“Girl, Bi, Bakla, Tomboy”: the Intersectionality of Sexuality, Gender, and Class in Urban Poor Contexts

PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2016, 49(2), 5-34 COPYRIGHT @ 2016 PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION OF THE PHILIPPINES “Girl, Bi, Bakla, Tomboy”: The Intersectionality of Sexuality, Gender, and Class in Urban Poor Contexts Arjohn M. Ceperiano Emmanuel C. Santos Jr. Danielle Celine P. Alonzo Mira Alexis P. Ofreneo Ateneo de Manila University Intersectionality as a theoretical framework argues for the need to account for people’s multiple and intersecting social identities in understanding experiences of discrimination. We looked at the intersection of sexuality, gender, and class in shaping the particularity of Filipino urban poor lesbian women’s and gay men’s experiences of discrimination. Using four case narratives, we examined the experiences of a bisexual (masculine gay man), bakla (feminine gay man), tomboy (masculine lesbian woman), and girl (feminine lesbian woman) in urban poor contexts. Unique themes include: how gender, sexuality, and class identities intersect and fuse in the bakla and tomboy identities to create a distinct form of social inequality that constructs these identities as forms of moral degradation; how non-normative gender expressions trigger overt discrimination; how lesbian and gay identities and relationships are invisibilized; and how providing for the family can facilitate acceptance given the strong adherence to heteronormative gender roles embedded in the context of urban poverty. Keywords: intersectionality, discrimination, class, gender, sexuality Discrimination towards lesbian women and gay men, also referred to as sexual prejudice or heterosexism, continue to persist globally (UN, 2012). Though discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation has been often treated as a homogenous experience, studies have Correspondence concerning this article can be addressed to Arjohn M. Ceperiano, Department of Psychology, Ateneo de Manila University, Katipunan Avenue, Quezon City 1108. E-mail: [email protected] 6 INTERSECTIONALITY OF SEXUALITY, GENDER, AND CLASS increasingly unpacked the unique experience of discrimination among multiply marginalized groups of lesbian women and gay men (Parent, DeBlaere, & Moradi, 2013). In particular, studies in North American contexts have shown how sexual orientation intersects with gender and race to create compounded layers of discrimination (Bowleg, 2008; Bowleg, 2013). Little research however has been done in Asian contexts where the meaning of sexuality and gender may vary given that social identities are constructed in their specific cultural and historical contexts (Bowleg, 2013). Furthermore, there is scant research on how sexual orientation intersects with socioeconomic class, which may be more salient in contexts where poverty is widespread (McGarrity, 2014). Hence, this study contributes to understanding discrimination towards urban poor lesbian women and gay men by exploring the intersection of sexuality, gender, and class. Using an intersectionality framework, we explored experiences of discrimination from four case narratives of a bisexual, bakla, tomboy, and girl from urban poor contexts in the Philippines. Discrimination Towards Lesbian Women and Gay Men Despite shifts towards greater acceptance, lesbian women and gay men in the US continue to be widely stigmatized (Herek & McLemore, 2013). A review of the literature from North American contexts showed that experiences of prejudice toward lesbian women and gay men are likely to endure despite changes in public policies towards legal recognition of same-sex relations and equality for sexual minorities (Herek & McLemore, 2013). In the Philippines, the situation is made complex by the co-existence of policies that promote and policies that deny lesbian and gay rights (UNDP & USAID, 2014). While cultural and social attitudes reflect increasing acceptance, Filipino lesbian women and gay men continue to experience discrimination and violence (UNDP & USAID, 2014). While race or ethnic identity may be salient in North American contexts, researchers have argued for the need to study Asian contexts given the salience and meaning of identities are context- specific (Bowleg, 2013; Herek & McLemore, 2013). Researchers have highlighted the need to address the intersection of lesbian, gay, CEPERIANO, SANTOS, ALONZO, & OFRENEO 7 bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) identities with socioeconomic status (Gamarel, et al., 2012; McGarrity, 2014). One study on the intersection of race and class found that socioeconomic position was primary in the experience of discrimination of gay and bisexual men (Gamarel, et al., 2012). A review of past studies highlighted how LGB people from lower socioeconomic status (SES) experience greater vulnerability and distress (McGarrity, 2014). This review identified the uniqueness of the experience of vulnerability from the intersection of sexuality and class such as the consequence of gender role nonconformity and disclosure. Passing as a heterosexual masculine man can be an act of survival for working class GB men while coming out can lead to more harm for LGB individuals in the context of poverty. In the Philippines, socioeconomic status or class is made salient by the widespread prevalence of poverty, with 25.8% of Filipinos in poverty and 10.5% in extreme or subsistence poverty (PSA, 2015). A large percentage of poor Filipinos live in Metro Manila in urban poor settlements or informal settler communities (Racelis & Aguirre, 2005). Attempts have been made to argue for the interconnection of poverty and sexuality (Jolly, 2010). For instance, economic systems are said to be heteronormative with people of non-conforming gender and sexuality (e.g., butch lesbian women) deemed unfit to work. Poverty also intersects with sexuality when LGBT individuals face greater risk of rejection from family members when they are unable to earn income. A Philippine study supports this assertion as social protection policies were found to be heteronormative, preventing access to resources to LBT-headed households (GALANG, 2013). A seminal study of queer people in the context of poverty in urban Philippines by Thoreson (2011) showed how sexuality and gender expression shape the experience of material poverty and employment. Following a capabilities approach, this study showed how queerness intersected with poverty to shape not only material poverty but a range of capabilities such as agency, security, dignity, and meaning in life. In terms of employment, low-income LGBT people faced discrimination in jobs deemed inappropriate for them or sought low- paying jobs that are typecasted for them. Low-income LGBT people struggled to provide not only for themselves but for their families, with the ability to earn functioning as a currency to gain family acceptance. 8 INTERSECTIONALITY OF SEXUALITY, GENDER, AND CLASS In addition, low-income LGBT people felt that they contributed to their households not only with their income but also through chores and other non-monetary means. In terms of safety and security, low-income LGBT people reported experiencing harassment in the streets while a number experienced graver forms of assault including rape and attempted murder. Despite experiencing discrimination and violence, they felt safe in their own communities where people knew them. Thoreson further noted that queer populations in the Philippines are particularly vulnerable to harassment because of their visible “transgressive gender expression” (p. 503). The present study seeks to contribute an intersectional framework to understand experiences of discrimination of Filipino lesbian women and gay men in urban poor contexts. In particular, we look at the intersection of sexuality, gender, and class in four case narratives of a bisexual, bakla, tomboy, and girl identity. We explore their subjective experiences in-depth to derive insights as to the intersecting structures of social inequalities or oppression that shape these experiences. Philippine Cultural Context Unlike Western social constructions that separate the categories of gender (e.g., masculinity, femininity) and sexual orientation (homosexuality, bisexuality, heterosexuality) the local social construction of gender and sexuality is fused or conflated (Tan, 1995, 1998; Ofreneo, 2000, 2003). Tan (1998) argued that Philippine culture has no term for sexuality, which he contends is a largely western construct. There are no local terms for the categories of sexual orientation (Tan, 1995). Rather, the construction of sexuality is merged with or embedded in the language of gender (Ofreneo, 2000, 2003). The local term most widely used to refer to a gay man is bakla, the contraction of the words babae (female/woman) and lalaki (male/ man), implying that homosexuality is tied to femininity (Tan, 1995). Tan (1995) has explained how the concept of effeminacy dominates Philippine public discourse on homosexuality. The term bakla lumps together gay men and transgender women. On the other hand, the term most commonly used to refer to a lesbian woman is tomboy (Josef, 1997, 1999). Similar to the word bakla, tomboy fuses sexuality and CEPERIANO, SANTOS, ALONZO, & OFRENEO 9 gender as it refers primarily to the expression of masculinity. Tomboy lumps together lesbian women and transgendered or transsexual men. With the accommodation of western knowledge, local terms such as bakla and tomboy co-exist with the western words lesbian, gay, and transgender in Philippine public discourse. Class further complicates the unique construction of gender and sexuality in the Philippines.

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