y consolidar hábitos de disciplina, estudio y trabajo individual y en equipo, como condición necesaria para una realización eficaz de las tareas del aprendizaje y como medio de desarrollo personal. c) Valorar y respetar la diferencia de sexos y la igualdad de derechos y oportunidades entre ellos. Rechazar la discriminación de las personas por razón de sexo o por cualquier otra condición o circunstancia personal o social. Rechazar los estereotipos que supongan discriminación entre hombres y mujeres, así como cualquier manifestación de violencia contra la mujer. d) Fortalecer sus capacidades afectivas en todos los ámbitos de la personalidad y en sus relaciones con las demás personas, así como rechazar la violencia, los perjuicios de cualquier tipo y los comportamientos sexistas, y resolver pacíficamente los conflictos. e) Desarrollar destrezas básicas en la utilización de las fuentes de información, para adquirir nuevos conocimientos con sentido crítico. Adquirir una preparación básica en el campo de las tecnologías, especialmente las de la información y la comunicación. f) Concebir el conocimiento científico como un saber integrado, que se estructura en asignaturas, así como conocer y aplicar los métodos para identificar los problemas en diversos campos del conocimiento y de la experiencia.

g) Desarrollar el espíritu emprendedor y la confianza en sí mismo, la participación, el sentido crítico, la iniciativa personal y la capacidad para aprender a aprender, planificar, tomar decisiones y asumir responsabilidades. h) Comprender y expresar con corrección, oralmente y por escrito, en la lengua gallega y en la lengua castellana, textos y mensajes complejos, e iniciarse en el conocimiento, en la lectura y en el estudio de la literatura. i) Comprender y expresarse en una o más lenguas extranjeras de manera apropiada. l) Conocer, valorar y respetar los aspectos básicos de la cultura y de la historia propias y de las otras personas, así como el patrimonio artístico y cultural. Conocer mujeres y hombres que hayan realizado aportaciones importantes a la cultura y a la sociedad gallega, o a otras culturas del mundo. m) Conocer y aceptar el funcionamiento del propio cuerpo y lo de las otras personas, respetar las diferencias, afianzar los hábitos de cuidado y salud corporal, e incorporar la educación física y la práctica del deporte para favorecer el desarrollo personal y social. Conocer y valorar la dimensión humana de la sexualidad en toda su diversidad. Valorar críticamente los hábitos sociales relacionados con la salud, el consumo, el cuidado de los seres vivos y el medio ambiente, contribuyendo a su conservación y a su mejora. n) Apreciar la creación artística y comprender el lenguaje de las manifestaciones artísticas, utilizando diversos medios de expresión y representación.

ñ) Conocer y valorar los aspectos básicos del patrimonio lingüístico, cultural, histórico y artístico de Galicia, participar en su conservación y en su mejora, y respetar la diversidad lingüística y cultural como derecho de los pueblos y de las personas, desarrollando actitudes de interés y respeto hacia el ejercicio de este derecho. o) Conocer y valorar la importancia del uso de la lengua gallega como elemento fundamental para el mantenimiento de la identidad de Galicia, y como medio de relación interpersonal y expresión de riqueza cultural en un contexto plurilingüe, que permite la comunicación con otras lenguas, en especial con las pertenecientes a la comunidad lusófona.

Appendix II. Contents in Orden ECD 65/2015 Orden ECD/65/2015, de 21 de enero, por la que se describen las relaciones entre las competencias, los contenidos y los criterios de evaluación de la educación primaria, la educación secundaria obligatoria y el bachillerato.

Artículo 5. Las competencias clave en el currículo. 1. Las competencias clave deben estar integradas en las áreas o materias de las propuestas curriculares, y en ellas definirse, explicitarse y desarrollarse suficientemente los resultados de aprendizaje que los alumnos y alumnas deben conseguir. 2. Las competencias deben desarrollarse en los ámbitos de la educación formal, no formal e informal a lo largo de la Educación Primaria, la Educación Secundaria Obligatoria y el Bachillerato, y en la educación permanente a lo largo de toda la vida. 3. Todas las áreas o materias del currículo deben participar, desde su ámbito correspondiente, en el desarrollo de las distintas competencias del alumnado. 4. La selección de los contenidos y las metodologías debe asegurar el desarrollo de las competencias clave a lo largo de la vida académica. 5. Los criterios de evaluación deben servir de referencia para valorar lo que el alumnado sabe y sabe hacer en cada área o materia. Estos criterios de evaluación se desglosan en estándares de aprendizaje evaluables. Para valorar el desarrollo competencial del alumnado, serán estos estándares de aprendizaje evaluables, como elementos de mayor concreción, observables y medibles, los que, al ponerse en relación con las competencias clave, permitirán graduar el rendimiento o desempeño alcanzado en cada una de ellas. 6. El conjunto de estándares de aprendizaje evaluables de un área o materia determinada dará lugar a su perfil de área o materia. Dado que los estándares de aprendizaje evaluables se ponen en relación con las competencias, este perfil permitirá identificar aquellas competencias que se desarrollan a través de esa área o materia. 7. Todas las áreas y materias deben contribuir al desarrollo competencial. El conjunto de estándares de aprendizaje evaluables de las diferentes áreas o materias que se relacionan con una misma competencia da lugar al perfil de esa competencia (perfil de competencia). La elaboración de este perfil facilitará la evaluación competencial del alumnado.