Natural Resources Canada Canadian Forest Service Canada Indian and Northern Affairs Canada First Nations Forestry Program

orthCentralResearchStation

Photo captions front cover: A. A basket maker peels splints—the pliable wood strips that will form a basket—off a “pounded” black ash log. (Photo courtesy of Peggy Castillo) B. Black ash basket making, from logs to finished baskets. (Photo courtesy of Peggy Castillo) C. A future basket maker tries “pounding” a log. (Photo courtesy of Peggy Castillo) D. Birch “poles” used by some stores for hanging clothing on display. (Photo by Elizabeth Nauertz, courtesy of Winter Woods, Inc.) E. Two women sort cones for Christmas wreaths. (Photo by Elizabeth Nauertz, courtesy of Winter Woods, Inc.) F. Ground pine (Lycopodium dend.) wrapped around a decorative holiday mailbox. (Photo by Elizabeth Nauertz, courtesy of Winter Woods, Inc.)

North Central Research Station 1992 Folwell Avenue St. Paul, Minnesota 55108 Manuscript approved for publication May 29, 2001 2001 Forest Communities in the Third Millennium: Linking Research, Business, and Policy Toward a Sustainable Non-Timber Sector

Proceedings of meeting held October 1-4, 1999, Kenora, Ontario, Canada

Editors: Iain Davidson-Hunt, Taiga Institute/University of Manitoba Luc C. Duchesne, Canadian Forest Service and John C. Zasada, USDA Forest Service NTFP Conference Proceedings

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

INTRODUCTIONS

Introduction to the Proceedings

Non-timber Forest Products: Local Livelihoods and Integrated Forest Management Iain Davidson-Hunt, Taiga Institute/University of Manitoba; Luc C. Duchesne, Canadian Forest Service; and John C. Zasada, USDA Forest Service ...... 1

Welcomes from:

Treaty #3 Territory Lance Sandy, Kenora Area Tribal Chief ...... 13

National Aboriginal Forestry Association Harry Bombay, Executive Director ...... 15

NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS: ECONOMICS, SOCIETY, AND CULTURE

Who, What, and Why: The Products, Their Use, and Issues About Management of Non-timber Forest Products of the Susan Alexander, USDA Forest Service ...... 18

Non-timber Forest Products and Livelihoods in Michigan’s Upper Peninsula Marla Emery, USDA Forest Service ...... 23

Northern Homelands, Northern Frontier: Linking Culture and Economic Security in Contemporary Livelihoods in Boreal and Cold Temperate Forest Communities in Andrew Chapeskie, Taiga Institute ...... 31

The First Nation Forestry Program in Ontario Rick Greet, Canadian Forest Service ...... 45

NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS: BIOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Intellectual and Ecological Traditional Knowledge: Can it be Sustained Through Natural Products Development? Case Studies from , , Ghana, and Guatemala Trish Flaster, Botanical Liaisons ...... 49

Non-timber Forest Products and Aboriginal Traditional Knowledge Robin Marles, Brandon University ...... 53

“Keeping It Living”: Applications and Relevance of Traditional Management in British Columbia to Sustainable Harvesting of Non-timber Forest Products Nancy Turner, University of ...... 66

Changing Resource Management Paradigms, Traditional Ecological Knowledge, and Non-timber Forest Products Iain Davidson-Hunt, Taiga Institute/University of Manitoba; and Fikret Berkes, University of Manitoba ...... 78 Selected Non-timber Forest Products from Jilin Province, Yao Ge Huang, Jilin Agricultural University/University of Saskatchewan; Branka Barl, University of Saskatchewan; and Gerald Ivanochko, Saskatchewan and Food ...... 93

Ecological and Biological Considerations for Sustainable Management of Non-timber Forest Products in Northern Forests Luc C. Duchesne, John C. Zasada, and Iain Davidson-Hunt ...... 102

Lycopodium: Growth Form, Morphology, and Sustainability of a Non-timber Forest Product Elizabeth Nauertz and John C. Zasada, USDA Forest Service ...... 110

Recommendations for Sustainable Development of Non-timber Forest Products Gina Mohammed, Ontario Forest Research Institute ...... 116

NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS: BUSINESS DEVELOPMENT, MARKETING, AND POLICY

The Minnesota Approach to Non-timber Forest Product Marketing: The Balsam Bough Industry and Other Case Examples John Krantz, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources ...... 121

Certifying the Harvest: Developments in NTFP Certification Patrick Mallet, Falls Brook Environmental Centre ...... 124

The Industry of , Gathering, and Harvesting of NTFPs: An Insider’s Perspective Barb Letchworth, Frontier Natural Products Cooperative ...... 128

Using Aspen for Artist Stretcher Frames: Adding Value Through Quality Service, Direct Marketing, and Careful Material Selection Chris Polson, Twin Brooks Stretchers ...... 133

Establishing an Alaskan Birch Industry: Birch Syrup—It’s the Un- Marlene Cameron, Cameron Birch Syrup and Confections ...... 135

North American Networking Activities on Non-wood Forest Products by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Paul Vantomme, Food and Agriculture Organization, UN...... 140

CONCLUSION

The Future of the Non-timber Forest Products Industry Luc C. Duchesne, Iain Davidson-Hunt, and John C. Zasada ...... 149 NTFP Conference Proceedings

INTRODUCTIONS Non-timber Forest Products: Local Livelihoods and Integrated Forest Management

Iain Davidson-Hunt1, Luc C. Duchesne2, and John C. Zasada3

NTFP: AN EVOLVING CONCEPT led to an explosion in the research of and writing about NTFP from an international In October of 1999 a conference was held in perspective. A quick scan of FAO reports and Kenora, Ontario, Canada, to explore the non- the bibliography of NTFP literature, both of timber forest products (NTFPs) of boreal and which can be found on the FAO-NWFP Web site cold temperate forests. Up to this time, the reveals the growth of international interest in concept of NTFP, was one that had been devel- the topic of NTFP for tropical and subtropical oped largely for tropical and subtropical for- forests. While the main focus for NTFP has ests. An extensive body of literature exists on a been the tropical and subtropical of the wide range of topics for the NTFPs of tropical world, there has also been a parallel, albeit and subtropical forests. The Food and Agricul- smaller, growth of interest in the NTFPs of ture Organization of the United Nations was boreal and cold temperate forests. one of the first agencies to promote NTFPs through their program on non-wood forest Although the widespread economic interest in products (NWFP) (http://www.fao.org/forestry/ the NTFPs of boreal and cold temperate forests FOP/FOPW/NWFP/nwfp-e.stm). Over the past may be new, a large amount of research in 10 years, numerous other international agen- other fields of knowledge predate the concept of cies such as the World Bank, Canadian Inter- NTFP and apply to NTFP issues. While it is national Development Agency (CIDA) (http:// difficult to divide this literature into discrete www.worldbank.org), International Develop- categories, we suggest that the following seven ment Research Centre (IDRC) (http:// categories roughly cover the main literature in www.idrc.ca), Center for International Forestry which the NTFP concept has emerged. Research (CIFOR) (http://www.cifor.cgiar.org), International Union for the Conservation of 1. Ethnographic Studies Nature (IUCN) (http://www.iucn.org), and the Biodiversity Support Program (BSP) (http:// The ethnographic record provides a rich set www.bsponline.org), among others, have of historical and contemporary information incorporated the concept of NTFP into their on the collection and gathering of , programming. The 1980s and the 1990s also , , minerals, and other biological organisms that people have used to maintain a livelihood in the boreal and cold temperate forest regions. Many ethnog- 1 Ph.D. Student, Natural Resources Institute, raphies also include detailed information on University of Manitoba, and a founding member, the role of such biological organisms in the The Taiga Institute for Land, Culture and processes of nutrition, manufacturing, Economy, Suite A, 150 Main Street South, trade, rituals, ceremonies, and healing. Kenora, Ontario, Canada, P9N 1S9; Phone: 807- Some ethnographies also provide informa- 468-9607; e-mail: [email protected]. tion on the ways by which peoples of the 2 Research Scientist, Canadian Forest Service, boreal and cold temperate forest regions 1219 Queen Street, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, steward individual species and their local Canada, P6A 5N7; Phone: 705-949-9461 ext. environments. Finally, many ethnographic 2173; e-mail: [email protected]. studies have discussed the market struc- 3 Project Leader and Research Forester, U.S. tures through which NTFPs are traded and Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North the sociological dimensions of harvesters Central Research Station, 1831 Highway 169 and marketing cooperatives. Many contem- E., Grand Rapids, Minnesota, 55744, USA; porary journals contain discussions of Phone: 218-326-7109; e-mail: cultural and social processes critical to a [email protected]. fuller understanding of NTFPs. 1 NTFP Conference Proceedings

2. Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) forest management policy in is perceived as novel; however, this is due Traditional Ecological Knowledge is a broad to a lack of knowledge about the history of term that can be used to capture diverse minor forest product policy and manage- sets of interests including: people’s percep- ment in the temperate forests of northern tion, ordering, and naming of the environ- , and other European countries. Ideas ment and its components (“new ethnogra- on how NTFP can be included in forest phy”); people’s understanding of individual policy and management are starting to components of the environment show up in forestry journals such as the (ethnobiology, ethnoforestry (http:// Forestry Chronicle (http://www.cif-ifc.org/ www .inef.org), ethnobotany, ethnozoology, chron.html) and the Journal of Forestry ethnopedology, etc.); and people’s under- (http://www.safnet.org). standing of the relationship among the components of the environment and related 5. Biology and Ecology of Forests stewardship practices (ethnoecology) (Berkes 1999, and in this volume; Berkes The biology and ecology of forests have and Davidson-Hunt, in this volume; Turner largely focused on the timber species found 1995, and in this volume). Although this in the forest. However, forest research has area of study has usually focused on “local recently begun to focus on the trees, peoples” in relation to components of the shrubs, herbs, fungi, animals, insects, and environment, it has also looked at biochem- the physical characteristics of forests and istry to ascertain the nutritional status of the interactions between the components. species that people consume (Kuhnlein et As the focus on the biology of forest organ- al. 1982) and the medicinal properties of isms has broadened, and an ecological species that people use for healing (Marles approach to the inventory of forested lands et al. 1999, and in this volume; Turner and has begun, this area of research has Hebda 1990). Many examples of this type of started to generate information that is research relevant to the renewed interest in directly relevant to our understanding of NTFP can be found in the Journal of NTFPs. Journals such as Conservation Ethnobiology (http://www.ethnobiology.org) Ecology (http://www.consecol.org/Journal) and in a recent issue of Ecological Applica- and Ecological Applications, along with the tions (http://www.esa.sdsc.edu/esapubs/ forestry journals previously mentioned, are Applications_main.htm) devoted to the starting to carry research that has direct theme of TEK (Ecological Applications. 10(5). implications for our understanding of the biology and ecology of NTFPs. 3. Economic 6. Forest Products Research Economic botany is interested in the use of plant species by human communities since An extensive set of literature has examined the late 1800s. The Journal of Economic the chemical constituents of tree, shrub, Botany (http://www.econbot.org) provides and herb species for use in commercial an extensive source of information on applications. This extends back to some of specific plants that have been used in the the early work on latexes, saps, , and past or have commercial potential. oils as well as more recent work on the pharmacological properties of medicinal 4. Forest Management and Policy plants. This type of work is being reported in journals such as the Journal of Forest management has largely been asso- Ethnopharmacology (http:// ciated with the management of timber www.ethnopharmacology.org) and is carried resources. However, a recognition of the out at research centers such as the Natural importance of NTFPs can be found as far Resources Research Institute in Duluth, back as the late 1800s when the British Minnesota, USA (http:// colonial government of India included www.nrri.umn.edu). minor forest products in its forest manage- ment plans. The inclusion of NTFPs in

2 7. Business Organization and Marketing Institute in 1998 (Lund et al. 1998). Along with these broad overview reports, numerous other The success of NTFP businesses is often reports were being released that detailed work related to the structure of the organization on specific NTFPs, such as the Ambio Special and the ability to plan marketing strategies. Report #9 on harvesting This area has remained relatively unex- in the (Liegel et al. 1998). plored, but it does draw on previous work on harvesters’ cooperatives, market struc- As forest managers were trying to catch up ture of other small-scale forest products with what people were harvesting from public (i.e., rubber in the tropics), fair trade, and forests, the impacts of harvesting on forest marketing of other natural products. This ecology and the potential benefits of harvesting, type of work is being reported in many of NTFP harvesters and businesses were harvest- the aforementioned journals, but much of ing, processing, and exporting NTFPs. Many the work has been done by private research agencies were also promoting NTFPs as a tool or economic development organizations for economic development in regionally de- such as The Taiga Institute (http:// pressed forest community economies or as a www.taigainstitute.org). means to reconcile biodiversity conservation and economic development. One agency that In the 1980s and 1990s, many of these diverse has been actively exploring the commercial strands of interest began to be drawn together potential of NTFPs for forest communities is the under the umbrella term of NTFP. One of the Model Forest Program, funded in part by the earliest inventories of NTFPs for boreal and Canadian Forest Service. Such reports have cold temperate forest was that undertaken by been prepared by the Prince Albert Model Christine and Robert Prescott-Allen in 1986 Forest in Saskatchewan (Mater Engineering (Prescott-Allen and Prescott-Allen 1986). They 1993); the Manitoba Model Forest (Mark undertook an extensive examination of “wild” Mitchell and Associates 1995); the Lake Abitibi species in relation to the North American Model Forest in northeastern Ontario (Arborvi- economy. By the 1990s, many reports were tae Environmental Services Ltd. 1997); and the emerging that examined the commercial har- Western Model Forest (Freeman vest of a number of different forest species. 1995). These reports provide an important They were largely based upon the mushroom, source of information on NTFPs across the bough, and harvesting of the Pacific western and eastern boreal forests in Canada. Northwest rainforest. Much of this work has Numerous other studies have also reported on been recently compiled in an annotated bibliog- the commercial potential of NTFPs from other raphy put out by the Pacific Northwest Re- cold temperate and boreal forest regions: search Station of the USDA Forest Service (von Minnesota (Mater Engineering, Ltd. 1994); the Hagen et al. 1996). In Canada, a similar inter- North Shore of Lake Superior (D.C. Brubacher est in NTFPs arose in British Columbia due to and Associates 1998); British Columbia (Wills the harvest of and boughs from and Lipsey 1999); and north central Ontario B.C.’s public forests. This led to an overview of (Duchesne 1995). Other reports have attempted the NTFPs harvested from B.C. forests in 1995 to provide basic NTFP business organization (De Geus 1995). In this report it was estimated and marketing information (Freed 1995, 1996; that over 200 different botanical species are Thomas and Schumann 1993); impact of actively harvested from B.C. forests. A similar harvesting (Robbins 1998, Wood Sheldon et al. report was also recently released for Ontario 1997); the relationship between NTFP harvest- which again identifies the range of species ing and biodiversity conservation (Vance and harvested from Ontario’s public forests Thomas 1997); and national or regional “guess- (Mohammed 1999, and in this volume). Marla timates” of the value of NTFP harvesting Emery (Emery 1998, and in this volume), of the (Duchesne et al. 2000, and in this volume; USDA Forest Service, also undertook a detailed Schlosser and Blatner 1995; Schlosser et al. study of NTFP harvesting by households in the 1995). Best current guesstimates for NTFP Upper Peninsula of Michigan. In , a commercial value are $241 million for Canada similar interest was emerging for boreal and (Duchesne et al. 2000) and $200 million for the cold temperate forests and which was summa- Pacific Northwest (Schlosser et al. 1991, 1995). rized in a report issued by the European Forest Value estimates for NTFPs are beset by a

3 NTFP Conference Proceedings number of difficulties and thus our use of the coalesce a diverse set of interests in an attempt term guesstimate.4 By the mid-1990s it was to reveal those “invisible” values and include apparent that the concept of NTFP was being them within an integrated forest management used to describe a set of forest harvesting approach. This brought together an unlikely set activities in boreal and cold temperate forests of characters. Forest managers were inviting that, as Marla Emery (1998) described it, were anthropologists, ethnobotanists, botanists, previously “invisible.” mushroom harvesters, berry harvesters, me- dicinal plant harvesters, chemists, economists, NTFPs did not just begin to be harvested, and various other researchers and harvesters marketed, and studied in the 1980s and 1990s to workshops and conferences. The concept of in the boreal and cold temperate forest regions. NTFP became an exciting area within which to In fact, as we noted previously, there was a lot work because traditional academic boundaries of research being undertaken over the past and the boundaries between research, practice, couple of hundred years on NTFPs within business, and management became blurred. discrete academic and research domains. An Harvesters and NTFP business people often exploration of this research demonstrates that knew the biology, ecology, and marketing of people have always held a diverse set of values specific forest species better than research in relation to the forest and actively harvested a scientists. Chemists knew that some plants in variety of organisms for commercial and do- the boreal forest had constituents of commer- mestic purposes. Unfortunately, those values cial value. Forest managers did not always have not always been recognized or respected have a clear sense of the importance of com- in the process of forest management. However, mercial and/or non-commercial harvesting as the concepts of management and activities for the livelihoods of Aboriginal and integrated forest management became more other peoples. However, this set of people rarely accepted, forest management agencies in both have the chance to exchange ideas on more the United States and Canada were required to than a regional basis or across the divide consider a broader range of values for forest between academics, managers, and harvesters. management. The NTFP concept appeared to This was the intent of the conference held in Kenora during October 1-4, 1999. We wanted to bring together a non-traditional mix of researchers, forest managers, NTFP harvesters, Aboriginal peoples, business people, marketers, 4 Suffice it to say that there are two main and anyone else interested in NTFPs, local problems that beset attempts at valuation of livelihoods, and integrated forest management. NTFPs. (1) Quantity of harvest: Some commercial The papers that follow in this volume reflect the NTFPs do have market prices but it is difficult to breadth of interest that the concept of NTFP estimate the size of the harvest because the can bring together. This leads us to consider a quantity bought and sold is not tracked through definition of NTFP and the type of themes official markets. NTFPs that are not used com- currently included in the concept of NTFP. mercially are not tracked through any measure of household consumption; (2) Market price: Some NTFPs used for household consumption PROBLEMS OF DEFINITION are not bought and sold in a commercial market; therefore an imputed price must be determined. NTFP has proved to be difficult to define due to Furthermore, many people who harvest NTFPs some of the blurred boundaries between timber for spiritual, pleasure, or other non-market and non-timber products as well as the under- values would not agree that the market price lying difficulty in defining a forest. Most at- represents the value of their harvesting activi- tempts at definition deal with three specific ties. The quantity question can be overcome problems: (1) Scale of Industry, (2) Goods and/ through detailed household studies on a re- or Services and, (3) Origin of Product. gional basis, for example, Emery (1998), Godoy and Bawa (1993), Godoy et al. (1993, 2000), (1) Scale of Industry Schlosser et al. (1991). The question of market or imputed value is a more difficult problem. See The broadest definition of NTFP would Jenne H. De and Melanie J. McDermott include all biological materials harvested (1996) for a thorough examination of this prob- from forests for human use. The distinction lem. between timber and non-timber has been 4 used in an effort to distinguish between is excluded while a chanterelle harvested different scales of enterprises that are from a natural regeneration, post-fire jack harvesting biological materials from forests pine stand is included? Are Ericaceous (De Beer and McDermott 1996). As species (e.g., Vaccinium sp.) harvested after Duchesne et al. (2000) report, the NTFP mechanical disturbance excluded while all industry is only 0.4 percent (241 M) of the Vaccinium sp. harvested following a fire size of the timber industry (58.7 B) in disturbance or from a mature forest in- Canada. Non-timber forest products are cluded? Are species from managed “wild- usually harvested by individual harvesters, lands” included while the same species households, or small cooperatives. Buying, from managed tree excluded? processing, marketing, and exporting are Ultimately, we suggest, that these distinc- usually undertaken by small firms (i.e., tions will not prove viable as a means of <$1 million gross sales/year) versus large forest classification and will create more multinationals. This is one of the greatest problems than solutions for a definition of sources of confusion because the use of NTFP. The concept of NTFP has been left trees for the small-scale production of purposely broad so that all biological crafts, log houses, and/or domestic con- species gathered from a variety of ecosys- sumption is often included in the concept of tems have been included while those grown NTFP. as agricultural have been excluded.

(2) Goods and/or Services? As can be seen, there is probably no agreed upon definition for NTFP at this time. We have Another question to consider is whether tended to support a loose definition of NTFP NTFPs include only products (i.e., goods) or due to the evolving nature of the concept and both products and services (i.e., non- the potential to bring together a diverse set of market values). Lund et al. (1998) provided interests and experiences to the idea of inte- a detailed discussion on this point and grated forest management. Our preferred term, chose in the end to use the term non-wood at this time, would be non-timber forest re- forest resources, thereby including all sources, recognizing that the scale of harvest- products, services, personal use values, ing activity is an important consideration while aesthetic values, tourism values, and other including a diverse set of interests and values values of forest lands, but excluding all in forest management. However, as pointed out wood products. In another example, the above, the concept of NTFP has become well concept of NTFP has been broken into two established and has been able to integrate the product categories: (1) Special Forest diverse set of values and interests necessary to Products, which are derived from trees and move toward integrated forest management. In are regulated; and (2) Botanical Forest essence, the concept of NTFP refers to a consid- Products, which are not derived from trees eration of the interests, values, and activities of and remain unregulated (De Geus 1995). At people who have largely been excluded from this point, there is no clear agreement on forestry research, planning, and management. whether NTFPs should be narrowly defined In sum, we would suggest a broad definition as only products or more broadly referred of NTFPs as those biological organisms, to as resources. excluding timber, valued by humans for both consumptive and non-consumptive purposes (3) Origin of Product found in various forms of forested land- scapes. In the future, as we move toward Another question that has been raised is integrated forest management and the diverse whether non-timber forest products are set of interests, values, and activities are only those biological resources that origi- integrated into forest management planning, it nate from within natural forests. This raises may be possible to move toward a holistic a whole different set of questions as to how vision of forested landscapes and abandon the a natural forest is defined and whether the current emphasis on NTFPs. At this point, concept of NTFP should be tied to such a however, we still see more prospects in the definition. Intractable and thorny questions integrating ability of the NTFP concept than in arise such as whether a chanterelle har- other concepts that have attempted to move vested from a planted jack pine toward integrated forest management.

5 NTFP Conference Proceedings

THE RANGE OF NTFPS Decorative and Aesthetic Products Christmas trees Gina Mohammed (1998:2; and in this volume) Cone crafts provided a set of NTFP categories that give a Bark crafts useful overview of the types of products that Wood crafts can be included in the concept of NTFP. This Carvings set of categories, and the types of products they Floral arrangements include, is replicated below. We have added one Wreaths, garlands, swags category to maintain consistency: non-con- Natural dyes sumptive products. In all categories, the use of the product may be commercial or it may be for Environmental Products personal consumption, aesthetic, or other non- Biofuels market values as suggested in our final cat- Biopesticides egory. Recycled products

Food Products Landscape and Products Landscape trees Beverages Shrubs Essential oils Wildflowers Flavoring agents Grasses Herbs and Mulches Soil amendments Maple/birch saps - , , taffy, butters Non-consumptive NTFPs Mushrooms Natural and cultural heritage tourism Nuts and education Seeds Biodiversity conservation Teas Healing ceremonies Vegetables Recreation Water quality Materials and Manufacturing Products Adhesives Alcohol TOPICAL ISSUES OF NTFP Candles Cloth While NTFP incorporates a diversity of inter- Essential oils ests, values, and activities, we identified three Fragrances current issues that appeared to be important at Incense this time and that we incorporated into the Lignosulfonates conference. These three issues were: (1) NTFP Resins and economic development, (2) the biology and Specialty wood products ecology of NTFP, and, (3) NTFP markets and Stuffing material enterprises. Thread and rope (1) NTFP and Economic Development

Health and Personal Care Products NTFPs are often cited as providing the Aromatherapy oils potential for economic development in areas Cosmetics where the forest industry is in decline or Drugs the number of jobs provided by the forest Essential oils industry is shrinking due to technological Herbal health products shifts (Clapp 1998). NTFPs, along with Nutraceuticals ecotourism, are also often promoted as a Perfumes and fragrances means to reconcile economic development Pet care products with biodiversity conservation (Vance and Shampoos Thomas 1997). However, we need to be Soaps careful of the potential that NTFPs offer

6 forest communities for economic develop- Other people would not see NTFPs as a tool ment. Ricardo Godoy’s detailed studies of for economic development but would see NTFP harvesting in the tropics demon- them as critical to their way of life. For strated that the value of NTFP harvests is instance, many First Nations people in not always sufficient to offset the loss of Canada may not see much potential eco- income from timber harvesting (Godoy and nomic benefit from NTFPs but do see the Bawa 1993; Godoy et al. 1993, 2000). ability to harvest medicines, berries, barks, Although Godoy does not suggest that and other things from the forest as integral timber harvesting is the only option for to their way of life. Medicines are important forest communities, he does say that for healing processes; some barks and plant offering NTFP enterprises and/or species are integral to healing ceremonies ecotourism will not necessarily provide while the ability to gather together in berry enough benefits to forest communities to harvesting camps is necessary for the offset the losses from giving up timber maintenance of a collective identity. While harvesting. He suggests that communities economic development is an important will also need to receive monetary compen- consideration of NTFP, we should remember sation for the loss of timber harvesting that commercial utilization is not the only benefits. It is clear that NTFPs are not a activity that gives value to NTFP. replacement for a timber industry. A key purpose of this conference was to While some NTFPs do emerge to become explore the commercial potential of NTFPs large industries, the role that NTFPs seem and the different perspectives of First to play more often in economic development Nation and other harvesters toward com- is that they provide supplemental income mercialization. for regions that are experiencing declining levels of employment (Emery 1998, McClain (2) The Biology and Ecology of NTFPs et al. 1998). The people who benefit from the harvest of timber are not always the NTFPs are often considered to be the black same as those who benefit from the harvest box of integrated forest management. While of NTFPs. In some cases, people who live in we have reams of data on the growth and areas where the employment provided by yield of many tree species, we know very the forest industry has declined and who little about the ecology and biology of don’t want to leave an area to which they shrubs, herbs, and fungi that are found in are attached explore NTFPs as a way to forest ecosytems. The biology of NTFPs supplement their income. In other cases, would include such questions as what people who have not been able to obtain factors control their distribution and their access to forest industry employment establishment, what physiological and harvest NTFPs as a way to supplement morphological aspects control their useful- small incomes. NTFPs are often marginal ness and/or potency as NTFPs, as well as forest resources but are extremely impor- how these factors control the sustainability tant sources of income for the people who of their harvest. harvest them. In some cases it may be possible to foment the emergence of har- The ecology of NTFPs focuses on where vester cooperatives and local processing NTFPs occur within forested landscapes in facilities (i.e., value-added enterprises) as a space and time. We have found that many means of economic development. In this NTFP harvesters have a greater sense of the case, certification becomes an important ecology of NTFPs then do many research consideration for NTFP enterprises (see scientists. This is an area where the active Patrick Mallet, this volume). However, the collaboration between research scientists absence of such infrastructure and/or and harvesters may reap great dividends. formal organizations does not mean that As forest inventory science has begun to NTFP harvesting is not playing a significant move away from timber-based inventory role in terms of local economies and liveli- systems toward systems of ecological land hoods (see Alexander, Chapeskie, Greet, classification, which include shrub and this volume). herb species, it has become possible to use this research to understand the ecology of NTFPs. There are two important issues 7 NTFP Conference Proceedings

regarding the location of NTFPs in space examine their biology and ecology. Fortu- and time: (1) not all NTFPs occur in mature nately, a lot of research undertaken for the forests as is often assumed, and (2) while broader purposes of forest biology and many NTFP species occur across a great ecology may be amenable to answering range of forest types, they are often more critical questions about NTFPs. For in- abundant in some types than others. By stance, the ecological land classification of understanding the ecology of NTFPs, we Ontario has made it possible to estimate, may actually be able to influence the with a probability of error, whether an NTFP abundance of NTFPs within the forest will occur in a particular forest type at a landscape through a variety of different given age. It has also become possible to management techniques. For instance, it identify where an NTFP may occur across may be possible to undertake prescribed the landscape. In other words, an inventory burns of logging residue in such a way as system undertaken for forest land manage- to stimulate berry production on certain ment can be used for rapid NTFP inventory soil types. From a spatial point of view, we and assessment without the need for an may be able to recognize especially rich extensive biometric survey of NTFP. There is mature forest habitats for specific NTFPs also the potential for close collaboration and ensure that they are not completely cut between harvesters and scientists in this out. From a temporal point of view, we may regard. Many harvesters know with great be able to identify early post-disturbance intimacy the type of habitat preferred by vegetative communities that provide specific certain NTFPs so that NTFP habitat profiles NTFPs and ensure that they are not can be constructed for a given NTFP. This sprayed with . It is possible to habitat profile can then be matched against use the ecological processes to change the ecological land classification profiles to spatial and temporal distribution of NTFPs determine where the NTFPs may occur for the benefit of local economies and across the landscape. Given that it is livelihoods—something that Aboriginal unlikely that much primary research will be peoples of boreal and cold temperate forests done on NTFPs, these types of collaboration have known and practiced for a long time for mutual benefit allow for exciting new (Berkes 1999, Johnson 1994, Lewis and paradigms of biological and ecological Ferguson 1988, Turner 1999). research to emerge.

Similar statements can be made about the Exploring the current state of the biological physiological, morphological, and anatomi- and ecological knowledge of NTFPs was also cal aspects of NTFPs. There has been little a key purpose of this conference as well as work in the northern forest directly related examining the potential for collaboration to the underlying plant biology of NTFP between researchers, harvesters, and production. However, there is much infor- entrepreneurs (see Flaster; Marles; Turner; mation on plant growth and development in Huang and Barl; Duchesne et al.; Nauertz general that is very relevant to NTFPs and and Zasada, in this volume). their sustainability. As harvesters often know more about the ecology of NTFPs, the (3) NTFP Markets and Enterprises same can be said about harvesters’ knowl- edge about NTFP biology. NTFP harvesters In a study by D.C. Brubacher and Associ- often know much about the limits of har- ates (1998), it was found that one of the vest as they relate to the potential for future dominant market structures for NTFP production. Collaboration among scientists consisted of many harvesters selling to and harvesters offers many productive regional buyers, who in turn sell to central- opportunities for increasing our under- ized processors and exporters. They found standing of the biology of NTFP and their very few examples in which the processing sustainable harvest. and marketing of NTFPs were handled by local enterprises. One of the conclusions As previously noted, NTFPs are often con- reached by the authors was that the market sidered to be marginal resources. Therefore, structure was a reflection of the “patchy” except for those NTFPs that have unusually nature of many NTFPs. The boreal forest is high market value, it is unlikely that large noted for the cyclical nature of biological research programs will be established to species across time and their uneven 8 distribution in space. A mushroom harvest this type of NTFP, processing and marketing may be excellent one year and non-existent often become the limiting factor as demand the next; the harvest may be excellent in may exceed supply. one and non-existent in another. Harvesters, buyers, and processors of these Based on the presentations made by NTFP types of resources tend to be mobile or able businesses, such as Frontier Natural Products to switch their harvesting effort from one Cooperative (http://www.frontierherb.com) and resource to another in different years. This Winter Woods (http://www.winterwoods.com), makes it difficult to build a processing it is apparent that more attention should be facility or establish exporting enterprises, given to the relationship between the biology/ both of which require a consistency of ecology of NTFPs and the appropriate form of harvest from year to year: a finding that is organizational structure to ensure successful well known to those who have worked with NTFP enterprises (see Letchworth, Cameron, the marketing of agricultural products. In Krantz, and Polson, in this volume). NTFPs light of this ecological characteristic of characterized by widely fluctuating yields from many NTFPs, harvesters and regional year to year require an organizational structure buyers tend to have little capital investment that follows one of two strategies: (1) mobility, in their harvesting activities. In addition, the ability to move to areas of abundant har- NTFP processors and exporters, by neces- vest or purchase from a large catchment area, sity, acquire NTFPs from a large catchment or (2) diversity, the ability to switch harvest area. If mushrooms are good in Newfound- effort from one product to another depending land one year, they will buy from there; if upon the year. In the former, there is an em- good in B.C. then they will buy from there. phasis not to sink capital into a regional center. The patchy nature of many NTFP resources Processing and marketing are carried out from requires that harvesters, processors, and a more centralized location that can draw upon brokers not be attached to a particular harvesting and brokering operations that span region so that they can obtain a livelihood the great northern forest. Access to markets or meet the demands of their markets. D.C. and transportation networks require that the Brubacher and Associates (1998) found processing occurs near the market as opposed that the ability to provide, or access, a to a regional center. This provides a successful consistent supply of an NTFP was often the model of an NTFP enterprise, but it does not limiting factor for NTFP enterprises. offer many possibilities for regional value- added enterprises although it can support NTFPs in boreal and cold temperate forest are smaller harvesting and brokering operations often patchy; however, not all NTFPs are as located in northern forest communities. The patchy as others. For instance, wild rice/ diversity strategy requires that the enterprise manomin (Zizania sp.) has been able to support invest in intellectual capital because it will local harvesting cooperatives with their own need to have a broad knowledge of the ecology processing and exporting enterprises in many and markets of many different NTFPs. This boreal forest regions. An example of this was model offers more possibilities for regional provided at the conference in a presentation economic development although the type of and display by Kagiwiosa-Manomin of north- enterprises that result will probably be small western Ontario (http://www.manomin.on.ca). family businesses that support a network of While the yields may vary from year to year, harvesting as opposed to large processing they do not have the same dramatic swings as facilities. The model that offers the most poten- is evident for some fungus and berry species. tial for regional economic development are The surplus from some years can also be easily those NTFPs that can be harvested from year to stockpiled for years in which the harvest is not year within a region at levels that can sustain a abundant. Other NTFP products that exhibit buying, processing, and marketing capacity. In this profile are the maple and birch syrups all cases, the ability to transform the raw (Acer sp., Betula sp.), boughs, essential oils, product into something with enhanced storage and resins. NTFPs with this ecological profile properties is needed to smooth out the effect of may be able to provide consistent yields and/or cyclical NTFP yields and offer their customers storage characteristics to support non-mobile the same quantity and variety of products from harvesting, processing, and marketing enter- year to year. The conference provided an oppor- prises along with the inversion of capital. For tunity for researchers, harvesters, processors,

9 NTFP Conference Proceedings and marketers to understand the linkage Brubacher, D.C. and Associates. 1998. Non- between the biology, ecology, and marketing of timber forest products from the eastern NTFP. boreal and Great Lakes/St. Lawrence forest zones. Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario: Finally, the conference also explored some new Mitigaawaaki Marketing Cooperative. ways in which NTFPs are being used to support people’s livelihoods in the northern forest. In Clapp, R.A. 1998. The Resource cycle in for- Canada there is an increasing market for estry and fishing. The Canadian Geogra- natural and cultural heritage tourism. For pher. 42: 129-144. example, whale watching on the north shore of the St. Lawrence River in Quebec has grown to De Beer, J.H.; McDermott, M.J. 1996. The a $1 million per year industry, and visits to economic value of non-timber forest prod- Canada’s National Parks Network have been ucts in southeast . Amsterdam: Nether- increasing at the rate of 4 percent per year. lands Committee for IUCN. Brokenhead First Nation in Manitoba described how they have created a small business called De Geus, N. 1995. Botanical forest products in the Brokenhead Ojibway Historic Village British Columbia: an overview. Victoria, (BOHV) (http://www.manitobamodelforest.net), B.C.: Integrated Resources Policy Branch, which takes people on excursions to view the British Columbia Ministry of Forests. natural and cultural heritage of a region. BOHV and the Mi’gMag Aboriginal Heritage Garden, Duchesne, L.C. 1995. Commercial potential of located in Eel River First Nation, New wild mushroom harvest in Renfrew County. Brunswick, also described how they have Unpublished report. created infrastructure, such as teaching cen- ters or botanical , which offer work- Duchesne, L.C.; Zasada, J.C.; Davidson-Hunt, shops and interpretive tours so that people can I. 2000. Nontimber forest product industry learn about the northern forest and how to in Canada: scope and research needs. The turn plants into things such as medicines and Forestry Chronicle. 76: 743-746. crafts. Other participants, such as Eel Ground First Nation in New Brunswick, stressed that Emery, M.R. 1998. Invisible livelihoods: non- NTFPs are not just inputs to production pro- timber forest products in Michigan’s Upper cesses or only the potential base of many Peninsula. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers permutations of ecotourism enterprises, but University. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Dissertation also an integral part of a way of life and other Services. Ph.D. dissertation. personal use values for which the term product does not comfortably apply. Freed, J. 1995. Special forest products: past, present, future. International Journal of Ecoforestry. 11: 62-67. LITERATURE CITED Freed, J. 1996. Setting personal harvesting Arborvitae Environmental Services, Ltd. 1997. education goals (or How to become a trust- Commercialization of special forest prod- worthy special forest product harvester). ucts in the LAMF and Region. Final Project International Journal of Ecoforestry. 12: Report. Assessment of commercialization 211-213. potential of wild mushrooms, aromatic oils, and decorative twigs and branches. Freeman, T. 1995. Economic opportunities in Iroquois Falls, Ontario: Lake Abitibi Model non-timber and value-added forest prod- Forest. ucts in the western Newfoundland model forest. Corner Brook, Newfoundland: Berkes, Fikret. 1999. Sacred ecology: tradi- Western Newfoundland Model Forest Corpo- tional ecological knowledge and resource ration. management. Philadelphia, PA: Taylor and Francis. Godoy, R.A.; Bawa, K.S. 1993. The economic value and sustainable harvest of plants and animals from the tropical forest: assump- tions, hypotheses, and methods. Economic Botany. 47: 215-219. 10 Godoy, R.; Lubowski, R.; Markandya, A. 1993. Mitchell, Mark and Associates. 1995. The A method for the economic valuation of harvest, marketing and availability of non-timber tropical forest products. Eco- special forest products in the Manitoba nomic Botany. 47: 220-233. model forest. Project: 95-4-09. Pine Falls, Manitoba: Manitoba Model Forest. Godoy, R.; Wilkie, D.; Overman, H.; Cubas, A.; Cubas, G.; Demmer, J.; McSween, K. 2000. Mohammed, G.H. 1999. Non-timber forest Valuation of consumption and sale of forest products in Ontario: an overview. For. Res. goods from a Central American rain forest. Infor. Pap. 145. Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario: Nature. 406: 62-63. Ontario Forest Research Institute.

Kuhnlein, H.; Turner, N.J.; Kluckner, P.D. Prescott-Allen, C.R.; Prescott-Allen, R. 1986. 1982. Nutritional significance of two impor- The first resource: wild species in the North tant “” foods (springbank clover and American economy. New Haven, CT: Yale Pacific silverweed). Ecology of Food and University Press. Nutrition. 12: 89-95. Robbins, C.S. 1998. American : the root Lewis, H.T.; Ferguson, T.A. 1988. Yards, corri- of North America’s medicinal herb trade. dors, and mosaics: how to burn a boreal Washington, DC: Traffic North America. forest. Human Ecology. 16: 57-77. Schlosser, W.E.; Blatner, K.A. 1995. The wild Liegel, L.; Pilz, D.; Love, T. 1998. The MAB industry of Washington, mushroom study: background and con- Oregon and Idaho: a 1992 survey of proces- cerns. The biological, socioeconomic, and sors. Journal of Forestry. 93: 31-36. managerial aspects of chanterelle mush- room harvesting: the Olympic Peninsula, Schlosser, W.E.; Blatner, K.A.; Chapman, R. Washington State, U.S.A. Ambio Special 1991. Economic and marketing implica- Rep. 9. September 1998. tions of special forest products harvest in the Coastal Pacific Northwest. Western Lund, G.; Pajari, B.; Korhonen, M., eds. 1998. Journal of Applied Forestry. 6: 67-72. Sustainable development of non-wood goods and benefits from boreal and cold Schlosser, W.E.; Blatner, K.A.; Schuster, E.G.; temperate forests. EFI Proceedings 23. Carroll, M.S. 1995. Potential for expansion Joensuu, Finland: European Forest Insti- of the special forest products industry in tute. the Northern Rockies. Western Journal of Applied Forestry. 10: 138-143. Marles, R.J.; Clavelle, C.; Monteleone, L.; Tays, N.; Burns, D.R. 1999. Aboriginal plant use Thomas, M.G.; Schumann, D.R. 1993. Income in Canada’s northwest boreal forest. opportunities in special forest products: Vancouver, B.C.: UBC Press. self-help suggestions for rural entrepre- neurs. Agric. Inf. Bull. 666. Washington, Mater Engineering. 1993. Special forest prod- DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest ucts market analysis for Saskatchewan Service. timberlands division. Weyerhauser Canada, Ltd. Project 3017. Prince Albert, Turner, N.J. 1995. Ethnobotany today in Saskatchewan: Forestry Canada. northwestern North America. In: Schultes, R.E.; von Reis, S., eds. Ethnobotany: Mater Engineering. 1994. Minnesota special evolution of a discipline. San Francisco, CA: forest products. St. Paul, MN: Minnesota Dioscorides Press: 264-283. Department of Natural Resources.

McLain, R.; Christensen, H.; Shannon, M. 1998. When amateurs are the experts: amateur mycologists and wild mushroom politics in the Pacific Northwest, USA. Society and Natural Resources. 11: 615- 626. 11 NTFP Conference Proceedings

Turner, N.J. 1999. “Time to burn”: traditional von Hagen, B.; Weigand, J.F.; McLain, R.; use of fire to enhance resource production Fight, R.; Christensen, H.H. 1996. Conser- by Aboriginal peoples in British Columbia. vation and development of nontimber forest In: Boyd, R., ed. Indians, fire and the land products in the Pacific Northwest: an in the Pacific Northwest. Corvallis, OR: annotated bibliography. Gen. Tech. Rep. Oregon State University Press: 185-218. PNW-375. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific North- Turner, N.J.; Hebda, R. 1990. Contemporary west Research Station. use of bark for medicine by two Salishan native elders of southeast Vancouver Is- Wills, R.M.; Lipsey, R.G. 1999. An economic land, Canada. Journal of strategy to develop non-timber forest Ethnopharmacology. 29: 59-72. products and services in British Columbia. Forest Renewal BC Project No. PA97538- Vance, N.C.; Thomas, J., eds. 1997. Special ORE. Victoria, B.C.: Science Council of forest products: biodiversity meets the British Columbia. marketplace. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-63. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Wood Sheldon, J.; Balick, M.J.; Laird, S.A. Agriculture, Forest Service. 1997. Medicinal plants: can utilization and conservation coexist? Advances in Eco- nomic Botany, Volume 12. Bronx, New York, NY: The New York .

12 Introductory Remarks from the Treaty #3 Territory

Lance Sandy1

Boozhoo. On behalf of the 25 First Nation and sustainability of our homeland and its Communities in the Treaty #3 Territory, I resources, and to become more involved in the welcome you to our homeland. Our territory sustainable economy of our forest. This in- covers 55,000 square miles of the Lake cludes taking a protective role in the develop- Winnipeg watershed in northwestern Ontario ment of our territory with the Trus Joist and southeastern Manitoba. These lands, MacMillan hardwood mill, which presents a forests, and waterways have sustained our unique opportunity for sustainable economic people from time immemorial, and even today and employment benefits—an opportunity we we continue to live in the forest. These lands are currently pursuing. are part of our spirituality. We, the Anishinabeg of Treaty #3, accept the responsibility from the I believe that your objective of utilizing and Creator to protect these lands, and in the marketing non-timber forest products will be words of your conference, “sustain the land similarly constrained and challenged by the and its resources.” power of the timber products industry and that you face major hurdles in achieving an appro- Our role as protectors of these lands has been priate balance. Collectively, many of your a frustrating one for us since the signing of our objectives appear to be similar to those of my treaty with Canada in 1873. Since then we people: first, a recognition of a broad range of have witnessed, and continue to experience, values and resources in the forest, and second, the loss of our traditional land use, erosion of a recognition that use of these resources our rights, loss and impairment of the environ- requires a respect for their sustainability and ment, societal breakdown, and impoverishment protection. I am pleased that your steering of our people. My people have been repeatedly committee has put together such an exciting evicted from the forest by non-Aboriginal and international agenda, and I compliment governments and by private entrepreneurs. My the committee on the broad range of subject people are marginal participants in the forest material to be covered. We are interested in industry, the primary driver of the economy in hearing about successes in other parts of the northwestern Ontario. The views of my people world and about business opportunities that were not heard when the exploitation of the may have applications to our Treaty #3 com- forest was planned by provincial and federal munity. I am pleased to see that representa- governments. Now the provincial government tives of Kagiwiosa Manomin will be in atten- has delegated the care of the forests to the dance. I believe that the efforts of Joe forest industry, which is driven by economic Pitchenese in creating a sustainable wild rice objectives and the bottom line—not by long- harvesting operation provide a path for others term sustainability of the forest environment. to follow within our territory. I know the con- We are not confident that this delegation of ference attendees will benefit from this success responsibility is a good thing for the future of story. our forests and the protection of our forest values. In closing, welcome to Treaty #3 Territory, and I wish you every success in your discussions We believe that we need to put the past behind over the next few days. us and direct our focus towards the protection

1 Former Kenora Area Tribal Chief, Treaty #3, Box 1720, Kenora, Ontario, Canada, P9N 3X7; Phone: 807-548-4214.

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Introductory Remarks from the National Aboriginal Forestry Association

Harry M. Bombay1

On behalf of the National Aboriginal Forestry between Aboriginal peoples and those promot- Association (NAFA), I have appreciated the ing the development of NTFPs. opportunity to be part of the planning commit- tee for this conference. As an invited speaker, In the past few years, NAFA has been more I’d like to pay particular respect to the active in encouraging Aboriginal communities Anishinabeg people of the Treaty #3 area as it to develop forest-based businesses with a focus is in their traditional territory where we have on NTFPs. Recently we were involved in a study chosen to discuss the matter of non-timber of NTFP potential with the North Shore Tribal forest products (NTFPs). Considering the Council. In our work, we have noted the growth importance of the topic, the presence of Elder in demand generated by consumer preference Clifford Skead is acknowledged and appreci- for natural products in areas such as alterna- ated. As I am a member of the Rainy River First tive health care, specialty foods, and interior Nation, located about 150 km south of Kenora, decor. Although Indigenous peoples throughout this conference and the trip here provide me the world are not considered a significant with an opportunity to visit with my home market segment, we have had a preference for community and to renew some old friendships. these natural products for hundreds of years.

Although I grew up eating wild rice, bannock, Aboriginal people in Canada, because of the berries, , rabbit, and other wild from location of our communities and the knowledge the forests of this region, my current lifestyle is our people possess about the properties of not a good example of how to preserve the numerous plants and herbs, have a unique traditions of my people. I work in Ottawa. As advantage in establishing commercial busi- Executive Director of NAFA, my diet consists of nesses based on NTFPs. Notwithstanding the meetings, national forest policy processes, issues that surround intellectual property multi-stakeholder fora, and travel to workshops rights and the lack of appropriate mechanisms and conferences—lots of them. to protect traditional ecological knowledge, Aboriginal communities should be assessing The objective of NAFA is to promote and sup- NTFP potential in their traditional territories. port increased Aboriginal involvement in forest My rationale for this suggestion is fourfold: management and related commercial opportu- 1. If Aboriginal people don’t do it, someone nities. In pursuit of this goal, NAFA is commit- else will. ted to multiple use forestry that, from the 2. Most NTFP development does not Aboriginal perspective, implies a different require the disclosure of traditional weighting of values; that is, a stronger leaning ecological knowledge. towards non-timber values. Tribal Chief Sandy 3. NTFP harvesting and production should last night spoke of the need for sustainability be viewed as a traditional land use not only in general, but also within the forest activity and therefore a means by which industry in Ontario, which has continually our Aboriginal and Treaty rights within neglected the needs of Aboriginal communities. traditional territories can be further He noted a greater congruence in philosophy substantiated. 4. Producing NTFPs is a means of retain- ing traditional knowledge, thereby strengthening our cultures within a 1 Executive Director, National Aboriginal contemporary context. Forestry Association (NAFA), 875 Bank Street, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, K1S 3W4; Phone: A further benefit is that we contribute to 613-233-5563; Fax: 613-233-4329; e-mail: biodiversity preservation, provided there are [email protected]; Internet: http:// management practices that ensure sustain- www.nafaforestry.org. ability over time. 14 Another matter I would like to discuss is food Materials from the forest have been, and will security, which was raised last night by Paul continue to be, extremely important to Aborigi- Vantomme of the FAO (Food and Agriculture nal people. My father was a hunter, a trapper, a Organization of the United Nations). He pointed guide for tourist operations, and occasionally a out that one group of Indigenous people in logger. However, I don’t recall my mother ever , the Pygmies, have to compete with asking him, upon his return from the trap line, logging companies for a fruit from a certain if he was bringing home any NTFPs. Times are type of tree, which is part of their daily food changing. Aboriginal communities need eco- intake. Other Indigenous peoples have the nomic opportunities compatible with their same problem. In , the Mapuche values. The production of NTFPs holds consid- people depend on a pine as a basic food erable promise. The challenge on our part is for staple, although both government and industry us, as Indigenous peoples, to become more have only seen the value of the timber from this market-oriented in what we produce. As well, particular species of pine. Other resource use we have to work collectively to address issues conflicts are less direct, such as the inadequate pertaining to intellectual property rights and attention given to the effects of timber harvest- look at how traditional knowledge can be ing on NTFP production, which is presently not shared for our mutual benefit. Intellectual adequately provided for within timber manage- property rights regimes that protect traditional ment plans. knowledge, as well as ensure that Indigenous peoples benefit from its use, are a fundamental The point I’d like to make here is one of element of sustainable forest management. sustainability. From the perspective of NAFA, development is not sustainable unless it sus- These are some of the issues that underlie the tains the forest use of Indigenous peoples. advancement of non-timber forest products Sustainable forest management is directly and that are of importance to Aboriginal people related to the food security of Indigenous in Canada. Thank you for the opportunity to peoples. Foods from the forest are NTFPs. raise them here. Indigenous peoples should not have to compete for foods that they have used for centuries and that are essential to their survival.

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4Karen Chapeskie (left), Taiga Institute, discusses the confer- ence agenda with Harry Bombay (center), and Janet Pronovost (right), National Aboriginal Forestry Association. (Photo courtesy Bobbie Harrington)

6A group of conference goers, part of the Sweat Lodge teachings field trip, warm their hands over the fire at Iskatewizaagegan #39 Independent First Nation in Shoal Lake, Ontario. From Left to right Dave Downing, Timberline Forest Consult- ants; John Lavois, Manitouwadge, Ontario; Trish Flaster, Botanical Liaisons; Pat Rasmussen, Counterpart International; Brian Walmark, Megwekob; Maureen McIlwrick, Canadian Forest Service; Edgar Lavois, Greenstone Economic Development Corporation; and Dale Hutchinson, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. (Photo courtesy Bobbie Harrington)

5Stuart Hill, God’s Lake First Nation, talks to the group about traditional ecological knowledge and intellectual property rights. (Photo courtesy Bobbie Harrington)

16 NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS: ECONOMICS, SOCIETY, AND CULTURE

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Who, What, and Why: The Products, Their Use, and Issues About Management of Non-timber Forest Products in the United States

Susan J. Alexander1

Abstract.—Non-timber forest products in the United States include floral greens, Christmas ornamentals, wild edibles, medicinals, crafts, and transplants. Non-timber forest products are important to many people for many reasons. People harvest products from forests for personal use, cultural practices, and sale. The tremendous variety of species harvested for the many markets stands in stark contrast to our poor knowledge of the biology, prices, or responses to harvest and habitat change for most of the species. The diversity of species harvested, lack of knowledge about the plants or their use, and inadequate institutions to ensure sustainable harvesting complicate policymaking and law enforcement.

INTRODUCTION for thousands of years, and continue to do so. Other groups, as they came to the United Definitions of what constitutes non-timber States, brought traditions of forest use with forest products, and even what to call them, them. Many groups have, for example, differ. De Beer and McDermott (1989) included harvested boughs for seasonal decoration and , fuelwood, and in their discus- foods for traditional and subsistence uses. sion of products in . The Food Commercial markets have developed for and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the numerous forest products (Alexander and United Nations does not include fuelwood but McLain 2001, Savage 1995, and others). Me- does include household income in its definition dicinal plants and fungi have been (Wickens 1991). Key words to look for include harvested and traded for a long time; several non-wood forest products, non-timber forest species such as American ginseng (Panax products, and special forest products. This quinquefolius) and goldenseal (Hydrastis paper on non-timber forest products in the canadensis) are mentioned specifically in state United States uses the categories floral greens, laws. Markets for some products, like wild Christmas greens, wild edibles, medicinals, edible mushrooms, are more recent and are crafts, and transplants. growing rapidly. Some of these emerging markets have tremendous potential. Many of Non-timber forest products are important to the species are not well understood, and many people for many reasons. Long historical current cultural and recreational uses have not use of many plants and fungi from forests is received much formal attention. Promoting part of many regional cultures in the United these products for economic development States. Native Americans have used plants and needs to take into account issues of forest fungi for food, medicine, housing, arts, and ecosystem sustainability and species many other cultural and traditional purposes conservation, impacts on rural communities, and issues about public and private land use and property rights.

1 Research Forester, U.S. Department of FLORAL AND CHRISTMAS GREENS Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, 3200 SW Jefferson Way, One of the largest non-timber forest product Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA; Phone: 541-750- markets consists of the floral and Christmas 7417; e-mail: [email protected]. greens industries. In the U.S., significant

18 plants in the include salal forest trees for use as Christmas trees and cut (Gaultheria shallon Pursh), evergreen boughs for personal use. (Vaccinium ovatum Pursh), and beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax (Pursh) Nutt) in the Pacific Northwest, Smilax smallii and WILD EDIBLES Tillandsia usneoides in the Southeast, Kalmia latifolia in the Northeast, and various Wild edibles are also important to many people. Phoradendron and several and Markets for wild edibles, such as berries, fruits, species in many parts of the country. These nuts, tree , and fungi have existed for a long products are harvested in the forest by local time. Some of the markets have expanded people and by workers who travel from one somewhat in the past two decades. The harvest place to another throughout the season. People of wild , , and cran- may harvest alone, in family groups, or in berries (Vaccinium species) has been and crews. The products are sold to “sheds” and remains important to Native Americans. Many then shipped to urban markets. Floral people pick wild huckleberries for personal use, products from the U.S. are used in floral and going to the forest to pick berries is an arrangements sold throughout the world; next important late summer activity in many states. time you are in a supermarket, take a close Wild huckleberries are harvested commercially look at the floral section. Prices paid to and exported from both the west and east harvesters for floral products in the western coasts of the United States to several countries, United States have been reported by Blatner including Canada, , Germany, and and Alexander (1998), Blatner and Schlosser Japan. National forests in the Northeast, (1998), Douglass (1970), and others. Products Midwest, and Pacific Northwest have initiated rise and fall in popularity because the floral berry management treatments including greens market depends on trends and tastes in burning and overstory removal to enhance the floral industry. Many products such as berry production in traditional picking areas salal and evergreen huckleberry have been (Thomas and Schumann 1993, Alexander et al. commercially produced since the early 1900s, 2001). production has been an however, and have held a place in the market. important activity in the northeastern and Floral greens are harvested year-round except midwestern U.S. for centuries. In 1995, 4.1 in the spring when the new growth is tender. million liters of maple syrup were produced in Christmas greens are harvested primarily in the United States, with an estimated value of the fall and winter as they are used in $25 million (U.S.) (Viana et al. 1996). traditional products for the winter holidays. Commercial species include many trees from The wild mushroom industry has existed for which boughs are harvested, such as noble fir quite some time at a small scale but has been (Abies procera (Rehder)), Douglas-fir expanding considerably since the early 1980s (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirbel) Franco), and (de Geus 1992, Denison and Donoghue 1988, western redcedar (Thuja plicata Donn.) in the Molina et al. 1993). In the Pacific Northwest, Pacific Northwest, and balsam fir (Abies the four most important commercial balsamea), Fraser fir (A. fraseri), and Virginia mushrooms are morels ( species), pine (Pinus virginiana) in the Midwest and ( species), boletes . The boughs are used to (Boletus species), and pine mushrooms, also make wreaths, swags, and other products. called (Tricholoma magnivelare Many floral greens are exported (Savage 1995). (Peck) Redhead). Many people enjoy picking In 1989, Schlosser et al. (1991) surveyed 60 mushrooms for personal use, and many others floral and Christmas greens businesses in pick for incidental income. As with floral Washington, Oregon, and southwestern British greens, people pick alone, in family groups, and Columbia. The businesses employed about even with crews. Most commercially harvested 10,300 people and sold $128.5 million worth of wild mushrooms are exported, but domestic floral and Christmas greens. Emery (1998) demand is rising. Values for mushrooms and reported use of boughs in Michigan for many other wild edibles have been reported by purposes, including grave blankets. The Schlosser and Blatner (1995) and Blatner and harvest of florals, boughs, and Christmas trees Alexander (1998). Policy issues about for personal use is an important tradition in mushrooms have been discussed by Denison many families. Many people harvest small and Donoghue (1988), McLain et al. (1998),

19 NTFP Conference Proceedings

Molina et al. (1993), Pilz et al. (1999), Richards plants or branches). Use of forest materials for and Creasy (1996), and others. In part because crafts has been reported by many authors in the industry has expanded so fast, permit the United States, including Cohen (1989), systems, fees, access, property rights, and Densmore (1974), and Emery (1998). Stems of other regulatory and rights issues are of vine maple (Acer circinatum Pursh) and red concern to gatherers and property owners. alder (Alnus rubra Bong.) are harvested and sold for use as tree trunks for the plastic- leaved creations sold in department stores and MEDICINALS used by restaurants and resorts. Birch ( Marsh.) bark is used to make Native Americans and other people have baskets, vases, and Christmas ornaments, harvested medicinal plants and fungi for among other things. Twigs are used to make centuries. Growing interest in holistic medicine buttons and give form to wreaths; bark is used has increased demand for wild plants and fungi to make baskets, planters, and birdhouses; from U.S. forests (Alexander and McLain 2001, and cones are used to make ornaments and Vance 1995). The economic value of medicinal decoration for wreaths. The uses and products can be substantial. Prices for ginseng opportunity for artistic expression are endless. root in 1994 ranged from $25 (U.S.) per pound Crafts may be made for personal use or for for domesticated root to as high as $300 (U.S.) gifts, or they may be sold in a variety of ways. per pound for wild root. Ginseng exports in Crafts are an expression of the individual, the 1994 were valued at more than $75 million culture, and the region. They are an important (U.S.) (Viana et al. 1996). Current medicinal part of American life and traditions. plant and fungus use among Native Americans has not been extensively documented because of concerns about intellectual property rights SUMMARY and privacy issues. Many of the plants and fungi are poorly known biologically; for When we speak of non-timber forest products example, responses to harvesting or habitat in the United States, we embrace a tremendous change may be unknown. The diversity of variety of products and species. The issues are species harvested and lack of knowledge about as variable as the products. From an economic medicinal plants and fungi among many forest standpoint, products traded in commercial land managers complicate policymaking and markets can have highly variable prices within law enforcement. Demand for medicinal plants a season or from one season to the next. Price and fungi is on the rise, and harvest pressure may be a function of international supply and on the resource is increasing. The medicinal demand, market saturation, competing imports market will likely face more debates similar to from other countries—all the effects felt by the one about access to yew (Taxus breifolia) domesticated agricultural products. Ephemeral bark in federally managed forests in the Pacific products such as mushrooms are particularly Northwest during the late 1980s and early subject to year-to-year variations in availabil- 1990s. ity. Social issues have also received some attention. Harvesters of NTFPs are often categorized as traditional, recreational, or CRAFTS AND TRANSPLANTS commercial users, but most have some combination of reasons to harvest and use Gathering and use of forest materials for crafts non-timber forest products. Another important and transplants is an old, varied, and ongoing issue about non-timber forest products is the activity. Transplants are used in landscaping lack of published information on the biology, throughout the U.S. Xeric landscaping has supply, demand, or prices for most of the become popular as water has become scarcer; plants and fungi sought by harvesters. the use of native plants in landscaping allows Harvesters and others in the industry are less use of water and makes survival of the knowledgeable about the species and products, plants used more likely. Plants removed from but the information is not generally available— areas with planned activities such as under- the knowledge has either been discounted by burning or tree harvest can be transplanted or those outside the non-timber forest products used for craft activities (such as green industry or has been withheld as proprietary manzanita (Arctostaphylos patula Greene) information. The topic of non-timber forest products is fascinating in its diversity and in 20 the number of issues embedded in the study of Denison, W.C.; Donoghue, J. 1988. The wild the products, their harvest, use, marketing, mushroom harvest in the Pacific Northwest: regulation, and management. As more people past, present and future. Unpublished ask more questions, some of the issues may be manuscript. 15 p. On file with: Susan J. resolved while others are brought to light. The Alexander. Corvallis, OR: U.S. Department only solution is to keep asking questions. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific North- west Research Station,

LITERATURE CITED Densmore, F. 1974. How Indians use wild plants for food and crafts (formerly titled Alexander, S.J.; McLain, R.J. 2001. An over- Uses of plants by Chippewa Indians). First view of nontimber forest products in the published in the 44th annual report of the United States today. In: Non-timber forest Bureau of American Ethnology to the products in the United States: research and Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, policy issues in the Pacific Northwest and 1926-1927. New York: Dover Publications. . Journal of Sustainable Forestry. 16(3/4): 59-66. Douglass, B. 1970. Special forest products: 1969 harvesting report, Oregon and Alexander, S.J.; McLain, R.J.; Blatner, K.A. Washington. Portland, OR: U.S. Department 2001. Socio-economic research on non- of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific timber forest products in the Pacific Northwest Region, Division of State and Northwest. In: Non-timber forest products Private Forestry. 39 p. in the United States: research and policy issues in the Pacific Northwest and Upper Emery, M.R. 1998. Invisible livelihoods: non- Midwest. Journal of Sustainable Forestry. timber forest products in Michigan’s Upper 16(3/4): 95-103. Peninsula. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University. Ph.D. thesis. Blatner, K.A.; Alexander, S. 1998. Recent price trends for non-timber forest products in the McLain, R.; Christensen, C.; Shannon, M. Pacific Northwest. Forest Products Journal. 1998. When amateurs are the experts: 48(10): 28-34. amateur mycologists and wild mushroom politics in the Pacific Northwest USA. Blatner, K.A.; Schlosser, W.E. 1998. The floral Society and Natural Resources. 11: 615- and Christmas greens industry of the 626. Pacific Northwest. Proj Rep. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Molina, R.; O’Dell, T.; Luoma, D.; Amaranthus, Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. M.; Castellano, M.; Russell, K. 1993. 29 p. Biology, ecology, and social aspects of wild mushrooms in the forests of the Pacific Cohen, K.A. 1989. Wrangell harvest study: a Northwest: a preface to managing comprehensive study of wild resource commercial harvest. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW- harvest and use by Wrangell residents. 309. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Juneau, AK: Department of Fish Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific and Game, Division of Subsistence. Northwest Research Station. 42 p. de Beer, J.H.; McDermott, M.J. 1989. The Pilz, D.; Smith, J.; Amaranthus, M.P.; economic value of nontimber forest Alexander, S.; Molina, R.; Luoma, D. 1999. products in Southeast Asia. Amsterdam: Mushrooms and timber: managing Netherlands Committee for the IUCN. commercial harvesting in the Oregon 174 p. Cascades. Journal of Forestry. 97(3): 4-11. de Geus, N. 1992. Wild mushroom harvesting Richards, R.; Creasy, M. 1996. Ethnic diversity, session minutes. In: Proceedings of a resource values, and ecosystem conference on wild mushroom harvesting; management: Matsutake mushroom 1992 March 3; Victoria, BC: Ministry of harvesting in the Klamath bioregion. Forests, Integrated Resources Branch. 47 p. Society and Natural Resources. 9: 359-374.

21 NTFP Conference Proceedings

Savage, M. 1995. Pacific Northwest special Vance, N.C. 1995. Medicinal plants rediscovered. forest products: an industry in transition. Journal of Forestry. 93(3): 8-9. Journal of Forestry. 93(3): 6-11. Viana, V.M.; Pierce, A.R.; Donovan, R.Z. 1996. Schlosser, W.; Blatner, K.A. 1995. The wild Certification of nontimber forest products. edible mushroom industry of Washington, In: Viana, V.; Ervin, J.; Donovan, R.; Elliott, Oregon, and Idaho: a 1992 survey of C.; Gholz, H., eds. Certification of forest processors. Journal of Forestry. 93(3): 31- products: issues and perspectives. Covelo, 36. CA: Island Press.

Schlosser, W.; Blatner, K.; Chapman, R. 1991. Wickens, G.E. 1991. Management issues for Economic and marketing implications of development of nontimber forest products. special forest product harvest in the coastal Unasylva. 42(165): 3-8. Pacific Northwest. Western Journal of Applied Forestry. 6(3): 67-72.

Thomas, M.G.; Schumann, D.R. 1993. Income opportunities in special forest products: self- help suggestions for rural entrepreneurs. Agric. Inf. Bull. 666. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service.

22 Non-timber Forest Products and Livelihoods in Michigan’s Upper Peninsula

Marla R. Emery1

Abstract.—Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are increasingly looked to as potential income sources for forest communities. Yet little is known about the existing livelihood uses of NTFPs. Drawing on a case study in Michigan’s Upper Peninsula, this paper describes the contemporary contributions of NTFPs to the livelihoods of people who gather them. First-hand use of products from over 100 botanical species was documented during a year of ethnographic research. These products contributed to gatherers’ livelihoods through both nonmarket and market strategies. The paper suggests the need for a broad view of economic activity to fully understand existing NTFP livelihood uses and anticipate the effects of developing markets for wild plant material on individuals and households in forest commu- nities.

INTRODUCTION in Michigan’s Upper Peninsula. Taking a broad view of economic activity, the case study dem- As a small number of North American non- onstrates that the livelihood values of NTFPs go timber forest products (NTFPs) enter the inter- well beyond the numbers captured by market national market, there is mounting interest in statistics. I begin with a brief description of the their potential as livelihood resources for forest case study location and methods. A list of communities. While NTFPs seem like a “new” products gathered in the Upper Peninsula is opportunity to many, they are, in fact, one of followed by a discussion of their functional the first sources of the food, medicine, fiber, uses. Next, a brief theoretical interlude on a and other substances that have sustained broad view of economic activity introduces human beings throughout the millennia. Even information on the economic context of the in the industrial and post-industrial worlds, region and the household livelihoods of indi- they continue to provide important material viduals who participated in the study. This and cultural resources for many. Yet little is theoretical background and grounded informa- known about NTFP contributions to the liveli- tion leads to a discussion of the specific liveli- hoods of people who currently rely on them. hood uses of NTFPs in the case study and This lack of understanding on the part of generalized characteristics of their livelihood policymakers and rural economic development uses. The paper concludes with three ques- entities creates a danger that well-meaning tions, which I hope will provide food for efforts to promote NTFPs could displace exist- thought as we contemplate active promotion of ing livelihood strategies even as they try to NTFPs as livelihood strategies for forest com- improve the economic well-being of forest munities in the Third Millennium. communities.

In response to that concern, this paper exam- CASE STUDY LOCATION AND METHODS ines the role of NTFPs in household livelihoods The Upper Peninsula (UP) is located in the north . Bordered on three sides by Great Lakes—Superior, Huron, and 1 Research Geographer, U.S. Department of Michigan—it is part of the U.S. state of Michi- Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Re- gan, although its only land link is with the search Station, 705 Spear Street, P.O. Box 968, state of Wisconsin. Archaeological evidence Burlington, Vermont 05402-0968 USA; Phone: suggests seasonal human occupation of the 802-951-6771; e-mail: [email protected]. 23 NTFP Conference Proceedings region since the Woodland era, circa 3,000 to and boughs with 85 occurrences; medicinals 300 years B.P. (Cleland 1992). Permanent year- like flag root (Iris versicolor) and balm-of- round settlement appears to be relatively (Populus balsamifera) with 51 occurrences; and recent, dating to sometime around the early ceremonial/cultural uses with 18 occurrences 1600s (Cleland 1983). The present-day popula- (Emery 1998). tion includes people of European and Aborigi- nal ancestry. Average human population density in 1990 was less than 18 persons per A BROAD VIEW OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITY square mile (U.S. Census Bureau 1990). Forest cover in 1993 was 8,812,500 acres (83.9 Economic history and anthropology suggest a percent of the total land base) of mixed hard- view that looks beyond the formal market and wood and coniferous species in largely second- individual actors to a more inclusive definition and third-growth stands. Located between 47o of economic activity (Gudeman 1986, Halperin and 45o North latitude, the average annual 1988, Hart 1986, McGuire et al.1986, Smith growth of UP forests was a comparatively slow and Wallerstein 1992). From this perspective, 150.2 million cubic feet during the period 1980 the economy is constituted by any undertaking through 1992 (Schmidt et al. 1997). that provides the material means for human existence (Polanyi 1977). People endeavor to Between August 1995 and July 1996, I con- ensure their survival and meet their needs, as ducted over 400 hours of semi-structured they perceive and define them, by pursuing a interviews with gatherers, buyers, and public variety of what are termed livelihood strategies. and private land managers in the UP to learn These include both activities in the formal and what NTFPs were harvested there and what informal markets—such as wage labor, barter, role they play in gatherers’ household liveli- and petty commodity production and sale—and hoods. The results reported here are based on nonmarket approaches—subsistence activities, information provided by 43 individuals about gifts, and government transfers such as Social their personal gathering activities and experi- Security pensions and public assistance (table ences. Gatherers were identified through a 2). As social creatures, human beings generally networking, or snowball sampling, technique. reside in groups and put together a living by Of these, 10 identified themselves as Native pooling the resources of the household. At any American and 33 as European American. given time, most households will derive liveli- Questions asked during the interviews focused hood resources from multiple individuals and on what the individual gathers, how each NTFP strategies. The mix of livelihood strategies is used, what ecological characteristics are pursued by a household varies with its demo- associated with products, what harvesting graphic composition and economic conditions. techniques and norms are used, and how the This mix of strategies at any one time and over gatherer learned these skills. the course of time may be thought of as “liveli- hood diversity.”

UPPER PENINSULA NON-TIMBER FOREST The informal economy literature documents the PRODUCTS AND THEIR USES reality of livelihood diversity in urban settings throughout the world (Mingione 1994, Portes et By the end of the field year, I had compiled a al. 1989, Roberts 1994, Smith 1994). A smaller list of 140 NTFPs that gatherers reported body of work has begun to explore the diverse personally harvesting in the region’s forests strategies that rural households in the United and associated open lands (table 1). This plant States use to secure their survival and the role material and fungi come from over 54 botanical of location in natural resource-rich areas in families and 87 genera, including more than those efforts (Dick 1996, Glass et al. 1990, 100 species. Gatherers use them as edibles and Jensen et al. 1995, More et al. 1993, Tickamyer medicinals, for ceremonial and cultural pur- and Duncan 1990). Read together, these bodies poses, and as raw materials for crafts and of work point to four important characteristics other decorative items. Many species are used of diverse livelihoods: 1) the often critical role of in multiple ways. Edibles, such as berries and subsistence goods; 2) the importance of even mushrooms, were mentioned most frequently small amounts of cash income for low-income by gatherers (102 occurrences), followed by households; 3) the primacy of culture and floral/nursery/craft items such as social relationships in much economic activity; and 4) the critical advantage of flexibility for 24 Table 1.—Upper Peninsula NTFPs Latin name Common name Latin name Common name

Abies balsamea balsam, boughs Fraxinus nigra black ash Abies balsamea balsam, cones Ganoderma applanatum artist conk Abies balsamea balsam, needles Gaultheria procumbens wintergreen, berry Abies balsamea balsam, Gaultheria procumbens wintergreen, leaf maple, sap Gaylussacia spp. huckleberries Acer spp. maple, twigs Hericium coraloides &/or hog mushroom ramosum Achillea millefolium yarrow Hierochloe odorata sweet grass Acorus calamus wiikenh/bitterroot/flag root Inonutus obliquus sketaugen Agaricus bisporus button mushroom Iris versicolor flag root Allium tricoccum wild leek Laetiporus sulphureus sulphur shelf mushroom Amaranthus spp. pigweed LAMIACEAE mint Amelanchier spp. juneberries Laportea canadensis stinging nettles Amelanchier spp. juneberry twigs Ledum groenlandicum Labrador tea Anaphalis margaritacea pearly everlasting Lycoperdon spp. puffball mushroom Anemone cylindrica thimbleweed Lycopodium obscurum princess pine complex Anthemis spp. chamomile Matteuccia struthiopteris & spp. Arctium spp. burdock, leaf Mitchella repens partridge berry Arctium spp. burdock, root Morchella spp. morel mushroom Arctostaphylos uva-ursi bearberry Nuphar variegata & yellow waterlily advena Armillaria mellea honey mushrooms Picea spp. spruce, boughs Artemisia spp. sage (woodland) Picea spp. spruce, cones Asclepias syriaca milkweed Picea spp. spruce, gum Betula papyrifera birch, bark Picea spp. spruce, needles Betula papyrifera birch, root Picea spp. spruce, tips Betula papyrifera birch, sections PINACEAE pine cones Betula papyrifera birch, twigs Pinus banksiana jack pine, cones Boletus spp. bolete mushroom (various) Pinus resinosa red pine, boughs Caltha palustris cowslip Pinus resinosa red pine, cones Calvatia gigantea giant puffball mushroom Pinus strobus white pine, boughs Cantharellus spp. chanterelle mushroom Pinus strobus white pine, cones Carpinus caroliniana ironwood, twigs Pinus strobus white pine, needles Cladonia & Cladina spp. reindeer moss Pleurotus spp. oyster mushroom Comptonia peregrina sweet fern POACEAE grasses, various Coprinus comatus shaggy mane mushroom Polygonatum pubescens Solomon’s seal Coptis trifolia gold thread Populus balsamifera balm-of-Gilead Cornus sericea red , bark Prunus americana & spp. plums, feral & wild Cornus sericea red willow, sticks Prunus pensylvanica pin cherries Cornus spp. dogwood twigs Prunus pensylvanica pin cherry twigs Corylus cornuta Prunus serotina black cherries Dentinum repandum sweet tooth mushroom Prunus spp. cherry bark Dipsacus spp. teasel Prunus virginiana choke cherries Epigaea repens trailing arbutus PTERIDOPHYTA , various Erythronium americanum trout lily root Pyrus malus apples, feral & wild Eupatorium maculatum Joe-pye weed Pyrus spp. crabapples Fagus grandifolia beechnuts Quercus spp. acorns Fistulina hepatica beefsteak mushroom Rhus typhina & glabra sumac berries Fragaria virginiana Ribes spp. gooseberries Fragaria virginiana leaves Ribes spp. currants (Table 1 continued on next page) 25 NTFP Conference Proceedings

(Table 1 continued) Latin name Common name Latin name Common name

Rorippa watercress Trifolium pratense red clover nasturtium-aquaticum Rosa spp. rose petals Trifolium repens white clover Rosa spp. wild rose hips Tsuga canadensis hemlock, bark Rozites caperata gypsy mushroom Tsuga canadensis hemlock, boughs Rubus idaeus raspberries Tsuga canadensis hemlock, cones Rubus idaeus raspberry leaves Typha spp. & hybrids cattail Rubus parviflorus thimbleberries Typha spp. & hybrids cattail, corn Rubus strigosus blackberries Typha spp. & hybrids cattail, down Rudbeckia hirta black-eyed Susan Typha spp. & hybrids cattail, flour Rumex acetosella sorrel Typha spp. & hybrids cattail, Salix spp. willow, twigs Typha spp. & hybrids cattail, shoots Suillus luteus slippery jack mushroom Ulmus spp. elm bark Syringa vulgaris lilac blossoms Unidentified top mushroom Tanacetum vulgare tansy Vaccinium spp. Taraxacum spp. dandelion greens Vaccinium spp. blueberries THALLOPHYTA lichens Vaccinium spp. bog cranberries Thuja occidentalis cedar, boughs Verbascum thapsus mullein Thuja occidentalis cedar, cones Viburnum spp. high bush cranberries Thuja occidentalis cedar, foliage Viola spp. violets, flowers & leaves Thuja occidentalis cedar, switches & tips Vitis spp. grapevine Tilia americana basswood bark Zizania spp. wild rice

Table 2.—Livelihood strategies

♦ Market strategies - Wage labor - Rent (of land, houses, goods, etc.) - Petty commodity production ♦ Nonmarket strategies - Subsistence (personal consumption) - Gifts - Government transfer

26 surviving economic change. For many house- economy based on these resources had con- holds in the Upper Peninsula, NTFPs are an tracted drastically. Few mines remained open important part of livelihood diversity strategies. and employment in the timber industry was a shadow of its former numbers. Populations, which had swelled in the late 1800s and early REGIONAL ECONOMY AND HOUSEHOLD 1900s, shrank (Catton 1976). LIVELIHOODS By the last quarter of the 20th century, unem- Beginning in the second half of the 19th cen- ployment rates in the region were fluctuating tury, the Upper Peninsula was a source of much more than national and state levels (fig. natural resources that helped fuel the territo- 1) and were at times nearly double that of the rial expansion and economic development of nation as a whole (13.4 percent and 7.0 per- the United States. Timber from the region and cent, respectively in 1986: fig. 2). Median other parts of the forested upper Midwest was household incomes were 67 percent lower than fundamental to settlement of the largely tree- the national figure, while the percentage of less prairies to the west (Cronon 1991). UP iron households with no earnings or living on fixed mines provided material for transcontinental Social Security incomes (i.e., government railroads, and copper mines were considered pensions) was at least 50 percent higher. vital to national security during World War II Strikingly, the percentage of households ac- because they furnished one of the primary cepting public assistance such as welfare and materials for defense communications systems. Aid to Families with Dependent Children was However, by the late 20th century, the regional virtually identical to that in the rest of the state and country (table 3).

12 10 UP 8 6

Rate MI 4 2 US 0 Apr Mar Jul Aug Oct Nov May Dec Jan Jun Feb Sep Mo nth

Figure 1.—1995 unemployment—Upper Peninsula (UP), Michigan (MI), and U.S. rates (in percent).

14 12 10 UP 8

Rate MI 6 4 US 2 0 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 Year

Figure 2.—1986 - 1995 average annual unemployment—Upper Peninsula (UP), Michigan (MI), and U.S. rates (in percent). 27 NTFP Conference Proceedings

Table 3.—1989 income and government transfer payments

Percent of households Median income1 No earnings Social Security Public assistance

Upper Peninsula $20,194 31 39 9 Michigan $31,020 21 27 10 United States $30,056 20 26 8

Source: U.S. Census Bureau 1 In U.S. dollars.

Upper Peninsula gatherers make a living within LIVELIHOOD USES OF UPPER PENINSULA this regional economic context. Gatherers are NTFPS both women and men, Native Americans and European Americans. They are people of all NTFPs contribute to gatherers’ livelihoods ages, most often with longstanding linkages to through both nonmarket and market strate- the places where they live and gather. In the gies. Nonmarket strategies include subsistence face of low wages and a chronically erratic (that is, personal consumption), barter, and gift formal employment market, they put together giving. Market uses may be either sale of the livings through a variety of strategies. Table 4 plant matter in a raw form, with little or no details the cash income sources of gatherers modification, or sale in a processed form, most and their households for the year in which they frequently as crafts or foodstuffs. The gatherers were interviewed. Fewer than 25 percent of interviewed for this research make extensive gatherers had full-time formal employment and nonmarket use of the wild plant matter they even fewer (22 percent) had formal part-time harvest. Nearly two-thirds (64 percent) of the employment. Twenty-three percent were living livelihood uses mentioned took place entirely on Social Security payments (i.e., government outside the market. Edibles were being con- pensions). Fully 80 percent were engaged in sumed directly as valued and important parts some form of self- or informal employment. The of gatherers’ diets. Medicinals were used by prevalence of episodic, part-time, and fixed some to treat themselves and family members. sources means that they must simultaneously Ceremonials were important in preserving and sequentially pursue a number of strategies culture and traditional practices. Florals and to meet their needs. For gatherer households, craft materials added beauty to people’s lives NTFPs are one of these livelihood strategies. and were often given as gifts.

Table 4.—Household cash-income strategies of Upper Peninsula gatherers

Full-time Full-time Self or Other year-round seasonal Part-time informal Other Social transfer employment employment employment employment work Security2 payments

Gatherers1 938302104

Household 7 2 3 23 0 3 4

Total 16 5 11 53 2 13 8

1Figures reflect data collected from 42 individuals (valuable information was collected from 43 people, but data from 1 person could not be used); 31 of the 42 lived in households that included one or more additional persons. 2Government pensions. 28 A bit more than a third of the livelihood uses of currently contribute in small but important NTFPs (36 percent) were market based.2 Earn- ways to households than are traded in formal ings from market uses were rarely equivalent to commodity markets. If we are to avoid the income from a minimum wage job, when all unintentional elimination of such existing time and expenses were factored in. However, livelihood values, we must adopt a broader view NTFP contributions to individual and house- of economic activity. The well-being of forest hold livelihoods were often very important. In communities is not captured adequately by general, people gathered to meet specific needs. industry sales figures and county or provincial Among the frequently mentioned ends were tax receipts. To be certain, these are important property taxes, holiday celebrations, and basic statistics. But they tell us little to nothing living expenses. Once these targets were met about the distribution of those economic and needs fulfilled, gatherers generally stopped benefits. Nor do they represent the nonmarket harvesting and selling plant materials. and informal economy contributions that are so important at the individual and household Results from the UP case study reveal aspects level. of the role of NTFPs in gatherers’ livelihoods that correspond closely to the four characteris- As this case study demonstrates, NTFPs have tics of diverse livelihoods discussed in the long provided important livelihood resources to economic activity section above. 1) Subsistence forest communities and continue to do so. In uses are widespread and often critical, ac- the interest of enhancing those opportunities counting for the greatest number of species rather than limiting them, we will do well to uses (although probably not the greatest consider three interrelated questions: volume of plant material). 2) Even small cash earnings from the sale of NTFPs can be critical What kinds of new social and economic to meeting household needs. 3) Gifts made interests would be introduced by the from NTFPs or purchased with income from creation of additional markets for their sale help maintain the social relationships NTFPs? that are critical to both physical and emotional well-being. In addition, gathered plant materi- What kinds of policies would likely be als and/or the observance of special harvesting introduced in response to these new practices are often central to important cultural interests? practices. 4) One of the key values of gathering as a livelihood strategy is the roughly equal How would they interact with livelihood ease with which a knowledgeable person can uses and values of existing NTFPs? turn to it in times of need or not engage in it when other pursuits occupy working hours and provide adequate resources. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Gatherers provided common names for the FOOD FOR THOUGHT products they harvest and, in most cases, plant specimens were not available. I am indebted to In light of the characteristics described above, Beth Lynch, former botanist with the Great it may be worth our while to pause in the Lakes Indian Fish and Wildlife Commission; headlong rush to promote NTFPs as commodi- Dana Richter, Research Scientist at Michigan ties and consider how this may affect existing Technological University’s School of Forestry NTFP livelihood practices. Many more species and Wood Products; and Jan Schultz, Forest Plant Ecologist with the Hiawatha National Forest, for their assistance in identifying the Latin names and species of Upper Peninsula NTFPs. I am also deeply grateful to the USDA 2 This figure reflects the number of times Forest Service’s Hiawatha National Forest and gatherers mentioned a livelihood use for a plant the agency’s Northern Global Change Program species rather than the amount of plant matter for their support of the research on which this being used. While the research described here paper is based. did not attempt to quantify volumes of NTFPs harvested, it is likely that the greatest amount of biomass is used for sale in a raw form. 29 NTFP Conference Proceedings

LITERATURE CITED McGuire, Randall H.; Smith, Joan; Martin, William G. 1986. Patterns of household Catton, Bruce. 1976. Michigan: a bicentennial structures and the world-economy. Review. history. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & 10(1): 75-97. Company. Mingione, Enzo. 1994. Life strategies and social Cleland, Charles E. 1983. Indians in a chang- economies in the postfordist age. Interna- ing environment. In: Flader, S.L., ed. The tional Journal of Urban and Regional Great Lakes forest: an environmental and Research. 18(1): 24-45. social history. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. More, Thomas A.; Glass, Ronald J.; Zwick, Rodney R. 1993. Fish and wildlife resources Cleland, Charles E. 1992. Rites of conquest: allocated through the invisible economy of the history of Michigan’s Native Americans. rural . Paper read at Interna- Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan tional Union of game biologists, 21st Con- Press. gress, Forests and wildlife...toward the 21st century; 1993 August 15-20; Halifax, Nova Cronon, William. 1991. Nature’s metropolis: Scotia, Canada. Chicago and the Great West. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company. Polanyi, Karl. 1977. The livelihood of man. In: Pearson, H.W., ed. Studies in social discon- Dick, Ronald E. 1996. Subsistence economies: tinuity. New York, NY: Academic Press. freedom from the marketplace. Society & Natural Resources. 9(1): 19-29. Portes, Alejandro; Castells, Manuel; Benton, Lauren A. 1989. The informal economy: Emery, Marla R. 1998. Invisible livelihoods: studies in advanced and less developed non-timber forest products in Michigan’s countries. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Upper Peninsula. Ann Arbor, MI: University Hopkins University Press. of Michigan Dissertation Services. Roberts, Bryan. 1994. Informal economy and Glass, Ronald J.; Muth, Robert M.; Flewelling, family strategies. International Journal of Robert. 1990. Subsistence as a component Urban & Regional Planning. 18 (1): 6-23. of the mixed economic base in a moderniz- ing community. Radnor, PA: U.S. Depart- Schmidt, Thomas L.; Spencer, John S., Jr.; ment of Agriculture, Forest Service, North- Bertsch, Robin. 1997. Michigan’s forests eastern Forest Experiment Station. 1993: an analysis. Resour. Bull. NC-179. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agricul- Gudeman, Stephen. 1986. Economics as ture, Forest Service, North Central Forest culture: models and metaphors of liveli- Experiment Station. hood. London, England: Routledge & Kegen Paul. Smith, Gavin. 1994. Towards an ethnography of idiosyncratic forms of livelihood. Interna- Halperin, Rhoda. 1988. Economies across tional Journal of Urban & Regional Plan- cultures: towards a comparative science of ning. 18(1): 71-87. the economy. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press. Smith, Joan; Wallerstein, Immanuel. 1992. Creating and transforming households: the Hart, Gillian. 1986. Sources and patterns of constraints of the world-economy. Paris, livelihood. In: Power, labor, and livelihood: France: Cambridge University Press. processes of change in rural . Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Tickamyer, Ann R.; Duncan, Cynthia M. 1990. Poverty and opportunity structure in rural Jensen, Leif; Cornwell, Gretchen T.; Findeis, America. Annual Review of Sociology. 16: Jill L. 1995. Informal work in 67-86. nonmetropolitan Pennsylvania. Rural Sociology. 60(1): 91-107. U.S. Census Bureau. 1990. 1990 Census of population. In: d.e. system, ed.: generated 30 by Marla Emery 9/18/97. 1990 Census Lookup. Northern Homelands, Northern Frontier: Linking Culture and Economic Security in Contemporary Livelihoods in Boreal and Cold Temperate Forest Communities in Northern Canada

Andrew J. Chapeskie1

Abstract.—This paper highlights the environmental pressures that have historically been brought to bear on the northern forests of Canada. It then presents the idea of the northern frontier forests of Canada as Indigenous landscapes whose ecological diversity and abundance have historically been nurtured in no small measure by their original inhabitants. It then proposes how contemporary com- munity-based resource management institutions might embody customary Indigenous resource stewardsip practice to provide a contemporary foundation for a northern sustainable forest economy supporting local Community Economic Development (CED) initiatives that benefit all Canadians.

INTRODUCTION This is now changing. Contemporary trends in environmental awareness coupled with im- Canada is often said to be an expression of mense changes in the resource-based economy “northern-ness.” Some say that the historical of northern Canada, not least of these being a aproach of the country to reconciling diverse rapid expansion of the rate of industrial extrac- regional interests through decentralist and tion of timber resources, are now leading many pluralist institutions is how its ‘nordicity’ is Canadians to debate the future of their forest embodied. For many Canadians the “northern- landscapes. “Remote” and “wild” northern ness” of the country is a truism that is some- forests in Canada are no longer so remote and times said to be too obvious to be worth repeat- wild. Which of the forest landscapes of the ing. However, the extent to which the expansive country should be protected in their natural northern cold temperate and boreal forests that state? Which should be developed for forestry? blanket much of Canada remain integral to the These are the dominant questions driving the cultural identity of the country cannot be debate over the future of northern Canadian underestimated. These forests have simulta- forests. neously been considered by most Canadians as representing the “wilderness” of their country Such questions could be seen as important as as well as constituting much of its “natural far as they go. However, this paper proposes wealth.” In this context, few Canadians have that these questions do not go nearly far questioned that the natural wealth contained enough to address the historical and contem- in the forests could be “exploited” to support porary ecological and social reality (the two are the economic well-being of the country and inseparable) of northern Canada. This reality is that, at the same time, there would always be far more complex than these questions can vast forest regions that could be preserved as hope to address. Indeed, this reality challenges wilderness. old prejudices and assumptions about the historical and contemporary nature of the northern forest landscapes of Canada and the First Peoples who have lived in them since time immemorial. Further, it is a reality possessed of latent possibilities for conserving both cultural 1 President of The Taiga Institute for Land, and biological diversity, maintaining ecological Culture, and Economy, Suite A, 150 Main Street resilience, and promoting economic security for South, Kenora, Ontario, Canada, P9N 1S9; northern forest communities in Canada. It is a Phone: 807-468-9607; Fax: 807-468-3822; e- reality that will be ignored by Canada at its mail: [email protected]. own risk. 31 NTFP Conference Proceedings

NORTHERN CANADA: FOREST HOMELANDS, industrial environmental impact that the FORESTRY FRONTIER environmental movement has sought to miti- gate through establishment of ever more and In southern Canada, where most of the popula- larger protected areas in the forest landscapes tion of the country lives, the debate over the of northern Canada. Throughout the debate, future of northern forest landscapes centers however, it is legitimate to ask: Where are the around which areas should be developed for Indigenous peoples of northern Canada? industrial forestry and which should be pre- served in their “natural state.” Nothing high- The importance of this question cannot be lights this debate, as well as pointing to the underestimated in the Canadian context. Aside biases and assumptions that lie beneath it, from the issue of whether the ecological effects better than a July 1999 report of the World of industrial forestry could or should be ad- Wildlife Fund Canada (WWF Canada) entitled dressed, even in part, through the creation of Forests for Life - Canada’s Commitment to more protected areas, there remains a more Forest Protected Areas: a WWF Status Report fundamental question: Where and how do (World Wildlife Fund Canada 1999). The first Indigenous peoples living within these land- map in the report (WWF Canada 1999, 3) and scapes fit in? These questions pertain to the shown here as figure 1 illustrates the vastness very nature of Indigenous societies and the of the Canadian forest landscape—especially of customary livelihood relationships these societ- the boreal forest regions of the country. This is ies maintained with the landscapes of their a map of the forest regions of Canada (Forest forest homelands. Regions of Canada map by J.S. Rowe, repro- duced by permission of the Canadian Forest For many within the environmental movement Service, Natural Resources Canada). The as well as within the forest industry, argu- second map in the report (WWF Canada 1999, ments both for forest protection and develop- 5) is a compilation of data indicating the alloca- ment in Canada are predicated on the assump- tion of commercial forestry tenure on the tion that the country’s northern forest land- provincial forest landscapes of Canada. Figure scapes are “natural”. WWF Canada states this 2 in this paper dramatically indicates this about Indigenous people in Canada who live in “final frontier” of industrial forestry across the forest regions: country. The development of the last pristine or “... almost 80 percent of the Aboriginal old growth or primary growth regions of the people of Canada are settled within boreal forest in Canada (when examined in forest regions, their livelihood still relation to the boreal forest region shown on drawing on the natural bounty and the map in figure 1) is now looming large on diversity of these homelands” (WWF these landscapes. Canada 1999, 2). It is true that 80 percent of Indian Reserves are The second map illustrates the debate within located within the forest regions of Canada (in dominant “settler society” over development provinces such as Ontario and Manitoba, the and protection with respect to the forests of majority of status Indians—people recognized Canada. This debate is rooted in the concept of as Indians by the Government of Canada under the resource cycle in forestry, which holds that, the Federal Indian Act—actually live in urban in a market economy, it is “...economically centers). But there are more fundamental rational to exhaust resources with a slow questions embedded within this reality: What annual growth rate, converting natural re- are the customary relationships of Indigenous sources to economic capital for reinvestment in peoples to these homelands in the forest re- other industries with a shorter time horizon” gions of Canada? Have “Indigenous forests” (Clapp 1998, 130). In forestry, the dynamics of always been “natural” and “wild?” If they have the resource cycle are said to lead to the liqui- not always been “wild” or “natural,” what is the dation of high value old-growth forest resources significance for the promotion of sustainable and a “falldown” in yields of wood per hectare livelihoods today? In the context of customary in the transition from old-growth to second- Indigenous relationships to land, what role growth timber on forest landscapes (Clapp should Aboriginal people play in the develop- 1998, 136). The case of the liquidation of the ment or protection of the forests in which they Great Lakes white pine forests is often cited as live? Do the members of these societies even being emblematic of the resource cycle in find such a dualism intelligible, let alone forestry (Clapp 1998, 130). This is the type of practical? 32 250 Kilometres 0 NEWFOUNDLAND NOVA ATLANTIC SCOTIA ISLAND PRINCE EDWARD of Canada NEW BRUNSWICK Forest Regions QUEBEC Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, 2000 BAY HUDSON ONTARIO MANITOBA Forest Regions of Canada (Forest Regions of Canada map by J.S. Rowe, Regions of Canada (Forest Forest SASKATCHEWAN Figure 1.— reproduced by permission of the canadian ForestCanada). Service, Natural Resources ALBERTA White spruce, black balsam fir, jack pine, white birch, trembling aspen White spruce, black tamarack Trembling aspen, willow Engelmann spruce, subalpine fir, lodgepole pine Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir, lodgepole pine, ponderosa trembling aspen Western redcedar, western hemlock, Sitka spruce, Douglas-fir Western redcedar, western hemlock, Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir American beech, maple, black walnut, hickory, oak Red pine, eastern white hemlock, yellow birch, maple, oak Red spruce, balsam fir, maple, yellow birch Trembling aspen, willow, bur oak Ressources naturelles Canada Service canadien des forêts BRITISH TERRITORY COLUMBIA Natural Resources Canada Canadian Forest Service

Boreal Predominantly forest Boreal Forest and barren Boreal Forest and grass Subalpine Montane Coast Columbia Deciduous Great Lakes St. Lawrence Acadian Grasslands Tundra Forest Regions Principal Tree Species PACIFIC

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Figure 2.—Forest allocations in Canada.

WWF Canada notes in Forests for Life that “94 owners or stewards? How has the dominant per cent of Canada’s forest land is publicly assumption that “traditional” Aboriginal societ- owned, 71 per cent by the 10 provincial govern- ies drew on the “natural” bounty of their forest ments and 23 per cent by the federal govern- homelands allowed for questions of “ownership” ment” (WWF Canada 1999, 4). However, it is or “stewardship” of forests to be ignored (it is critically important to note another fact on the certainly not addressed in the WWF Canada ground: Indigenous people constitute a major- report)? Can we continue to hold such assump- ity of the population within many of the north- tions? ern Canadian forest landscapes. Nothing illustrates this better than figure 3, which is a map indicating languages spoken “on the THE PEOPLE AND THEIR LANDSCAPES ground” in North America as of 1980 (Academic RECONSIDERED American Encyclopaedia 1980). Additionally, in many areas where Indigenous peoples are not In the changing context of the resource-based the majority of the people actually living within economy of northern Canada, one crucial forest landscapes of northern Canada, they aspect has not changed. In spite of a much constitute rapidly growing (see figure 4), and in greater awareness of “native issues” among many cases already large, minorities. What are non-Aboriginal Canadians in recent decades, Indigenous interests in these forests land- most Canadians still generally appreciate scapes? Why are Indigenous peoples not the northern Indigenous societies as “traditional.” 34 Figure 3.—Languages in North America-1980. (Photo courtesy of Academic America Encyclopedia, Grolier Inc., Danbury CN.

The idea of traditional peoples inhabiting these with us today. Consider the following state- forests is intimately related to the correspond- ment: ing view that forests are wild and fragile as For most of the time that human beings much as they are remote and vast. Such a have inhabited the , they have romantic (or sometimes instrumental?) view of been hunters. As palaeolithic hunters, Aboriginal societies is rooted in what are they developed an assortment of life- probably ancient prejudices about hunter- sustaining spiritual, material, and gatherer societies. Chief among these preju- strategic arts and accumulated a de- dices is that traditional people could not tame tailed knowledge of the environment or conquer wilderness because of their “primi- and of the species in it. They tiveness.” These societies lived in a “state of stalked mammoth, elk, bison and nature,” and remnants of these ideas are still other great quarry tens of thousands

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Figure 4.—Aboriginal population in selected years.

of years ago, using meticulously not only towards Indigenous peoples, but also crafted arrow points. They trapped and towards the wild and fragile landscapes evoked fished, employing ingenious implements in the statement above. and techniques, in order to capture smaller wild game for food. Even today, Too often, these externally imposed attitudes in an often harsh and unforgiving world and practices have been blind to the complexity dominated by modern technology, tiny of historical and contemporary customary islands of neotraditional existence Indigenous relationships to land within forest remain. There are places, however regions. Nothing highlights this more than the imperiled, where hunters still ven- statements of Indigenous people themselves. I ture out, much as they have in the would like to refer to, and then reflect upon, past - into lush tropical Malaysian or two such statements—one from a cold temper- Amazonian jungles, across sun-baked ate forest landscape in northern Ontario Australian or African grasslands or (Temagami region) and another from a boreal plains, along ice-choked shores forest landscape in northern Alberta. - in order to supplement their diets with the high-quality protein of Consider the following words from the autobi- freshly killed animal flesh. (Knudtson ography of Madeline Theriault, an Ojibwe and Suzuki 1992, 81-82). woman who was raised in the Temagami region of northern Ontario. This is a region where It is disconcerting to many Indigenous peoples environmentalists and forest companies have living in forest communities today that such hotly contested how external control (through images can help foster a paternalistic attitude the provincial government) should be exercised of “protection” (or practices of domination and over its ancient forests, many of which contain neglect) on the part of “technologically ad- remnant stands of old-growth, wild, white pine vanced” industrial societies. This is directed forests. 36 WHITE MAN MAKES A FARM to grow clear that this statement reflects forest man- hay to feed his animals. He also grows agement practices focused on much more than vegetables for food. Indians also feed timber resources. I will say more about this their animals, only in a different way. later in relation to the idea of pursuing eco- Around the middle of April, the Indian nomic security through a broader range of trapper looks around to find a bare forest resources in contemporary forest com- spot, mostly up on the rocks where the munities in northern Canada. snow goes first, where there is still a lot of snow at the bottom of the hill. They Consider also the words of Indigenous elders set a match to this bare spot and only recorded by Henry T. Lewis in the boreal forest burn where it is dry and bare, so there’s region of northern Alberta. This is a region no danger of a big forest fire because where environmentalists have questioned the the fire stops when it reaches snow. ecological consequences of new forest harvest- ing activities by the pulp and paper industry. Two years later you would find a big It used to be all prairie here; now it’s patch of blueberries in amongst the mostly forest. My father told me that bushes. And you would see all the long time back there were plenty of hungry animals of all kinds feeding on buffalo here, all the way (north) to Cold those blueberries; fox, wolves, black Lake. We were Plains Cree, not like bear, partridge, squirrels, chipmunks, those bush people up north. Now it’s all and all kinds of other birds. No doubt bush here too (Cree, 72, Frog Lake they were happy to find those berries. It Area) (Lewis 1982, 24). was the trapper that got it for them by setting the fire. They used to burn places where they think it was very useful. Like, for in- This is what I mean when I say Indians stance, the places where the horses feed their animals too. The berries were used to winter in order to have plenty of for our own benefit too. As we would good feed for them on grass; and then preserve them for our winter use. After where there’s lakes, around lakes, a few years, young trees would grow on where there’s muskrats, so they could that burnt place. Then the rabbits always have real fresh roots. (Muskrats) would get to feed from those young live on grass roots mostly to keep them bushes. In later years, the little trees nice and fresh. If they don’t (burn) the would get bigger. Then the moose and roots will spoil and rot you know, and deer get to feed from it. So, you see the then they’ll die off every so many years. setting of these small fires can go a long Places where there’s moose and where way in feeding many animals (Theriault the moose usually like to roam around. 1992, 74-75). They burn the brushes there so that they’ll have good green leaves and This statement is deeply revelatory about things to live on in summer. And, places customary Ojibwe livelihood relationships to where the Indians live close to...they’ll forest landscapes. Not only does it say much be brushes like you see around, poplars about the “nature” of the Temagami forests in growing in one place, eh. That’s where which the Ojibwe people have lived, it also they used to burn (Beaver woman, 69, encodes many of the objectives of customary High Level area) (Lewis 1982, 29). Ojibwe “forest management.” It is clear from the statement that the customary landscape These statements are as revelatory as those of management practices referred to were derived Theriault from the Temagami region in Ontario. from an intimate understanding of resource They demonstrate how Aboriginal peoples energy cycles and ecological succession pat- employed customary landscape management terns. Indeed, it celebrates the diversity of practices—using Indigenous pyrotechnology— these cycles and patterns. More than this, it to transform large landscapes for livelihood celebrates how human interaction with forest purposes. They confirm intimate Indigenous landscapes—interaction that creates indig- knowledge of ecological succession patterns enous anthropogenic landscapes—can actually and their control for human purposes. In this nurture resource abundance and diversity. It is context as well, they celebrate the value of

37 NTFP Conference Proceedings diversity and abundance, as well as the possi- acknowledge the sophistication and complexity bility of nurturing both simultaneously. What of “traditional” Indigenous customary relation- is clear from the foregoing statements is that ships to land, we must neither conveniently nor there is more to the “nature” of the forest “...inadvertently overlook the artifice behind landscapes of northern Canada than seemingly technology in favour of the artifacts that it meets the eye of the outsider—in this case the produces....[T]echnology should be seen as a “settler society.” system of knowledge rather than an inventory of objects” (Riddington 1982, 471). That societ- How could customary Indigenous relationships ies have been able to achieve economic security to land, the need for economic security, and the as well social and cultural well-being by other need to promote ecological sustainability means—affluence without materialism—should converge into a new paradigm of forest liveli- not blind us to the contributions that these hoods in northern Aboriginal communities in knowledge traditions and social institutions Canada? To begin with, statements such as can make to sustainable resource management those referred to should lead non-Aboriginal today. society to acknowledge that Indigenous land- scapes characterized the “,” even In western boreal forest landscapes, for ex- Before the Wilderness (Blackburn and Ander- ample, the research of Henry Lewis has demon- son 1993) of it arose in the consciousness of strated that “...the hunter-trapper-gatherers of settler society. After the coming of the Europe- northern Alberta both increased and diversified ans, this “New World” available natural resources with the use of ...was less virgin than it was widowed. controlled burning” (Lewis 1982, 7). Are such Indians had lived on the for practices anachronistic today? Certainly, they thousands of years, and had to a signifi- continue to have value as strategies that could cant extent modified its environment to be employed to increase biological diversity and their purposes. The destruction of abundance in forest . More than Indian communities in fact brought this, they may well have value towards main- some of the most important ecological taining or restoring the very integrity of some of changes which followed the Europeans’ our most cherished ecosystems. This aspect of arrival in America. The choice is not customary Indigenous resource stewardship between two landscapes, one with and must be grasped by the “popular mind:” The one without a human influence; it is powerful image of the primeval forest causes between two human ways of living, two some otherwise well-informed people to pro- ways of belonging to an ecosystem pose systems of inviolate preserves where (Cronon 1983, 12). human intervention is prohibited. Yet in most fire-prone ecosystems, continued human The historical reality of “wilderness” landscapes interaction will be essential to maintain them across North America is that “...[i]n fact, enor- in a pre-European condition. A prime example mous areas of the continent’s forests and of such an inviolate preserve is the Boundary grasslands were very much cultural land- Waters Canoe Area Wilderness in northern scapes, shaped profoundly by human action” Minnesota [bordering on Quetico Provincial (MacCleery 1996, 44). This history must be- Park in Ontario]. As the late Miron “Bud” come part of the popular consciousness of Heinselman, USDA Forest Service ecologist, settler society in Canada. demonstrated, the exclusion of fire from the Boundary Waters has doomed large stands of It is necessary, however, to go even further nearly pure red pine and white pine. In the than this. The contemporary value of custom- decades ahead, they will be taken over by ary Indigenous knowledge systems and institu- spruce and fir (MacCleery 1996, 48). The value tions for promoting sustainable resource of customary Indigenous pyrotechnology in stewardship and economic well-being for these types of settings makes it understandable northern Aboriginal forest communities in that Lewis and Ferguson would use the form of Canada should also be realized. This can a prescription to entitle a paper on this topic in happen, however, only when dominant settler relation to the boreal forest: Yards, Corridors, society acknowledges that customary Indig- and Mosaics: How to Burn a Boreal Forest enous Knowledge systems constitute valuable (Lewis and Ferguson 1988, 57). forms of “technology” or “technological knowl- edge” (Lewis 1989, 940). If we ever are to fully 38 Indigenous resource management practices natural resources of their ancestral forest such as those outlined above have typically homelands are managed. There is not a single been embedded in local institutions of resource instance of Indigenous tenure for any forest management. Such institutions are the means resource (timber or non-timber forest prod- by which diverse, resilient, and abundant ucts), for example, in northern Manitoba or landscapes have been maintained by local Ontario. In most provinces in Canada, there is groups in various parts of the world (Berkes not even a legal framework for recognizing 1989, 74-76). It should now be clear that these NTFP tenure in general, let alone Indigenous Indigenous landscapes are, in fact, the result of tenure in particular. In spite of the fact that customary Indigenous resource management Indigenous peoples constitute the majority of knowledge and practice that profoundly impact people living within the northern landscape, the environment. the vast bulk of forest tenure in existence is held by “outsiders.” Given current demographic Why should Indigenous customary resource patterns in northern forest communities, this institutions be so often found to nurture Aboriginal majority is rapidly increasing. resource abundance and diversity? In no small part, it is because these local institutions have For Aboriginal communities in northern typically been embedded in practices of coop- Canada, this issue has now become one of eration and equity (Chapeskie 1999). Through cultural survival. In adapting to the influence cooperative practice at the local level, commu- of the outside world, Aboriginal communities nities can create adaptive strategies that have been working their own particular praxis maintain “...relatively high levels of diversity in of contemporary community-based economic the managed landscape” (Berkes et al. 1993, 4). development. The Community Economic Devel- Local institutions of cooperative resource opment (CED) paradigm emerging out of this management are able to prevent tragic losses of praxis is not based on isolation or cultural diversity in several ways. Among the most separation, but on mutuality. It is broadly significant of them is that such institutions are participatory and even invitational in character. based on traditions of equity and cooperation It promotes the idea of partnership between that discourage resource “overexploitation” in Indigenous communities, public, and private local unenclosed landscapes. These institutions sectors. It expresses the urgent need to estab- are also sensitive and able to incorporate lish appropriate contemporary livelihood ecosystem feedback information. What, then, is opportunities for Aboriginal people living in their meaning for forest landscapes in northern forest communities, but it also seeks to do this Canada today? on terms allowing for local adaptation and cultural survival. The model that it employs is one of consensus-based economic decision- A NEW PARADIGM FOR SUSTAINABLE making for forest-based livelihoods where FOREST LIVELIHOODS IN NORTHERN outside partners—often large corporations— FOREST COMMUNITIES IN CANADA work together with Indigenous people.

Achieving economic security for Indigenous This new CED paradigm is being increasingly peoples within the forest landscapes of north- expressed by various Indigenous leaders and ern Canada constitutes a distinct challenge for groups. It is expressed well in the words of the whole country. Could this challenge also be Romeo Saganash, an official with the Grand an opportunity to develop a new paradigm of Council of the Cree in Quebec, cited in a major “best practices” for sustainable forest resource Quebec newspaper: use? The value of customary Indigenous “com- “First of all, most projects, if not all mon property” relationships to land for promot- projects, in the territory were under- ing biodiversity conservation and sustaining taken without the consent of the Crees ecological resilience is now well recognized and beforehand. That consent element in supported by expansive scholarly literature, of the new approach is something that is which only a fraction has been referred to in worthwhile for us. It is definitely new. this paper. And it forces us to take some time to reflect on what we can do with this new However, this is only part of the story. The fact situation. Part of the new Cree situation remains that, in northern Canada, Indigenous involves an influx of 500 young people peoples have precious little voice in how the entering the job market every year for 39 NTFP Conference Proceedings

the next decade,” Saganash said. The implication of the resource cycle theory in “Whether the new jobs will come from forestry points to the immense difficulty of tourism, forestry or Hydro-Quebec restraining overexploitation in our contempo- projects involving Cree partnership are rary economy: “...the removal of impediments all options that desperately need to be to the free operation of markets is not worked out in a society where about 30 enough—the market cannot accelerate natural per cent of people still make a living regeneration, but it can accelerate depletion. from hunting, fishing and trapping. ...” Similarly, the establishment of secure property Saganash cited economic development rights will not prevent overexploitation if the in Waswanipi, where construction of a underlying market incentives favour rapid sawmill two years ago created 75 jobs in drawdown. Privatization is doubly perilous for a community of 1,000 people. [This is a sustainability, in that it is often used to justify joint venture partnership with Domtar resource giveaways (Dauvergne 1997). For Ltd. with the Crees owning a majority biological resources with a slow reproduction stake in the business.] “I think more rate...only state management, international and more we will be seeing that type of agreements, and intense public scrutiny have development initiative taking place in had any success at slowing rates of exhaus- Cree communities. We have no tion” (Clapp 1998, 139). The literature of choice”...Saganash said (Siblin 1999, community-based resource management A7). suggests that even state management may not be sufficient to prevent resource exhaustion In the context of the analysis presented in the over the long term. However, it does point to previous pages of this article, there is a signifi- the efficacy of community-based resource cant opportunity for Aboriginal people living in management to sustain natural resources over northern forest communities to nurture this the long term (Berkes and Folke 1998). This new paradigm for forest livelihoods. What are efficacy is particularly notable in communities its potential benefits? How can it be fostered? that have effective customary institutions of resource management. This is especially in In several critical aspects, there is significant contexts where many considerations (including potential to foster this paradigm. First, this the importance of a variety of resources for a potential relates to the “forestry frontier” in variety of important social and economic northern Canada. As has been noted, these purposes) beyond the “market signals” of the lands are also the homelands of Indigenous dominant economy will affect resource use peoples—where most of the people living on (Chapeskie 1995). them are Aboriginal. There is an opportunity to “explore” and implement community-based Even in forest landscapes where Aboriginal forms of resource tenure and stewardship communities live alongside settler communi- practice where Indigenous knowledge and ties, there is significant potential to promote customary resource management expertise is community-based resource management. In given “pride of place.” It is within such models the boreal forests of Canada, for example, that customary resource management tech- tenure and management are typically focused niques and knowledge stand the best chance of on a very few dominant timber species. Such being practiced, and are given the opportunity species are harvested for only a few uses (pulp to adapt to new livelihood pursuits—including and paper, lumber). Customary Indigenous those that are “industrial” or “high tech.” forest management practice in these forests sometimes seems as if it was focused on every The model of community-based resource forest resource (from the creation of forages for tenure management for the forestry frontier in ungulates to fruit harvested for domestic and northern Canada provides an opportunity that commercial use) but timber! In the 20th cen- transcends “politics of culture” and “politics of tury, for example, Frances Densmore, who race.” It emphasizes the “local” in resource originally went to study Ojibwe music in north- management, and the benefits that local re- ern Minnesota and northwestern Ontario, got source management and tenure can bring for caught up with another fascination—Ojibwe (or maintaining diverse and abundant ecosystems Chippewa) plant use. Within a relatively short as well as healthy communities within them. period of time, she catalogued an impressive

40 array of Ojibwe uses for more than 200 plants Such an approach to Indigenous knowledge of and trees (Densmore 1928). Within the forests forest resources and resource management of northern Canada, there is the potential to practice does a disservice to the Indigenous generate many economic opportunities from peoples from whose knowledge traditions has special forest products including NTFPs. In been realized much “outside” commercial gain such cases, applying the concepts of pluralism from forest resources. It is also seen by most and consensus-based decisionmaking to Aboriginal people as fundamentally disrespect- resource management between Aboriginal ful. But in addition to this, it has the potential communities and other forest stakeholders to foreclose on many other fruitful opportuni- offers considerable potential (Chapeskie 1995). ties for successful economic collaboration and This can be in the form of new business oppor- partnership to be achieved between Indigenous tunities within which local forest livelihoods people and “outsiders.” and forest resources can be sustained over the long term. There is, for example, an emerging popular interest in how the potential uses of birch bark In the context of the foregoing, and even more are being pursued. The bark of the white birch for the future of our forests, it is important to is a “forest product” that has had numerous remember that “resources are not; they be- traditional uses among the Ojibwe people. It is come.” Why would the larger public and private these traditional uses that have in no small sectors be interested in pursuing a new para- way inspired “outside” researchers to explore digm of forest livelihoods with northern Indig- their broader application. Those who have the enous communities of Canada? To begin with, technological capacity to carry out this re- if anything should be clear to anyone con- search would do well to consider that other cerned with the future of our forests, it is that equally significant potential opportunities the only constant characterizing these forests might arise. This could happen through estab- will be change. From environmental factors to lishing strong and enduring collaborative accelerating technological developments trans- partnerships with Ojibwe people to pursue the forming the global economy, change is now a broader potential of these uses. In one discus- constant for forest communities and stakehold- sion on the topic of the uses of birch bark that ers. While the demand for forest resources I had recently with Ojibwe people who are continues to rise on a global scale, technologi- engaged in forest livelihood pursuits, I was cal innovation in the form of mechanization presented with an array of other special forest continues to make more and more forestry product possibilities from other trees—uses workers redundant. Forest communities in that I had never come across before. They were northern Canada generally are in crisis. In the intriguing to say the least. Do they have a context set out in this paper, the future of broader application? Who knows. Certainly, Indigenous forest communities, which have however, the partnership approach to exploring historically been excluded from the larger forest them is worth serious consideration—not only economy, is even more fraught with danger. At for what “outsiders” can learn from Indigenous the same time, significant opportunity also co- people, and vice versa, but how they might exists within this crisis. each contribute to the economic well-being of their respective societies. Aside from the potential of Indigenous knowl- edge and customary forest stewardship practice to contribute to the sustainable use of forest SUMMARY resources, Indigenous knowledge traditions have the potential to contribute significantly to This paper has considered how a new paradigm a diverse “best end use” and “highest value of forest livelihoods might be built to foster the use” forest economy. Indigenous traditional economic security and cultural well-being of ecological knowledge (TEK) has the potential to Indigenous communities in the forest regions of serve as a “partnership resource” in fostering a northern Canada, and what this new paradigm diverse forest economy in northern Canada might look like. This new paradigm is steeped that places priority on community-based in consensus-based decisionmaking and participation. For many years now, TEK has collaborative cross-cultural economic partner- been used as a resource by outside interests ships. To realize this paradigm constitutes a for economic purposes. It has often been seen tremendous challenge. Not least of this chal- as “a gift for the taking.” lenge is the task of settler society in Canada to 41 NTFP Conference Proceedings let go of some of its most long-standing as- it can foster collaborative strategies for eco- sumptions about Indigenous societies in this nomic security that are rooted in the deepest country. aspects of Indigenous culture.

I would like to state this challenge in practical This issue is crucially important for the eco- terms: To focus on the ecological knowledge or nomic well-being of Indigenous peoples in the even resource management practices of Indig- northern forest regions of Canada. But, as I enous peoples as “traditional” sets up what I have noted above, it is also important in the have come to see as a problematic dualism context of the broader issue of biodiversity between this knowledge and the knowledge of conservation. The issue of biodiversity conser- what are called “advanced” industrial societies. vation is generally considered to be one of the This dualism makes it too easy for “us” in most important of our time. The present global “advanced industrial societies,” especially those ecological “extinction spasm” we are witnessing of us belonging to groups with vested interests is viewed as threatening the very foundations of in the northern forestscapes of Canada, to future human security (Wilson 1988). We have instrumentalize the “value” of “traditional” been told that, “...hope for the future is condi- knowledge for our own purposes. Such a tional on decisive political action now to begin dualism leads to a view that appreciates the managing environmental resources to ensure value in TEK solely in terms of our advanced both sustainable human progress and human industrial societies (e.g., it can be of value in survival” (World Commission on Environment state management of natural resources; it can and Development 1987, 1). provide pharmaceuticals for us). Such a dual- ism also tends to neglect the more profound In seeking guidance to a sustainable future, significance and meaning of the economic, many in the “developed world” have turned social, and cultural values of the societies out their attention to the relationship between of which so-called TEK has arisen. Simply put, culture and conservation. Significant efforts are no matter how this dualist discourse of scien- now being made to document and to under- tific, traditional, or Indigenous knowledge is stand the inextricable link between biological presented, the implication is that some societ- and cultural diversity (Wilcox and Duin 1995). ies are more evolved than others. It even draws A good number of these efforts are focused on the conclusion that some societies are living in the knowledge of Indigenous peoples of their static, primitive, or fossilized states. lands and its potential value in biodiversity conservation efforts. We must discard the ideology of the “tradi- tional” Indigenous person, whether that person I believe that in the promotion of biodiversity lives in the Canadian sub-Arctic or in conservation, for non-Indigenous people to Amazonia, as a “hunter-gatherer” practicing a understand and appreciate a deeper and more way of life that “...involves subsisting primarily profound value of what some call traditional on wild plants and animals...[without the ecological knowledge (TEK) and what others capacity] to regulate the growth and reproduc- call Indigenous knowledge (IK), it is necessary tion of the life forms on which people depend” to move beyond focusing on the technical (Plog et al. 1980, 210). Such assumptions can content of TEK or IK; that is, what Indigenous no longer serve our long-term ecological and peoples know about the land. Rather, what is economic interests. Rather, we must adopt a required is that we re-evaluate some of our new paradigm that allows us to see how, for most basic assumptions about the cultural example, “[n]ative peoples’ interactions both contexts out of which TEK has arisen. We need past and present with native plants, may offer to better appreciate how and why Indigenous some interesting yet novel [to non-Indigenous peoples know what they know of their lands. people], approaches to wildland management... We need to understand that while forest re- [that] may prove effective safeguards against sources might be used for different purposes by their rarity” (Anderson 1993, 173). This under- Indigenous people in Canada today, Indigenous standing can be applied to the whole range of institutions and practices of customary re- resource management questions we face with source stewardship have an enduring value for respect to biodiversity conservation today. today and for tomorrow. Equally important for Indigenous communities,

42 Taking up this task will also allow those of us Blackburn, T.C.; Anderson, K. 1993. Before the who consider ourselves as being other than wilderness: environmental management by “Indigenous” or “traditional” to re-consider native Californians. Menlo Park, CA: some of our most basic assumptions about our Ballena Press. relationships with the “natural” others of our world. We need to understand the roots of the Chapeskie, A.J. 1995. Land, landscape, inadequacy of our discourse, as well as the culturescape: Aboriginal relationships to inadequacy of the practice of resource manage- land and the co-management of natural ment and conservation. By doing this, we can resources (Paper prepared for the Royal come to understand how, for example, the Commission on Aboriginal Peoples) (Avail- dualist idea of protecting some land from able on CD-ROM as part of: For Seven humans through conservation while allowing Generations: An Information Legacy of the development on the rest of it may be ultimately Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. futile. It is to concerns such as these that Ottawa: Libraxus Inc., 1997). Indigenous knowledge has as much to offer as it does to fostering local Aboriginal economic Chapeskie, A.J. 1999. Culture, landscape and security. Let us seize the present opportunity diversity. In: Posey, D., ed. Cultural and to address these concerns from our local forest spiritual values of biodiversity: a comple- communities through to the level of broad mentary contribution to the global public policy and move toward meeting the biodiversity assessment. Nairobi and Lon- challenge at hand. don: United Nations Environment Programme and Intermediate Technology Publications: 76-79. LITERATURE CITED Clapp, R.A. 1998. The resource cycle in forestry Anderson, K. 1993. Native Californians as and fishing. The Canadian Geographer. ancient and contemporary cultivators. In: 42(4): 129-144. Blackburn, T.C.; Anderson, K., eds. Before the wilderness: environmental management Cronon, W. 1983. Changes in the land: Indi- by native Californians. Anthropological Pap. ans, colonists, and the ecology of New 40. Menlo Park, CA: Ballena Press: 151- England. New York, NY: Hill & Wang. 174. Dauvergne, P. 1997. Shadows in the forest. Academic American Encyclopaedia. 1980. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. North America. Volume N. Densmore, F. 1928. Uses of plants by the Berkes, F. 1989. Cooperation from the perspec- Chippewa Indians. 44th annual report of tive of human ecology. In: Berkes, F., ed. the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Common property resources: ecology and Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, community-based sustainable development. 1926-1927: 275-397. (Re-published by London: Belhaven Press: 70-88. Dover Publications, New York, 1974).

Berkes, F.; Folke, C., eds. 1998. Linking social Knudtson, P.; Suzuki, D. 1992. Wisdom of the and ecological systems: management Elders. Toronto: Stoddart Publishing Co., practices and social mechanisms for build- Ltd. ing resilience. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Lewis, H.T. 1982. A time for burning. Occas. Publ. 17. Edmonton, Alberta: Boreal Insti- Berkes, F.; Folke, C.; Gadgil, M. 1993. Tradi- tute for Northern Studies. tional ecological knowledge, biodiversity, resilience and sustainability. Beijer Discus- Lewis, H.T. 1989. Ecological and technological sion Pap. Ser. 31. Stockholm: Beijer Inter- knowledge of fire: Aborigines versus park national Institute of Ecological Economics. rangers in Northern Australia. American Anthropologist. 91: 940-961.

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Lewis, H.T.; Ferguson, T.A. 1988. Yards, corri- Theriault, M.K. 1992. Moose to moccasins: the dors, and mosaics: how to burn a boreal story of Ka Kita Wa Pa No Kwe. Toronto: forest. Human Ecology. 16: 57-77. Natural Heritage/Natural History Inc.

MacCleery, D. 1996. When is a landscape Wilcox, B.A.; Duin, K.N. 1995. Indigenous natural? The Minnesota Volunteer. 59(348): cultural and biological diversity: overlap- 42-52. ping values of Latin American ecoregions. Cultural Survival Quarterly. 18(4): 49-53. Plog, F.; Jolly, C.J.; Bates, D.G. 1980. Anthro- pology: decisions, adaptation and evolution. Wilson, E.O., ed. 1988. Biodiversity. Washing- 2d ed. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf. ton, DC: National Academy Press.

Riddington, R. 1982. Technology, world view, World Commission on Environment and Devel- and adaptive strategy in a northern hunting opment, The. 1987. Our common future. society. Canadian Review of Sociology and Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Anthropology. 19: 469-481. World Wildlife Fund Canada. 1999. Forests for Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, The. life - Canada’s commitment to forest pro- 1996. Report of The Royal Commission on tected areas: a WWF status report. Toronto: Aboriginal Peoples (Vol. 1: Looking Forward, World Wildlife Fund Canada, July 1999. Looking Back). Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services Canada.

Siblin, E. 1999. Crees grapple with future: truce with Hydro-Quebec leads to new challenges. Montreal Gazette, Friday, March 19, 1999.

44 The First Nation Forestry Program in Ontario Rick Greet1

“In partnership with First Nations” has been Projects must demonstrate a trend towards described as the motto of the First Nation self-sufficiency, creation of economic benefits, Forestry Program (FNFP). Working in coopera- and capacity development in a forest-based tion with the federal and provincial govern- business. ments, forest industry companies, and other partners, the FNFP provides an opportunity for To date, more than 60 individual First Nations First Nations and First Nation businesses and or First Nation organizations have been as- organizations to promote forest-based economic sisted by the Ontario FNFP. In line with the development, with full consideration for the intent of the program, the $2.7 million (Cana- principles of sustainable forest management. dian) contribution from the FNFP over the past 3 years has helped facilitate the development of Jointly funded and administered by Natural projects with a combined value of over $9.2 Resources Canada (NRCan) and Indian and million. This means that for every $1 invested Northern Affairs Canada (INAC), the FNFP is a by the FNFP, an additional $2.40 has been 5-year program that ends March 31, 2001. It is contributed by First Nations and First Nation delivered by the Canadian Forest Service (CFS), businesses and organizations, as well as by a sector within NRCan. The intent of this other government and private sector partners. national program is to help improve economic conditions in status First Nation communities Businesses have been investigated, created, by facilitating, levering, or being the catalyst for and enhanced that have helped facilitate increased contributions from external sources, economic and social development in communi- leading to self-reliance of business initiatives. ties across Ontario. Some of the worthwhile The FNFP supports communities in developing projects that have been supported include better and more cooperative ventures from biomass heating studies for remote communi- which viable and sustainable long-term jobs ties; partnership development and joint ven- will be created. tures in harvesting and value-added manufac- turing; forestry business planning; education, The FNFP in Ontario is directed by a seven- training, and business development in forest member Ontario Management Committee firefighting; forest management services; non- (OMC), which consists of five members from timber forest products; and forest nursery and First Nations, one member from INAC, and one ecotourism operations, to name a few. member from CFS. To achieve the objectives of the FNFP, the OMC has placed priority on the The OMC members are very pleased that the following strategic issues: FNFP is an active partner in stimulating inter- • Encouraging broader understanding of est and investment in Aboriginal forestry traditional knowledge, culture, and business development. In a prepared state- values; ment, the OMC members have said, “there is • Contributing towards self-sufficiency of still a significant amount of work to be done to business initiatives and community ensure that the First Nations of Ontario estab- development; and lish a real presence in the forestry industry. • Developing capacity and support for The work being supported by the FNFP is cooperative working and funding part- playing an important role in the development of nerships. the First Nation forestry sector. This type of support needs to be continued in order to ensure the sustainability of First Nation for- 1 Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest estry activities.” Service, 1219 Queen Street East, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, Canada, P6A 5M7; Phone: 705- For further information, please visit the First 759-5740 ext. 2272; Fax: 705-759-5712; e-mail: Nations Forestry Program Web site at http:// [email protected]. www.fnfp.gc.ca. 45 NTFP Conference Proceedings Making a Black Ash Basket: From Log to Finished Product

A group of men drag a black ash log out of the Tools of black ash basketry. woods. Only 1 or 2 of every 10 trees are good enough for basket making. To qualify, a tree must be at least 5 to 6 inches in diameter at breast height, have a straight 4- to 6-foot-long trunk that has no visible knots or defects, and have annual rings that are no thinner than a nickel.

The log is pounded with the blunt end of an axe to Two women—one is the top basket weaver on the St. separate the annual rings for splints, the pliable Regis Mohawk Reservation—get the splints ready to wood strips that will form a basket. Here, Mark be woven into a basket. The splints are smoothed Bisonette is working his way down the log from the with a knife if they are thin enough, or they can be small end to the large end. He takes care not to split once again by cutting halfway through them strike too lightly or too hard because a too light blow with a knife and then peeling them apart as if will separate only two or three rings and a too hard peeling the backing off of contact paper. The splints blow will crush the splints. are then cut into different widths. When wet, a black ash splint is strong and flexible and can be bent into a right angle.

46 Les Benedict begins work on a basket. He uses a Baskets come in many styles and sizes for many form to get just the right shape, a critical step in uses. The decorative, highly prized baskets in this basket making. photo are called fancy baskets. They are made from sweet grass and the most desirable wood of the black ash—the almost white sapwood. Black ash baskets hold their shape for years and are passed down from generation to generation.

A Leech Lake Reservation elder, with years of Black ash seeds surrounded by splints and sweet experience in her fingers, deftly weaves black ash grass with a gauge—one of the tools of basketry—to splints into a corn-washing basket. the side and tiny pack baskets at the top.

47 NTFP Conference Proceedings

NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS: BIOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

48 Intellectual and Ecological Traditional Knowledge: Can It Be Sustained Through Natural Products Development? Case Studies from Thailand, Tibet, Ghana, and Guatemala

Trish Flaster1

Sustainability, as defined by Charles Peters mutually beneficial to the IPR and the value (1994), means having a greater abundance of systems of the traditional group. mixed ages of keystone plant species growing than being harvested within a forest. In this IPR issues are also important because these presentation, I hope to demonstrate, through benefits must be returned in a way that sus- case studies, not only how sustainability is tains the project and meets the needs of the indeed ecologically what Dr. Peters said, but community. This is an area that has stimulated also how it is enriched and further sustained great polarity as many “well-meaning outsid- by the ecological and intellectual knowledge ers” have thought they were assisting people held by the cultures and their economies while in reality they were blindly casting tradi- dependant upon the specific geographic region tional wisdom away. However, it is also a in which they reside. Furthermore, when the difficult task for traditional people to determine traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) and what IPR is critical for them to protect because intellectual property rights (IPR) are sustained, it is a foreign value system, resulting from a the result can be mutually beneficial to people competitive market economy. A successful when applied to natural products project daughters new smaller projects while microenterprises. promoting the current one. It protects the environmental resources, offers training, and In this paper, I will describe four projects that imparts skills to community members. Skills have complemented sustainability with medici- may include plant collection and studies, nal plant products from traditional sources. collection of biological data about the products’ These preliminary projects are the creative traditional use, production, marketing, and results of responding to requests for alternative sales. modes of income that benefit traditional peoples. The meetings and conversations that Each international project is different because arose determined how relationships were each cultural group has unique requests for structured, what knowledge could be shared how the project should be implemented, what and therefore included in the projects, and materials are included in the project, and how what results may be realized by these actions. benefits are to be shared. Each project also has Never was a project considered without the a unique approach depending on the funding. direct intervention by the traditional members Projects that may not have long-term funding of the team or without their agreement after need to take a different approach from projects clarity had been reached. that are secure in larger grants. When monies are not provided, the only way to succeed is to Even though TEK, knowledge held by tradi- choose a path that rapidly creates revenue. The tional peoples about when to harvest and time required for training of personnel is where to harvest useful plants, may be the limited so those already aware of marketing most critical information to the success of a and business attitudes are initially contacted. natural products enterprise, it must be woven Working with people in urban areas who al- into a program that acknowledges and is ready have production abilities and the under- standing of American businesses is preferred. This is still ethnobotany because it is the direct 1 CEO/President, Botanical Liaisons, 1180 interaction of plants and culture, but it is not Crestmoor Drive, Boulder, Colorado 80303, USA; the romantic definition assumed by most. Phone: 303-494-1555; e-mail: [email protected] or Regardless of the approach, from the begin- [email protected]. ning, a clear understanding that shared profits 49 NTFP Conference Proceedings are an essential part of any agreement is sustainability of the raw materials. We made established with benefits supporting the sus- two visits before the field study. This gave us taining of traditional knowledge and people. time to meet the members of the team, write up agreements, and scout out field sites and plants of focus. THAILAND Since the Tibetan homeland is predominately In Thailand, after many discussions extended high altitude, concern for their raw materials over a few years, we visited to confirm the through traditional sources was integral to the project parameters. We chose to work with success of the project. We coordinated a field urban colleagues who wanted to make prod- trip to one of the collecting areas of the Amchis ucts from traditional medicines and support or traditional healer. We visited his village and traditional knowledge. We visited a hospital to met with the local collectors and Amchis. While verify our formulas. The hospital offered allo- in the field, we observed and discussed the pathic medicine as well as traditional remedies. compromised availability of the raw materials, The patients could choose which medical implemented study plots, and created aware- system they preferred. We interviewed the ness about the depletion of the medicinal pharmacist, toured the facilities, and saw the plants. The plants were disappearing rapidly processing of the raw materials and the onsite due to large numbers of Chinese emigrants in making of the herbal pills dispensed from the the region and their introduction of grazing pharmacy. We verified that the formula and animals other than yaks. The yak, a browser dosage of a particular formula matched the one like the buffalo, does not consume all plants in we intended to market in the U.S. In return for its path. When we sought plants to collect and their help, we offered a donation for their areas in which to set up study sites, we found building of a new processing facility. For the degradation of the usual collecting sites. This same project, we visited organic farmers to led to the understanding that limits needed to determine the quality and availability of raw be established and cultivated materials needed materials as well as Thai massage schools to be protected from browsing animals. It was where students were learning to make tradi- at this point that the Amchis and collectors tional herbal products. To complete our tour, exchanged traditional ecological knowledge, we visited several suppliers and manufacturers and we surveyed areas to study and places with whom we hoped to partner in the future where gardens could be established by the as well as university departments where bio- villagers. This was possible because the land is logical and chemical assays could be performed communal and available to all village members. on the new products. Finally, we met with Again the project began new alternative income colleagues who would act as liaisons to tradi- projects, expanded knowledge of the plant tional healers we hoped to visit on a return population biology, and transferred technology trip. Even though it was an urban-based while sustaining the land and culture. project, in each step we made sure that IPR and TEK were acknowledged and included. The The greatest exchange of technology was result was two products based on traditional training the Amchis and collectors how to set recipes and use, verified in the hospitals, with up plots for harvest studies and plant identifi- materials procured from quality sources and cation classes. The sites were plotted with the IPR rewarded to sustain training in traditional assistance of the local people within their active methodologies and current market systems as collection areas. The sites were replicated a well as quality of production. minimum of three times. Several plants were investigated this way, and the local people were given the role of overseeing the collection from TIBET the plots when the appropriate plant part was traditionally harvested. The plots were a unique The Tibetan project focused on ecological and endeavor: no other harvesting study has in- cultural criteria. Unlike the case study in cluded the idea of testing the quality of the Thailand, the product was already active in the harvested materials used as medicines. domestic market; before increased promotions, we were asked to audit the facility and set up Some success of the project was clear as the research plots for a feasibility study of the training allowed for the continuation of the

50 project without our intervention by introducing cooperative, collaborating with a non-govern- the Tibetan Hospital to the local ecological mental organization (NGO), seeking someone to institutional staff. They could collaborate to assist them in developing and improving their identify the plants and integrate the accumu- markets for their in-country products. They lated knowledge, the plant identity, and the had identified the plants they wanted to focus conservation status of these plants into a plan on, and had procured land from the local for medicinal plant preservation in the area. government to protect supply. They wanted to gear the products for tourists so with advice from a foreigner passing through, they made GHANA aqueous alcohol extracts of their traditional teas. However, due to their lack of experience In Ghana a pharmacologist with many years of with this type of product, they did not have any experience in developing traditional medicine data about whether it was safe to use or if the asked for involvement in our programs. He was extracts were biologically active. This was the able to offer a formula that he had used for a result of someone trying to assist by thinking period of time based on traditional medicine. they were creating streams of revenues, but He worked in conjunction with the local univer- having a total disregard for the TEK and IPR. sity that collected and identified the botanicals What these folks needed was to validate their as well as with the traditional health institu- products for the domestic market. So we met tions to manufacture and validate his formu- with university people to set up IPR agreements las. In trade he was given travel to natural and develop assays to assist them in gathering products meetings where he could see how he information and allowing for the legal sale of might interact in the commerce of the natural the product in their country. products industry as well as assist us in training retail sales staff. This was critical for Building a domestic trade in a product is the introducing new medicinals into the market- only way a sustainable business can advance. place. The retailer had no idea how to promote Because there is always a possibility that the this without sales support, and these conversa- international market will change or dissolve, tions with the research and development staff validating a domestic market is critical for an showed us that this was the only way a prod- economically sustainable project. Strengthen- uct could be sold. As one of the long-term ing your partners’ understanding and abilities results of this relationship, the man has been will support your efforts towards quality and able to establish a healers collective in Ghana profits. With the adding of value in the source that is currently approaching the government country, your whole team benefits. to secure the legality of selling and using traditional medicine in-country. With continued The biggest obstacle in this program was trust. success, the revenues generated for this project There had been so many forces telling the will provide equipment that adds value in- Mayan people what to do: the government from country to the product. the past, and more recently, the NGOs. The issues of IPR have become so polarized that this group cannot determine who to trust and GUATEMALA what IPR is critical to protect. I am at a loss as to how to resolve this and will continue to The Mayan people in Guatemala have been provide what these people request and offer persecuted for many years. They live in an area self-determination activities for the group that is rich in diversity and they have the skills whether it results in my involvement or not. to maintain it. However, through various national laws, their culture, including their What was critical in all these projects was the language, has been decimated. Only recently need to offer financial, ecological, and cultural have many found ways to support the resur- stability. However, the information itself must gence of their culture. They have initiated come from the people within the country of projects that have generated funds to purchase origin. We have skills to help them reach their land and begin right livelihoods, jobs that are goals and ours only if we can integrate their satisfying economically, environmentally knowledge into a mutually beneficial project. sound, and pleasing to the employed in a social These are examples of some unique approaches aspect. We began working with a women’s to incorporate IPR and TEK into natural prod- ucts microenterprises. 51 NTFP Conference Proceedings

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Cotton, C.W. 1996. Ethnobotany principles and applications. New York, NY: John Wiley and I am grateful to all the people who made these Sons. projects possible. I dedicate this paper to my dear friend Oren Pollack, a great field ecologist Cunningham, Tony. Personal communication. whose suggestions were incorporated into the Tibet project. Margoulis, Richard; Salafsky, Nick. 1998. Measures of success. New York, NY: Island Press. REFERENCES Martin, Gary. 1995. Ethnobotany. Chapman Alexiades, Miguel. 1996. Ethnobotanical re- and Hall. search: a field manual. New York Botanical Garden. Peters, Charles. 1994. Sustainable harvest of non-timber plant resources in tropical Biodiversity Conservation Network. Evaluating moist forest: an ecological primer. Washing- linkages between business, the environ- ton, DC: Biodiversity Support Group. ment, and local communities. Washington, DC.

52 Non-timber Forest Products and Aboriginal Traditional Knowledge

Robin J. Marles1

Abstract.—Ethnobotanical research was conducted in over 30 Aboriginal communi- ties within Canada’s boreal forest region. Specific methods for the research were developed that involved a high degree of participation by Aboriginal people in every stage of the project, with the result that well over 100 Aboriginal elders contributed information on the uses of more that 200 species of plants as foods, medicines, and materials for technology and handicrafts. The original field research was supple- mented with an extensive literature review to identify potential non-timber forest products (NTFPs) based on traditional uses of plants. Important categories of NTFPs include functional foods, nutraceuticals, cosmeceuticals, herbal medicines, agro- chemicals, and fine chemicals. This report details our research methods, highlights some examples of potential NTFPs from boreal plants identified in our research, and discusses concerns of Aboriginal people regarding sustainable development of NTFPs.

INTRODUCTION issue in the past due to the perception that our forest was an almost endless expanse of trees. The forest industry in Canada annually pro- Indeed, half of Canada is covered by forests, duces almost $70 billion in shipments of which which make up 10 percent of the entire world’s slightly more than half are exported, mostly to forests. However, Canada harvests close to 1 the US. The major products of our forest million hectares (2.47 million acres, 0.4 percent industry have consisted of softwood lumber (28 of commercial forest area, 0.2 percent of total percent), fine paper and paperboard (22 per- forest area) of forest per year (Natural Re- cent), wood pulp (17 percent), newsprint (17 sources Canada 1999), which could be com- percent), and waferboard (6 percent) (Natural pared to Brazil’s deforestation rate of 1.4 Resources Canada 1999), but a significant area million hectares (0.4 percent of closed forests) for future development lies in non-timber forest per year (Brown et al. 1992). Most of the south- products (NTFPs). Diversification of the forest ern forested regions are already subject to industry to include products other than wood forest tenures held by private companies for and fiber can allow a greater level of logging, and the northern half of the boreal sustainability by providing the same level of forest region is labeled on our national forest economic return with fewer trees harvested, tenure map as the “non-productive boreal and it can provide greater opportunities for forest” (Government of Canada 1991). This is employment because of the necessity for rather ironic given that Aboriginal people have manual harvesting and value-added process- been living quite productively on that land for ing. several thousand years. The federal and provin- cial Forest Services and forest industry are now The sustainability aspect of NTFP development, looking for ways to diversify the forest industry, as opposed to simply increasing the profit from including the gathering of NTFPs. a given cut-block of forest, is very important. Sustainability was generally not considered an The potential of NTFPs to help agriculture too is an area often overlooked. While we tend to think of agriculture in Canada as involving 1 Associate Professor and Chair, Botany De- almost endless fields of wheat and canola, partment, Brandon University, 270 18th Street, sustainability is a serious issue here too. Farm Brandon, Manitoba, Canada, R7A 6A9; Phone: diversification is an essential strategy to re- 204-727-7334; e-mail: [email protected]. verse the high rate of farm bankruptcies, which have increased by over 1,000 percent since 53 NTFP Conference Proceedings

1979, especially on the prairies (Science Coun- plan that would likely be acceptable to Aborigi- cil of Canada 1992). Non-timber forest prod- nal councils and elders. The following steps are ucts can benefit agriculture through crucial in developing the proposal, getting it diversification, for example, the cultivation of approved, and implementing it: ginseng, a forest species, under shade struc- tures. 1. Have the proposal presented to the Band Council and elders in the languages of both Canada’s forests have long been important for the researchers and the community, e.g., in the subsistence activities of Canada’s Aborigi- English and Cree or Dene, for informed nal peoples, including gathering fruit, veg- consent, with work proceeding only after etables, and beverage plants, medicinal plants, approval has been given. and materials for technology and rituals, plus hunting and snaring for meat and . Thus it 2. Have the proposal reviewed and approved is logical that one of the best sources of infor- by the appropriate institutional Ethics mation on potentially useful native plants of Committee. our forests is the traditional knowledge of Aboriginal elders. Previous economic successes 3. Create an Advisory Committee of elders to include the discovery from our eastern wood- supervise the work, and set guidelines and lands of the antibiotic sanguinarine from the limitations. traditional medicinal plant, bloodroot (Sangui- naria canadensis L., Papaveraceae), which is 4. Hire, equip, and train young people from now available commercially in Viadent® the community to assist in the research. mouthwash and toothpaste manufactured by Colgate Oral Pharmaceuticals, Inc. The pre- 5. Report progress on a regular basis to the scription anticancer drugs etoposide and Band Council, which may terminate the teniposide are semisynthetic derivatives of project at any time. podophyllotoxin from the mayapple (Podophyl- lum peltatum L., Berberidaceae), another 6. Supplement the information gathered in the traditional medicinal forest herb (Robbers et al. community with as much relevant 1996). Such precedents provide justification for information from the literature as possible, the study of Aboriginal traditional plant use as so that at least a foundation for the a guide to potential new NTFPs. knowledge required for informed decisions on development proposals is available within a single report. TESTED METHODS FOR ETHNOBOTANICAL RESEARCH 7. Ensure that copies of all research results, including reports, educational materials, Ethnobotanical research is a proven method for and plant voucher specimens or facsimiles, the discovery of potential non-timber forest will be given to the appropriate authorities products. Of the more than 120 pure drugs within the community. derived from plants in current commercial use, three-quarters were discovered through scien- 8. If economic development of a traditional tific investigations of traditional uses (Soejarto knowledge-based product is a specific and Farnsworth 1989). However, it is important objective, prepare a mutually agreeable that this type of research be conducted with legal document regarding intellectual the full cooperation of Aboriginal communities. property rights and fair compensation. The well-tested approach in the following description will help to ensure that NTFP development becomes a truly sustainable Getting Permission to Conduct Research venture for the benefit of all people. Formal permission, such as a Band Council Developing The Proposal resolution, is required for any research on reservation land. An “informed consent” form The proposal for ethnobotanical research was prepared and presented by the Aboriginal developed in consultation with a First Nations researchers in the appropriate language is also professional community worker to provide a an important tool to ensure that there will be no misunderstandings at any time regarding 54 permission to do the research. Most communi- DATE: NUMBER: ties also want an agreement that they may LOCATION: preview results before publication, and if they PLANT LOCAL NAME: deem it necessary, restrict the scope of what is published to protect intellectual property rights LANGUAGE/DIALECT: and confidentiality. TRANSLATION: ENGLISH NAME: CONTRIBUTOR: Conducting the Interviews USE NOTES:

Bilingual interviewing, mostly by the First SCI. NAME: Nations or Métis trainees, was done in our FAMILY: research project to minimize misunderstand- FLOWER/FRUIT CHAR.: ings and make the oral history recording more HABITAT: comfortable, since the elders could use their HABIT: HEIGHT: own language and talk to an interviewer who SLOPE: ASPECT: was already familiar with the language and ELEVATION: SOIL: customs. Since the interviewing was done by COLLECTED BY: DET. BY: community members, the Councils were satis- fied that elders would not feel duress and could easily set limits on the nature and extent of Ethnobotany field notebook data information provided. Figure 1.— entry form. No formal questionnaires or highly structured interviews were used in our research because The Aboriginal trainees ensured that local previous experience showed that many elders traditions were respected, such as gifts of are not comfortable with that rigid style of tobacco and cloth for elders who preferred to interaction. Traditional knowledge is not follow that custom rather than a strict wage normally learned through a listing of separate scale, and ritual burying of tobacco before facts, so interview techniques should mimic plant harvest to show proper respect for the customary learning methods. For example, Spirits. The work reinforced the trainees’ own elders often share stories and experiences while knowledge of their culture and respect for the on walks in the forest (field interviews), while depth of knowledge possessed by their elders. examining traditional products such as foods Teaming botany students with Aboriginal or handicrafts and discussing the required trainees resulted in a mutually beneficial methods and materials (artifact interviews), experience. The trainees learned the basics of while re-enacting activities that used to be plant voucher specimen collection, plant practiced long ago (simulation), and while identification, and proper documentation getting young people to assist in traditional techniques. The botany students received practices (participant observation technique). training in the local language and through this To ensure consistent and comparable docu- work gained an appreciation for Aboriginal mentation of the ethnobotanical information, culture and practices. each research team had data collection forms (fig. 1) that could gradually be completed as the information was gathered (semistructured Keeping a Proper Field Notebook interview technique). The work was docu- mented in notebooks with these data entry For each plant, notes were made on the pres- forms and space for sketches or freestyle notes, ence and color of sap, juice, or ; the color with slides and video records. Interviews were of flowers or fruit (that may change with dry- also tape recorded to facilitate transcription. All ing); the height, growth form, or habit (e.g., this information has been incorporated into erect, sprawling, trailing, climbing, shrubby, teaching materials as well as scientific publica- arborescent); branching pattern (e.g., opposite, tions. alternate, whorled); and root system (e.g., tap

55 NTFP Conference Proceedings root, fibrous, bulbs, corms, tubers, rhizomes). useful sometimes: GPS instrument if mapping Information was recorded on where each plant of the resources is contemplated, grows: region, exact location, latitude, longi- shears, trowel, hand lens, camera, map and/or tude, and elevation from map and global aerial photographs to locate the sampling area, positioning system (GPS); slope (in degrees); compass, whistle, repellent, flagging tape aspect (compass direction it faces); soil type or to mark transects or routes or plots, tape soil sample number (if needed for ecological measure, high-visibility clothing (especially studies); moisture regime of the soil; habitat during hunting season!), tape recorder to make and associated plants; disturbance if present; verbal notes (especially useful in bad weather use by local inhabitants or animals if observed; when it is hard to write), folding shovel if a lot date; time. “A picture is worth a thousand of deep roots must be collected, pole pruner for words,” so photos or sketches were always collecting tree branch samples, altimeter, taken to supplement the field notes. Using a clinometer, portable drier, string tags (espe- small portable tape recorder helped us collect cially useful to identify specimens by number information quickly or under adverse condi- so they do not get mixed up in the collection tions for later transcription into the field note- bag), nylon mesh bags for drying bulk speci- book. mens for later analysis, and plastic screw- capped bottles and ethanol if pickled speci- mens are required for chemical analysis or Collecting Plant Voucher Specimens morphological studies of complex flower parts. Obviously, not all of these items were needed at The importance of properly collecting of speci- any one time. Permits were obtained when mens of the plants being studied cannot be required for collection in parks, and permission stressed too much. A voucher specimen is a of the owner was obtained for collection on pressed, dried sample of the plant, mounted on private or corporate land. high-quality white cardboard, and labeled with the plant’s scientific and common names and a brief description of where, when, why, and by Plant Press Materials whom it was collected. Because common plant names vary from one location to another, and Field press: a corrugated cardboard box sometimes even from one person to another, (bottom approximately 18" x 12" they are unreliable as a basis for storing and is best), cut so sides fold nicely collating information. Voucher specimens can over bottom, newspaper sheets be used to positively identify each plant and cut to size, rope to close it. serve as a permanent record of the collection. Drying press: two plywood or lattice boards (18" x 12"), two webbing belts or Multiple voucher specimens were collected ropes with slip-knots, corru- during our research, one for each institution gated cardboard sheets, sponge participating in the project to make this essen- (carpet underlay), blotter sheets, tial documentation readily available to other newspaper; plants will be sand- researchers. Plastic-laminated, life-size color wiched between newspaper, photocopies of the voucher specimens were blotters, and then cardboard prepared for participating communities to use sheets. as teaching materials that would require no special storage and be durable for schools and forestry or agriculture extension offices. What We Collected

For herbaceous plants we always collected at Collection Materials least part of the root system, stems, leaves, flowers, and/or fruit and seeds. For woody The bare minimum for collection materials plants we collected a small stem and/or a piece should include a field press (as described of the bark (in addition to leaves, flowering below), knife, permanent marker, pencils, field and/or fruiting structures). Large fruit or notebook (as described above), and a plastic succulent stems were split or cut into pieces bag to keep things dry if it rains (garbage size for drying or placed in separate folded paper and smaller). Other equipment that we found (e.g., cones) if too large and juicy to be pressed.

56 Note that some plants, such as , have Dry, sunny weather is best in terms of getting separate sexes, both of which must be collected plants dried easily, but when that was not with flowers to identify them with certainty. possible, we placed presses on racks sus- pended well above stoves, kerosene space Specimens were always numbered consecu- heaters, or heat lamps. The faster the plants tively, even if the same species was collected are dried, the better they will look, especially in several times on different occasions. Each terms of color and lack of mold, although care collection requires a separate number since must be taken not to overheat the press. Plants related or otherwise similar species may be were pressed as soon as possible after collec- confused in the field. Only multiple specimens tion using a field press, which provides better of the same plant collected at the same time specimens than if plants are collected in plastic and place shared a single collection number. garbage bags and pressed later. Collections had different numbering schemes for different regions covered in this project because each student maintained his/her own Mounting Specimens consecutive numbering scheme, a fact that facilitated comparison of plants from different For permanent storage, each voucher specimen locations. The collection number was written was placed on a sheet of archival quality white on the pressing newspaper or on a tag firmly cardboard 12" x 18" and taped down with very attached to a specimen that was to be pressed thin strips of white fabric tape. Any loose parts later, and the number and related information such as conifer needles, seeds, or berries were were recorded in the field notebook immedi- placed in a small envelope and attached to the ately. Using the pre-printed data form helped white cardboard in any free spot other than the us keep consistent records. lower right corner where the label was to be glued. The label (example provided in figure 2) was carefully typed and provided the plant’s Pressing Plants scientific name (Genus specific-epithet Author, Family), common names in English and other All soil was cleaned from roots (mud was first languages as required (e.g., Chipewyan, Cree, rinsed off, then further brushed off when dry). French), a brief summary of traditional uses, Plant specimens were arranged on the newspa- and a brief description of where, when, why, per carefully, so that they looked as natural as and by whom it was collected. possible, without too many parts overlapping (which slows drying and looks ugly). Pruning was done if necessary. Tall plants were ar- Storing Voucher Specimens ranged by folding the stems like an upside- down V, or an N or M. At least one leaf was When the voucher specimens were submitted turned upside down so the under-surface to each institution’s herbarium, they were each could be seen after pressing. Room was left for assigned an accession number that serves for a 3" x 5" label at the lower right-hand corner. the indexing of the collections, e.g., on a com- Herbs were sandwiched between two blotters puter database. The voucher specimens were and then two cardboard sheets. For thicker then filed in folders with other specimens of the specimens a sponge sheet in place of one of the same species and then arranged in water and blotters was used to press around the thick insect-proof herbarium cabinets in taxonomic stem or root and still flatten the leaves. When order. To facilitate retrieval, the unique speci- the “sandwiches” of collected plants were ready men label clearly identified it as a voucher to press, they were stacked and the stack was specimen for the ethnobotany project, and it placed between the two plywood or lattice carried the collection number to connect the boards. The belts were tightened around the individual specimen to the data in the field press by standing on the press as the ends of notebook and subsequent publications. the belts were pulled. Further tightening was necessary later as the specimens dried and shrank.

57 NTFP Conference Proceedings

Brandon University Herbarium Boreal Ethnobotany Voucher

English: Fireweed Cree: akapuskwah, athkapask Dene: góndhi’elé French: bouquets rouges

Epilobium angustifolium L., Onagraceae

Food: young leaves, stems, flowers Medicine: leaf tea for intestinal worms, poultice for wounds, boils, bruises Tech: mat for food, stem fibre for thread

Coll: N. Spence #20, 22-Aug-95

Nelson House - Thompson highway mile 39

Figure 2.—A sample herbarium label.

Presenting the Results RESULTS: BOREAL NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS In our reports the names of the elders contrib- uting the information were substituted with a With the economic justification of diversifica- letter representing their cultural background tion of the forestry and agricultural industries, (e.g., C = Cree, D = Dene: Chipewyan, or M = we received funding to conduct extensive Métis) and a randomly assigned number for the ethnobotanical field research across the central individual. This was done to preserve confiden- boreal forest region of the provinces of Alberta, tiality while still allowing quantitative ethnobo- Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, and the tanical analysis of the results. For example, if Labrador district of Newfoundland. A key identical uses are provided by several contribu- aspect of this research is that it has involved tors from different communities or cultures, First Nations communities in every stage, from that indicates a more widely accepted use, planning to conducting field interviews, collect- which might take priority for followup investi- ing and identifying plant specimens, to docu- gations over a use reported only once. In menting and analyzing the results. The infor- publications detailing the results of the search, mation to follow is based on interviews with we provided a summary of the codes and over 100 Cree, Dene, Ojibwe, Innu, and Métis anonymous biographical data (age, gender, elders in more than 30 different communities community, and cultural affiliation). across the north (see fig. 3), supplemented by an in-depth literature review. The following A conscientious effort was made to produce information is mainly summarized from Marles readily accessible publications of ethnobotani- et al. (2000) except where otherwise indicated. cal information that could be returned to the participating communities for their own use in There has always been a rather limited demand addition to more technical peer-reviewed for traditional handicrafts such as birch bark scientific publications that would have a much and sweet grass baskets, but we need to pay more limited audience. Examples from our more attention to highly processed products, research include Marles et al. 2000 and which provide greater employment opportuni- Spence-Tays et al. 1999. ties within the community and have low bulk

58 Figure 3.—Recent ethnobotanical studies in Canada’s boreal forest: #1-10: Research of Marles, colleagues and students (Abou-Zaid 1996; Clavelle 1997; Inkpen 1999; Marles et al. 2000); #11: Clément 1990; #12: Black 1980; #13: Berkes and Farkas 1978; #14: Leighton 1985; #15: Ander- son 1980; Siegfried 1994; Wein et al. 1991; Young et al. 1989; #16: Lamont 1977; #17: Hara 1980; #18: Johnson-Gottesfeld 1988-98. and high value. This is important due to the more broadly as all functional foods, dietary isolation of many northern communities, which supplements, medicines, and other products may depend on air and water transportation such as shampoos that have herbal constitu- during the summer and ice roads over the ents (Shambrock & Associates and Kelly Asso- frozen rivers and lakes during the winter, ciates 1998). Even accepting the lower value, making the shipping of goods extremely expen- there are obviously tremendous market oppor- sive. tunities for boreal NTFPs that might fit into one or more of the above categories. Some categories of plant-derived, value-added products include functional foods, nutra- ceuticals, cosmeceuticals, pharmaceuticals, Functional Foods agrochemicals, and fine chemicals. Estimates of the current North American market value for The health benefits of fresh, unprocessed fruits natural products vary from $5 billion to $250 and vegetables are well known. Aboriginal billion, depending on whether natural products elders we interviewed made an explicit connec- are defined narrowly as herbal medicines or tion between the lack of consumption of “bush food” and the poor health of many young 59 NTFP Conference Proceedings members of their communities. Some northern rubra A. Nels, Chenopodiaceae) by boiling and plant products are already commercialized as evaporation, and used by the Shoal Lake, healthful foods, such as wild rice (Zizania Saskatchewan, Cree to season food. This crude aquatica L., Poaceae) grains and pasta prod- salt provides trace minerals that act as enzyme ucts. A “functional food,” as defined by Health cofactors critical for the maintenance of good Canada (1997), is distinguished by the follow- health. Consumption of small amounts of ing characteristics: it is similar in appearance chromium, manganese, and magnesium salts to conventional foods, it is consumed as part of has been shown to be beneficial in the treat- a usual diet, it is demonstrated to have physi- ment of non-insulin dependent diabetes melli- ological benefits beyond basic nutritional tus (Marles and Farnsworth 1995). functions, and/or it reduces the risk of chronic disease. One example of a “functional food” There are many classes of bioactive phyto- from a forest (bog) plant with a medicinal chemicals with known health benefits, includ- application is the cranberry (Vaccinium ing: mono-, di-, and triterpenoids; limonoids; macrocarpon Ait., V. oxycoccos L., and V. vitis- phytosterols; carotenoids; flavonoids; idaea L., Ericaceae). Cranberry fruit and juice phenylpropanoids; lignins; other polyphenols are known to treat or help prevent urinary tract including: catechins, gallotannins, infections due to the content of , which ellagitannins, and proanthocyanidins; allylic, inhibits adhesion of type 1 fimbriated E. coli, aromatic, and isothiocyanate sulphur com- and particular proanthocyanidin-type con- pounds; complex including fiber; densed that prevent adhesion of P- lipids; and indoles. However, these fimbriated E. coli bacteria to the urinary tract nutraceutical compounds may be present in epithelium (Howell et al. 1998). These special higher amounts in some wild edible plants, tannins are restricted in their distribution to such as stinging nettle (Urtica dioica L., cranberries and blueberries (Vaccinium Urticaceae) than in cultivars such as iceberg myrtilloides Michx., V. uliginosum L., V. lettuce that have been bred for mild flavor and caespitosum Michx., V. corymbosum L., V. pale color. myrtillus L., Ericaceae). Other potentially important examples from the northern forest The inner bark (technically the inner active include carotenoid-rich cloudberries (Rubus phloem, cambium, and outer active xylem chamaemorus L., Rosaceae), commercialized in layers) of aspen and balsam poplar (Populus Newfoundland but not readily available in tremuloides Michx. and P. balsamifera L., stores elsewhere; rhizomes and shoots of cattail Salicaceae), birch (Betula papyrifera Marsh., B. (Typha latifolia L., Typhaceae), which have neoalaskana Sarg., Betulaceae), white spruce antioxidant flavonoids, low Glycemic Index (Picea glauca (Moench) Voss, Pinaceae), and carbohydrates, protein, fiber, and various pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb., Pinaceae), har- vitamins and minerals; lamb’s-quarter leaves vested in Canada’s north as a starvation food (Chenopodium album L., Chenopodiaceae), a or special treat in early spring, is a source of common weed rich in flavonoids, sesquiterpe- nutraceutical polyphenols already commercial- nes, and oxalic acid; and western wood lily ized from the European maritime pine (P. (Lilium philadephicum L., Liliaceae), which has maritima L.) as Pycnogenol®, a proantho- tuberous roots rich in low Glycemic Index cyanidin complex reputedly antioxidant and glucomannans and health-promoting lignans able to reduce blood capillary fragility. and phenylpropanoids.

Cosmeceuticals Nutraceuticals Cosmeceuticals are compounds present in A nutraceutical may be distinguished from a cosmetics that have a pharmaceutical effect, functional food as follows: it is produced from a such as to improve skin texture, stimulate food but sold in pills, powders, or other medici- wound healing, control hair growth, regulate nal forms; it is demonstrated to have physi- skin pigmentation, reduce inflammation, or ological benefits beyond basic nutritional reduce irritation, e.g., stinging, burning, and functions; and/or it reduces the risk of chronic itching. Examples of plants with cosmeceutical disease. Most traditional foods do not fit in this potential include yarrow (Achillea millefolium L., category, with the possible exception of mineral Asteraceae), which contains anti-inflammatory salts extracted from red samphire (Salicornia sesquiterpenes, antimicrobial monoterpenes, 60 and hemostatic alkaloids; cow parsnip to treat diabetic ulcers. It is important to note (Heracleum maximum Bartr., Apiaceae), which that the treatment is not just herbal, but also contains skin darkening furanocoumarins used involves smudging with burning herbs, commercially to treat psoriasis; and leaves of prayers, and cleansing rituals involving the use willowherb or fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium of tobacco, charcoal, and red cloth. We cannot L., Onagraceae), the active constituent in a line expect laboratory studies to perfectly describe of anti-inflammatory skin care products mar- the healing properties of the herbal medicines keted by Fytochem Products, Inc. Willowherb because the traditional healing rituals are an has prostaglandin inhibitory activity due to its important psychological aspect of the healing. flavonoid glycoside (myricetin-3-O-β-D-glucu- ronide) content. North American rat root or calamus rhizome (Acorus americanus (Raf.) Raf., Acoraceae) decoction is widely used traditionally for colds, Traditional Herbal Medicines or Natural upset stomach, pain (rheumatism, head, etc.), Health Products and diabetes. There is scientific evidence to support its efficacy and superiority over the More than 130 native or naturalized species of related species of Europe and Asia (A. calamus plants were identified in our study as having L.) (Bisset and Wichtl 1994), and thus it has a traditional medicinal uses. Health Canada strong overseas market potential as well as (1995) defines, for registration purposes, a demand among North American Aboriginal Traditional Herbal Medicine or Natural Health people. Product as a finished drug product intended for self-medication, for minor self-limiting ailments suitable for self-treatment, whose active ingre- Agrochemicals dients are herbal only. There may be only limited scientific documentation, but these Agrochemicals are used for the control of products must have a well-documented tradi- insects, weeds, or other pests. Naturally de- tional use. Such registered herbal products are rived agrochemicals may be more “environmen- over-the-counter medicines with a Drug Identi- tally friendly” than current synthetic com- fication Number and allowed therapeutic pounds due to biodegradability and novel claims on the product label. Commercial mechanisms of action that defeat current pest examples include a bearberry leaf (Arctostaphy- resistance. A well-known example of an agro- los uva-ursi (L.) Spreng., Ericaceae) diuretic chemical from a northern plant is the insect produced by Nature’s Way and the mouthwash hormone analogue juvabione from balsam fir and toothpaste with Canadian bloodroot (San- (Abies balsamea (L.) Mill., Pinaceae). There is guinaria canadensis L., Papaveraceae) men- significant potential for the discovery of new tioned previously. Some commercial European insecticides from North American ethno- herbs, such as valerian (Valeriana officinalis L., botanicals (Berenbaum 1989), such as yarrow, Valerianaceae), could provide leads for similar which contains insecticidal, insect repellent, Canadian wild herbs such as our northern and antifeedant monoterpenes and sesquiter- valerian (V. dioica L.). penes.

Medicinal plants are often used in combina- tions, but the elders have asked us to keep the Fine Chemicals formulas confidential to protect their intellec- tual property rights. We have their permission Fine chemicals may be used as reagents, to describe and evaluate uses of certain indi- starting materials for synthesis, or in other vidual plants to validate traditional knowledge. industrial applications, such as terpenoids One example I can describe in some detail from pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb., Pinaceae) in involves the rhizome of yellow pond lily (Nuphar turpentine. They may also include essential oils lutea (L.) Sm., Nymphaeaceae). It is harvested extracted for perfumery and aromatherapy, from the bottom of ponds, cut into slices to be such as those from wild bergamot (Monarda dried, then used both internally with other fistulosa L., Lamiaceae) and Labrador tea plants in a compound decoction and externally (Ledum groenlandicum Oeder, Ericaceae).

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DISCUSSION: SUSTAINABILITY OF NTFP Economic Sustainability PRODUCTION Canada has a history as a major world supplier Now that we have identified a significant num- of raw materials, which we export and then buy ber of potentially useful plants from the boreal back as finished products. This trend has forest, we must determine if they can be devel- carried over into medicinal plant crops, which oped in a sustainable manner. There are are generally sold in bulk through brokers to various interpretations of “sustainable.” American, Asian, and European markets. Much more effort must be made to develop value- added products, particularly if rural communi- Ecological Sustainability ties are to achieve the maximum benefit from new medicinal crops. Extraction and encapsu- While clearcut logging is an efficient method of lation processes are readily adapted to a cot- timber harvest, it is not likely to be ecologically tage-industry scale. Target markets must be sustainable if conducted on too large a scale or clearly identified and stringent quality controls on unsuitable land such as steep slopes sub- established to ensure commercial viability. ject to erosion. Alternative strategies such as Health Canada (1996) has published a supple- selective logging combined with the harvest of ment to its Good Manufacturing Practice non-timber forest products could allow the Guidelines specifically for herbal products. same economic return per hectare with fewer trees cut, making the industry more sustain- able. Conversely, some companies are sending Cultural Sustainability in gatherers for the non-timber products and then clearcutting, which maximizes the dollars Development should be consistent with local extracted per hectare but is less ecologically community needs and desires, not just de- sustainable. Most native herbs, such as Ameri- mands of the global market. Among Aboriginal can ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L., people of all ages participating in this study, Araliaceae), cannot be sustainably wildcrafted there was no consensus on the desirability of due to the quantities needed for commerce, and economic development of plant products. in many localities economic species have Concern was expressed that pharmaceutical already become endangered or extirpated: companies might profit from the development American ginseng was officially up-listed to of medicines based on traditional remedies endangered status in Ontario and Quebec in without any recognition or financial compensa- 1999 (Committee on the Status of Endangered tion for those providing the information, raising Wildlife in Canada 2000). the issue of protection of intellectual property rights. When intellectual property rights are Biological productivity in the north tends to be recognized, another question arises about the low, although the long summer day compen- form (e.g., cash, funding for construction or sates to some extent. Small-scale agriculture scholarships, biological reserve land purchases) with ameliorative techniques such as raised and quantity of fair compensation. In many beds or cold-frames can prove quite successful. cases the sacred nature of medicinal plants Developing native species into new crops may be considered grounds for not developing presents a unique set of agronomic challenges them commercially. These issues must be dealt for cultivation, pest control, harvesting, and with fairly to ensure sustained involvement of preparation for market, but for many of our the community in development projects. Direct economic native plants, selection of appropriate involvement of community members in the varieties and large-scale agricultural produc- research and development process empowers tion will be the most viable option for a sus- them to find the solutions they need. Involving tainable harvest. Our provincial Departments Aboriginal youth in the research helps dissemi- of Agriculture and the Crop Diversification nate traditional knowledge, ensuring that these Centres have numerous test plots of medicinal traditions will be sustained from one genera- plants to evaluate cultivation, harvest, and pest tion to the next. The preparation of educational control techniques under various conditions. materials from research results is another means to facilitate the transmission of tradi- tional knowledge to new generations.

62 CONCLUSIONS Berenbaum, May R. 1989. North American ethnobotanicals as sources of novel plant- We believe the teamwork approach of Aborigi- based insecticides. In: Arnason, J.T.; nal researchers, community elders, scientists, Philogène, B.R.; Morand, P., eds. Insecti- foresters, agronomists, and marketers working cides of plant origin. ACS Symp. Ser. 387. together for the discovery and assessment of Washington, DC: American Chemical potential new plant products shows promise for Society. 213 p. sustainable boreal economic development. Many boreal plants have the potential to pro- Berkes, F.; Farkas, C.S. 1978. Eastern James vide NTFPs, but issues of ecological, economic, Bay Cree Indians: changing patterns of wild and cultural sustainability must be adequately food use and nutrition. Ecology of Food and addressed. Nutrition. 7: 155-172.

Bisset, N.G.; Wichtl, M. 1994. Herbal drugs ACKNOWLEDGMENTS and phytopharmaceuticals: a handbook for practice on a scientific basis. Boca Raton, I would like to acknowledge the tremendous FL: Medpharm Scientific Publishers, cooperation provided by the participating First Stuttgart, and CRC Press. 566 p. Nations communities, their elders, and the students who participated in this research. Black, M.J. 1980. Algonquin ethnobotany: an Funding was provided by Natural Resources interpretation of Aboriginal adaptation in Canada’s Canadian Forest Service: Manitoba, southwestern Quebec. Can. Ethnology Saskatchewan, and Alberta Partnership Agree- Serv. Pap. 65, National Museum of Man ments in Forestry, Canadian Public Service Mercury Series. Ottawa, Canada: National Commission Native Employment Program, Museums of Canada. 266 p. Manitoba Education and Training Career Focus and Career Start Youth Career Development Brown, Lester R.; Brough, Holly; Durning, Programs, the Saskatchewan Heritage Founda- Alan; Flavin, Christopher; French, Hilary; tion, the Program for Collaborative Research in Jacobson, Jodi; Lensenn, Nicholas; Lowe, the Pharmaceutical Sciences at the University Marcia; Postel, Sandra; Renner, Michael; of Illinois at Chicago, the Canadian Ethnology Ryan, John; Starke, Linda; Young, John. Service, the Canadian Northern Scientific 1992. State of the world 1992. A Training Grants Program, the Institute for Worldwatch Institute report on progress Northern Studies—Saskatoon, and the College toward a sustainable society. New York, NY: of Graduate Studies and Research at the W.W. Norton. 256 p. University of Saskatchewan. Clavelle, C.M. 1997. Ethnobotany of two Cree communities in the southern boreal forest LITERATURE CITED of Saskatchewan. Saskatoon, SK: Univer- sity of Saskatchewan. 181 p. M.A. thesis. Abou-Zaid, M. 1996. Historical knowledge of medicinal plants used by northern Ontario Clément, D. 1990. L’ethnobotanique First Nations People as a guide to the montagnaise de Mingan. Collection identification of new bioactive natural Nordicana 53. Quebec City, Canada: Centre products. Northern Ontario Development d’études nordiques, Université Laval. 108 p. Agreement Progress Report (1995-96), Project Agreement 4559. Sault Ste. Marie, Committee on the Status of Endangered Wild- ON: Natural Resources Canada, Canadian life in Canada. 2000. Canadian species at Forest Service. 32 p. risk: May 2000. Ottawa, Canada: Canadian Wildlife Service, Environment Canada. Anderson, A. 1980. Some native herbal rem- 28 p. edies. Publ. 8A. Calgary: Friends of the Devonian Botanic Garden. revised April Government of Canada. 1991. Forestry: seeing 1980. 76 p. the forest and the trees. In: The state of Canada’s environment. Ottawa, Canada: Ministry of the Environment. 10: 1-24.

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Hara, H.S. 1980. The Hare Indians and their northwest British Columbia, Canada. world. Can. Ethnology Serv. Pap. 63, Human Ecology. 22(4): 443-465. National Museum of Man Mercury Series. Ottawa, Canada: National Museums of Johnson-Gottesfeld, L.M. 1994b. Wet’suwet’en Canada. 301 p. ethnobotany: traditional plant uses. Jour- nal of Ethnobiology. 14(2): 185-210. Health Canada. 1995. Drugs directorate guide- line: traditional herbal medicines. Ottawa, Johnson-Gottesfeld, L.M. 1995. The role of Canada: Health Canada. 17 p. plant foods in traditional Wet’suwet’en nutrition. Ecology of Food and Nutrition. Health Canada. 1996. Good manufacturing 34: 149-169. practices: supplementary guidelines for the manufacture of herbal medicinal products. Johnson-Gottesfeld, L.M.; Anderson, B. 1988. Ottawa, Canada: Health Canada, Health Gitksan traditional medicine: herbs and Protection Branch. 6 p. healing. Journal of Ethnobiology. 8(1): 13- 33. Health Canada. 1997. Functional foods and nutraceuticals. Discussion document, Food Johnson-Gottesfeld, L.M.; Hargus, S. 1998. Directorate and Drugs/Medical Devices Classification and nomenclature in Programme. Ottawa, Canada: Health Witsuwit’en ethnobotany: a preliminary Canada. 25 p. examination. Journal of Ethnobiology. 18(1): 69-101. Howell, A.B.; Vorsa, N.; Der Marderosian, A.; Foo, L.Y. 1998. Inhibition of the adherence Lamont, S.M. 1977. The Fisherman Lake Slave of p-fimbriated Escherichia coli to and their environment – a story of floral uroepithelial-cell surfaces by and faunal resources. Saskatoon, SK: proanthocyanidin extracts from cranber- University of Saskatchewan. 368 p. M.S. ries. New England Journal of Medicine. 339 thesis. (15): 1085-1086. Leighton, A.L. 1985. Wild plant use by the Inkpen, T. 1999. Healthy people, healthy world: Woods Cree (Nihithawak) of east-central preserving aspects of traditional knowledge Saskatchewan. Can. Ethnology Serv. Pap. and improving its application to environ- 101, National Museum of Man Mercury mental assessment. Winnipeg, MB: Natural Series. Ottawa, Canada: National Museums Resources Institute, University of Manitoba. of Canada. 128 p. 149 p. Master of Natural Resources Man- agement thesis. Marles, Robin J.; Farnsworth, Norman R. 1995. Antidiabetic plants and their active Johnson-Gottesfeld, L.M. 1992a. The impor- constituents. Phytomedicine. 2: 137-189. tance of bark products in the aboriginal economies of northwestern British Colum- Marles, Robin J.; Clavelle, Christina; bia, Canada. Economic Botany. 46(2): 148- Monteleone, Leslie; Tays, Natalie; Burns, 157. Donna. 2000. Aboriginal plant use in Canada’s northwest boreal forest. Johnson-Gottesfeld, L.M. 1992b. Use of cinder Vancouver, BC: UBC Press and Natural conk (Inonotus obliquus) by the Gitksan of Resources Canada – Canadian Forest northwestern British Columbia, Canada. Service. 368 p. Journal of Ethnobiology. 12(1): 153-156. Natural Resources Canada. 1999. The state of Johnson-Gottesfeld, L.M. 1993. Plants, land Canada’s forests: 1998-1999. Ottawa, and people, a study of Wet’suwet’en ethno- Canada: Natural Resources Canada – botany. Edmonton, AB: University of Canadian Forest Service. 112 p. Alberta. 252 p. M.A. thesis. Robbers, James E.; Speedie, Marilyn K.; Tyler, Johnson-Gottesfeld, L.M. 1994a. Conservation, Varro E. 1996. Pharmacognosy and territory, and traditional beliefs: an analysis pharmacobiotechnology. Baltimore, MD: of Gitksan and Wet’suwet’an subsistence, Williams & Wilkins. 337 p. 64 Science Council of Canada. 1992. Sustainable Spence-Tays, Natalie; Strutt, Kimberley D.; agriculture: the research challenge. Rep. Marles, Robin J. 1999. Plants of the north- 43. Ottawa, Canada: Science Council of ern forest: traditional uses shared by Canada. 6 p. Aboriginal elders. A set of 30 life-size color photocopies of plants and their uses. Shambrock, L. & Associates (Shambrock, Brandon, MB: Brandon University Her- D.L.; Marles, R.J.; Murray, E.D.); Kelly barium. 31 p. Associates (Kelly, B.; Baldwin, R.). 1998. Manitoba phytochemical nutraceutical Wein, E.E.; Sabry, J.H.; Evers, F.T. 1991. Food market study. Winnipeg, Canada: Manitoba consumption patterns and use of country Department of Industry, Trade and Tour- foods by native Canadians near Wood ism. Buffalo National Park, Canada. Arctic. 44(3): 196-205. Siegfried, E.V. 1994. Ethnobotany of the north- ern Cree of Wabasca/Desmarais. Calgary, Young, D.; Ingram, G.; Swartz, L. 1989. Cry of AB: University of Calgary. 336 p. M.A. the eagle: encounters with a Cree healer. thesis. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press. 145 p. Soejarto, D.D.; Farnsworth, N.R. 1989. Tropical rain forests: potential source of new drugs? Perspectives in Biology and Medicine. 32: 244-256.

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“Keeping it Living”: Applications and Relevance of Traditional Plant Management in British Columbia to Sustainable Harvesting of Non-timber Forest Products

Nancy J. Turner1

Abstract.—There has been increasing concern about sustainability in harvesting and marketing of non-timber forest products in North America. This paper examines traditional approaches and practices for use of plant resources by Aboriginal peoples and discusses their applications in a contemporary context. Philosophies and attitudes of caring and respect are embodied in many traditional resource use systems, and these can become models for developing a responsible land ethic as an essential component of any program of sustainable land use. Aboriginal peoples have also developed and used a variety of practices and techniques in resource management that maintain the capacity for growth and regeneration of species being harvested, including re-planting and transplanting, pruning and coppicing, and burning. These also have relevance in current harvesting and pro- duction systems. Traditional systems of tenure, too, have enabled Aboriginal peoples to control access and monitor impacts of use. Traditional modes of knowledge transmission, including experimen- tal, site-based learning, use of specialized names and vocabulary, stories, discourse, and ceremonial reinforcement of values of respect and careful use, are also potentially valuable and applicable to contemporary harvesting practices for NTFPs. In such applications, however, the rights and interests of Aboriginal peoples must be recognized and incorporated in any relevant NTFP use.

INTRODUCTION North America, and most of these are forest species (see Compton 1993; Kuhnlein and Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) include Turner 1991; Turner 1995, 1997b, 1998). many species and products harvested and used Products from some of these species are al- by Indigenous peoples. In British Columbia, for ready being marketed. For example, pine example, a wide range of traditional botanical mushrooms (Tricholoma magnivelare) and foods, materials, and medicines have current or chanterelles (Cantharellus spp.) are currently potential value in the NTFP industry (De Geus bringing wild mushroom pickers in B.C. (some 1995, Mitchell 1998). of whom are Aboriginal) around $25-50 million Canadian each year, while exporters are earn- In all, over 500 plant and fungus species are ing $50-80 million (Hamilton 1998). In B.C. in known to have specific cultural applications 1997, the 200-300 commercial gatherers of among Aboriginal peoples of northwestern medicinal plants collectively earned an esti- mated $2-3 million Canadian (Wills and Lipsey 1999), but most of this would have been for non-Aboriginal harvesters. Other locally mar- keted products include huckleberries, baskets 1 Ethnobotanist and Professor, School of and weaving materials, and specialty wood Environmental Studies, University of Victoria, carvings (Turner and Cocksedge, in press). Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, V8W 2Y2; Phone: 250-721-6124; Fax: 250-721-8985; e- Indigenous peoples have a number of concerns mail: [email protected]. about commercialization of their traditional 66 species, many of which have critical culturally aquatic systems, as well as for cultural sys- defined values over and above their economic tems—NTFP industries are seen by First Na- potential (Turner and Cocksedge, in press). tions and others concerned about environmen- These concerns range from issues of intellec- tal integrity to be a desirable form of economic tual property rights and cultural appropriation development. This traditional knowledge could (Brush and Stabinsky 1996, Department of form a basis for sustainable and respectful use Indian Affairs and Northern Development 1999, of NTFPs in small-scale industry settings that Greaves 1994) to fears that the resources that would benefit many local communities, as long are precious to them will be inappropriately as it is used appropriately. used and/or overexploited by outsiders who neither understand the cultural significance of The information provided here is drawn from these species nor know how to properly harvest various literature sources (e.g., Deur and or sustain them. To date, sparse attention has Turner, in press; Peacock and Turner 1999; been paid to social and cultural aspects of the Turner 1997a; Turner and Atleo 1998; Turner NTFP industry in general (for exceptions, see and Cocksedge, in press; Turner and Peacock, Liegel et al. 1998, Richards and Creasy 1996), in press; Turner et al. 2000) and, most impor- yet we must understand these factors if we are tantly, from knowledgeable Indigenous elders to develop truly sustainable NTFP industries. and plant specialists who understand cultural traditions relating to the natural world and Traditionally, Indigenous peoples have had have in some cases practiced the techniques many culturally mediated ways for sustainably described. These people are mentioned by using their resources, embodied within name in the Acknowledgments section at the worldviews and philsophies, and “played out” end of this paper. on the ground through various practical strate- gies. These strategies include habitat enhance- It is important to emphasize that there is ment and diversification, through controlled tremendous cultural diversity among and burning and clearing, and careful selective, within B.C. First Nations. The knowledge and strategically timed harvesting, and increasing practices discussed here cannot be generalized productivity through pruning, coppicing, tilling, without qualification; to do so would be disre- and control of weeds and pests. Traditional spectful and inaccurate. However, there are tenure systems are an important element of common philosophical themes and practices sustainable resource use. Also relevant are known to many people from Indigenous com- effective methods and institutions for acquiring munities that are geographically and linguisti- and disseminating such knowledge within cally diverse. It can be assumed that many of Indigenous societies. these beliefs and practices are widespread and longstanding, and that they will serve Aborigi- In this paper, I present information and ex- nal communities well into the future. amples of various views and aspects of tradi- tional plant knowledge and use among British Columbia First Peoples, which need to be MANAGING AND SUSTAINING PLANT considered by all those practicing and promot- RESOURCES IN BRITISH COLUMBIA ing the harvesting and marketing of NTFPs in the province. Of particular relevance are the “The Earth’s Blanket”: Philosophies of ideologies for looking after the land and its Caring for the Environment resources, and the understanding and incorpo- ration of the techniques for sustainable har- Indigenous peoples’ relationships with the vesting that have been applied for many gen- environment share a common theme of kinship erations. with and respect for all living things (Anderson 1996; Berkes 1993, 1999; Gadgil et al. 1993, Since the harvesting of NTFP species can Turner and Atleo 1998; Turner et al. 2000). potentially provide alternatives to current This perspective is reflected in peoples’ teach- economies focused solely on large-scale timber ings and lifestyles in many ways, and it is production—usually involving clearcutting and manifested as a general cultural constraint severe habitat disruption for both forest and against waste and overexploitation. One ex- ample is in the metaphor of “The Earth’s

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Blanket,” as recorded for the Nlaka’pamux new shoots and roots, both in normal times (Thompson) people by ethnographer James and in response to damage such as from Teit: “flowers, plants and grass especially the pruning or cutting away of part of the plant. As latter are the covering or blanket of the earth. If long as plants maintain meristematic tissues too much plucked or ruthlessly destroyed [the] and have the capacity to absorb sufficient earth [is] sorry and weeps[.] It rains or is angry nutrients and water, they can reproduce veg- & makes rain, fog & bad weather.” (ca. 1900, etatively and maintain individuals and popula- cited from Turner et al. 1990:54). Other, simi- tions even with a certain level of harvesting. lar expressions of the need for respecting resources are reflected in the teachings from a This process is captured well in the Kwak’wala wide variety of sources. For example, Ahousaht word, q’waq’wala7owkw, which translates as Elder Roy Haiyupis explained: “Keeping it Living” (Chief Adam Dick, Respect is the very core of our tradi- Kwaxistala, pers. comm., 1998). This term, tions, culture and existence. It is very according to Adam Dick, pertains to peoples’ basic to all we encounter in life.... “” practices for traditional root veg- Respect for nature requires a healthy etables, such as in the areas of tidal flats at state of stewardship with a healthy Kingcome River estuary and in many other attitude. It is wise to respect nature. locations along the coast. These areas were Respect the Spiritual.... It is not human intensively cultivated and the root vegetables to waste food. It is inhuman to overex- were harvested in tremendous quantities, yet ploit. “Protect and Conserve” are key the beds were maintained for many genera- values in respect of nature and natural tions: food sources. Never harm or kill for It was all important. That texwsus sport. It is degrading to your honour.... [springbank clover; Trifolium It challenges your integrity and ac- wormskioldii], and the tliksam [silver- countability. Nature has that shield or weed; Potentilla anserina ssp. pacifica], protective barrier [that], once broken, and the q’weniy’ [Nootka lupine; will hit back at you. (Roy Haiyupis, Lupinus nootkatensis], and the... Nuu-Chah-Nulth, cited in Turner and xukwem [rice-root; Fritillaria Atleo 1998) camschatcensis]. See, when they go This type of respect and concern for Nature down the flats, they use little pegs. and its intrinsic values is essential in the “This is my area.” You got your own development of an ethic for harvesting and use pegs, in the flats. And then you con- of non-timber forest products. It is like a safety tinue on that, digging the soft ground... net, overriding and enveloping any specific so it will grow better every year. Well, I quantitative prescriptions for harvesting prod- guess, fertilizing, cultivating, I guess ucts from the wild. Such values need to be that’s... the word for it. Every family instilled in all of us, providing us with a major had pegs, owned their little plots in the guiding principle in planning, decisionmaking, flats. (Kwaxistala, Chief Adam Dick, harvesting, and marketing activities, no matter Kwakwa’kawakw, from Kingcome Inlet, what products are being considered. 1996).

One of the secrets to maintaining these root Guarding the Meristem Bank: Practical gardens was to replant the propagules—por- Strategies for Sustaining and Promoting the tions of the underground parts in this case that Productivity of Resources contain active meristematic tissues and hence have the ability to regenerate. Adam Dick John Zasada (Zasada 1992; pers. comm., 1999) described this practice as follows: “... you don’t has pointed out that, especially for the harvest- pick those little ones that’s going to grow the ing of perennials, the key to continued repro- next season. You know, you just pick off the duction and propagation is to maintain a [pieces].” This was done with several different healthy meristem source for each species. root vegetable species. Meristems, tissues comprised of cells capable of rapid growth and differentiation, are found Perhaps the most detailed account of replant- in various parts of plants of all ages, including ing propagules comes from Adam Dick’s recol- root and stem tips, nodes, and cambium lections of how, as a boy, he was instructed to tissues. It is these tissues that can give rise to remove the bottom part of the rice-root 68 [xukwem] bulb and put it back into the from these locations as Indigenous manage- ground, specifically so it would grow into a new ment ceased (D. Deur, pers. comm., 1999). plant. They call this propagule “GaGemp” (literally “Grandfather”). “Yes, well, that was my Pruning and coppicing of individual berry and job... to pick them off, the bottom of that [rice- (Corylus cornuta) bushes was also root bulb]... it’s... called the GaGemp, then practiced, both on the coast and in the interior: they told me to throw it back in the [ground].... another means of “keeping it living,” since this It’s on the bottom... that GaGemp. It sits on process took advantage of meristematic tissues there.... that was my job, to pull them off and at the bases and nodes of the stems of shrubs throw it back in the [ground]... when ... I was that allow them to regenerate easily. The with the old people” (Chief Adam Dick, pers. breaking of the branches of berry bushes has comm., 1997). been little documented, but like other prac- tices, this may be in large part because people On southern , there is also had not been asked about such practices. evidence that people re-planted the smaller California First Peoples are known to coppice bulbs of camas (Camassia spp.), selecting only their basketry plants to produce better, longer, the large ones to cook and eat. Some people and straighter shoots (Anderson 1993). In the also talked about planting the seed stalks in interior, too, Plateau peoples talk about in- the upturned ground when the bulbs were creasing the productivity of their saskatoon being harvested in the summertime (Babcock bushes (Amelanchier alnifolia), chokecherries 1967; Stern 1934:42-43; Suttles 1951a,b). (Prunus virginiana), soapberries (Shepherdia Similar practices are noted in managing root canadensis), and huckleberries (Vaccinium vegetable resources in the interior of British spp.) by breaking the branches off during or Columbia, with yellow glacier lily (Erythronium following the harvest. On the coast, this seems grandiflorum) and other species such as rice- to be a widely known but little publicized root (Fritillaria lanceolata), spring beauty practice. Chief Adam Dick, as soon as he was (Claytonia lanceolata), and balsamroot asked, started to talk about it: “Especially that (Balsamorhiza sagittata) (Loewen 1998; Pea- gwadems [red huckleberry, Vaccinium cock 1998; Secwepemc Elder Mary Thomas, parvifolium], when they finished picking the pers. comm. 1997; Turner et al. 2000), as well gwadems, you know, they pruned them. They as among other First Peoples, such as those of chopped the tops off. Salmonberries [Rubus California (Anderson 1996b, 1998; Blackburn spectabilis] too. So, when the qwasem it’s and Anderson 1993). done, after you pick... after they get all tl’axwey’ then we all break the tops off.” [“Oh, In addition to replanting propagules, people and that makes them grow better?” NT] “Yes. sometimes transplanted species from one site My grandma tell me that if you let it grow this to another. Transplanting of culturally impor- high [above your head], then it doesn’t produce tant plants, to make them more accessible, has much berries. You know. But when you keep it been practiced on many occasions within the down and, she says, the water, it’s hard going past century on the Northwest Coast of British up there, I guess, when it’s too tall.” He said Columbia. There are documented cases of the people also pruned the grayberry plants people transplanting cattail (Typha latifolia) (Ribes bracteosum) and wild blueberries (V. and American bulrush (Scirpus americanus) for ovalifolium). Nuu-Chah-Nulth people talk about basketry and mat-making materials, stinging breaking off the branches of red huckleberry, nettle (Urtica dioica), cottonwood trees (Populus , and salal (Gaultheria shallon) (Craig balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa), highbush cran- 1998). This was said to make them produce berry (Viburnum edule), camas, wapato more prolifically in the following years. Saanich (Sagittaria latifolia), silverweed, and springbank Elder Elsie Claxton recalled “pruning” the clover (Turner and Peacock, in press). There is branches of soapberries when picking the no way of knowing for sure whether species berries on San Juan Island, to increase their were transplanted through reproductive abundance (pers. comm., 1997). propagules in pre-European days, although it seems logical that people would have done this. Another harvesting technique was the inten- Compelling evidence of this can be seen in the tional thinning of density-dependent species fact that some of these plants, particularly such as slough sedge (Carex obnupta) for camas, were found outside of their “natural” basketry; this is said to aid the growth and range at contact and have since disappeared 69 NTFP Conference Proceedings reproduction of the plants (Craig 1998). Similar and temporarily enhancing the nutrient compo- thinning has been observed to enhance the sition of local soils, burning enhanced the growth of Indian hemp (Apocynum canna- growth of a number of culturally important binum), cattail and stinging nettle; all of these plants. If undertaken carefully, fire did not die back in the winter, and hence are not damage the meristematic tissues at the base of harmed by late-season harvesting. most shrubs or in the root-crowns of wild strawberries (Fragaria spp.) or underground Partial harvesting of tree bark for materials and storage organs of root vegetable species such medicines, and selective harvesting of branches as camas, yellow glacier lily, or wild onions and roots for basketry and other purposes were (Allium cernuum). This method was used espe- also part of the “keeping it living” philosophy. cially for producing and enhancing camas in In using tree bark, such as Pacific yew (Taxus such places as southern Vancouver Island, but brevifolia) or cascara (Rhamnus purshiana), for also for promoting berry production along the medicine, people apply the traditional tech- coast at Haida Gwaii, Bella Coola Valley, nique of harvesting a single strip from the Clayoquot Sound, and numerous other places, trunk, or large branch, without girdling the as well as throughout the interior. Berry spe- tree, thus keeping it alive and allowing it to cies promoted include trailing wild blackberry regenerate (Turner and Hebda 1992). Similarly, (Rubus ursinus), blackcap (Rubus leucodermis), redcedar (Thuja plicata) and yellow-cedar red huckleberry, blueberry, wild strawberries, (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis) bark for basketry and salal. Burning was also said to enhance was harvested in single or double straps from forage for deer and was also used to create relatively young trees; generally no more than clearings and to produce readily available one-third of the circumference was removed, firewood from snags (Johnson 1999, Turner allowing the tree to continue to live and grow. 1999). The Kwakwakaw’akw quotation from The numerous “culturally modified trees” Boas (1930:203), in “Prayer” to berries [type (CMTs) seen along the British Columbia coast, unspecified], is a classic example of apparent with evidence of bark removal dating back 100 longstanding use of fire in berry management: years or more in some cases, bear testimony to I have come, Supernatural Ones, you, the effectiveness of this practice in keeping the Long-Life-Makers, that I may take you, trees living, while still using parts of them for that is the reason why you have (Stryd 1997, Turner 1996). Even, on occasion, come, brought by your creator, that you planks were removed from standing trees may come and satisfy me; you Super- without killing them (Garrick 1998, Stewart natural Ones; and this, that you do not 1984, Stryd 1997). Sheets of birch bark (Betula blame me for what I do to you when I set papyrifera) and wild cherry bark (Prunus fire to you the way it is done by my root emarginata) for basketry were, and still are, (ancestor) who set fire to you in his harvested from living trees without damaging manner when you get old on the ground the inner bark or the growing cambium layer that you may bear much fruit. [emphasis (Peacock and Turner 2000; Mary Thomas, pers. added]. Look! I come now dressed with comm., 1997). Cedar, willow (Salix spp.) and my large basket and my small basket other types of withes, spruce roots (Picea spp.) that you may go into it, Healing-Women; for basketry, and evergreen boughs for bedding you Supernatural Ones. I mean this, were routinely cut selectively from living trees. that you may not be evilly disposed Medicinal shrubs such as devilsclub towards me, friends. That you may only (Oplopanax horridus) were also selectively treat me well....” harvested. At least recently, Aboriginal harvest- ers such as Arvid Charlie (pers. comm. to NT and T. Lantz, 1999) have started replanting Traditional Tenure Practices for lengths of devilsclub stem in the damp soil Sustainable Resource Use every time they remove part of the plant; the stems root easily and thus continue to regener- Another component of traditional ecological ate. knowledge that is highly relevant to use of NTFPs is social control of resource use through In addition, burning is a widely practiced form land tenure systems and related cultural of plant management and habitat manipulation institutions. Ownership or proprietorship of that was used by B.C. First Peoples. By keeping plant resources is one obvious way to ensure the forest canopy at bay, removing woody fuel, that one might benefit from the long-term care 70 and enhancement of plant resources. Owner- six feet high.... These posts [tl’ayaqiyaktl- ship makes investments of time and energy hama] were changed about every 10 years to worthwhile; it can be both a cause and an prevent rotting.” (see also Arima et al. 1991: effect of “adding value” to a place and its plant 190-191). A very similar pattern appears in resources. other locations up and down the coast (Turner and Jones 2000). While all Indigenous peoples of B.C. have a strong sense of traditional territory, there is Ownership of resources was a serious matter, variation in the intensity, levels, and nature of especially those resources for which consider- ownership recognized. With the Nuu-Chah- able effort was invested over many years. Nulth and most central and northern coastal Pacific silverweed and wild clover root-digging peoples, an individual chief or lineage had patches were particularly prized; one elder proprietorship over key, important plant re- explained that owners of silverweed “gardens” sources. One social institution constructed were very possessive of their holdings, as they around, and contributing to, sustainable “cultivated” the plants by placing the ends of resource use is hahuulhi of the Nuu-Chah- the roots back in the ground so that they would Nulth. Roy Haiyupis characterizes hahuulhi grow the following year (Turner and Efrat as follows: 1982). Traditionally, digging on a chief’s rhi- Hahoolthe [hahuulhi]... indicates... zome plot without permission would have been that the hereditary chiefs have the a grave offense (Turner et al. 1983). Yet, propri- responsibility to take care of the forests, etorship of resources implied an obligation to the land and the within his monitor and care for them (Stanley Sam, cited hahoolthe and a responsibility to take in Bouchard and Kennedy 1990: 337). Many of care of his mus chum or tribal mem- the places where various resources were rou- bers (Scientific Panel for Sustainable tinely looked after, or where prime populations Forest Practices in Clayoquot Sound were found, were named after their special 1995). status.

Under this system, chiefs are given, along with Even for the Central Coast Salish and for the their hereditary title to specific lands and interior peoples, whose social organization was resources, the responsibility for monitoring and generally more fluid, families or village units sustaining them, and for sharing their re- owned resources, and controls were in place sources with all members of their community. over who could harvest from which areas, when Thus, each stream, each beach, each root the harvest could take place, and how much patch, each prime berry-picking area, was could be taken (Turner and Jones 2000). recognized as belonging to an individual and his (or her) family and was thus closely - Ownership and tenure are key considerations served and maintained by them. “Owned” plant in the sustainable harvesting of NTFPs, and the resources—roots, berries, redcedar stands, and practices of Indigenous peoples provide some individual crabapple trees (Pyrus fusca)—have good models. As noted, those in control of the been documented along the entire coast. In all, resources were also accountable for their over 20 food species have been identified as maintenance and for equitable sharing of their having been “owned” by individuals or lineages benefits. They also received considerable in locations on the Northwest Coast (Turner training, often from the time of early childhood and Jones 2000) (Chief Earl Maquinna George, pers. comm., 2000), in how to care for the land and re- Ethnographer Edward Sapir (unpublished sources under their stewardship. Elders and notes, 1913-14) provides a Nuu-Chah-Nulth knowledgeable specialists were consulted about example of ownership from the Somass River the timing and intensity of harvesting, and, if estuary at Port Alberni: “A place for roots or the productivity of a resource declined, the berries was called [tlh’ayaqak]. These patches owners were responsible for reducing or stop- for roots or berries had four cedar stakes ping harvesting altogether until the resource marking the boundaries of the area, which recovered (Chief Adam Dick and Daisy Sewid- were about one acre in extent. The stakes were Smith, pers. comm., 1998; Turner and Jones 2000).

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“Learning the Ropes” and Imparting the would curse the bark-peeler so that he Knowledge would also die. Therefore, the bark- peelers never take all of the bark off a Traditional Ecological Knowledge embodies—as young tree (Boas, 1921: 616-617; see also well as philosophies and practical strategies for Boas, 1921: 619; Schlick 1994). sustainable living—ways of communicating This kind of holistic teaching is extremely knowledge, ideas, and information within important and is also imparted in narratives families and communities, and from one gen- that children and young people are told over eration to the next. The modes of transferring and over again. Such stories as the Nuu-Chah- and communicating traditional ecological Nulth Yellow Cedar Sisters, and the Origin of knowledge in Indigenous societies are funda- Bunchberry [Cornus canadensis], the origin mentally different from ways of passing on and story of Daisy Sewid-Smith’s family learning knowledge and information in main- (Kwakwaka’wakw), and the Nlaka’pamux story stream society. These traditional modes of of Old One and the Creation of the Earth all communicating, teaching, and learning are impart ecological knowledge as well as cultural potentially extremely valuable in learning about perspectives of resources as gifts for people to and practicing sustainable harvesting of treasure and appreciate and never abuse NTFPs. (Sewid-Smith and Dick 1998, Turner 1997a, Turner and Atleo 1998, Turner et al. 2000). Traditionally, Indigenous children and youth actively participated alongside their parents Language and cognitive systems are integral to and elders in harvesting and processing re- the process of knowledge transfer, and in the sources. During this time, they were continu- various languages there are not only names for ously learning, from their own observations the plants and plant products, but also terms and from the teachings and instructions of the and concepts for the processes involved in experts. They were taught not only the best harvesting and preparing them, and in caring techniques, but also the philosophies of respect for them as well. Unfortunately, Aboriginal and value of other lifeforms. As they partici- languages have been in serious decline, and pated in ceremonies like the First Fruits cer- with their loss comes the loss of much of the emony, and in the expressions of thanks and knowledge embodied within them. Even the appreciation routinely addressed to the names of places can reflect and perpetuate lifeforms they were harvesting and to the knowledge of plants and ecological systems Creator who made them (Boas 1930), they (Turner et al. 2000). Additionally, day-to-day learned to understand their relationships to the discourse in traditional languages is often land and their environment and to care for and associated with peoples’ relationships to the appreciate all the things that sustained them. land and its various lifeforms. The loss of Secwepemc Elder Mary Thomas (pers. comm., languages is thus a major tragedy, yet the 1997) recalled how her mother, even when she concepts are at least partially retained to the was in her 90s, would always hold a handful of present day. berries up before she ate them and say Kwukwschámcw, Kwukwschámcw, Major cultural institutions such as potlatches, Kwukwschámcw! [“Thank you, Thank you, feasts, first foods ceremonies, and systems of Thank you!”]. Observing elders showing grati- designated authority have been, and continue tude and respect for Nature is a highly effective to be, vitally important in passing on tradi- way for young people to learn this approach. tional ecological knowledge and the philoso- phies that underlie resource use. For example, When children were taught about peeling cedar the Nuu-Chah-Nulth concept of hahuulhi, bark, for example, they would be taught not discussed previously, leads to intimate knowl- only how to the strips and how not to edge of specific places by individuals. Those girdle the tree, but also how to recognize the inheriting positions of proprietorship over lands power and spirituality of the tree itself: are instructed, almost like apprentices, about Even when the young cedar-tree is quite these places and their resources and how to smooth, they do not take all of the cedar- care for them, from the time they are very bark, for the people of the olden times young. They are taught the philosophies asso- said that if they should peel off all the ciated with the use of the land, specific practi- cedar-bark... the young cedar would die, cal strategies, and obligations associated with and then another cedar-tree near by its use, such as maintaining and caring for 72 salmon spawning beds and pools in a particu- sustainable and healthy one for the forest. The lar river (Scientific Panel for Sustainable Forest main task is to retain ecological integrity of an Practices in Clayoquot Sound 1995). Thus, area, including species’ capacity for regenera- there is continuity over generations of people tion at a rate equivalent to harvesting levels. knowledgeable about the same sites and locali- For example, according to Juliet Craig’s inter- ties. This is an important concept when consid- views with Ahousaht elders (1998), picking ering sustainable resource use. Systems of berries does not reduce the crop yield for the stewardship and proprietorship over lands and next year. In a similar vein, Richard Ross resources comparable to hahuulhi were in (1998) claims that harvesting of salal greens place along the whole Northwest Coast. Short- can be sustainable and can be undertaken term, broadly based land tenures, such as annually, if the pruning is done correctly those operating in much of industrial forestry, (1998). Some sites have been harvested since usually lead to overexploitation, because there the 1950s and are still producing good quality is no long-term understanding, monitoring, or shoots. However, higher intensity of salal commitment to the land and little specific harvesting, such as has occurred over the last knowledge over time of particular sites or 5 years in some places, can result in deteriora- populations. tion in salal quality and productivity, and this can lead to higher harvesting requirements and more pressure on the sites and populations. CONCLUSIONS More research and monitoring are required for this and other NTFP species to determine Traditional approaches and practices for use of sustainable levels of harvest and the extent to plant resources have much relevance to con- which the harvesting of salal greens impacts temporary efforts to harvest NTFPs by Aborigi- the productivity of the berries (W. Cocksedge, nal and non-Aboriginal people alike. A respon- pers. comm., 2000). sible land ethic that includes respect for all lifeforms, and sanctions against waste or As with traditional understandings, NTFP wanton destruction, is an essential component harvesting needs to be holistic in its approach. of any sustainable land use. Practices and Impacts of harvesting NTFPs on other wild techniques that maintain the capacity for plants and animals in the ecosystem must be growth and regeneration of species being considered. Care must be taken in any large- harvested, including re-planting and trans- scale berry harvesting program, for example, planting, pruning and coppicing, and burning, that the needs of birds, bears, and other wild- are also essential, and Aboriginal people have life are not compromised, and that some areas traditionally used a variety of such practices. are left intact for these other users of forests. Aboriginal people are particularly conscious of Also important are locally developed and such requirements and particularly apprecia- recognized area-based, long-term tenure tive of the interconnectedness of all things systems in which responsibility and control (Turner and Atleo 1998). Diversification— over particular places or resources is held in harvesting a variety of products over the course trust by a particular individual or lineage and of several years rather than intensive harvest- passed on from one generation to the next, ing of just one resource—is another lesson to along with the teachings about their use, be learned from Indigenous use. Flexibility and management, and care. Finally, modes of adaptability are important characteristics of communication and teaching about responsible Traditional Ecological Knowledge. Part of such resource use, including experiential, site-based a strategy in its contemporary form would be to “apprentice-style” learning, use of specialized combine educational opportunities, ecotourism, names and vocabulary, stories, discourse, and and other types of land use with the NTFP ceremonial reinforcement of values of respect industry. In short, Indigenous traditional land and careful use, are potentially valuable and and resource use is based on a long-term applicable to contemporary harvesting prac- commitment to an area and its resources and tices for NTFPs. detailed understanding of and continual moni- toring of a resource base; these concepts are as There is every indication that a carefully and essential today as they have been in the past thoughtfully planned NTFP industry could be a for long-resident Indigenous and local peoples.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Anderson, M.K. 1998. From tillage to table: the Indigenous cultivation of geophytes for food The knowledge and wisdom of many individu- in California. Journal of Ethnobiology. als and many First Nations is incorporated 17(2): 149-170. here. I would like to acknowledge the specific contributions of Elsie Claxton, Tom Sampson, Arima, E.Y.; St. Claire, Denis; Clamhouse, Christopher Paul (Saanich); Arvid Charlie Louise; Edgar, Joshua; Jones, Charles; (Hulq’umi’num); Percy and Dolores Louie Thomas, John. 1991. Between ports Alberni (Chemainus); Chief Earl Maquinna George, Dr. and Renfrew: notes on West Coast Peoples. Richard Atleo (Chief Umeek), Roy Haiyupis, and Mercury Ser. Pap. 121. Ottawa, ON: Cana- Stanley Sam (Nuu-Chah-Nulth); Dr. Daisy dian Ethnology Service, Canadian Museum Sewid-Smith (Mayanilth), Chief Adam Dick of Civilization. (Kwaxsistala), Kim Recalma-Clutesi (Kwakwaka’wakw); Dr. Margaret Siwallace Babcock, Marguerite. 1967. Camas—descrip- (Nuxalk); Captain Gold, Barbara Wilson, and tions of getting and preparing—from infor- Florence Davidson (Haida); Annie York and mants of Tsartlip Reserve (W. Saanich), Mandy Jimmie (Nlaka’pamux); Sam Mitchell, Vancouver Island. Unpublished manu- Baptiste Ritchie, and Charlie Mack Seymour script, cited with permission of author; (Stl’atl’imx, or Lillooet); Dr. Mary Thomas, Chief copy in possession of N. Turner. Ron Ignace, Nellie Taylor (Secwepemc); and Pete McCoy (Ktunaxa). I am also grateful to the Berkes, F. 1993. Traditional ecological knowl- following people who contributed to this paper edge in perspective. In: Inglis, J.T., ed. in various ways and to my understanding of Traditional ecological knowledge: concepts Traditional Knowledge and its applications: Dr. and cases. Ottawa, ON: International Douglas Deur, Dr. Marianne Boelscher Ignace, Program on Traditional Ecological Knowl- Dr. Fikret Berkes, Iain Davidson-Hunt, Dr. edge, Canadian Museum of Nature: 1-9. John Zasada, Dr. Darcy Mitchell, Dr. Alan Thomson, Jennifer Carpenter, Marguerite Berkes, F. 1999. Sacred ecology. Traditional Babcock, Denis St. Clair, Randy Bouchard and ecological knowledge and resource manage- Dorothy Kennedy, Dr. Wayne Suttles, Dr. ment. Philadelphia, PA: Taylor & Francis. Richard Ford, Dr. Eugene Anderson, Dr. Kat Anderson, Dr. Sandra Peacock, Dawn Loewen, Blackburn, T.C.; Anderson, M.K., eds. 1993. Juliet Craig, Robin Smith, Brenda Beckwith, Before the wilderness: environmental Kimberlee Chambers, Wendy Cocksedge, Jim management by native Californians. Menlo Jones, Michael Keefer, Trevor Lantz, Kate Park, CA: Ballena Press. Leslie, and Shirley Mah. Boas, Franz. 1921. Ethnology of the Kwakiutl. In: Bureau of American Ethnology 35th REFERENCES annual report, Parts 1 and 2. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Anderson, Eugene N. 1996a. Ecologies of the heart. New York, NY: Oxford University Boas, Franz. 1930. The religion of the Kwakiutl Press. Indians. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. (Reprinted in 1969 by AMS Press Anderson, K. 1993. Native Californians as Inc., New York). ancient and contemporary cultivators. In: Blackburn, T.C.; Anderson, K., eds. Before Bouchard, Randy; Kennedy, Dorothy. 1990. the wilderness: environmental management Clayoquot Sound Indian land use. Report by native Californians. Anthropological Pap. prepared for: MacMillan Bloedel Limited, 40. Menlo Park, CA: Ballena Press: 151- Fletcher Challenge Canada, and British 174. Columbia Ministry of Forests. Victoria, BC: B.C. Indian Language Project. Anderson, M.K. 1996b. Tending the wilderness. Restoration and Management Notes. 14(2): 154-166.

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Peacock, Sandra; Turner, Nancy J. 2000. “Just Stryd, Arnoud H. 1997. Culturally modified like a garden”: traditional plant resource trees of British Columbia: a handbook for management and biodiversity conservation the identification and recording of cultur- on the British Columbia Plateau. In: ally modified trees. Victoria, BC: British Minnis, Paul; Elisens, Wayne, eds. Columbia Ministry of Forests. Biodiversity and Native North America. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press: Suttles, Wayne. 1951a. The early diffusion of 133-179. the potato among the Coast Salish. South- western Journal of Anthropology. 7: 272- Richards, B.; Creasy, M. 1996. Ethnic diversity, 285. resource values, and ecosystem manage- ment: Matsutake mushroom harvesting in Suttles, Wayne. 1951b. The economic life of the the Klamath Bioregion. Society and Natural Coast Salish of Haro and Rosario Straits. Resources. 9: 359-374. Seattle, WA: Department of Anthropology, University of Washington. Unpublished Ross, Richard. 1998. The changing future of doctoral dissertation. NTFP’s. In: Inner Coast Natural Resource Centre: non-timber forest products work- Turner, Nancy J. 1995. Food plants of Coastal shop proceedings; 1998 April 3-5; Alert First peoples. Royal British Columbia Bay, BC, Canada. Museum Handbook. Victoria, BC: Univer- sity of British Columbia Press. Sapir, Edward. 1913-1914. Unpublished notes on Nuu-Chah-Nulth. Notebook 17, p. 23a, Turner, Nancy J. 1996. “Dans une Hotte”. Dec. 1913-Jan. 1914, Roll 23 Microfilm L’importance de la vannerie dans from American Philosophical Society, copy l’économie des peuples chasseurs- in possession of Denis St. Clair, Victoria. pêcheurs-cueilleurs du Nord-Ouest de l’Amérique du Nord (“Into a basket carried Schlick, M.D. 1994. Columbia River basketry: on the back: importance of basketry in gift of the ancestors, gift of the earth. foraging/hunting/fishing economies in Seattle, WA: University of Washington northwestern North America.”) Montréal, Press. Québec: Anthropologie et Sociétiés. 20(3): 55-84. Special issue on contemporary Scientific Panel for Sustainable Forest Practices ecological anthropology: theories, methods in Clayoquot Sound. 1995. First Nations’ and research fields. perspectives on forest practices in Clayoquot Sound. Rep. 3, Victoria, BC. Turner, Nancy J. 1997a. Traditional ecological With Appendices 5 and 6. (Report prepared knowledge. In: Schoonmaker, Peter K.; by 18 panel members, with Secretariat). VonHagen, Bettina; Wolf, Edward C., eds. The rain forests of home: profile of a North Sewid-Smith, D.; Dick, Chief A.; interviewed by American Bioregion: ecotrust. Covelo, CA: Turner, N.J. 1998. The sacred cedar tree of Washington, DC: Island Press: 275-298. the Kwakwaka’wakw people. In: Bol, M., ed. Stars above, earth below: Native Americans Turner, Nancy J. 1997b. Food plants of Interior and nature: background book for Alocoa First peoples. Victoria. BC: University of Foundation Hall of Native Americans ex- British Columbia Press, Vancouver and hibit. Pittsburgh, PA: The Carnegie Mu- Royal British Columbia Museum. seum of Natural History: 189-209. Interview with Daisy Sewid-Smith (Mayanilh) and Turner, Nancy J. 1998. Plant technology of Chief Adam Dick (Kwaxsistala). British Columbia First peoples. Victoria. BC: University of British Columbia Press, Stern, B.J. 1934. The Lummi Indians of north- Vancouver and Royal British Columbia west Washington. New York, NY: Columbia Museum. University Press.

Stewart, Hilary. 1984. Cedar: tree of life of the Northwest Coast Indians. Vancouver, BC: Douglas & McIntyre. 76 Turner, Nancy J. 1999. “Time to burn”: tradi- Turner, N.J.; Peacock, S. In press. Solving the tional use of fire to enhance resource perennial paradox: ethnobotanical evidence production by Aboriginal peoples in British for plant resource management on the Columbia. In: Boyd, Robert, ed. Indians, Northwest Coast: management of plant fire and the land in the Pacific Northwest. species and habitats on the Northwest Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Coast. In: Deur, D.; Turner, N.J., eds. Press: 185-218. “Keeping it living”: traditional plant tending and cultivation on the Northwest Coast. Turner, N.J.; Atleo, E.R. (Chief Umeek). 1998. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Pacific North American First Peoples and Press. the environment. In: Coward, H., ed. Envi- ronment and development values in the Turner, Nancy J.; Thomas, John; Carlson, pacific. Albany, NY: Center for Studies in Barry F.; Ogilvie, Robert T. 1983. Ethno- Religion and Society, State University of botany of the Nitinaht Indians of Vancouver New York. Island. Occas. Pap. 24. Vancouver, BC: British Columbia Provincial Museum. Turner, Nancy J.; Cocksedge, Wendy. In press. Aboriginal use of non-timber forest prod- Turner, N.J.; Thompson, L.C.; Thompson, M.T.; ucts in northwestern North America: appli- York, A.Z. 1990. Thompson ethnobotany: cations and issues. In: Emery, Marla R.; knowledge and usage of plants by the McLain, Rebecca, eds. Non-timber forest Thompson Indians of British Columbia. products in the United States: issues and Memoir 3. Victoria, BC: Royal British examples from the Pacific Northwest and Columbia Museum. Northern Michigan. Journal of Sustainable Forestry. Wills, Russel; Lipsey, Richard. 1999. An eco- nomic strategy to develop non-timber forest Turner, Nancy J.; Efrat, Barbara S. 1982. products and services in British Columbia. Ethnobotany of the Hesquiat Indians of Forest Renewal BC Project No. PA 97538. Vancouver Island. Cultural Recovery Pap. 2. Victoria, BC. Victoria, BC: British Columbia Provincial Museum. Zasada, John; et al. 1992. The reproductive process in boreal forest trees. In: Shugart, Turner, N.J.; Hebda, R.J. 1992. Contemporary et al., eds. A systems analysis of the global use of bark for medicine by two Salishan boreal forest. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Native elders of southeast Vancouver University Press: 85-125. Island. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 229(1990): 59-72.

Turner, Nancy J.; Ignace, Marianne B.; Ignace, Ronald. 2000. Traditional ecological knowl- edge and wisdom of Aboriginal peoples in British Columbia. In: Ford, Jesse; Martinez, Dennis. eds. Ecological Applications. 10(10).

Turner, Nancy J.; Jones, James T. 2000. Occupying the land: traditional patterns of land and resource ownership among First Peoples of British Columbia. Paper pre- sented at 2000 IASCP (International Asso- ciation for the Study of Common Property Resources) conference; 2000 May; Bloomington, IN. CD only.

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Changing Resource Management Paradigms, Traditional Ecological Knowledge, and Non-timber Forest Products

Iain J. Davidson-Hunt1 and Fikret Berkes2

Abstract.—We begin this paper by exploring the shift now occurring in the science that provides the theoretical basis for resource man- agement practice. The concepts of traditional ecological knowledge and traditional management systems are presented next to provide the background for an examination of resilient landscapes that emerge through the work and play of humans. These examples of traditional ecological knowledge and traditional management systems suggest that it is important to focus on managing ecological pro- cesses, instead of products, and to use integrated ecosystem manage- ment. Traditional knowledge is often discussed by resource manage- ment agencies as a source of information to be incorporated into management practice; in this paper we go further and explore tradi- tional knowledge as an arena of dialogue between resource managers and harvesters. To enter into this dialogue will require mutual re- spect among managers and users for each others’ knowledge and practice. Such a dialogue could move forest management paradigms beyond our current view of “timber or parks” and toward one of truly integrated use.

INTRODUCTION “We commit ourselves to apply our knowl- edge and expertise to fulfill our vision by, “Adopting sustainable development in where applicable: Improving our under- forestry has meant broadening our standing of forest ecological processes, and overarching goal, from sustained yields to enhancing our capacity to manage forests healthy forest ecosystems...Our goal is to in a way that will maintain the biological maintain and enhance the long-term health diversity, productivity and resilience of of our forest ecosystems for the benefit of these ecosystems” (Canadian Council of all living things, both nationally and glo- Forest Ministers 1998b: 1). bally, while providing environmental, eco- nomic, social and cultural opportunities for “It seems obvious that the common proce- the benefit of present and future genera- dure of incorporating TK [traditional knowl- tions” (Canadian Council of Forest Minis- edge] into environmental management is ters 1998a: ix-xii, emphasis added). one that serves neither the interests of Aboriginal peoples nor the dominant cul- ture. The full contributions of Aboriginal people and their knowledge to managing for 1 Ph.D. student, Natural Resources Institute, sustainable use will not be realized if TK University of Manitoba, and member, The Taiga continues to be treated as just some other Institute for Land, Culture and Economy, Suite category of information to be inserted into, A, 150 Main Street South, Kenora, Ontario, or merged with, western scientific knowl- Canada, P9N 1S9; e-mail: edge to further the agenda of environmental [email protected]. managers. Rather, they will be realized 2 Professor, Natural Resources Institute, Uni- when we begin to shift focus towards versity of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, applying those management philosophies Canada, R3T 2N2; e-mail: and systems that give TK its full meaning, [email protected]. merit, and efficacy” (Stevenson 1998). 78 A shift is occurring in how Canadians think concepts of traditional ecological knowledge forests should be managed. As the Canadian and traditional management systems are Council of Forest Ministers (CCFM 1998a) presented next, to provide the background for noted, we are beginning to view our forests as an examination of resilient landscapes that ecosystems that provide timber, medicinal emerge through the work and play of humans. plants, foods, craft materials, and recreational These examples of traditional ecological knowl- opportunities. We are also beginning to realize edge and traditional management systems that the long-term health of forest ecosystems suggest that it is important to focus on manag- and the well-being of people should be comple- ing ecological processes, instead of products, mentary, rather than opposing, goals. A and to utilize integrated ecosystem manage- healthy forest ecosystem is one that supports ment. Traditional knowledge is often discussed more than just logging activities. There may be by resource management agencies as a source people felling trees and others picking medici- of information to be incorporated into manage- nal herbs or shooting the rapids in a canoe. It ment practice; in this paper we go further and is also time to move beyond the idea that a explore traditional knowledge as an arena of healthy forest ecosystem is one in which there dialogue between resource managers and are no people. Healthy forest ecosystems are harvesters. Such a dialogue will require mutual places where people live, work, and play, as respect among managers and users for each well as visit. others’ knowledge and practice; it could move forest management paradigms beyond our The Canadian Council of Forest Ministers current view of “timber or parks” and toward (1997, 1998a) have worked toward an ecosys- one of truly integrated use. tem vision by outlining a set of criteria and indicators that provide forest management agencies with the tangible means to integrate CHANGING RESOURCE MANAGEMENT economic, social, cultural, and ecological PARADIGMS values in forest management. However, the chasm between the vision of a healthy forest Institutions and practices of science and ecosystem as a vibrant place of activity and its traditional ecological knowledge are often vision as a “silent cathedral” may not be tra- presented as independent and bounded realms versed by such an approach. It will also require of knowledge that are free from any mutual the ability of resource managers to imagine a influence. The evolving thinking on science and healthy forest ecosystem as one that reconciles traditional ecological knowledge is that bound- industrial landscapes with conservation land- aries between knowledge systems are less rigid scapes. than previously thought, and the interchange between science and traditional knowledge It is not difficult to imagine that economic more frequent (Agrawal 1995, Usher 2000). activity and conservation can overlap within Both of us have made such observations in our the same landscape. This is a vision that many work both in the Canadian North and interna- harvesters find acceptable as the manner in tionally. We have noted, for example, the which the relationship between humans and sophistication of Latin American Aboriginal the environment should be structured. Tradi- people in the way they manage forest succes- tional ecological knowledge and traditional sion, and the use of diverse landscapes in knowledge management systems start from the forested mountain environments in the West- premise that there is no separation between the ern Himalaya (Berkes et al. 1998b). We learned landscapes in which people live and play and from the knowledge of Cree fisherfolk to de- those in which they work. As resource manage- velop a healthy respect and interest in the ment paradigms shift toward integrated ecosys- linkages between the knowledge of harvesters tem management, it appears that there is a and resource managers. Collaborative projects convergence between this new kind of resource with the eastern Cree fishers management and traditional ecological knowl- through the 1970s and the 1980s provided new edge, opening a new opportunity for dialogue insights that influenced the way we do ecology. and mutual learning. Twenty-five years after he first started working This paper begins by exploring the shift occur- with the Cree, Berkes reflected, “Somewhat to ring in the science that provides the theoretical my surprise, I found myself comfortable with basis for resource management practice. The the Cree view of nature, even though, by virtue 79 NTFP Conference Proceedings of my Western education and scientific train- managed for sustained yield, then the machine ing, I was heavily influenced to resist it” (forest) as a whole could be sustained. But, as (Berkes 1999: xiv). For the Cree, land was a many resource managers know, this is not a portfolio of resources that sustained life, and good assumption, and there are many resource landscape itself was full of life, spirit, and management disaster stories to prove it mystery. Such a “sacred ecology” was very (Gunderson et al. 1995). different from the conventional positivist concept of cut-and-dried, predictable ecosys- The emerging scientific paradigm tells a very tems consisting merely of lifeless, mechanical different story about ecosystems and resource processes that could be “managed” by techni- management. If the old ecology can be charac- cians. terized as a science of the parts, the new ecology can be thought of as the science of the The Cree helped Berkes realize that, “although integration of the parts (Holling et al. 1998). ecology is a science, its greater and overriding This new ecology suggests that ecosystems wisdom is universal. That wisdom can be must be understood as integrated and holistic approached mathematically, experimentally, or entities that are nested across scales. Ecosys- it can be danced or told as myth. It is in Aus- tems cannot be understood by breaking them tralian aborigines’ ‘dreamtime’ and in Gary into parts but must be understood as a func- Snyder’s poetry... The science of ecology did not tional and structural whole that exists due to discuss such views, but Siu, Leopold, McHarg, the relationship among the parts. Ecosystems and later Bateson mentally prepared me to be in this view are characterized by multiple receptive to a traditional ecology that did” equilibria; non-linear processes; surprises (Berkes 1999: xv). At the same time, many (perceived reality departing qualitatively from other ecologists and scientists were widening expectation, in the sense of Holling 1986); their radius of intellectual search and coming threshold effects; and system flips. to similar conclusions. Partly as a reflection of this, by the 1990s, there were major changes in Following the emerging paradigm, the ecosys- the way ecosystems were viewed by ecologists. tem cannot be broken down into discreet resource categories because of the linkages The old ecology could be characterized as among ecosystem components. Uncertainty emerging from the mathematics of Newton, the becomes a key property of resource manage- philosophy of Descartes, and the scientific ment due to the unpredictable, non-linear, and method of Bacon. The paradigm that emerged uncontrollable nature of the systems being from such foundations was mechanistic and managed. Finally, there is a recognition that reductionistic. This framework led to the idea people, policies, and politics are as much a part that an ecosystem was an entity that operated of an ecosystem as are timber, fish, and wild- like a machine. Like any other machine, it life. This new view of ecosystems has been could be disassembled and the parts identified; moving into mainstream thinking, as evi- the whole machine could then be understood denced, for example, by the Ecological Society by revealing the mechanisms by which the of America guidelines for ecosystem manage- parts interacted (Holling et al. 1998). ment (ESA 1995) and the adoption of ecosys- tem integrity management objectives by Parks The use of these theoretical foundations and Canada. frameworks resulted in an ecosystem concept characterized by equilibrium, predictability, These developments have led to a flux in linear processes, and controllability. Resource resource management, as current practices are management used this ecosystem view, to- no longer supported by the current scientific gether with similar models from economics, to thinking. The new resource management will suggest that resources could be broken down “require policies and actions that not only into discrete categories such as timber, water, satisfy social objectives but, at the same time, and soil. Each discrete category, such as also achieve continually modified understand- timber, could then be managed independently ing of the evolving conditions and provide of the others, using maximum sustained yield flexibility for adaptation to surprises. Science, and maximum economic yield models, and policy, and management then become inextri- constructing supply-demand curves for each cably linked” (Holling et al. 1998: 347). It could component of the ecosystem. The unstated also be said that science, policy, management, assumption was that if each part could be and people will need to be more closely linked 80 in the new resource management models. Also very significant, the new concept of a knowledge of taxonomies, spatial and temporal multiequilibrium, non-linear, unpredictable cycles, and behaviors. Land and resource ecosystem appears to be reducing the distance management systems use such knowledge to between science and traditional ecological develop appropriate practices, tools, and knowledge. There is a convergence between techniques for a local environment. Traditional science and traditional knowledge, as science resource management systems also require begins to perceive humans as part of a world appropriate institutions that allow interdepen- that contains a large degree of uncertainty, dent harvesters to coordinate activities, cooper- complexity, and unpredictability. Resource ate in tasks, devise rules for social restraint, management is beginning to realize the need and enforce those rules. Finally, the world view “to utilise the self-organizing capabilities of (ethics, religion, values) allows resource har- natural ecosystems to design harmonious vesters to weave their perceptions of the envi- social and natural environments; that is, to try ronment into a coherent system of knowledge to integrate human production and consump- and practice. tion patterns, infrastructure and settlements with ecosystem processes...” (Berkes et al. Is traditional ecological knowledge relevant to 1995: 296). current resource management? The term “traditional” is considered by some to denote knowledge and practice that is old and un- TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE changing. However, there is not necessarily a contradiction between the terms tradition and The use of the term traditional ecological change; change is simply what is noted if knowledge or local knowledge is one way of tradition is sampled along a temporal spec- recognizing that resource harvesters possess trum. Tradition often changes by adaptive knowledge that they use to make decisions processes and incorporates trial-and-error about their resource harvesting practices. learning. Tradition further implies that there is Many resource harvesters depict their knowl- historical continuity in culture and in the edge as based upon the practical adaptation of system of knowledge. The term “tradition” has technique, technology, and institutions within often been used by resource harvesters to a local environment. We have been using a emphasize that their knowledge has been working definition of traditional ecological generated out of accumulated practical experi- knowledge as “a cumulative body of knowledge, ence. Often the term of choice of Aboriginal and practice, and belief, evolving by adaptive pro- other people close to the land, it refers to cesses and handed down through generations knowledge and practice generated out of the life by cultural transmission, about the relation- experiences of generations of harvesters them- ship of living beings (including humans) with selves. one another and their environments” (Berkes 1999: 8). TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE Even though there is no clear delineation IN PRACTICE—DISTURBANCE AND between traditional ecological knowledge and SUCCESSION science (Agrawal 1995), the recognition of traditional knowledge as a legitimate kind of Traditional ecological knowledge has not only knowledge is significant. It shows that the generated the proverbial “grist for the academic distinction between traditional ecological mill” but has also resulted in distinctive land- knowledge and science is not the absence or scapes found across the world. We can, for presence of management systems but the example, learn about forest reclamation in existence of different concepts of management. grassland ecosystems from the Kayapo people Traditional ecological knowledge may best be of Brazil. As shown in figure 1, the Kayapo use considered as a knowledge-practice-belief crumbled termite and ant nests and mulch to complex. Traditional knowledge may be initiate a process of forest succession that thought to consist of four mutually interrelated results in expanding forest islands in the spheres that are nested in one another: local grasslands (Posey 1985). The process begins by knowledge of plants and animals; land and planting useful crops into the prepared resource management systems; social institu- mounds (apete) for up to 3 years. Sweet pota- tions; and world view. Local knowledge of land, toes and yams may be harvested for up to 5 animals, plants, and landscapes can include years, and papaya and may last as 81 NTFP Conference Proceedings

Figure 1.—Enhancing biodiversity through the creation of forest islands, apete, by the Kayapo Indians of Brazil. Through a number of devices the behavior promotes patchiness and heteroge- neity in the landscape in time and space. Source: adapted from Posey (1985). long as 7 to 10 years. Different fruit and nut management systems grade into what might be trees are seeded or transplanted to the apete so termed agroforestry systems of management. that the resultant forest acts as a source of An example is shown in figure 2, which depicts products for many years. The forest also con- the kebun-talun management system of West tinues to attract animals and birds who bring Java, . The kebun-talun system new seeds into the forest or disperse them to sequentially combines agricultural crops with other areas of the grassland. The result of this tree crops by moving from a mixed garden of management practice is a grassland landscape annual crops (kebun) to a mixture of annual with interspersed forests. The knowledge of the crops and perennials (kebun-campuran) to a relationship between disturbance and forest mixed forest of trees and understory plants succession is one of the common traits of many (telun) (Christianty et al. 1986). This type of forest management systems based upon tradi- management practice leads to the classic patch tional ecological knowledge. mosaic or quilt landscape. However, the quilt has to be thought of not only as dispersed Systems of forest management that use the patches of kebun, kebun-campuran, and talun ecological processes of disturbance and forest over space but also as each patch shifting over succession in an intentional manner often rely time. As the fallow period continues to de- upon long fallow periods between intentional crease, the kebun-campuran system can move disturbances to allow for the conservation of toward a different ecological arrangement ecological processes such as nutrient cycles called a homegarden. and species recruitment. Useful plants are planted, transplanted, and harvested following The homegarden, such as the pekarangan in the initial disturbance and for many years , is an intensification of the kebun- during the period of forest fallow. These useful talun in which the fallow period disappears plants can include food, medicines, and timber. altogether (Christianty et al. 1986). One way to If greater levels of production are required, think of this is to imagine one patch of the quilt then the forest management systems are often where the kebun-campuran-talun cycle oc- modified so that the fallow period may be curred. Instead of managing a variety of shortened or bypassed altogether. Succession patches, each at a different temporal stage of 82 Figure 2.—Successional stages of the kebun-talun system, West Java, Indonesia. Source: adapted from Christianty et al. (1986).

the kebun-talun cycle, a person may build a the market and home needs of the manager. As house on the patch and begin to manage it as a shown in figure 3, the diversity in the pekarangan. The pekarangan combines the pekarangan is greater than in any one stage of annual crop plants with perennial plants for the kebun-talun cycle. The loss of the temporal market and home consumption. Species from dimension of management is compensated for each stage of the kebun-talun cycle may be by the more intense management of vertical brought into the pekarangan depending upon space within one patch.

Figure 3.—A representative homegarden (pekarangan), West Java, Indonesia. Source: adapted from Christianty et al. (1986). 83 NTFP Conference Proceedings

A similar agroforestry system is the taungya of as in all others previously mentioned, a supple- Burma, shown in figure 4. In this system a mentary management objective is the creation patch of land is planted with both annual crops of edge habitat to increase the abundance of and perennial tree crops ( 1986). In the forest animals and thus the chance of success- early years, before the canopy of the trees fully hunting such animals. The outcome of the closes, annual crops hold nutrients and pre- taungya management practices is a landscape vent erosion. After the canopy closes, it is that is less variable over time, but highly possible to plant understory crops, such as variable within a given patch of land, as the coffee or cacao, that take advantage of the system takes advantage of vertical space space and diffuse light that filters through the instead of horizontal space (canopy, understory canopy. The intensification of forest manage- shrubs and herbs). ment thus uses disturbance to create inten- sively managed patches of forest but abandons The previous four examples have demonstrated the fallow period. In this management system, that forest management based on traditional knowledge can vary from low to high intensity. All of these systems are based upon the use of disturbance and succession as a management tool to produce for the market, home consump- tion, and aesthetic pleasures. These systems appear to reflect practices that can also be useful for temperate forest ecosystem manage- ment and for ecological rehabilitation. Robinson and Handel (2000) point out, “Eco- logical restoration can be likened to accelerated succession, in part because it aims to pass over the early phases of community development, when recovery can be delayed by the effects of past degradation... Following severe habitat damage, the reclamation phase closely re- sembles primary succession, in which most organisms colonize from external source popu- lations. Indeed, a common goal of ecological restoration is to initiate natural populations as dispersing immigrants” (Robinson and Handel 2000: 174). The experimental work of Robinson and Handel (2000) demonstrates that habitat islands can act as sources of seeds that can be spread to surrounding land by dispersal agents. This is similar to the practice of forest management in Canada whereby islands of vegetation are left scattered throughout clearcuts to act as a seed source and habitat for dispersal agents. The recognition of the linkages between disturbance, dispersal agents, and succession appears to be an area in which the distance between traditional ecological knowledge and science is indeed Figure 4.—Idealized taungya system of cultiva- shrinking and ripe for a process of mutual tion using palms as the dominant learning. tree species. (A) Early stage—Coconut intercropped with annuals and short-term perennials. (B) Middle stage—Canopy cover does not allow understory layer. (C) Late stage—High canopy allows light penetration and production of understory crops such as coffee or cacao. Source: adapted from Jordan (1986). 84 TRADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE needs to focus on spatially bounded units of IN PRACTICE—ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT land or water, consider everything within this unit to be interlinked, and recognize that units One of the emerging approaches in forest are nested and linked from smaller to larger management practice is ecosystem-based scales. management (CCFM 1997, 1998a). Ecosystem- based management uses systems ecology Table 1 presents some of the applications of an theory, along with adaptive learning and prac- ecosystem view as seen in traditional knowl- tice. However, it is a management approach in edge and management systems. Science-based which theory and practice are at the early resource management may never embrace all of stages of development and can thus benefit the elements of such systems, such as their from insights provided by traditional ecological spiritual aspects. However, it is still possible knowledge. Only recently has it come to the that we can learn about ecosystem-based attention of ecologists that ecosystem-like management from these long-standing ex- concepts exist in the land wisdom of several amples of integrated resource management. Amerindian, Asia-Pacific, European, and African cultures (Berkes et al. 1998a). The tambak management system shown in figure 5 was used in Indonesia to establish One of the lessons from traditional knowledge mixed freshwater and seawater fish ponds in regarding ecosystem-based forest management delta ecosystems and associated lagoons is that we need to move from a view that sees (Costa-Pierce 1988). The paddy rice fields were humans as external managers of forest ecosys- used to produce both rice and fish during the tems to one that considers humans to be flooded period of rice production. The nutrient integral components of forest ecosystems. This rich wastes of the paddy rice—fish production shift in perspective allows us to recognize the system were allowed to flow downstream into dependence of all human societies on the life- ponds (tambak) where shrimps, support functions of the ecosystem and the crabs, fish, vegetables, and tree crops could be ways by which this may continue into the produced. The wastes of this system then future (Berkes et al. 1998a). An ecosystem- flowed into the flooded mangrove forests that based approach to forest management also enriched the coastal fisheries. The lesson of

Table 1.—Examples of traditional applications of the ecosystem view. Source: Berkes (1999)

System Country/region Reference

Watershed management of salmon rivers Amerindians of the Williams and Hunn (1982); and associated hunting and gathering Pacific Northwest Swezey and Heizer (1993) areas by tribal groups

Delta and lagoon management for fish South and Southeast Asia Johannes et al. (1983) culture (tambak in Java), and the integrated cultivation of rice and fish

Vanua (in ), a named area of land , including Fiji, Ruddle and Akimichi (1984); and sea, seen as an integrated whole , Baines (1989) with its human occupants ancient Hawaii

Family groups claiming individual The Ainu of northern Japan Watanabe (1973); watersheds (iworu) as their domain Ludwig (1994) for hunting, fishing, gathering

Integrated floodplain management (dina) Mali, Africa Moorehead (1989) in which resource areas are shared by social groups through reciprocal access arrangements

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Figure 5.—Traditional Indonesian coastal zone management. Source: adapted from Costa-Pierce (1988). this example is that by paying attention to (protected by taboo) at the top of the mountain ecosystem processes we can also generate for water catchment and erosion prevention; ecosystem products. The linking of the paddy- integrated farming zones in the uplands and pond-coastal lagoon to take advantage of coastal zone; coconut palms along the coastline nutrient wastes allowed the productivity of the to provide protection from storms and wind; entire system to increase by utilizing the and brackish water and seawater fish ponds. outputs of one system as an input to the other. The Hawaiian system no longer exists, but Other examples of integrated watershed man- similar systems of watershed management can agement can be found in the vanua system of be found in other Asia-Pacific cultures, includ- Fiji and the ahupua’a of ancient Hawaii (table ing Fiji and the Solomon Islands. The idea of 1). The ahupua’a system of Hawaii, shown in managing a watershed as a unit historically figure 6, included entire valleys and stretched appears in a number of different geographical from the top of a mountain down to the coast areas, from the ancient Swiss and Turks to the and shallow waters. Each watershed was peoples of the (Berkes et al. 1998a). In managed by a chieftanship, a social group our studies, we have found elements of water- under the authority of the king. The idealized shed management in village resource areas in version of this system shown in figure 6 in- the of northwest India in a temper- cluded the following elements: forest zone ate forest region. As shown in figure 7, each 86 Figure 6.—The ahupua’a system of ancient Hawaii. Source: adapted from Costa-Pierce (1987).

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Figure 7.—Management zones of two villages in the Himalayas of northwest India. Forest zone includes demarcated protected forest (DPF) and undemarcated protected forest (udf). Agricultural zones (A) are also shown. Source: Berkes et al. (1998b).

village of the Beas watershed was granted a purposes) for their livelihoods (Berkes et al. section of forest under the land settlement 1998b). during the period of British rule. These units integrated alpine pastures, highland forests, One of the lessons from these examples of forest meadows, upland agricultural land, and integrated watershed management is that it is irrigated agricultural land on the valley floor. possible to maintain both a productive and a Both the forest and the agricultural area diverse landscape through the integration of showed high biodiversity, in part because of the different types of land use. For modern re- diversity of different social groups with differ- source managers, this will require devising ent specializations (such as herding vs. agricul- management strategies that focus on ecosys- ture), and in part because the dominant village tem functions and process at the landscape agriculturalists used a variety of resources scale, while paying attention to increasing the (e.g., different kinds of wood for different diversity of products that can flow from a 88 management unit. Such approaches have in the holistic science that pays attention to non- fact been proposed for the sustainable manage- linear dynamics, complexity, uncertainty, and ment of tropical forest ecosystems (Lugo 1995). the location of human activities firmly within the ecological and social environment. We know It would be naive to suggest that the traditional something that we did not know 20 years ago: management systems such as those mentioned some traditional ecological knowledge is very above could be imported directly into the good science, and some traditional manage- variety of ecological and social contexts that ment systems are very good management make up the boreal and cold temperate forest systems. For example, the practices of the regions. What may be possible depends on the Kayapo are currently reflected in the pages of imagination and practice of the managers, the Journal of Ecological Applications (Robinson workers, harvesters, and inhabitants of these and Handel 2000), while the designs of ecosys- regions. For example, by recognizing the value tem-based management appear strikingly of both timber and non-timber forest products, similar to the landscapes created by Hawaiian we can increase the intensity and diversity of and Himalayan systems of forested watershed forest management, an idea consistent with management. some of the traditional systems discussed above, even though some of these examples Many traditional knowledge practices are also may at first seem rather exotic. At this rela- consistent with scientific trends toward ecosys- tively early stage of ecosystem-based forest tem-based management that focus on ecosys- management in the boreal and cold temperate tem processes, health, and resilience instead of forest regions, it is through such explorations maximum sustained yields of single species that we can begin to imagine what ecosystem- (Holling et al. 1998). It may not be possible to based forest management may look like “on the “manage” nature, but as Nancy Turner says, ground.” “you can keep it living” (Turner, this volume). “Keeping it living” in the boreal and cold tem- We can also learn from the principles developed perate forests depends upon paying attention by people who have investigated these systems. to ecological processes, such as disturbance Janis Alcorn, for example, has derived seven and succession, and integrated resources principles from traditional knowledge and management. management systems. These principles can provide guidance as we address the challenge The study of non-timber forest products has to focus on ecosystem processes while meeting run a parallel course to the study of traditional the productive needs of society. She recom- ecological knowledge and ecosystem-based mends that ecosystem-based management forest management. Non-timber forest product strategies (1) take advantage of native trees and studies of the past tended to focus more on native tree communities; (2) rely on native production than on managing ecosystem successional processes; (3) use natural envi- integrity and process. However, the study of ronmental variation; (4) incorporate numerous non-timber forest products provides an emerg- crops and native species; (5) be flexible; (6) ing arena of investigation in which ecology, spread risks by retaining diversity; and (7) traditional ecological knowledge, ecosystem- maintain reliable backup resources to meet based forest management, and production can needs should the regular livelihood sources fail be brought together. Many non-timber forest (Alcorn 1990). products are linked to the ecological processes of disturbance and succession. Although timber is also linked to these processes, a focus NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS AND on non-timber forest products provides the CHANGING RESOURCE MANAGEMENT means by which we may be able to reverse the PARADIGMS order of priority for forest management.

Traditional ecosystem knowledge and tradi- Ecosystem-based forest management means tional management systems have often been protecting the integrity, health, and resilience placed in opposition to science-based manage- of ecosystems. It does not focus primarily on ment systems. However, with the advent of the resources but rather on the sustainability of changing views on ecosystems, there appears ecosystem processes necessary to provide these to be an increasing convergence between resources. Only then can we evaluate the traditional ecological knowledge and some of products that emerge from these processes over 89 NTFP Conference Proceedings time and space. Timber, shrubs, herbs, mush- and mutual learning between scientists, re- rooms, animals, birds, and bacteria all have source managers, and traditional resource their own distributions in time and space harvesters/managers through the establish- relative to disturbance. For example, fireweed ment of cooperative research projects to answer (Epilobium angustifolium L.) occurs in the early research questions of mutual interest. How- years following a disturbance, ginseng (Panax ever, this will require scientists and resource quinquefolius L.) is found under mature forest managers who are not just interested in mining canopies, while highbush cranberry (Viburnum information from traditional harvesters/man- trilobum L.) often occurs along riverbanks agers but who are also willing to re-think the disturbed periodically by spring flooding. whole paradigm of resource management along Fireweed and ginseng have both been used as with traditional harvesters/managers: scien- medicines while highbush cranberry is an tists and resource managers who are able to edible berry. Ecosystem-based management envision the linkages between livelihoods and requires that we consider ecological processes ecosystems, and able to imagine healthy forest first and then link production to those pro- ecosystems as vibrant places where people live, cesses—not the other way around. work, play, and visit. The linkages between ecosystem studies, traditional ecological knowl- A shift in priority from product to process edge, ecosystem-based forest management, opens up a whole new set of research ques- livelihoods, and non-timber forest products tions. For instance, if we are interested in provide a new direction for research and appli- shortening the period between timber harvests, cation that will lead us toward the vision of the we need to consider both the ecological and Canadian Council of Forest Ministers to man- social implications of such a management age Canada’s forests as ecosystems. decision. In Indonesia the pekarangan reflects a similar decision to intensify forest manage- ment. One of the implications is that with LITERATURE CITED intensification comes the need to recognize private property rights. However, we need to be Agrawal, Arun. 1995. Dismantling the divide aware that this is not the only possible alterna- between indigenous and scientific knowl- tive. If intensification is an option but not a edge. Development and Change. 26(3): 413- requirement, then it may be possible to exam- 439. ine the ecological processes and the value of the products that flow from the ecological Alcorn, Janis. 1990. Indigenous agroforestry processes of a forest ecosystem. strategies meeting farmers’ needs. In: Anderson, A.B., ed. Alternatives to defores- What would such a multiple-species manage- tation. New York, NY: Columbia University ment system look like across the landscape Press. and over time? What are the production/ technological constraints for such a system of Baines, G.B.K. 1989. Traditional resource production? What is the distribution of prod- management in the Melanesian South ucts in space and time? What is the value of Pacific: a development dilemma. In: Berkes, these products? What institutional changes F., ed. Common property resources: ecology would be required? A focus on non-timber and community-based sustainable develop- forest products opens up a whole new set of ment. London: Belhaven: 273-295. questions that science and ecosystem-based forest management are only beginning to Berkes, Fikret. 1999. Sacred ecology: tradi- consider. These questions, however, have been tional ecological knowledge and resource considered within traditional ecological knowl- management. Philadelphia, PA: Taylor and edge and traditional management systems. Francis.

The study of non-timber forest products opens Berkes, Fikret; Folke, Carl, eds. 1998. Linking up an area of research that can contribute to social and ecological systems: management ecosystem-based forest management through a practices and social mechanisms for build- focus on ecosystems and traditional ecological ing resilience. Cambridge: Cambridge knowledge. There is a potential for dialogue University Press. 459 p.

90 Berkes, Fikret; Kislalioglu, Mina; Folke, Carl; Gunderson L.H.; Holling, C.S.; Light, S.S., eds. Gadgil, Madhav. 1998a. Exploring the basic 1995. Barriers and bridges to the renewal ecological unit: ecosystem-like concepts in of ecosystems and institutions. New York, traditional societies. Ecosystems. 1: 409- NY: Columbia University Press. 415. Holling, C.S. 1986. Resilience of ecosystem: Berkes, Fikret; Davidson-Hunt, Iain; local surprise and global change. In: Clark, Davidson-Hunt, Kerril. 1998b. Diversity of W.C.; Munn, R.E., eds. Sustainable devel- common property resource use and diver- opment of the biosphere. Cambridge: sity of social interests in the Western Indian Cambridge University Press: 292-317. Himalaya. Mountain Research and Develop- ment. 18(1): 19-33. Holling, Crawford S.; Berkes, Fikret; Folke, Carl. 1998. Science, sustainability and Berkes, Fikret; Folke, Carl; Gadgil, Madhav. resource management. In: Berkes, Fikret; 1995. Traditional ecological knowledge, Folke, Carl, eds. Linking social and ecologi- biodiversity, resilience and sustainability. cal systems: management practices and In: Perrings, C.A.; Mäler, K.-G.; Folke, C.; social mechanisms for building resilience. Holling, C.S.; Jansson, B.-O. Biodiversity Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: conservation: problems and policies. 342-362. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers: 281-300. Johannes, R.E.; Lasserre, P.; Nixon, S.W.; Pliya, J.; Ruddle, K. 1983. Traditional Canadian Council of Forest Ministers. 1997. knowledge and management of marine Criteria and indicators of sustainable forest coastal systems. Biology International, management in Canada. Tech. Rep. 1997. Special Issue 4. Ottawa: Natural Resources Canada-Cana- dian Forest Service. Jordan, C.F. 1986. Local effects of tropical deforestation. In: Soulé, M., ed. Conserva- Canadian Council of Forest Ministers. 1998a. tion biology. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer: National forest strategy (1998-2003) — 410-426. sustainable forests: a Canadian commit- ment. Ottawa: Natural Resources Canada- Ludwig, N.A. 1994. An Ainu homeland: an Canadian Forest Service. alternative solution for the Northern Terri- tories/Southern Kuriles imbroglio. Ocean Canadian Council of Forest Ministers. 1998b. and Coastal Management. 25: 1-29. Canada forest accord. Ottawa: Natural Resources Canada-Canadian Forest Ser- Lugo, A. 1995. Management of tropical vice. biodiversity. Ecological Applications. 5: 956-961. Christianty, L.; Abdoellah, O.S.; Marten, G.G.; Iskandar, J. 1986. Traditional agroforestry Moorehead, R. 1989. Changes taking place in in West Java: the pekarangan (homegarden) common-property resource management in and kebun-talun (annual-perennial rota- the Inland of Mali. In: Berkes, tion) cropping systems. In: Marten, G.G., F., ed. Common property resources: ecology ed. Traditional Agriculture in Southeast and community-based sustainable develop- Asia. Boulder, CO: Westview: 132-158. ment. London: Belhaven: 256-272.

Costa-Pierce, B.A. 1987. Aquaculture in an- Posey, D.A. 1985. Indigenous management of cient Hawaii. BioScience. 37: 320-330. tropical forest ecosystems: the case of the Kayapo Indians of the Brazilian Amazon. Costa-Pierce, B.A. 1988. Traditional fisheries Agroforestry Systems. 3: 139-158. and dualism in Indonesia. Naga. 11(2): 34. Robinson, George R.; Handel, Steven N. 2000. ESA. 1995. The report of the ecological society Directing spatial patterns of recruitment of America committee on the scientific basis during an experimental urban woodland for ecosystem management. Ecological reclamation. Ecological Applications. 10(1): Society of America homepage. 174-188. 91 NTFP Conference Proceedings

Ruddle, K.; Akimichi, T., eds. 1984. Maritime L.; Zasada, J., eds. Forest communities in institutions in Western Pacific. Senri Ethno- the third millennium: linking research, logical Studies 17. Osaka, Japan: National business, and policy toward a sustainable Museum of Ethnology. non-timber forest product sector;1999 October 1-4; Kenora, Ontario. Gen Tech. Stevenson, Marc G. 1998. Traditional knowl- Rep. NC-217. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Depart- edge in environmental management? From ment of Agriculture, Forest Service, North commodity to process. Working Pap. 1998- Central Research Station. 14. Edmonton: Sustainable Forest Manage- ment Network. 15 p. Usher, Peter J. 2000. Traditional ecological knowledge in environmental assessment Swezey, S.L.; Heizer, R.F. 1993. Ritual manage- and management. Arctic. 53: 183-193.. ment of salmonid fish resources in Califor- nia. In: Blackburn, T.C.; Anderson, K., eds. Watanabe, H. 1973. The Ainu ecosystem, Before the wilderness: environmental environment and group structure. Seattle, management by native Californians. Menlo WA: University of Washington Press. Park, CA: Ballena Press: 299-327. Williams, N.M.; Hunn, E.S., eds. 1982. Re- Turner, Nancy. 2001. “Keeping it living”: tradi- source managers: North American and tional land and resource management of Australian hunter-gatherers. Washington, British Columbia First Peoples and implica- DC: American Association for the Advance- tions for management of non-timber forest ment of Science. products. In: Davidson-Hunt, I.; Duchesne,

92 Selected Non-Timber Forest Products with Medicinal Applications from Jilin Province in China

Yao Ge Huang1, Branka Barl2, and Gerald Ivanochko3

Abstract.—This paper provides a brief account of the distribution, production, and use of some non-timber forest products such as medicinal plants, medicinal and nutraceutical mushrooms, pharma- ceutical insects, and “wild” vegetables in Jilin Province, China. All materials featured in this paper are used in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) inside and outside of China. Given the similarities in environmental conditions between Saskatchewan and Jilin, the information provided herein may be used in assessing the potential of Saskatchewan wild plants for similar developments in the .

Saskatchewan and the Province of Jilin, China, either collected from forested areas or culti- signed a twinning agreement on collaboration vated under conditions that closely simulate in agriculture research in 1984, which was forest environment. extended in 1995 to include traditional medi- cine component. Saskatchewan Agriculture Jilin Province is located in the central part of and Food and the University of Saskatchewan , has a territory of 187,400 are attempting to evaluate production and square kilometers, and a population of 25 harvesting potential of Saskatchewan native million (Department of Agriculture, Jilin Prov- plants, as well as other herbs, for developments ince 1997). Jilin is a major agricultural prov- into economically viable crops in the province. ince and one of grain baskets of China. It is The establishment of the Herb Research Pro- surrounded by mountains in the east, plains in gram in 1994 was an important step in this the center, and grasslands in the west. It has a process. Collaboration with experts from continental monsoon climate, four distinct countries with a long tradition in herbal medi- seasons, and abundant rainfall. Jilin is one of cine, such as China, is considered invaluable the six major forest regions in China. It has 7.9 in advancing herb research and industry million hectares of forest plantations and is the development in Saskatchewan, particularly in third largest in the country (Jilin Province the area of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), Leading Group of Foreign Capital Utilization which is being increasingly accepted in North Office, Foreign Investment Administration & America. In China, many of natural medicinal Service Center 1997). It has the country’s and nutraceutical materials could be classified highest production of ginseng. Of 2,700 species as non-timber forest products, since they are of wild plants, 900 species are medicinal herbs and 80 species are medicinal and nutraceutical mushrooms. Most of them grow in the forested areas. For example, Ganoderma lucidum (Ling Zhi), Gastrodia elata (Tian Ma), Astragali radix 1 Postdoctoral Fellow, Herb Research Pro- (Huang Qi), and evening primrose are well gram, Department of Plant Sciences, University known throughout the world, while Hedgehog of Saskatchewan, Canada, and Professor of hydnum (Hou Tou) is very popular in China. College of Chinese Medicinal Materials, Jilin Agricultural University, China. It is well established that tradition of using 2 Program Leader, Herb Research Program, herbal medicine goes back thousands of years Department of Plant Sciences, University of in China. China is one of the largest medicinal Saskatchewan, Canada. herb material markets in the world, and forest 3 Northern Products Specialist, Sustainable area in Jilin Province is one of the most impor- Production Branch, Saskatchewan Agriculture tant production bases for medicinal herb and Food, Canada. material in China. For that reason, a unique 93 NTFP Conference Proceedings college in the field of Traditional Chinese MEDICINAL PLANTS Medicinal herb materials, College of Chinese Medicinal Materials and National Institute of Ginseng (Panax ginseng and Panax Local Products, have been established in the quinquefolium) city of Changchun, Jilin Province. Ginseng is the root, or root with rhizome, of two Jilin has its own medicinal herb material Panax species (Araliaceae) cultivated in Jilin distribution and selling system. The medicinal Province: Oriental ginseng and North American herb materials are mainly sold through the ginseng. Oriental ginseng (Ren Shen) (Panax Chinese Medicinal Material Companies that are ginseng C. A. Meyer) is a native plant that has supplied by a network of smaller branches in also been cultivated in China for more than several cities, counties, and towns throughout 1,660 years (Huang et al. 1995a). The main the Province. In some instances, the buyers of active compounds in Oriental ginseng include pharmaceutical factories buy medicinal materi- ginsenosides Ro, Ra, Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, Re, Rf, β als directly from farmers and collectors. Many Rg1, Rg2, Rg3, panaxynol, panaxdol, -elemene, materials are also exported. Due to an in- γ-elemene, and panaxans (Cui et al. 1996, Li creased demand for natural over synthetic and Huang 1994). The pharmacological proper- pharmaceuticals in developed countries in ties of Oriental ginseng include: (1) acting on recent years, the U.S.A., Germany, Japan, and the central nervous system including excitation in particular have become large and and inhibition processes; (2) exerting signifi- lucrative international markets for medicinal cant cardiotonic and hypertensive effects on herb materials from Jilin. The medicinal herb acute circulatory failure after heavy blood loss; materials characterized as non-timber forest (3) decreasing the level of blood ; (4) products (NTFPs) in China are listed in table 1. promoting phagocytosis and enhancing The following are the main NTFP products lympocyte blastogenesis rate; (5) antiaging and cultivated or collected in Jilin Province and improving memory (Kim 1996). Oriental gin- sold worldwide. seng is used to treat cardiovascular diseases, gastritis, hepatitis, diabetes, and neurasthenia and is particularly used during the recovery List of selected medicinal herb materi- Table 1.— from major surgery. More recently, it has been als originating from China1 used for treating gastric carcinoma, cervical cancer, uterine cancer, and leukemia. Herb Powder Extract Price (FOB Package China) Oriental ginseng is a perennial herbaceous $US/kg plant. It likes a shady and cool environment, and sandy loam with rich organic matter. The Siberian ginseng 13.5 25 kg/tub optimal temperatures for the growing period Grape seed 165 5 kg/iron tin range from 20 to 25oC and the optimal soil Pine bark 190 5 kg/iron tin moisture content ranges from 40 to 60 percent. Puerariae 33 - 40 25 kg/tub The yield of Oriental ginseng varies greatly, Horsetail 14 25 kg/tub generally from 1 to 5 kg/m2 (Yang 1993), Ginseng 80 25 kg/tub depending on the cultivation situations. Orien- tal ginseng is usually processed as white Schisandra chinensis 18 25 kg/tub ginseng (Radix ginseng cruda) (dried under the Astragalus 17 25 kg/tub sun or in the oven), red ginseng (Radix ginseng Hawthorn 14 25 kg/tub rubra) (steamed and dried), sugar ginseng, ginseng powder, ginseng honey slice, ginseng Polygonum extract powder, ginsenosides, ginseng cake, multiflorum 24 25 kg/tub ginseng , ginseng , ginseng tea, ginseng liquor, and ginseng cigarettes (Jiangsu 1 The prices provided by China Tiancheng Drugs & Medical College 1985). Jilin ginseng is very Bio-engineering Co., April, 1999. famous for its good quality and is sold inside

94 and outside of China. It is mainly exported to 1976 (Yang 1993). The main compounds in Southeast Asia, Japan, Europe, and North Gastrodia tuber are gastrodin, vanillyl alcohol, America. The price of Oriental ginseng ranges vanillin, and some alkaloids (Li and Huang from $US 50 to 60/kg and Oriental ginseng 1994). The pharmacological activities of this extract powder is sold for $US 80/kg. plant include: (1) sedative, hypnotic, and antispasmodic effects; (2) increase in blood flow North American ginseng (Xi Yang Shen) (Panax and decrease in peripheral resistance of blood quinquefolium L.) originated from North vessels. It is used for infantile convulsion, America and was introduced to Jilin Province tetanus, epilepsy, dizziness as well as migraine from Canada in 1976 (Huang et al. 1995a). The and arthralgia (neuralgic pain in joints). More germination of American ginseng seed is very recently, it has also been used for treating difficult and slow (Huang et al. 1995a, 1995b). neurasthenia and hypertension. Gastrodia is a Under natural conditions, it takes 18 to 22 perennial herbaceous saprophyte. It grows well months for seeds to germinate upon harvest in cool environmental half-shady, half-sunny (Huang et al. 1996a, 1997b; Jo et al. 1998). locations with high humidity, and humus loam Studies of the dormancy mechanism (Huang et rich in organic matter. The optimal soil tem- al. 1995b, 1996a, 1997b, 1998) resulted in the peratures range from 18 to 23oC and optimal identification of a germination-accelerating soil moisture ranges from 30 to 40 percent. technology (Huang et al. 1995a, 1995b) that Wild Gastrodia can usually be found in a enabled seed to germinate within 7 to 8 jungle-like environment at elevations from months. The main active compounds in North 1,000 to 2,500 m. The yield of Gastrodia

American ginseng are ginsenosides Ro, Ra0, tuber varies greatly depending on the cultiva- 2 Rb1, Rc, Rd, Re, Rf, Rg1, and Rg2. However, the tion conditions, generally from 0.3 to 1.8 kg/m content of total ginsenosides is higher in North (Yang 1993). Prior to marketing, Gastrodia American ginseng than in Oriental ginseng, tubers are washed, peeled, boiled together with which is particularly true for Rb1. The millet, and dried (Li 1991). The crude Gastrodia ginsenosides Rb1 and Re constitute 50 percent tubers are mainly exported to Southeast Asia of the total ginsenosides in North American and Japan at a price of $US 10/kg. ginseng (Li and Huang 1994). In China, North American ginseng is used for treating hyperten- sion, coronary heart diseases, loss of blood, Radix Astragali (Astragalus membranaceus) and pneumonia. North American ginseng is a perennial herbaceous plant that grows best in Radix astragali (Huang Qi) is the root of As- a shady and cool environment and in sandy tragalus membranaceus (Fisch.) Bunge var. loam with rich organic matter. The optimal Monghplicus (Bunge) Hsiao or Astragalus temperatures for growing range from 18 to membranaceus (Fisch.) Bunge (Leguminosae). It 24oC and optimal soil moisture ranges from 40 is cultivated in Jilin Province. The main com- to 55 percent. The average yield of North pounds in Radix astragli are astragaloside I, V, American ginseng is 1 kg/m2 (Yang 1993). It is and VII, choline, betaine, kumatakenin, and processed as white ginseng (Radix ginseng polysaccharide (Jiangsu Medical College 1985). cruda) (dried under the sun or in the oven), but Its pharmacological activities include: (1) not as red ginseng and sugar ginseng. Some- increasing the amount of leukocytes and times, it is processed as ginseng tea in China. polymorphocytes in peripheral blood and It is mainly exported to Southeast Asia at a promoting lymphocyte-blastogensis; (2) healing price of $US 85 to 145/kg. skin ulcers; (3) acting as a cardiotonic; (4) dilating coronary artery and capillaries. It is used for treating loose stools, fatigue and Gastrodia (Gastrodia elata) bleeding, hysteroptosis or gastroptosis, com- mon cold in debilitated patients, ruptured Gastrodia (Tian Ma) is the tuber of Gastrodia abscess, skin erosion, wound healing, and skin elata Bl. (Orchidaceae) grown in symbiosis with infection. More recently, it has been used for fungi Armillaria mellea (Vahl ex. Fr.) Quel. It peptic ulcer and atrophic gastritis, edema, has been cultivated in Jilin Province for many diabetes, partial body paralysis, asthma and for years. The cultivation efficiency of this medici- treating hepatoma, cervical cancer and lung nal plant has improved considerably since cancer as well (Ou 1992).

95 NTFP Conference Proceedings

Radix astragali is a perennial herbaceous Shan Hong Jing Tian), used for eliminating plant. It grows in the wild on sunny and dry tiredness; bulaocal (Boschniakia rossica hillsides or under thin forest. The plant is Fedtsch. et Flerov) (Cao Cong Rong), used for generally adaptable to growing conditions and improving male sexual ability; and fructus is relatively easy to cultivate. It grows well in schisandrea (Schisandra chinenesis (Turcz.) sandy, well-drained, somewhat alkaline soil ( Wei Zi), used for insomnia and neurasthe- (Foster and Chongxi 1992). The yield of Radix nia. astragali depends on growing conditions, and the range of yields is quite wide according to All plants mentioned above are used as medici- the cultivation situations, generally ranging nal materials in Traditional Chinese Medicine from 0.2 to 0.8 kg/m2 (Yang 1993). The pro- inside and outside of China. cessing of Radix astragali includes washing, drying, and slicing. It is mainly exported to Southeast Asia, Korea, and Japan in crude MEDICINAL AND NUTRACEUTICAL form at an average price of $US 6-7/kg. It is MUSHROOMS also sold as a powdered extract for $US 17/kg. Ganoderma (Ganoderma lucidum)

Herba Asari (Asarum heterotropoides) Ganoderma (Ling Zhi) is the sporophore of Ganoderma lucidum (Leyss. ex Fr.) Karst. Herba asari (Xi Xin) is the whole plant of (Polyporaceae). Its medicinal uses have been Asarum heterotropoides Fr. Schmidt var. recorded since the 11th century B.C. At the mandshuricum (Maxim) Kitag (Aristolochiaceae). present time, it is cultivated in the manmade It is cultivated mainly in Jilin Province. The biofactory in Sulan County, Jilin Province. Its main compounds in Herba asari include dl- main constituents are organic germanium; demethyl coclaurine, safrole, methy leugenol, polysaccharides BN3C1, BN3C2, BN3C3, and β ι -pinene, eucarvene, asarylketone, cineole, - BN3C4; ganoderic acids A, B, C1, C2, D1, D2, E1, asarinin (Li and Huang 1994). Its pharmaco- E2, F, G, H, I, J, T, U, W, X, Y, and Z; lucidenic logical actions include: (1) sedative, analgesis, acids A, B, C, D1, D2, E1, E2, and F; ganolucidic antipyretic effects; (2) induces anesthetic effect acids A, B, and C; acid protease, lysozyme, on the sciatic neuroplexus of frogs and human , and ergosterol (Li et al. 1996). Its lingual mucosa when used as an alcoholic pharmacological properties include: (1) acting infusion; (3) acts as a cardiotonic and vasodila- as a sedative and analgesic; (2) increasing the tor and can also relax smooth muscles, accel- tolerance of cold and anoxia in experimental erate lipid metabolism, and raise blood sugar mice; (3) exerting mild and prolonged hypoten- level (effect of Dl-demethyl coclaurine); (4) sive effect in rabbits; (4) protecting the liver in antimycotic (effect of safrole). It is used for mice and decreasing the level of serum treating common cold, headache, toothache, glutamic-pyruvic transaminase (SGPT); (5) arthralgia, and cough. It can be used to wake a decreasing blood sugar level; (6) acting as an person from unconsciousness and to induce antitussive and expectorant. The ganoderma is sneezing. used for insomnia, amnesia, dullness, cough, and difficulty in breathing. Recently, it has also Herba asari is a perennial herbaceous plant. been used for hyperlipemia, hypertension, In the wild, it grows in rich loam soil or under coronary heart diseases, arrhythmia, leukocy- thin forest canopy, and it likes lots of moisture. topenia, hepatitis, antiaging, and for some Typically, the yield of dry root is 0.8 to 1.2 forms of cancers such as lung, esophagus, kg/m2 (Yang 1993). It is minimally processed, gastric, and nasopharyngeal carcinoma. cleaned without washing, dried in the shade (Xu et al. 1997), and sold largely in China at a Ganoderma is a saprophytic fungus that price of $US 10/kg. Powdered extract is sold thrives in an environment with high tempera- for $US 17/kg. tures (24 to 30oC) and high relative humidity (85 to 90 percent). Wild ganoderma can be Some of the other medicinal plants produced in found beside tree stumps under the broadleaf Jilin Province include evening primrose tree forest. Cultivated ganoderma can produce (Oenothera odorata Jaeq.) (Yue Jian Cao), used 1 to 1.5 kg of dry product per 100 kg of media for cardiovascular diseases; red-spotted (Li 1996). Ganoderma can be processed into stonecrop (Rhodiola sachalinensis A. Bor) (Gao powder, extract, polysaccharides, health foods 96 and beverages, candy, liquor, makeup, sham- The fungus can be found on roots in pine poo, and so on (Huang 1992, Ou 1992). The forests at elevations of 700 to 1,000 m. It grows crude ganoderma is mainly exported to South- well in sandy loam at high temperatures (22 to and Korea at a price of $US 4.5/kg. 28 oC) and dry environment. The yields of fresh Indian bread range from 5 to 30 kg per cut pine root (Li et al. 1996). Indian bread can be pro- Hedgehog Hydnum (Hericium erinaceus) cessed into cake, pie, makeup, liquor mixed with ginseng, liquor mixed with Radix astragali, Hedgehog hydnum (Hou Tou) is the sporophore polysaccharides (Li 1985, Wei 1996). The crude of Hericium erinaceus (Bull. ex Fr.) Pers. Indian bread is mainly exported to Southeast (Hydnaceae). This mushroom has been culti- Asia and Korea at a price of $US 4.5-6/kg. vated in the manmade biofactory in Duenhua County of Jilin Province since the 1960’s (Jiang 1992). Hedgehog hydnum contains mainly Agaric (Polyporus umbellatus) polysaccharide and polypeptides (Li et al. 1996). The pharmacological activities of hedge- Agaric (Zhu Ling) is the dry sclerotium of hog include: (1) inhibiting synthesis of DNA Polyporus umbellatus (Pers.) Fries and RNA in cancer cells; (2) inhibiting sar- (Polyporaceae). Although it has a long history of coma180 and Ehrilich-Ascites tumor in vitro. It is use as a medicine in China—more than 2,500 used for peptic ulcer, chronic gastritis, and years—it has not been cultivated yet. In Jilin more recently for the cancers of the esophagus, Province, it is collected in forests at elevations stomach, and intestines. Wild hedgehog 1,200 ~ 2,200 m. Agaric’s main compounds are hydnum can be found on walnut and oak trees. ergosterol, a-hydroxy-tetracosanoic acid, biotin, The optimal growing conditions for hedgehog and polysaccharides (Li and Huang 1994). The hydnum are temperatures from 22 to 28 oC and phamacological activities include: (1) inhibiting relative humidity from 85 to 95 percent (Li et sarcoma180 and hepatic carcinoma in mice al. 1996). A single fresh hedgehog hydnum (polysaccharide); (2) enhancing macrophage weighs from 60 to 100 g. It can be processed phagocytosis and lymphocyte-blastogenesis into candy, beverage, extract, liquor, and so on rate; (3) acting as a diuretic. It is used for (Li et al. 1996). The crude hedgehog hydnum is edema, dysuria, leukorrhea, jaundice, mainly exported to Southeast Asia and Korea at stranguria, urinary stone, and chronic hepati- a price of $US 15-17/kg. tis. Injections of agaric polysaccharides are used together with chemotherapy and radio- therapy for cancers of the lung, liver, and acute Indian Bread (Poria cocos) leukemia.

Indian bread (Fu Ling) is the dry sclerotium of Agaric grows under the soil surface and prefers the fungus Poria cocos (Schw.) Wolf soil with high oganic matter. Under optimal (Polyporaceae). It has been cultivated in Jilin growing conditions (soil temperatures of 12 to Province for many years. Its main compounds 20 oC and soil moisture of 30 to 50 percent), it include several organic acids, pachymic acid, yields 2 kg of fungus per 70 cm x 70 cm x 50 tumulosic acid, eburicoic acid, pinicolic acid, cm cell. Agaric is considered as one of the best 3β-hydroxylahosta-7,9 (11), 24-trien-21-oic anticancer fungi. It is mainly exported in sliced acid, and polysaccharides pachyman and and dry form (Li et al. 1996) to Southeast Asia pachymaran (Li and Huang 1994). The phar- and Korea at a price of $US 4.5-7/kg. macological activities of Indian bread include: (1) enhancing macrophage phagocytosis in Other medicinal and nutraceutical mushrooms mice (pachyman) and lymphocyte-blastogensis produced in Jilin Province and used mainly as rate in vitro; (2) preventing gastric ulcer forma- food and for anticancer activities include: padi tion under stress in rats; (3) acting as diuretic straw mushroom [Flammulia velutipes (Curt. ex and liver-protective. Indian bread is used for Fr.) Sing.] (Jin Zhen Gu), champignon [Lentinus edema, dysuria, leucorrhagia, cough, jaundice, edodes (Berk.) Sing.] (Xiang Gu), tremella palpitation, insomnia, and chronic schizophre- (Tremella fucidormis Berk.) (Yin Er) (also used nia. Recently, it has also been used for treating for cough), and Jew’s ear [Auricularia auricula many types of malignant tumors. (L. ex Hook.)] (Hei Mu Er) (used as food and recommended for people working in mining, chemical, and textile industries (Li et al. 1996). 97 NTFP Conference Proceedings

PHARMACEUTICAL INSECTS Blister (Mylabris calida) Ground Beetle (Eupolyphaga sinensis) Blister beetle (Yuan Qing) refers to the dry Ground beetle (Tu Bie), presently reared in adult of Mylabris calida Pallas (Coleoptera: Jilin, refers to the whole body of dry female Meloidae). In Jilin, blister beetle is not reared adult of Eupolyphaga sinensis Waller but collected in the wild. It is typically con- (Blattodea: Corydiidae). are killed with sumed as fried with rice. Cantharidin, its main boiling water, and female insects are selected active compound (Jiangsu Medical College and dried for medicinal application (Zhu 1994). 1985), has been shown to display strong The main known compounds in ground beetle cytotoxic activity against L1210, P388, and are naphthalene, volatile oil, alkaloid, fatty SNU-1 cancer cells in vitro; corresponding ED50 aldehyde, aroyl aldehyde, and were 0.62, 1.05, and 0.58 mg/ml, respectively

(Jiangsu Medical College 1985). The pharmaco- (Huang 1997a). Cantharidin also inhibits S180, logical activities include: (1) activity against reticulothelioma and ascitic hepatocarcinoma L1210, P388, and SNU-1 cancer cells in vitro; in in vivo tests; it also inhibits synthesis of

(2) 126 percent increase in lifespan of S180 mice DNA, RNA, and protein. It is used for rabies, during 60-day in vivo tests with boiling water externally for carbuncle, scabies, leukoplakia of fraction (Huang et al. 1996b, Huang et al. vulva, distortion of the face, and more recently, 1997a). Ground beetle is used for trauma, for gastric, liver, and esophageal cancer, linger- fracture, anemia, hepatosplenomegaly, extrau- ing and chronic hepatitis, tuberculosis of bone terine pregnancy, chronic hepatitis, and pul- and lymph node, and rheumatism. The crude monary tuberculosis. More recently, it has blister beetle is exported mainly to Southeast been used for some cancers like nasopharyn- Asia and Korea at a price of $US 4/kg. geal carcinoma, melanoma, and uterine and ovarian cancer. The crude ground beetle is Fuscous Ant (Formica fusca) mainly exported to Southeast Asia and Korea for $US 7 to 8/kg. Fuscous ant (Ma Yi) refers to the dry adult of the worker ant of Formica fusca L. (Hy- menoptera: Formicidae). It is artificially reared Batryticated Silkworm (Bombyx mori) and/or collected in Jilin Province, then killed in steam (not fried or boiled) and dried (Wu 1994). Batryticated silkworm (Jiang Can), presently The main compounds of Fuscous ants are collected in the wild and reared in Jilin, is the aliphatic hydrocarbons, formic acid, farnesene, larvae in the fourth and fifth stages of develop- isoxanthopterin, 2-amino-6-hydroxypteridine, ment of Bombyx mori L. (Lepidoptera: and biopterin (Wu 1994). Its pharmacological Bombycidae) parasitized by a fungus Beaveria activities include: (1) anticancer activity against bassiana (Bal.s) Vuill. Prior to use as a medi- L1210, P388, and SNU-1 cancer cell lines in cine, batryticated silkworm is dried by quick vitro (Huang et al. 1997a); (2) antiphlogistic exposure to lime. Its main known compounds activity; (3) antiaging in mice test; (4) recover- are chitinase, bassianins, beauvericin, corti- ing the immunity of old mice. Fuscous ant is coids, ecdysterone, and 3-hydroxykynurennine used for rheumatoid arthritis, chronic hepati- (Jiangsu Medical College 1985). Pharmacologi- tis, sex functioning obstruction, postponing cal activities of batryticated silkworm include: senescence, and diabetes. The crude fuscous (1) sedative and hynotic effect in mice (at oral ant is mainly sold in China at a price of $US 7/ dose of 2.5 g/kg similar to hypodermic injec- kg. tion of phenobarbital at 50 mg/kg); (2) cyto- toxic activity shown against L1210, P388, and Other pharmaceutical insects collected in Jilin SNU-1 cancer cell lines in vitro (Huang et al. are tabanid (Tabanus mandarinus Schiner)

1996b); (3) increased lifespan of S180 mice at (Mang Chong) for cervical cancer; 80.2 percent during 60-day test in vivo. ( molossus L.) (Qiang Lang) for many Batryticated silkworm is used for convulsion, kinds of cancers; cockroach (Periplanete epilepsy, tetanus, apoplexy, headache, ocular americana L.) (Zhang Lang) for hepatoma, pain, sore throat, prurigo, urticaria, psoriasis, gastric carcinoma, and esophageal cancer; asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes, gastric mole cricket (Gryllotalpa africana Pal. de cancer, and laryngocarcinoma. The crude Beauvois.) (Lou Gu) for edema. batryticated silkworm is mainly exported to Southeast Asia and Korea for $US 7 to 8/kg. 98 The pharmaceutical insects mentioned above Balloonflower (Platycodon grandiflorum) are approved for use as materials for both Traditional Chinese Medicine and health Balloonflower (Jie Geng) refers to the root of products in China. Platycodon grandiflorum (Jacq.) A. DC. (Campanulaceae), a perennial herbaceous plant cultivated in Jilin Province. It grows well at WILD VEGETABLES warm temperatures (20 oC) and relatively high moisture; dry product yield is 0.2 to 0.3 kg/m2. Brachen (Pteridium aquilinum) Every 100 g of fresh balloonflower roots con- tains 14 g starch, 0.9 g protein, 3.19 g crude Brachen (Jue Cai) refers to the tender leaves of fiber, 10.00 mg of , and 0.44 mg of

Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Huhn var. (Desv.) vitamin B2 (Dong 1997). It is used in cooking as Underw. ex Heller (Pteridaceae), a perennial sweet and sour balloonflower, balloonflower herbaceous plant that grows in rich soil and with hot pepper and pork, balloonflower with sunny locations close to the forest. It is culti- cucumber and carrot, and balloonflower with vated in Jilin Province. Every 100 g of fresh tremella to treat sore throat, cough, laryngo- brachen contains 1.6 g protein, 0.4 g fat, 10 g carcinoma, and lung and tonsil cancer. Pro- carbohydrates, 1.3 g crude fiber, 1.68 mg cessing involves washing, peeling, soaking in carotene, and 35 mg of vitamin C. A gram of salt water for 24 hours, cooking, drying, or dry brachen contains 11.89 mg Ca, 2.18 µg P, canning (Yang 1993). It is exported mainly to 617.40 µg Fe, 16.58 µg Cu, 388.20 µg Zn, and Korea and Japan for $US 5/kg. 44.50 µg Mn (Dong 1997). It is used in dishes with beef or chicken, as a salad with green onions, and is used to treat jaundice and Japanese Aralia (Aralia elata) insomnia. It is washed for 1 minute in boiling water and for 7 - 8 hours in cold water prior to Japanese aralia (Song Mu) refers to the tender cooking, or dried after a 1 minute wash in buds of Aralia elata (Miq.) Seem, a small arbor boiling water. It is exported mainly to Japan tree that grows well in sandy loam and is and Korea for $US 2.5/kg. presently cultivated in Jilin Province. Every 100 g of fresh Japanese aralia contains 5.4 g protein, 0.2 g fat, 4.0 g carbohydrates, 1.6 g Cinnamon Fern (Osmunda cinnamomea) fiber, 20 mg Ca, 150 mg P, 1 mg Na, 590 µg K, 1,1 µg Fe, 32 µg Zn, 530IU of , 19 mg

Cinnamon fern (Zi Qi) refers to the tender of vitamin B1, 0.26 mg of vitamin B2, and 12 mg leaves of Osmunda cinnamomea L. var. asiatica of vitamin C (Dong 1997). It is used in cooking Fernald., a perennial herbaceous plant that with eggs and in sauteed Japanese aril. Japa- can be found in wet places under the forest. It nese aralia buds are used to treat neurasthe- is also cultivated in Jilin Province. Every 100 g nia, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes, nephritis, of fresh cinnamon fern contains 1.97 mg gastric carcinoma, intestinal cancer, gall carotene, 0.25 mg of vitamin B2, and 69 mg of bladder cancer, and lung cancer. Processing vitamin C. Each gram of dry plant contains involves washing of buds for 1 minute in 31.2 mg K, 1.9 mg Ca, 2.93 mg Mg, 7.11 mg P, boiling water, followed by 1 to 2 hours in cold 0.51 mg Na, 125 µg Fe, 81 µg Mn, 62 µg Zn and water, followed by cooking or canning (Dong 18 µg Cu (Dong et al. 1997). It can be cooked 1997). It is exported mainly to Korea at a price with pork, snake, or fish spiced with ginger. It of $US 0.5/kg of fresh product. is used to treat cough, cold with fever, in- creased menstruation, rheumatism, intestinal Other “wild” vegetables cultivated and/or cancer, gastric carcinoma, and hepatoma. collected in Jilin Province are dwarf yellow Cinnamon fern needs to be washed, kept for 24 daylily (Hemerocallis middendorffii Trautv. et hours in cold water, and cooked or canned. Mey.) (Huang Hua Cai), field sowthistle Alternatively, it can be washed for 1 minute in (Sonchus brachyotus DC.) (Qu Mai Ca), dande- boiling water and dried (Zhang 1997). It is lion (Taraxacum mongolicum Hand Mazz.) (Pu exported mainly to Korea and Japan for $US Gong Ying), and shepherdspurse (Capsella 2.5/kg. bursa-pastoris (L.)) (Ji Ji Cai). They are quite popular in China and are often more expensive than cultivated vegetables in Chinese markets. Some are exported to Japan and South Korea every year. 99 NTFP Conference Proceedings

Quite a few species of non-timber forest prod- Huang, Y.G.; Li, X.G.; Cui, S.Y. 1995b. Growth ucts are collected or cultivated in Jilin Prov- inhibitors in American ginseng seeds. The ince, China. Some of them have developed into challenges of the 21st century: proceedings a new industry already, while others still have of the International ginseng conference; great opportunities for growth ahead. We 1994 July 17-20; Vancouver, Canada: 397- believe that the lessons we’ve learned about the 398. non-timber forest products in Jilin Province may serve as good background information in Huang, Y. Ge.; Li, X.G.; Cui, S.Y. 1996a. Study planning and developing a viable non-timber on dormancy mechanisms of American forest industry in Saskatchewan. ginseng seed (Part B). Germination inhibi- tion of seed coat. Natural Product Sciences. 2(2): 137-142. ACKNOWLEDGMENT Huang, Y.G.; Kang, J.K.; Kim, H.S. 1996b. Funding for Dr. Huang was provided by the Cytotoxic activities of various fractions Agriculture Development Fund of extracted from some pharmaceutical insect Saskatchewan Agriculture and Food. Dr. relatives. Arch. Pharm. Res. 20(2): 110-114. Huang is thankful to the College of Chinese Medicinal Materials, Jilin Agricultural Univer- Huang, Y.G.; Kang, J.K.; Kim, H.S. 1997a. sity, China, for allowing him a leave of absence. Cytotoxic effects of various fractions ex- tracted from some pharmaceutical insects and Centipede. Natural Medicines. 51(5): 471-474. LITERATURE CITED Huang, Y.G.; Li, X.G.; Cui, S.Y. 1997b. Study Cui, S.Y.; Huang, Y.G.; Li, X.G. 1996. Study on on dormancy mechanisms of American germination inhibitors in oriental ginseng ginseng seed (Part A). Germination inhibi- seed. Journal of Jilin Agricultural Univer- tion of pulp. Korean Journal of Medicinal sity. 18(1): 25-29. Crop Science. 5(2): 154-161.

Department of Agriculture, Jilin Province. Huang, Y.G.; Li, X.G., Cui, S.Y. 1998. Study on 1997. Brief introduction to agricultural germination inhibitors in ether fraction projects of foreign investment in Jilin extracted from American ginseng pulp. Acta Province, P. R. China. Changchun, Jilin, Agronomica Sinica. 24(1): 92-98. China: Depertment of Agriculture Press: 2- 3. Jiangsu Medical College. 1985. Large dictio- nary of traditional Chinese medicine. Dong, R.; Li, G.C.; Fan, S.B. 1997. Wild veg- Shanghai, China: Shanghai Science and etables in Changbai Mountain. Beijing, Technology Press: 29-39, 2037. China: Scientific Press: 185-191. Jiang, X.C. 1992. New cultivation technology Foster, S.; Chongxi, Y. 1992. Herbal emissaries: for four mushrooms. Beijing, China: Agri- bringing Chinese herbs to the west. Roches- cultural Press: 90-107. ter, VT, U.S.A.: Healing Arts Press: 31. Jilin Province Leading Group of Foreign Capital Huang, Y. 1992. Cultivation of edible fungi. Utilization Office, Foreign Investment Beijing, China: High Education Press: 258- Adminstration & Service Center. 1997. Jilin 270. Province investment guide. Jilin, China: Hong Kong Huibang Publishing Co.: 9-11. Huang, Y.G.; Cui, S.Y.; Li, X.G. 1995a. Ad- vances in chemical germination accelerat- Kim, H.S. 1996. Effects of red ginseng extract ing-technology for Oriental and American including vitamin B groups on learning and ginseng seeds. Ginseng Research. 7(3): 6- memory in mice. Korean Journal of Gin- 10. seng Science. 20(3): 226-232.

100 Jo, J.; Blazich, F.A; Konsler; T.R. 1988. Wei, R.Q. 1996. Practical processing technology seed maturation of American of edible mushrooms. Beijing, China ginseng: stratification temperatures and Jinuun Press: 29-131. delay of stratification. HortScience. 23: 995- 997. Wu, Z.C. 1994. Ant therapy. Shanghai, China: Shanghai Scientific Popularization Press: Li, Y.H. 1985. Cultivation and processing of 122-139. edible mushrooms. Beijing, China: Jinduen Press: 94-99. Xu, G.J.; Wang, Q.; She, B.Y. 1997. Coloured illustrations of Chinese traditional and Li, X.G. 1991. Processing of medicinal plants. herbal drugs. Fujian, China: Fuzhou, Beijing, China: Agricultural Press: 14-15, Fujian, China: Science and Technology 71. Press: 13-16.

Li, X.G.; Huang, Y.G. 1994. General situation Yang, J.X. 1993. Cultivation of medicinal of special local product research in China: plants. Beijing, China: Agricultural Press: proceedings of the Sino-Korean symposium 119-170, 250. on agricultural sciences; 1994 August 8-9; Yanbian, Jilin, China: Yanbian University Zhang, Z.P. 1997. Edible and pharmaceutical Press: 80-89. wild vegetables. Beijing, China: Jindun Press: 9-13. Li, Y.; Wang, Q.; Fu, X.K. 1996. Medicinal mycology. Changchun, Jilin, China: Jilin Zhu, L.C. 1994. Application of pharmaceutical Science and Technology Press: 247-259. insects. Taiyuan, Shanxi, China: Shanxi Science and Technology Press: 45-51. Ou, M. 1992. Chinese-English manual of commonly used herbs in traditional Chi- nese medicine. Guangdong, Guangzhou, China: Guangdong Science and Technology Press: 7-9.

101 NTFP Conference Proceedings

Ecological and Biological Considerations for Sustainable Management of Non-timber Forest Products in Northern Forests

Luc C. Duchesne,1 John C. Zasada,2 and Iain Davidson-Hunt3

Abstract.—With a current output of over $241 million per year, non- timber forest products (NTFPs) contribute significantly to the welfare of rural and First Nations communities in Canada. Maple sap prod- ucts, wild mushrooms, and wild fruits are the most important NTFPs for consumption both in Canada and abroad. However, because of increased access to international markets by entrepreneurs along with a growing international demand for NTFPs, it may be possible to double or triple Canada’s NTFP harvest. As well, the development of this industry requires that biological research be conducted to better manage and locate the NTFP resources. To avoid depleting forest biodiversity, future research should also address the domestication of NTFPs.

INTRODUCTION Canada. In the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, Emery (1998) documented residents harvest of In recent years, non-timber forest products various plant parts from more than 132 tree, (NTFPs) have attracted the attention of shrub, and herb species for commercial sale and politicians, entrepreneurs, economic develop- personal use. ment agencies, and First Nations agencies as a means to improve the quality of life in rural For this paper, we define NTFPs as non-timber Canada (Brubaker 1999, Davidson-Hunt 1998, products growing in forests and derived from De Geus 1995, Higgins 1998, Mohammed 1999). plants or animals in their natural environment. NTFPs encompass a wide variety of products However, we exclude animal products from this derived from forests, including conifer boughs, discussion because of wildlife regulations that wild rice, wild blueberries, maple sap products, control and/or prohibit the sale of wildlife or wild mushrooms, and wild medicinal herbs. In their products in many Canadian provinces. British Columbia 200 types of NTFPs are recog- Applied broadly, our definition includes logging nized and in Ontario 50 types are commercially residues such as branches, stumps, or rotten used (Mohammed 1999), although we surmise logs that have been culled during timber that there may be as many as 500 NTFPs in harvesting operations. Although we exclude products such as wild ginseng and Christmas 1 Research Scientist, Canadian Forest Service, trees that have been domesticated for cultivation 1219 Queen Street East, Sault Ste. Marie, in agricultural settings, we recognize that they Ontario, Canada, P6A 5M7; Phone: 705-949- can become important income generators in 9461 ext. 2173; e-mail: [email protected]. rural communities. 2 Research Forester and Project Leader, USDA Forest Service, North Central Research Station, Although many NTFPs can be harvested 1831 Highway 169 E., Grand Rapids, Minne- successfully in the short term, the long-term sota 55744, USA; Phone: 218-326-7109; e-mail: sustainability of the NTFP industry depends on a jzasada@ fs.fed.us. thorough understanding of NTFP biology and 3 Ph.D. Student at the Natural Resources ecology for three reasons. First, it is essential to Institute, University of Manitoba and a founding understand how NTFPs grow in order to promote member, Taiga Institute for Land and Culture, their conservation through sustainable harvest- Suite A, 150 Main Street South, Kenora, Ontario, ing and cultural techniques. Second, gatherers Canada, P9N 1S9; e-mail: and entrepreneurs need to understand the [email protected]. biology of NTFPs in order to optimize harvesting 102 operations in both the short and long terms. And NTFPs play a relatively unimportant economic third, some NTFPs will eventually require role at the national level. domestication; to achieve this, a complete understanding of their , biology, and It is difficult to determine the actual potential of ecology will be needed to grow a product that is NTFP outputs in Canada. In this discussion we as attractive as the naturally grown product. estimate the yearly potential of NTFPs at $1 This understanding can be acquired through billion Canadian based on two approaches: 1) traditional knowledge gleaned from multiple the current yield of NTFPs is assumed to be generations of experience, through scientific $1.00/ha of productive forest, so we estimate research, or through a combination of these that this figure can easily be increased fourfold types of knowledge. The objective of this paper is to fivefold; 2) there is a high demand for various twofold: First, we present an overview of the types of NTFPs by international markets (Norvell current NTFP industry in Canada. Second, we 1995) and resource inventories suggest that discuss the need to understand NTFP biology NTFP harvesting industries could meet those and ecology. demands (Duchesne 1995, Miron 1994). Our predicted output of NTFPs is comparable to the total value of timber product shipments from CANADA’S CURRENT NTFP HARVEST Manitoba, Newfoundland, and Saskatchewan for 1997 (table 2). We conducted an informal survey of the value of NTFP shipments by dealing with known Table 2.—Value of shipments from Canada’s entrepreneurs, local and regional economic development agencies, academics, consultants in timber industry by Province for 1997 the fields of NTFPs, and government agencies. In table 1, we report our findings for 1997 illustrating Province Value of shipments a total yearly value of approximately $241 million (in Canadian dollars) Canadian in NTFP shipments. NTFP outputs make up 0.4 percent of the $58.7 billion Canadian yearly Newfoundland $ 603,000,000 output in forest products from Canada. However, Nova Scotia $ 1,009,000,000 NTFPs play a critical socioeconomic role at the New Brunswick $ 2,960,000,000 regional levels because they contribute greatly to Quebec $15,102,000,000 rural economies through seasonal employment and Ontario $12,059,000,000 often allow families to increase their yearly income Manitoba $ 702,000,000 by $8,000-10,000. Hence we perceive NTFP Saskatchewan $ 714,000,000 harvesting as a means to reduce poverty and Alberta $ 3,482,000,000 improve quality of life in rural Canada. At present, British Columbia $22,039,000,000 maple sap products and wild mushrooms make up Total Canada $58,700,000,000 the bulk of Canada’s NTFP output for national consumption and international export (table 1). In contrast, wild berries, medicinal plants, and other ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY AND NTFP HARVEST

Table 1.—Estimated non-timber forest products The ecological sustainability of the NTFP in Canada—value of annual shipments for harvest is a central issue to the long-term 1997 availability and management of NTFP on a broad scale. Undoubtedly, the impact of the Product Estimated value evolution of harvesting operations from sub- (in Canadian dollars) sistence level use to commercial exploitation Maple syrup $120,000,000 will create new pressures on individual species Mushrooms $100,000,000 and ecosystems as well as conflicts with other Berries (Vaccinium spp., forest users. Indeed, whereas traditional use of Amelanchier spp.) $ 20,000,000 NTFPs by First Nations people was restricteded Medicinal plants $ 1,000,000 by technological limitations, the large-scale use Ornamentals $ 500,000 of the NTFPs through modern means of Essential oils $ 50,000 extraction and transportation can have a great Total value of shipments $241,550,000 impact on individual species and ecosystem 103 NTFP Conference Proceedings productivity. A good example is the overexploi- ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE AND THE tation of wild ginseng from eastern North DOMESTICATION OF NTFPS American deciduous forests over the past 50 years. In the long run, there will be economic and ecological advantages to the domestication of some NTFPs. Domestication can take different ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE AND NTFP forms depending on product, sites, and econo- PROFITABILITY mic considerations. For example, blueberry producers in manage natural From a pragmatic perspective, it is critical to populations of plants while blueberry help harvesters of NTFPs acquire and use producers in Minnesota and elsewhere plant verified knowledge that helps them select the and cultivate desired varieties. Substantial more profitable sites, harvest in an efficient revenues are currently derived from domesti- and ecologically sound way, and handle the cated production of NTFPs in the northern product so that value is mantained. To survive forest. In Ontario, the Christmas tree industry in the NTFP business, entrepreneurs must and the ginseng harvest from agricultural lands have this knowledge. A vast body of scientific yield combined revenues of over $55 million literature and practical experience teaches Canadian per year (Mohammed 1999). Reasons NTFP harvesters that plants are not found for domesticating these NTFPs included maxi- uniformly through the forests. Their production mizing harvest, avoiding further depletion of and abundance varies with a wide range of natural stocks, stabilizing supplies, and environmental and internal plant factors such increasing economic return. The intensive as soil conditions, climate, time of the growing culture of ginseng in former tobacco fields of season, history of disturbance, vegetation type, southern Ontario had the double advantage of and plant age and condition. As well, it is providing tobacco farmers with an alternative important to recognize that within forest eco- crop when the tobacco demand fell and helping systems not all NTFP sources are equally conserve wild ginseng. However, the success of desirable. For example, the quality of birch the domestication of wild ginseng is largely due bark varies among trees in a stand and to our understanding of its ecological require- between birch stands as does the pattern of ments for seed stratification, nutrient needs, annual ring width of black ash trees, an impor- and shading requirements. One caveat to the tant factor in selection of trees for baskets domestication of ginseng, and a factor that (Collins 2000, McPhee 1989). Therefore, know- needs to be considered for other crops, is that ledge about the biology of NTFPs is critical to field-grown ginseng is inferior to wild ginseng, predict NTFP abundance and quality in order because of the lower content of active ingredi- to profitably harvest and market NTFPs. ents in the former (Ma et al. 1995). Further research showed that ginseng grown under the At this time, the most successful NTFP canopy of a forest stand is of better quality harvesting operations are supported by facili- (Beyfuss 1999). Other NTFPs, particularly wild tating scientific knowledge. In western Canada, mushrooms, could become domesticated if we morel harvesters visit recent wildfire sites in understood their ecological requirements. For search of black morels. Because black morel this we need to increase our understanding of fruiting takes place early in the spring, har- NTFP biology and ecological requirements. vesters start their harvesting operations in the south of the boreal forest and move northward as the morel season starts. In contrast, we BIOLOGICAL FACTORS CONTROLLING have a poor understanding of the biology of GROWTH AND ABUNDANCE OF NTFPS many NTFPs, so it is difficult to predict their location and abundance in natural ecosystems. Understanding how plants grow and reproduce The future of the NTFP industry depends is central to the biology and ecology of NTFP largely on entrepreneurs to gain the necessary production. Plant growth information needs for knowledge to locate, harvest, handle, and NTFP range from the physiology at the cell and transport NTFPs as efficiently as possible. whole plant scales of resolution to the inter- action of plants with their environment at the

104 stand and landscape scales. For higher plants Activity of the cambium in trees and other of temperate ecosystems, growth takes place in woody plants is responsible for the formation of two areas. The apical or primary meristems of the xylem, phloem, ray cells, and bark. the shoot and root are responsible for growth in Cambial activity and development of the cells length and increase their area of occupancy. and tissues derived from the cambium are very The activity in shoot apices also determines the sensitive to environmental conditions (Larson differentiation of buds into reproductive and 1994, Zimmerman and Brown 1971). This vegetative types; this determines the potential sensitivity is the basis for the potential that for fruit and seed production. The activity of exists for managing the quantity and quality of the cambium, referred to as a secondary some NTFPs. Wood characteristics and growth meristem, produces growth in diameter forms such as width of the annual ring through formation of new xylem, phloem, and (important in black ash basketry), development bark (Gartner 1995, Halle et al. 1978, Larson of burls (used in making wooden bowls and 1994, Lyndon 1998, Romberger 1963, carvings), and wood patterns (important in Zimmerman and Brown 1971). development of diamond willow) are all directly determined by the inherent capacity of the In branches and main stems of plants, apical cambium to interact with the physical and meristems are located in buds that may be chemical environment of the air and soil and in active or dormant for many years, becoming some cases with other organisms, particularly active when the plant is damaged or loses vigor. insects and diseases. The bark from which we Collectively these primary buds and adventi- obtain important materials for various tious buds that form after the plant is utilitarian and decorative purposes, such as disturbed are referred to as the bud bank birch bark baskets, is a direct product of both (Harper 1977, Zasada et al. 1992). Their the cambium and the cambium, the latter distribution and potential for development derived from activity of the cambium and within the plant vary within and among species whose specific function is production of the and with the resources available on the site bark layers. (Gill 1995, Harper 1977). Their location and growth determine the architecture of the plant The bark is the first line of plant defense and distribution and display of the against many insects and pathogens. Its photosynthetic machinery (Gartner 1995, Halle anatomical structure provides a physical et al. 1978). The lack of attention to the barrier, but perhaps more important the bark presence, location, and potential for growth of is the location of many secondary chemical these primary meristems can result in compounds that provide effective chemical excessive harvest of NTFPs like balsam fir barriers against attack by various organisms boughs and clubmoss, leading to a stunting (Bryant and Raffe 1995, Prance et al. 1993, and decline in the growth potential of the plant Shain 1995). These chemicals, also called and ultimately the loss of this resource. From secondary metabolites, have been and continue an ecological perspective, it is important for to be important NTFPs. Up to 50,000 secondary harvesters to understand the relationship plant molecules are generated from plants and between harvesting intensity and long-term many are located in the bark. They can be used productivity related to growth potential and for medicinal purposes, antifeedants, fungi- dynamics of apical meristems and the foliage, cides, essential oils, food additives, and other fruits, and seeds that develop from them. The purposes. They include, for example, the interaction between physical, chemical, and of balsam fir trees, tannins in the bark of biological environmental factors, genetics, and hemlock, betulin and papyriferic acid in birch apical meristems determines the potential for bark, taxol in yew bark, and salicylic acid in fruit production and development of unique willow bark to name but a few. The presence, NTFPs. For example, burning blueberry plants and absolute and relative amounts of these stimulates the creation of new buds and compounds vary among and within the plant substantially increases berry production. and with plant age and resources available for Whereas this fact was well-known to many growth. There is little doubt that new com- Native American cultures of North America, it pounds and more uses for those currently is now used to promote blueberry production. identified will be discovered as more research However, fire has been replaced by mechanical identifies and unlocks their potential. means: rotary blades are now used to prune the apical buds of blueberry plants. 105 NTFP Conference Proceedings

The cambium produces the xylem or wood 1. Constant adjustment of forest ecosystems through which water and dissolved mineral to the variation in climatic patterns and the and organic substances are transported in various types of disturbance related to this specialized cells, i.e., vessels and tracheids, variability. They occur at all scales of from the roots to the leaves. Maple and birch resolution and each has the potential to sap, comprised of water and of dissolved sugars affect NTFP quantity and quality. Frosts that were stored overwinter in the parenchyma and insects can affect individual buds and cells within the wood and mineral elements, are flowers; herbivory, disease, and wind affect transported in the xylem and removed from the parts of or entire plants; wind, fire, and xylem in the spring when trees are tapped. In insects affect entire stands and landscapes. addition, secondary metabolites accumulate The severe damage to sugar maple trees within the ray cells in the wood of trees as they and forests and the effect on syrup grow older. The tannins of oak wood are critical production in the northeastern U.S., to the industry because they provide Ontario, and Quebec is one recent example chemicals that affect the taste and quality of of the impacts of more extreme forms of wine. natural disturbance on NTFPs. These disturbances must be expected and bring a Understanding the biology of mushrooms, significant level of uncertainty to the Canada’s second most important NTFP, is availability of NTFPs at both temporal and equally critical. From an NTFP perspective, spatial scales. Impacts of human activities there are two types of fungi: those that feed on on the physical and chemical variables dead material, also known as saprophytic considered under the general heading of fungi, and fungi that form symbiotic associa- “global” or “climate” change may add more tions with plants, generally called mycorrhizal uncertainty to NTFP availability. fungi. For example, the mass-produced Agaricus, shiitake, and oyster mushrooms are It is not surprising that the life cycles of saprophytic species that have been domesti- many NTFPs are associated with natural cated. In contrast, symbiotic fungi are difficult forest disturbance. Small fruit-bearing to cultivate. In nature, the roots of all trees are species such as raspberry, mulberry, infected by fungi. With a few exceptions, these Saskatoon berry, and pin cherry are early root-infecting fungi form symbiotic associations colonizers after disturbance and they with trees—fungi exchange sugars for nutrients disappear as time since last disturbance and water with the tree roots. Unfortunately, increases. Many of these species survive in the most valuable wild mushroom species such mature forest stands as seeds buried in the as the chanterelles, the boletes, and the pine soil. The passage of fire activates the seeds mushroom are symbiotic species and their and, without competition, these species domestication has not been achieved. However, thrive in open sunlight. However, as eco- cultivation of Lactaria species has recently systems mature and plant growth creates been reported through the co-incubation of competition for light and nutrients, the both fungi and a host plant under controlled seed-bearing species are displaced from conditions (Godbout and Fortin 1990). ecosystems. Native cultures of North America were aware of the importance of fire disturbance for the production of small DISTURBANCE AND MANAGEMENT fruits. Succession in ecosystems brings OF NTFPS other types of NTFPs as new species are introduced. For example, shade-tolerant It is important to understand the effects of all species such as wild ginseng and types of disturbance on NTFPs. NTFPs fall into Lycopodium develop best in the understory four broad categories—materials for spiritual of older forests. Likewise, fungal species use, medicinal use, ornamental use, and also undergo succession as forest stands technology (e.g., Marles et al. 2000, Turner age after disturbance. Early species after 1998). Disturbance can be considered in fire in jack pine ecosystems are often the several general classes for each of these commercial black morel (Morchella conica) categories. In our brief discussion, we list three for a very short period of time (Duchesne classes, realizing that others may categorize and Weber 1993). Black morels are then NTFP disturbance differently. replaced by other species as the ecosystem matures. 106 An important aspect of climate and NTFP levels of cultivation. Even today there are production is the annual variation in phen- efforts to reduce annual periodicity of some ology and the effect on timing of collection NTFPs, increase production, and reduce and the quality of NTFP. Emery (1998), for natural variation not only by using similar example, has developed an annual calendar approaches but also by using “modern” showing the “normal” times of collection/ technology not available in the past. The harvest of many products in the forests of other aspect of this category of distur- northern Michigan. This analysis clearly bances is the effect of harvesting on the shows how various species differ seasonally future availability of the target NTFP or in their development and how gatherers another NTFP that may be available from who collect multiple species time their the same plant. For example, the harvest of activities to plant development. For those birch bark and may be possible gatherers who pick along a climatic during the life of an individual tree. What gradient, e.g., mushroom harvesters who needs to be considered about the effects of start in warm climates and progress to the harvest of one on the availability and colder climates, an understanding of effects quality of the other? The same can be said of temperature and other climate variables of activities that affect entire stands such is a critical factor in planning. as burning or mechanical treatment to increase berry or fruit production. How do 2. Human disturbances not directed these treatments affect the potential avail- specifically at NTFPs. Forest harvesting, ability of other NTFPs from the same land land development, mining, and other base? human activities that directly affect the land are common, and all have the potential to alter the availability of NTFPs. CONCLUSIONS The effects may be of short duration or, in the case of conversion of forest land, NTFPs Although NTFPs contribute less than 0.5 may be eliminated. Several points should percent of Canada’s forest output, they often be considered regarding the effect of these represent a lifeline to rural economies. Because disturbances on NTFPs. First, where it is of sharp increases in the global demand for possible, gatherers of NTFPs should be NTFPs, their exploitation is becoming more and directed to areas where disturbances are more attractive for the economic development planned that will severely impact important of rural communities. As Canadians become NTFP species. For example, in areas where more aware of the NTFP potential, there is a there is a balsam bough market, and a need to augment our knowledge base to create timber sale is planned that will severely a sustainable industry. damage a balsam fir understory, bough pickers should be allowed to harvest this Two general types of knowledge are available material before it is destroyed. Second, about NTFPs. First, historic or traditional many disturbances—forest harvesting is a knowledge has been gleaned and “field tested” primary example—result in an increase in by countless generations of Native American production of NTFPs, such as fruits and and other harvesters and consumers of NTFPs. berries. Where it is possible, these areas Often this information far exceeds the scientific should be identified and gathering for knowledge available for a particular product personal and commercial use should be (Richards 1997). The second type is scientific encouraged. knowledge gained through the study of the natural history of plants and hypothesis testing 3. Human disturbances specifically related to using designed experiments. NTFPs. These disturbances occur as a direct result of harvesting NTFPs or from Traditional knowledge and scientific knowledge efforts to manage the availability of NTFPs. both have important roles to play in the sus- Other papers in this proceedings describe tainable production of NTFPs. When traditional some of the techniques used by Native knowledge is not available, basic principles of Americans to manage the productivity of plant reproduction and growth should provide berries, roots, and other materials essential a guide for developing practices for sustainable to their lives. These include the use of fire, use of the NTFP resource. Scientific knowledge harvest techniques, planting, and various can also be used to explain the biological basis 107 NTFP Conference Proceedings for the success of well-tested traditional De Geus, P.M.J. 1995. Botanical forest methods of NTFP harvest and utilization. products in British Columbia: an overview. Victoria, BC: Integrated Resources Policy Disturbance is a key concept for understanding Branch, British Columbia Ministry of temporal and spatial variation in NTFP quantity Forests. 51 p. and quality. Disturbance should be viewed as occurring at different scales of resolution Duchesne, L.C. 1995. Commercial potential of ranging from the individual bud to landscapes. wild mushoom harvest in Renfrew County. Natural disturbances are a normal part of Unpublished report. 10 p. forests and they create a significant level of uncertainty in both short- and long-term Duchesne, L.C.; Weber, M.G. 1993. High production and availability of NTFPs. To some incidence of the edible morel Morchella extent, the effect of natural disturbance can be conica in a Pinus banksiana forest following managed, but not yet to the degree that uncer- prescribed burning. Canadian Field tainty can be greatly reduced or predicted. Naturalist. 107: 114-116. Human activities that occur generally in the forest affect the availability of NTFPs and create Emery, M.R. 1998. Invisible livelihoods: non- conflicts among products. There are many timber forest products in Michigan’s Upper opportunities to coordinate major disturbance Peninsula. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers activities, such as forest harvesting, with NTFP University. Ph.D. thesis. gathering, but these are not fully recognized and taken advantage of at this time. The Gartner, B.L., ed. 1995. Plant stems: harvest of NTFPs can affect both the sustain- physiology and functional morphology. New ability of the product being harvested and other York, NY: Academic Press. products from the same plant. Management activities that target one particular NTFP will Gill, A.M. 1995. Stems and fires. In: Gartner, impact other resources. B.L., ed. Plant stems: physiology and functional morphology. New York, NY: Academic Press. LITERATURE CITED Godbout, C.; Fortin, J.A. 1990. Cultural control Beyfuss, R.L. 1999. American ginseng of basidiome formation in Laccaria bicolor production in woodlots. AF Note 14-Forest with container-grown white pine seedlings. farming. Lincoln, NE: U.S. Department of Mycological Research. 8: 1051-1058. Agriculture, National Agroforestry Center. 34 p. Halle, F.; Oldeman, R.A.A.; Tomlinson, P.B. 1978. Tropical trees and forests—an Brubaker, D. 1999. Non timber forest products: architectural analysis. New York, NY: exploring opportunities for Aboriginal Springer-Verlag. communities. Ottawa, ON: National Aboriginal Forestry Association. 135 p. Harper, J.L. 1977. Population biology of plants. New York, NY: Academic Press. Bryant, J.P.; Raffe, K.F. 1995. Chemical antiherbivore defense. In: Gartner, B.L., ed. Higgins, C. 1998. Innovative forestry practice Plant stems—physiology and functional agreements—What could be done that morphology. New York, NY: Academic Press. would be innovative? Forestry Chronicle. 75: 939-942. Collins, M. 2000. Age structure, growth, and regeneration of Fraxinus nigra populations Larson, P.R. 1994. The vascular cambium: in the upper Great Lakes states. Michigan development and structure. New York, NY: Technological University. 36 p. M.S. thesis. Springer-Verlag.

Davidson-Hunt, I. 1998. Non timber forest Lyndon, R.F. 1998. The shoot apical meristem- products—definitions and meanings. its growth and development. Cambridge, Kenora, ON: Taiga Institute. Boreal MA: Cambridge University Press. Culturescapes Newsletter. 1: 2-3.

108 Ma, Y.C.; Zhu, J.; Benkrima, L.; Luo, M.; Sun, Prance, G.T.; Prance, A.E.; Sandved, K.B. 1993. L.H.; Sain, S.; Kont, K.; Plaut-Carcasson, Bark—the formation, characteristics, and YY. 1995. A comparative evaluation of uses around the world. Portland, OR: ginsenosides in commercial ginseng Timber Press. products and tissue culture samples using HPLC. Journal of Herbs, Spices and Romberger, J.A. 1963. Meristems, growth and Medicinal plants. 3: 41-50. development in woody plants. Tech. Bull. 1292. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Marles, R.J.; Clavelle, C.; Monteleone, L.; Tays, Agriculture, U.S. Government Printing N.; Burns, D. 2000. Aboriginal plant use in Office. Canada’s Northwest boreal forest. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press. Shain, L. 1995. Stem defense against pathogens. In: Gartner, B.L., ed. Plant McPhee, J. 1989. The survival of the bark stems: physiology and functional canoe. Noonday Press. morphology. New York, NY: Academic Press.

Miron, F. 1994. Woodland mushrooms: Turner, N.J. 1998. Plant technology of first harvesting and marketing. Berry, Quebec: peoples in British Columbia. Vancouver, Champignons Laurentiens Inc. 56 p. BC: UBC Press.

Mohammed, G.H. 1999. Non timber forest Zasada, J.; Sharik, T.; Nygren, M. 1992. The products in Ontario. For. Res. Inf. Pap. 145. reproductive process in boreal forest trees. Sault Ste Marie, ON.: Ontario Forest In: Shugart, H.; Leemans, R.; Bonan, G., Research Institute. 64 p. eds. A systems analysis of the boreal forest. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Norvell, L. 1995. Loving the chanterelle to Press: 85-125. death? The ten-year Oregon chanterelle project. McIlvainea. 12: 6-25. Zimmerman, M.H.; Brown, C.L. 1971. Trees: structure and function. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.

109 NTFP Conference Proceedings

Lycopodium: Growth Form, Morphology, and Sustainability of a Non-timber Forest Product

Elizabeth A. Nauertz1 and John C. Zasada2

Abstract.—Several species of Lycopodium or clubmoss belong in the category of non-timber forest products and are often gathered for a variety of traditional uses. It is important to evaluate baseline infor- mation for these species, such as abundance and frequency of occur- rence, before making any management decision. In addition, under- standing the biology of the Lycopodium group as a whole, including growth form and morphology, may enable us to make better decisions about forest management practices used and harvesting quotas allowed for sustaining these species.

INTRODUCTION SPECIES DESCRIPTIONS AND USES

Several Lycopodium or clubmoss species are Following is a brief description of each of the extensively collected as non-timber forest six Lycopodium species discussed in this paper. products and are marketed to industries for The descriptions are compiled from personal production of seasonal and traditional decora- observations, as well as information referenced tions and for floral and uses. In from the literature (Cody and Britton 1989; addition, medicinal (Aboriginal and homeo- Flora of North America 1993; Johnson et al. pathic), native folklore, and theatrical uses 1995; Lellinger 1985; Meeker et al. 1993; exist for various Lycopodium species (Johnson Primack 1973; Turner et al. 1983; Ullman et al. 1995; Shakhashiri 1983; Ullman 1992, 1992, 1997). 1997). Lycopodium species are considered to be fern-allies. In temperate forests they are vascu- Lycopodium species vary in growth form and lar, terrestrial, evergreen, perennial, rhizoma- morphology. The mature aerial stems of a plant tous, and clonal in nature. This group of photosynthesize. They may be either non- species has been around a long time, with branching or treelike in form. When mature, ancestors that date back to the Tertiary period the aerial stems often have cones (strobili) or (Lellinger 1985). Few studies have been done to sporangia that produce the spores necessary determine how these species can be regener- for sexual reproduction. Spores mature and are ated and how fast they recover after harvesting released in the late fall, even as late as Novem- (Matula 1995, Primack 1973). Although some ber. In general, Lycopodium aerial stems reach of the Lycopodium species are common in maturity and begin to produce spores at from 4 northern hardwood forests, the impacts of to 6 years of age, depending on the species and forest management practices on populations of local growing conditions. Lycopodium species these species are not well understood. have either aboveground or belowground running rhizomes or lateral branches. The 1Ecologist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, rhizomes have the ability to produce adventi- Forest Service, North Central Research Station, tious roots and are used for photosynthate, 410 MacInnes Drive, Houghton, Michigan 49931, water, and nutrient transport. The rhizomatous USA; Phone: 906-482-6303; e-mail: nature of these species may add to the photo- [email protected]. synthesis capacity of the plant as a whole and 2Project Leader and Research Forester, U.S. may affect the plant’s ability to get around Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North vegetatively. A typical Lycopodium patch can Central Research Station, 1831 Highway 169 E., have multiple-aged lateral branches or rhi- Grand Rapids, Minnesota 55744, USA; Phone: zomes, and each rhizome may have ramets that 218-326-7109; e-mail: [email protected]. vary in age from 1 to 6 years. In general, the 110 bigger and more branching the patch, the older the same manner as the ground cedar. Tradi- it is. tional Aboriginal and homeopathic remedies are concocted from the dried plant parts of this The aerial stems of Lycopodium dendroideum species. L. clavatum has forking, non-branch- and L. obscurum are frequently harvested and ing aerial stems that typically bear one to two used for decorative greens. Although commonly cones when mature. The aerial stems are often found in aspen-birch forests, these two species tightly packed along the aboveground running are also found in moist rich woods and along rhizomes. In Canada, Aboriginal peoples on edges of bogs. The branching aerial stems Vancouver Island, located in British Columbia, resemble small pine trees: hence the common believed the plant should be left alone. It is said name of princess pine or ground pine. Only the that clubmoss should be left because it is individual mature aerial stems should be “something that gets you confused in the harvested, and this should be done after prime woods” or “confused and uncertain about spore release in late fall. The spores of these orientation” (Turner et al. 1983). Perhaps this two species are flammable when mature and belief stemmed from the random pattern of have been used historically for theatrical and branching that is common for this species. pyrotechnical purposes. In addition, the ground pines have belowground rhizomes Lycopodium annotinum or stiff clubmoss is not running between 2 and 6 inches below the soil traditionally gathered or harvested. Although surface (Nauertz and Zasada, personal observa- considered evergreen, this species tends to dry tions); consequently, a new aerial stem may not out quickly and does not remain green and appear above the soil surface until sometime in pliable, as do the other species harvested for the second year of growth. decorative greens. Lycopodium annotinum has forking, non-branching aerial stems that Lycopodium complanatum, also known as produce a single strobilus, or cone, when ground cedar, is most commonly found in pine mature. The stems are typically densely packed forest communities, typically grows in clumps, along aboveground running rhizomes. and can cover large areas. It has tree-like, branching aerial stems with adpressed and Shining clubmoss or Lycopodium lucidulum is tightly packed microphylls or leaves that most common to northern mesic forests domi- strongly resemble cedar boughs. When mature, nated by sugar maple, preferring the embedded the aerial stems host a “candelabra” of cones acid, wet woods or rocky areas. Native Ameri- for spore production. This species of Lycopo- cans traditionally gathered it for use as pad- dium differs from the ground pines L. ding for cradleboards. L. lucidulum does have dendroideum and L. obscurum, in that it has some features that are unique to this group of aboveground running rhizomes growing clubmoss species. It has forking, non-branch- through the litter layer on the forest floor. ing aerial stems that, when mature at around 6 Lycopodium complanatum is also harvested for years of age, produce sporangia that contain decorative greens and has some homeopathic spores in the leaf axils. In addition, gemmae or and Aboriginal medicinal uses. Harvesting for bulblets may be produced in the upper leaf greens is different for this plant in that the axils. They mature usually in late summer or entire aboveground runner, or rhizome, is early fall, and when bumped will catapult off yanked from the surface of the soil; hence, the the aerial stem and, upon landing in proper entire plant or section of a clone is harvested, growing media and conditions, have the poten- rather than just the mature aerial stems as tial for growing into a new, genetically identical done for the ground pines. Optimal lateral plant. This is a means of vegetatively increasing extention or growth for each rhizome has been plant frequency, but not genetic variation. recorded to occur in year 1 (most recent year Lycopodium lucidulum does not technically growing tip) to year 6, with maximum extension form rhizomes; instead the aerial stems tend to reaching 400 to 600 cm. Greatest aerial stem layer, and then branch and fork. Each fall the mass was recorded in years 3 to 6, with peak leaf litter from the overstory canopy falls, weights reaching 13 to 25 grams (Nauertz and anchoring the layered aerial stems to the Zasada, unpublished data). surface of the forest floor. Adventitious roots for water and nutrient uptake will form along the Running clubmoss, Wolf’s paw, or Lycopodium layered aerial stems. clavatum also has aboveground running rhi- zomes and is harvested for decorative greens in 111 NTFP Conference Proceedings

LYCOPODIUM REPRODUCTIVE be very dense and vast, or it may be thin and CHARACTERISTICS sparse. Patches of Lycopodium may be located near each other and occur frequently within an Reproduction method, both sexual and area, or there may be large areas where no asexual, may help explain the frequency and Lycopodium occurs at all. cover patterns of individual Lycopodium spe- cies. All ferns and fern-allies produce spores Lycopodium, especially ground pine, is often and experience an alternation in generations, found in northern hardwood forests in which is a means of dividing, segregating, and Michigan’s Upper Peninsula. Nauertz (1999) re-combining chromosomes. This allows for conducted a study in these forests to gain genetic variability to occur and for evolution to insight on the species biology and presence in proceed (Lellinger 1985). Spores vary in where managed and unmanaged forests. In addition, they germinate within the soil surface layers as part of a larger study (USDA, FS, NCRS, NC- and were found to germinate at deeper depths 4153-94-03), basal area was measured and as well as on the soil surface (Cobb 1963, recorded in all of these stands in 1995-1996. Freeberg 1962). The spores produced by fern- Four forest types were studied: (1) Unmanaged allies such as Lycopodium may remain viable old-growth forest with trees as old as 250+ for many years and could take up to 7 or more years that have not been disturbed by logging. years to develop into a gametophyte (Cobb Basal area was 23 - 47 m2/ha. (2) Unmanaged 1963). Gametophytes may remain alive from second-growth forest that was clearcut in the only a few weeks or months (Lellinger 1985) to 1910s and now remains unmanaged with trees as long as 10 or more years (Cobb 1963). A that are primarily of second-growth origin. gametophyte bears the sexual mechanisms for Basal area was 26 - 37 m2/ha. (3) Managed reproduction and, given optimal conditions, uneven-aged forest that is of old-growth origin may result in a new, genetically unique sporo- and is managed to have an all-age size distri- phyte or plant that would be recognized as bution using selection cuts and group cuts. Lycopodium. A complete life cycle from spore to Basal area was 20 - 27 m2/ha. (4) Managed gametophyte to sporophyte may take up to 20 even-aged forest that is also of second-growth years. origin and was clearcut around the turn of the century. Crop tree release and thinning have Spore development may potentially lead to a been performed at routine intervals to convert new patch and an increase in frequency. the even-aged stands to an uneven-aged distri- Rhizome growth and expansion will increase bution. Basal area was 21 - 30 m2/ha. the overall area covered by an individual patch. For Lycopodium, as well as for other rhizoma- Nauertz (1999) found that Lycopodium species tous species, a major portion of the expansion occurred in 10 - 67 percent of the 130 plots of cover is created by the growth and branching sampled in the study. Two-thirds of the Lycopo- of the lateral branches or rhizomes. Rhizomes dium present was found in the managed even- are a plant’s mechanism for getting around, aged and unmanaged old-growth stands used exploring new territory, and foraging for new for this study. Highest Lycopodium frequency of resources. At some point, if new resources are occurrence and percent cover values existed in not discovered and exploited, that section of the unmanaged old-growth, managed even- the plant will be cut off physiologically and aged, and unmanaged second-growth stands, another section of the plant will begin to grow respectively. Lycopodium percent cover under and explore for new resources. In general, both these three management regimes was not methods of reproduction, sexual and asexual, statistically different. Lycopodium help to explain Lycopodium distribution. dendroideum, L. lucidulum, and L. annotinum occurred most often across management regimes, with high and statistically similar LYCOPODIUM DISTRIBUTION cover values existing in the unmanaged old- growth, managed even-age, and unmanaged The distribution of Lycopodium in northern second-growth stands. Lycopodium forests tends to vary. These clumps or colonies dendroideum cover (r2 = 0.75; P < 0.01), L. are so well distributed throughout the forest annotinum cover (r2 = 0.66; P < 0.01), and L. that they have a certain amount of randomness lucidulum cover (r2 = 0.49; P < 0.01) were in their distribution (Curtis 1959). A patch may correlated to total Lycopodium cover. Highest

112 Lycopodium frequency and percent cover Another factor to consider is the evergreen occurred under the management regimes with nature of Lycopodium species. Regardless of the highest measured basal area. the forest overstory management regime used, this evergreen characteristic should allow the clubmosses to take advantage of the spring and FOREST MANAGEMENT AND LYCOPODIUM fall light windows that are known to exist in general and that have been recorded in these The basic growth form or morphology of indi- forest stands (Nauertz et al., unpublished vidual clonal species may offer different advan- data). Temperatures near the forest floor tages under different environments. According respond to the increased light during these to Doust (1981), most clonal species are cat- times and become warm enough to support egorized as having either a “guerilla” or a biological processes relatively early and late in “phalanx” strategy. Species that have widely the growing season (Nauertz et al., unpublished spaced individual aerial stems or ramets data). These “windows of opportunity” may be (guerilla strategy) explore a wide area, are important times for photosynthate production successful in discovering and occupying gaps, and storage for the Lycopodium clone. are usually better competitors at low densities, and are more common in early successional At various times during their life cycle, certain habitats (Doust 1981). This strategy may be Lycopodium species may or may not turn out to applied to the tree-like branching Lycopodium be able to adapt to excessive changes in their species such as L. dendroideum, L. obscurum, environment. Much of their adaptive success and L. complanatum. Species with densely will need to be attributed to the “individuality” packed individual aerial stems or ramets of each species. In areas with dense Lycopo- (phalanx strategy) expand slowly; form large dium populations, using forest management clumps; are most successful in close, competi- practices that consider the group as a whole tive environments; and predominate in late will certainly add to their sustainability and successional stages where competition is most overall success. severe (Doust 1981). This strategy, in turn, may be applied to the non-branching aerial stem species of Lycopodium, such as L. DISTURBANCE AND COMPACTION OF THE annotinum, L. clavatum, and L. lucidulum. FOREST FLOOR

In Nauertz’ (1999) study, Lycopodium Soil surface disturbance is a side effect of dendroideum (ground pine) percent cover was logging operations in forest overstory manage- highest and statistically similar in managed ment. On one hand, exposed mineral soil is a even-aged, unmanaged old-growth, and result of these operations and may provide unmanaged second-growth forests. Mean good conditions for spore germination and percent cover of all Lycopodium species com- gametophyte development and, if successful, a bined was greater in unmanaged forest than in pathway for genetic variation. On the other managed forest; however, significant differ- hand, intensive soil disturbance reaching well ences were noted, with the highest mean below the soil surface and excessive soil com- percent cover of L. dendroideum occurring in paction may both result when frequent entries unmanaged forest. Mean percent cover of all are made into managed areas or when logging Lycopodium species combined was significantly is done when soils are wet and more likely to greater in second-growth forest than in old- compact. Consequently, intensive and exces- growth forest; the highest L. dendroideum mean sive conditions may not offer the best habitat percent cover occurred in the second-growth for survival of newly formed gametophytes or forests. In addition, the highest Lycopodium production of a new sporophyte. Considering frequency and percent cover occurred under the length of the life cyle for Lycopodium in the management regimes with the highest general, fewer management entries and less measured basal area. Considering these points, excessive and intensive soil disturbance and it is apparent from this study that a combina- compaction would be beneficial. Compact soils tion of disturbance and time following distur- also make it difficult for species with bance may be required to allow for adequate belowground running rhizomes to expand levels of Lycopodium frequency and cover to vegetatively. Soil compaction will also alter the develop. hydrology, often causing wetland-like condi- tions. Without optimal resources for success, 113 NTFP Conference Proceedings the Lycopodium clone may not be able to two between harvests within a ground pine sustain itself or reproduce either sexually or patch will also ensure enough time for an vegetatively. increase in vegetative expansion and future harvest potential. In forests of old-growth origin, the pit and mound topography is better defined and more Lycopodium complanatum (ground cedar) and L. variable than in the managed forests of second- clavatum (running clubmoss) are two species growth origin. This variable topography offers a with aboveground rhizomes that are often used variety of microhabitats and resources of which when making wreaths. Harvest on public land Lycopodium, as well as other rhizomatous is not allowed, but these two species are often plants, may take advantage. In general, species gatherered on private land with the permission with aboveground rhizomes such as Lycopo- of the landowner. They are commonly harvested dium annotinum, L. clavatum, and L. by grabbing an end of a rhizome and yanking complanatum, as well as the layering species it, pulling the aerial stems, rhizome, and roots such as L. lucidulum, would have the advantage all out of the forest floor litter layer. However, in wet, rocky areas with compact soil, whereas gathering an entire ground cedar or running species with belowground rhizomes like the clubmoss patch would prevent any surviving ground pines, L. dendroideum and L. obscurum, rhizomes from expanding vegetatively, and would have the advantage in areas where pit would consequently eliminate future harvest and mound topography exists, where the soil is opportunities. Selective gathering from a dense well aerated and of low bulk density. patch is recommended, leaving plants or parts of the patch to branch and expand. In addition, some disturbance from the yanking of rhizomes LYCOPODIUM HARVESTING GUIDELINES during harvest exposes mineral soil and hence AND RECOMMENDATIONS creates good conditions for spore germination.

In the northern forests of Wisconsin, Michigan, Time of harvest of Lycopodium should also be and Minnesota, the ground pines are the most considered for two reasons. First, Lycopodium heavily harvested group of Lycopodium species. species are evergreen perennials that process Typically you will need a permit if you plan to and store photosynthate primarily in the spring harvest ground pine on public land and only before leaf-out of the forest canopy. Since the the mature aerial stems of the ground pine are greatest quantities of Lycopodium are used for considered to be valuable economically for traditional seasonal holiday decorations, it decorative purposes (Wenger 1995). The most would not make sense to gather large quanti- efficient and least destructive way to harvest ties of them in the spring. Second, the Lycopo- ground pine is by clipping the mature aerial dium do not produce spores until the fall, stem or tree-like portion of the plant near the usually sometime between October and mid- base of the stem at ground level. It is less November (Nauertz, personal observations), stressful for the plant if you cut it with a sharp and it is important to consider whether the instrument instead of ripping or tearing it spores are mature and ready to be released or away. Cutting lessens the impact the aerial dispersed before the harvest. This timeline may stem harvest will have on the belowground vary slightly from year to year and can easily be rhizome, allowing it to remain stable in position tested by flicking the cone or strobili with a within the soil below. Matula (1995) reported finger to see if the yellow dust-like spores that disturbances such as harvesting of indi- escape. vidual, mature aerial stems in such a way as not to disturb the underground rhizome may In general, Lycopodium species are considered enhance the survival of the plant by increasing to be a rather slow growing group. A word of belowground rhizome branching. Taking only caution—it is not known how overharvesting the mature or oldest aerial stems and leaving will affect the growth rate of an individual the younger immature stems will ensure future plant, patch, or clone over time. Allowing a harvest opportunities. In addition, skipping a patch to recover for a few years after a harvest year or two between harvests will allow time would ensure future harvest opportunities. Any without disturbance for possible spore germi- abrupt and intensive alteration of growing nation and new plant development. A year or conditions could make it difficult for any type

114 of existing ground vegetation to survive. When Matula, C. 1995. Growth rate, growth patterns, considering whether to gather any forest prod- and effects of harvest of the Lycopodium ucts, whether for timber or non-timber use, it obscurum complex in the Lake Superior is important to consider taking them in moder- region. Eau Claire, WI: University of Wis- ate quantities. The First Nation native tribal consin. M.S. thesis. elders speak wise words: “Take what you need. Pay your respects. Leave the rest.” Meeker, J.E.; Elias, J.E.; Heim, J.A. 1993. Plants used by the Great Lakes Ojibwa. Odanah, WI: Great Lakes Indian Fish and LITERATURE CITED Wildlife Commission. 440 p.

Cobb, B. 1963. A field guide to ferns and their Nauertz, E.A. 1999. Impact of various silvicul- related families. New York, NY: Houghton tural practices on the abundance and Mifflin Company. frequency of Lycopodium species in north- ern hardwood forests. Houghton, MI: Cody, W.J.; Britton, D.M. 1989. Ferns and Michigan Technological University. 164 p. fern-allies of Canada. Agriculture Canada. M.S. thesis. 430 p. Primack, R.B. 1973. Growth patterns of five Crow, T.R.; Zasada, J.C., principal investiga- species of Lycopodium. American Fern tors. 1994. Impacts of silvicultural treat- Journal. 63(1): 3-7. ments on ecological diversity in northern hardwood ecosystems. Study Plan NC- Shakhashiri, B.Z. 1983. Chemical demonstra- 4153-94-03. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department tions: a handbook for teachers of chemistry, of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central vol. 1. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Research Station. Press: 103-105.

Curtis, J.T. 1959. The vegetation of Wisconsin: Turner, N.J.; Thomas, J.; Carlson, B.F.; Ogilvie, an ordination of plant communities. Madi- R.T. 1983. Ethnobotany of the Nitinaht son, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. Indians of Vancouver Island. British Colum- bia Provincial Museum. Occas. Pap. Ser. Doust, D.L. 1981. Population dynamics and 24. Province of British Columbia, Ministry local specialization in a clonal perennial of Provincial Secretary and Government (Ranunculus repens). 1. The dynamics of Services. Government of Canada. ramets in contrasting habitats. Journal of Ecology. 69: 743-755. Ullman, D., M.P.H. 1992. A homeopathic perspective on digestion. Homeopathic Flora of North America, Volume 2. 1993. Ferns Educational Services, 2124B Kittredge St., and gymnosperms. New York, NY: Oxford Berkeley, CA 94704. University Press. 475 p. (www.homeopathic.com)

Freeberg, J.A. 1962. Lycopodium Prothalli and Ullman, D., M.P.H. 1997. Homeopathic medi- their endophytic fungi as studied in vitro. cines for indigestion, gas, and heartburn: American Journal of Botany. 49: 530-535. natural remedies you can stomach. Copy- right 1997. Homeopathic Educational Johnson, D.; Kershaw, L.; MacKinnon, A.; Services, 2124B Kittredge St., Berkeley, CA Pojar, J. 1995. Plants of the western boreal 94704. (www.homeopathic.com) forest and aspen parkland. Edmonton, AB: Lone Pine Publishing. 392 p. Wenger, Ed, Compiler. 1995. Lycopodium Issues Workshop. Interagency – Industry Lellinger, D.B. 1985. A field manual of the ferns meeting; 1995 July 27-28; Florence, WI. and fern-allies of the United States and Escanaba, MI: Hiawatha National Forest. Canada. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. 389 p.

115 NTFP Conference Proceedings

Recommendations for Sustainable Development of Non-Timber Forest Products

Gina H. Mohammed1

Non-timber forest products—or NTFPs—are Sustainable commercial development is a considered here to be botanical products shared responsibility. Governments, landown- havested or originating from forest-based ers, developers, and even product users each species, but excluding primary timber prod- play a role. Government, in particular, can ucts, industrial boards and composites, and serve several key functions: paper products. • awareness—providing information on opportunities, ecology, risks, and A recent study of non-timber forest products in funding programs Ontario, Canada, identified at least 50 types of • facilitation—coordinating partners, NTFPs and hundreds of specific products used and research support for food, health and personal care, materials • stewardship—providing incentives and manufacturing, environmental purposes, for responsible management, com- landscape and gardening, and aesthetics (fig. pliance monitoring, quality control, 1). These products range from non-commercial and habitat protection goods used culturally and traditionally to • promotion—increasing awareness commercial items that broaden the economic of success stories, and expanding base of many regions. markets nationally and internation- ally However, commercial development of NTFPs • research—testing new products, can place substantial pressures on the viability enhancing resource productivity and of a resource, and other concerns about health quality and safety, and about social and economic • conflict-resolution—resolving factors are also important. Sustainability of the multiple-use issues resource may be compromised through unre- stricted harvest of products for lucrative com- mercial mass markets. Health risks are a OVERALL RECOMMENDATIONS reality when medicinal products, e.g., natural health products, are developed with little Several recommendations are offered here that attention to natural toxicities in some plant may help to advance the NTFP sector in a species or in certain environments. Socioeco- sustainable fashion. nomic concerns often accompany large-scale product development that uses wildcrafted materials collected by poorly paid gatherers, or Recommendation #1 in which indigenous providers of strategic Emphasize Value-Added Products knowledge are prohibited from sharing product revenues. To succeed, commercial development Income levels for collectors of bulk NTFP must be designed to avoid such pitfalls, or the materials are typically low, and the demand for sustainability of the NTFP enterprise itself the products can fluctuate widely. By becomes endangered. concentrating on value-added products, which command a higher price, developers may be able to earn more with less plant biomass, and 1 Research Scientist, Ontario Forest Research may be buffered more against sharp decreases Institute, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, in demand for bulk supplies. Also, there is less 1235 Queen Street East, Sault Ste. Marie, competition for bulk markets, which may Ontario, Canada, P6A 2E5; current position: already be adequately served by other jurisdic- Research Director, P & M Technologies, 66 tions with better established large-scale collec- Millwood Street, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, tion. Canada, P6A 6S7; Phone: 705-946-2882; e-mail: [email protected]. 116 Taken from Mohammed (1999).

Figure 1.—Non-timber forest products in Ontario.

117 NTFP Conference Proceedings

Importantly, there may be less risk of Recommendation #5 overharvesting wild plant stocks using this Develop Methods for Cultivation approach. of NTFP Species

Unrestricted harvesting of wild plants can severely Recommendation #2 compromise the viability of natural populations and Use Waste Materials for New Products eventually endanger important species. Instances of these occurrences are common in many juris- Materials such as emptied seed cones, pulp dictions. Further, some medicinals can vary too waste materials such as tall oil, and various much in quality when taken from wild sources byproducts of wood processing can be valuable because of the considerable influence of environ- sources of new products. Collection costs are mental factors, genetic source, and site conditions low with this option because the material is on the quality and consistency of extracts. Damage already being harvested for other purposes. to habitat is also a major concern. However, in many instances wild plants have been brought into cultivation successfully, using either agroforestry, Recommendation #3 farm forest, nursery, or even laboratory mass Coordinate Collection of NTFPs with Timber propagation methods. Chemically, it is now Harvest and Tending Operations possible to synthesize a variety of chemicals that serve the pharmaceutical industry. Controlled Although forest lands can provide a wealth of production methods, wherever feasible, should be products, in Ontario we have tended to explored. This approach also avoids some issues emphasize timber and pulpwood. Fuller use of around territorial rights to lands. the forest’s productive capacity through NTFP development could mean a greater flow of benefits to various users. For instance, Recommendation #6 collection of weed materials that would Increase Coordination Within Government otherwise be burned or chemically controlled and Between Government, Public, and could provide biomass for other products. Private Stakeholders (Some biomass and debris should remain on site for ecological benefits such as maintenance NTFP development needs to occur in an atmo- of wildlife habitat and soil nutrient balance.) sphere that is conducive to innovation and Collection of weeds and other products such as free of unnecessary administrative controls. birch bark, boughs, etc., can be coordinated Entrepreneurs will benefit from access to with normal forest operations to minimize ecological information, education programs, interference with those activities and possibly startup funding or tax incentives, market assist in achieving some objectives. assistance, and research support. Government agencies can help to foster this climate. Development for commercial purposes also Recommendation #4 needs to occur in partnership with the private Emphasize Rural and Community-Based sector and with non-governmental groups such NTFP Opportunities as First Nations peoples, who have been instrumental in stimulating ideas for NTFPs Development of niche products with a local through the sharing of traditional knowledge. character can be a profitable venture for many communities. A good example is the range of manomin and wild berry products being LITERATURE CITED created by the Wabigoon Lake First Nation in northwestern Ontario, where traditional Mohammed, G.H. 1999. Non-timber forest knowledge is being applied to produce products in Ontario: an overview. For. Res. interesting new specialty foods. Such novel Info. Pap. 145. Sault Ste. Marie, ON: products may be more successful in a Ontario Forest Research Institute (Ontario competitive marketplace. Ministry of Natural Resources).

118 3Richard David, Mohawk Black Ash Crafting, shows some of the tools and raw materials used in basket making. (Photo courtesy Bobbie Harrington)

5One of the beautiful crafts on display at the conference: Dene beadwork on moosehide from the Dene Cultural Institute in Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, Canada. (Photo courtesy Bobbie Harrington)

3Marlene Cameron, Cameron Birch Syrup & Confections, displays her company’s syrup, marinade, and other products made from birch sap. (Photo courtesy Bobbie Harrington)

119 NTFP Conference Proceedings

NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS: BUSINESS DEVELOPMENT, MARKETING, AND POLICY

120 The Minnesota Approach to Non-timber Forest Product Marketing: The Balsam Bough Industry and Other Examples

John Krantz1

THE WREATH INDUSTRY IN MINNESOTA Permits to harvest boughs are available from all public land management agencies. Permits Minnesota is a leading state in the production vary in price. Reservation members obtain of holiday wreaths. It is estimated that the “free” permits and can harvest boughs on companies producing wreaths in Minnesota public lands within reservation boundaries. have total sales exceeding $20 million and Bough pickers are required to post a “wind- growing. Wreaths are sold in all states in the shield” poster when harvesting. U.S., mainly by non-profit groups for fund- raising. The Balsam Bough Partnership published “how to” material for beginning pickers. As an ex- The boughs harvested from the balsam fir ample, boughs up to 36 inches in length are (Abies balsamea) are used in 98 percent of the acceptable and fit the guidelines of sustain- wreaths manufactured. Balsam fir grows ability. Harvesting guidelines call for clipping throughout the forested region of Minnesota the ends of the branches, leaving shorter and the northern portions of Wisconsin and branchlets on the stem. A 5- to 6-year rotation Michigan. Balsam fir also grows throughout is recommended. Canada including most of Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. Bough buyers are an integral part of the wreathmaking industry. The larger wreath The balsam bough harvesting season begins in companies within Minnesota, as well as several Minnesota in late September or early October outstate companies, contract with bough after two or more hard frosts have “set” the buyers to handle the purchases for them. A needles on the branches. Then, until early good day’s picking by a bough picker can yield December, the boughs are made into decorative up to 1,000 pounds. In 1999, bough buyers wreaths for homes throughout the U.S. paid 14¢ to 17¢ per pound ($US) for the 12- to 36-inch boughs. The pickers usually bundle In 1996, Minnesota formed the “Balsam Bough boughs in 25- to 35-pound bales—a weight Partnership,” comprised of public landowners, that is reasonable to handle by pickers, buyers, such as state, USDA Forest Service, Bureau of truckers, and wreathmakers. Indian Affairs, and selected counties. In addi- tion, the group includes most of the large Several of the larger wreath companies manu- wreath companies, bough buyers, and bough facture wreaths, swags, and garlands at larger “pickers.” This unusual group of public/private facilities throughout Minnesota. Wreathmaking partners meets twice yearly to review seasonal begins in the summer when cones, collected needs and review compliance on legislation and from ponderosa pine in Idaho, Montana, and permits, and it sponsors workshops and publi- Washington, are shipped to Minnesota by the cations to ensure that boughs are harvested van load. It is not unusual for the bigger com- and transported within established guidelines. panies to use 8 to 10 million cones per year. The cones are painted using a tumbler system. The cones and vinyl coated berries and ribbons are all prepared in the summer so they are 1 Supervisor, Utilization and Marketing, For- ready for decorating the wreaths during the estry Division, Minnesota Department of Natural busy October and November season. Resources, 500 Lafayette Road, St. Paul, Minne- sota 55115-4044, USA; Phone: 651-296-6491; Once, all wreaths were made by hand, but now e-mail: [email protected]. most are made using a wreath machine that 121 NTFP Conference Proceedings bends a wire hoop over the boughs. These 3. Nelson Nursery, Inc. machines, which have been in use for 10 to 12 Mike Lemke years, have allowed the industry to expand 25834 Main Street rapidly. Zimmerman, MN 55398 Phone: (763) 856-2441 Many wreaths are manufactured in homes by Fax: (763) 856-2440 families living throughout northern Minnesota. The wreath companies contract with these A dozen other companies in Minnesota would families to produce a basic wreath; these also be willing to consider a partnership with wreaths are then brought to the manufacturing Canadian folks. Contact names are available center where the cones, berries, and ribbons from our DNR-Forestry office (see footnote 1). are added before shipping. As a home business, families can gross up to $20,000 ($US) for the season. OTHER NON-TRADITIONAL FOREST PRODUCTS A number of small companies or families manufacture and sell wreaths and greens Birch Bark, Stems, and Twigs through their own marketing channels. Some specialize in fully decorated wreaths, some in The bark from standing dead trees is removed large wreaths for specialty applications, and by first felling the tree, then scoring the entire some in greenery as in decorated crosses and length of the tree with a chainsaw, and then grave blankets. sectioning it into chunks. The bark from the dead tree can be peeled off fairly easily. Once off, the inside bark is scraped with a paint HOW CAN FOLKS FROM CANADA knife to remove any wood attached and then CONTRIBUTE? pressed flat. Markets include decorative flower pots, mosaics, furniture enhancements, deco- The wreath industry in Minnesota is limited by: rative bird houses, and a multitude of other • production capacity products. • labor • availability of boughs Live bark is stripped by slicing vertically on a live tree. In early summer (around July 1), the The larger wreath companies appear to have bark will peel back virtually by itself and large developed a larger market than they can sup- sheets of bark can be removed. It is essential ply. Therefore, Canadian folks are welcome to not to slice too deeply into the tree and damage participate by: the inner bark. Many products are made from • becoming bough buyers live birch bark including containers of all types, • picking boughs novelty items, and other items. • as families, manufacturing basic wreaths in their homes The tops of birch can be used as decorative trees. Tops about 2-1/2 inches in diameter and If anyone is interested in participating in the 7 feet in length are shipped to companies that bough and wreath business, some Minnesota add plastic leaves and artificial branches and contacts are: then pot the birch top as a look-alike tree for 1. Evergreen Industries business and hotel lobbies. As many as five to Joe Ahern seven tops can be harvested for decorative trees 4921 Babcock Trail from one larger stem. Inver Grove Heights, MN 55007 Phone: (651) 457-4441 Birch twigs are often gathered and sold as Fax: (651) 457-0676 material for hardwood wreaths. When green, the twigs bend easily and form a wreath that 2. Mickman Brothers, Inc. can be decorated for any occasion. Twigs from John and Chris Mickman alder, red-osier dogwood, and tamarack are 14630 Highway 65 also gathered and manufactured into decora- Anoka, MN 55304 tive wreaths. Phone: (763) 434-4047 Fax: (763) 434-4611 122 Burls Other walking stick woods desired by carvers include aspen, alder, birch, balsam, and cedar. Burls from spruce, birch, and black ash are The bark can be easily stripped from these highly sought after as a source of raw material woods when the sap is readily flowing in late for the home craft person. Sliced properly, the May and June. Oftentimes the debarked stick burl wood forms a highly decorative wood piece is sold in the raw form to hobbyists who want for many products including clocks, mirrors, to finish the stick themselves. knife handles, and turnings.

MARKETING THE NON-TRADITIONAL Artist Conks FOREST PRODUCT

These are shelf fungi that grow from dying or There are many, many ways to locate markets partially dead trees. After proper drying, they for non-traditional products from the woods. can be used by artists for wood burning, Selling through consignment shops, roadside painting, or carving. These conks are best stands in tourist areas, flea markets, and craft removed from the tree in the winter to prevent shows, as well as advertising on the Internet, smudging, scars, or hand marks. Conks are are but a few ways to market NTFPs. sold by size; a clean 12- to 16-inch conk could be worth $15 to $20. The best way is to display your product at special interest group gatherings, such as this conference. Most people need to actually “see” Cottonwood Bark the product before they decide to purchase it. The key is to present a quality product. Quality The thick bark found in western Canada has means more than price. Once you have estab- value as a raw material for carvers. Thick bark lished a quality product, you will always have a comes from large trees and the tree must be demand for your product. dead for the bark to be removed successfully. Bark 3 to 5 inches thick is desirable. A pickup load of this type of bark would be worth $300 to $400 ($US) on the wholesale market.

Walking Sticks and Decorative Wood

“Diamond” willow is found throughout and Alaska and the northern U.S. It is a unique tree used for furniture, lamps, walk- ing sticks, and many other products. The diamonds form when a fungus attacks the branch stubs and a callus forms as the willow continues to grow around the wound. Decora- tive diamond willow products are most easily sold as finished products. However, there is a market for green unfinished pieces for folks who choose to finish the wood themselves.

123 NTFP Conference Proceedings

Certifying the Harvest: Developments in NTFP Certification

Patrick Mallet1

I coordinate a Certification and Marketing sustainability. It is about making guarantees program for Falls Brook Centre, an environ- that your operation is not harming the environ- mental organization based in New Brunswick. I ment, that it is fair to the workers, and that it first got interested in certification issues during is of benefit to the local community. my work with an international agroforestry network whose members wanted to highlight the ecological practices inherent in their pro- WHAT’S IN A LABEL? duction system. In my initial research, I found that a number of different certification pro- As I mentioned, there are a large number of grams operating worldwide were interested in different certification programs, each with its incorporating agroforestry and non-timber own logo and criteria for measurement. What forest products (NTFPs) into their systems but do they all mean? How is it possible to tell that each was operating in isolation. Our them apart? The first thing to look for in a program is focused on increasing the collabora- certification system is independent verification. tion between these systems, providing informa- Anyone can claim that they are meeting criteria tion and resources to producer groups inter- for sustainability, but third party assessment is ested in applying for certification, and creating a guarantee of this. market links for certified products. The ulti- mate aim of the program is to make certifica- The next issue is whether the program is tion more accessible for small producers of certifying an operating system or management agroforest and non-timber forest products. practices. Operating system certifications assess whether there is a management plan in place, whether you are meeting the goals laid WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO GET CERTIFIED? out in the plan, and whether there is a mecha- nism for constant improvement. Management Certification is a market-based tool. It provides practice certification, on the other hand, is a means to differentiate your product in the more concerned with whether the production marketplace and may also provide access to or harvest meets specific performance stan- new markets. Certification conveys a message dards, thus providing a more objective mea- to the consumer about your product, usually surement of sustainable practices. It is these having to do with the product itself or the latter systems that we are primarily concerned process by which it was grown or harvested. with. The message behind a certified product is that it has been independently assessed to meet The certification systems that are relevant to standard criteria. Those criteria emphasize NTFPs include sustainable forestry, organic different aspects of the product, depending on agriculture, and to a lesser extent, fairtrade. the type of certification you are dealing with. When we start to talk about agroforestry But certification of forest products is more than systems, many more certification programs just satisfying criteria. It is also about also come into play, some of which are shade- grown, bird-friendly, and integrated pest management. These are less relevant for NTFPs.

1 Coordinator, Program on Certification and CERTIFICATION SYSTEMS FOR NTFPS Marketing of Agroforestry and Non-Timber Forest Products, Falls Brook Centre, Box 1227, In each of the three NTFP certification pro- Kaslo, British Columbia, Canada, V0G 1M0; grams that I mentioned, there is an interna- Phone/Fax: 250-353-2034; e-mail: tional coordinating body. The first of these, the [email protected]. Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), promotes 124 well-managed forests through the application of though each system has its own criteria, there criteria that address ecological, social, and are a significant number of areas of overlap. economic issues. The FSC is a relatively recent Some examples of this include IFOAM’s recent certification program that resulted from con- definition of social standards and its initial cern over the fate of the world’s forests, par- movement towards organic forestry standards; ticularly in the tropics. It incorporates good FLO is currently developing more rigorous coverage of many of the key issues and cur- environmental standards to complement its rently allows for the certification of NTFPs on a social criteria; and members of FSC are trying trial basis. to get accredited certifiers to focus more strongly on the social components required The International Federation of Organic Agri- under this system. It seems that the ultimate culture Movements (IFOAM) is the equivalent goal, and the direction in which most systems world body for organic agriculture. It grew out are moving, is to develop certification programs of a global farmers’ movement and has become that are more holistic and well-rounded—in synonymous with the avoidance of chemicals in other words, to move towards more . IFOAM has criteria for wild-har- production. vested products as well as specific criteria for some NTFPs like maple syrup and honey. BREAKING NEW GROUND—RECENT Fairtrade Labelling Organizations (FLO) Inter- DEVELOPMENTS national emphasizes the social components of production, ensuring the well-being of the This is where the exciting work is happening! A producer. FLO developed out of the alternative lot of the recent progress has been made within trade movement, and it currently certifies a the FSC, where most of the NTFP activity is limited number of agroforestry products al- focused. Currently, FSC-accredited certifiers though its product range is increasing. are able to certify NTFPs if the products meet the basic Principles and Criteria of the FSC. I am emphasizing these three international The NTFP Working Group is looking to provide bodies because they have each set generic further guidance to certifiers in these NTFP standards in their own field of expertise, they assessments to ensure that the process for play a coordinating role for organizations certification is standardized. Members of the working in their sector, and they each accredit Working Group have been undertaking field or coordinate certification organizations who do trials to test and revise generic standards for the actual assessments of the producer. NTFPs. In the last year, assessments have taken place for , , palm heart, and chestnut. One of these assessments, for MEETING THE CRITERIA chicle gum in , resulted in the first NTFP certification under FSC. These certification systems share three main criteria components: ecological, socioeconomic, The other major area of work has been the and institutional. Some of the issues associated collaboration between certification and accredi- with ecological criteria are environmental tation systems. Organizations are looking at harvesting practices, conservation of how they can work together better. This can biodiversity, use of chemicals, and waste happen at a variety of levels including the management. Socioeconomic criteria address harmonization of standards, joint field assess- the well-being of the worker and the local ments, and common promotion and marketing. community, Indigenous people’s rights, and the The most promising work has taken place in overall viability of the operation. The institu- the field assessments where certifiers from tional issues that are of relevance in certifica- organic agriculture, forestry, and fairtrade have tion are the legality of an operation, its man- come together to identify where they overlap agement plan, and the monitoring of the imple- and can support each other. The joint inspec- mentation of that plan. tions could lead to common inspector training workshops, joint questionnaires and reports, Most programs include all three types of crite- and even combining of assessment teams. ria to a greater or lesser extent, but each places These all result in reduced costs and time an emphasis on its own areas of priority. Even commitments for both producers and certifiers.

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CHALLENGES FACING NTFP many NTFPs since they do not fit the tradi- CERTIFICATION tional forest harvest structure that FSC was set up to deal with. FSC is probably most appropri- Certification is not the answer for all situa- ate for large industrial NTFP operations. Or- tions; in fact, it has quite a limited applicabil- ganic agriculture certification provides a good ity. This is especially the case for NTFPs where alternative and may be the best option for food certification is relatively recent and has not and medicinal products. It is not as compre- undergone much testing in the field. Certifica- hensive as FSC but is also less costly and has tion must be seen as only one tool among many good consumer recognition. This currently to move towards more sustainable production means a better guarantee of price premiums for systems. It is good to remember that the major certified products and access to more local costs of getting certified are usually not the markets. Finally, fairtrade should also be costs of the certification process itself, but considered although it is more of an option for rather the costs of altering an operation to meet southern producers. Advantages include its certification criteria. concern primarily that producers receive a fair deal and that the costs of certification are Based on the information gathered during the borne by the retailer and consumer rather than recent FSC field trials, some of the key chal- by the producer. However, the product scope lenges to NTFP certification include the follow- for fairtrade does not yet cover many NTFPs, ing: and it has limited application in northern • A lack of ecological knowledge about countries. individual species including baseline data, sustainable harvesting levels, and resiliency of the species. REALITY CHECK—WHEN IS • Impact on small producers and subsis- CERTIFICATION USEFUL? tence users including definition of tenure and access rights, high fixed The recent field trials and collaborative activi- costs, and the impact of increased ties have identified a number of factors in demand on subsistence use. determining when certification is applicable. • Market demands including the quality Among the most common characteristics are of the product, limited market size, and when it is seen as an addition to timber certifi- uncompetitive prices versus alterna- cation or where there is a large-scale, organized tives. operation in existence. Examples of this in- • Inexperience in certification including clude maple syrup, Brazil nuts, rattan, and lack of certifiers with NTFP experience, rubber. Certification is also useful where there lack of standard policies, and difficul- is an international market or large national ties integrating timber and non-timber market. It is not often required to satisfy the products. needs of a local market. Organic certification is probably the best bet for small-scale opera- tions, but it is still necessary to prove tenure WHICH SYSTEM IS RIGHT FOR NTFPS? rights, which is often difficult on crown land. From a market perspective, certification must While all certification programs are set up to be seen as part of an overall sales package. deal with a wide variety of situations, each is geared to work better under specific circum- While getting certified may have limited appli- stances. The key thing to remember when cation in most cases, the real added value lies considering certification is that not pursuing in the producer’s ability to apply the principles certification may sometimes be the best option. of sustainable management inherent in certifi- Some further information will provide guidance cation criteria. These principles are valuable to on this issue. all operations, whether or not the producer is seeking certification. In this way, certification Forestry certification under FSC has the most can be used by all producers as a tool for better well-rounded criteria and is the most natural management. Criteria have been developed by choice for NTFPs since we are talking about experts in their fields and represent some of well-managed forests, but at the same time it is the best knowledge we have about sustainable the most expensive and time consuming. In production. Even the recent field tests of draft addition, it is difficult to apply this system to criteria have increased the knowledge available 126 on best management practices for a number of loosely regulated, with 47 different certification NTFPs. I would suggest that more test cases organizations in operation across the country. are needed to refine this knowledge for NTFPs A national standard in organic agriculture and to make it more accessible. recently came into effect that will help to standardize criteria between certifiers, al- though its application is still voluntary at this BRINGING IT HOME—NTFP CERTIFICATION stage. In addition to concerns about variances IN CANADA between the certification programs themselves, producers also have to take into account Although a lot of work has been done on certifi- national and provincial regulations. Each cation worldwide over the last few years, it is province has its own regulations and tenure still a very new concept in Canada. Forest system that producers are required to conform certification is only just beginning to be taken with. seriously in Canada. Market pressure from Europe is slowly forcing timber companies to change their management practices to meet FALLS BROOK CENTRE—CERTIFICATION certification requirements. Organic certification AND MARKETING PROGRAM has been around much longer and is increas- ing its market share in Canada but is not yet in The program that I am coordinating has been the mainstream for agriculture producers or working with certifiers to address some of the those working with NTFPs. Certification is not constraints that I have talked about today. We yet an issue for NTFP producers and harvesters are trying to make NTFP certification more in Canada. accessible to producers. We are now beginning to focus more on developing information tools Through the FSC, three regional initiatives in and resources for producer groups as well as Canada are each developing regional stan- on raising market awareness for certified dards. These local standards will be used by products. We will be talking to producers about certifiers when assessing operations in those the types of information that they require and regions. Only a few forests are currently certi- will be building a database of local market links fied to carry the FSC logo in Canada and no for certified products. If you are interested in NTFPs are certified. Organic agriculture certifi- learning more about certification or working cation, on the other hand, has been operating towards certification for your agroforestry and in Canada for many years but is still only non-timber forest products, please feel free to contact me at .

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The Industry of Wildcrafting, Gathering, and Harvesting of NTFPs: An Insider’s Perspective1

Barb Letchworth2

THE INDUSTRY potential for profit in growing or harvesting herbs, new wildcrafters and growers are con- The natural products industry has been under- stantly trying their hand at harvesting, only to going a tremendous amount of change in the find that it is not as easy as it seems. Clearly, if past few years. Large corporations including it were that easy, many more growers and pharmaceutical companies, food and drug harvesters would already be involved with store chains, and even department stores have herbs. This leaves an opportunity for those who been adding medicinal herbs to their offerings. are truly interested in being successful in the We can find anything from naturally raw bulk herb industry—those creative people who can herbs, to standardized extracts, to time-re- “invent” equipment and maintain a sensitivity leased formulations. Everyone has seen some to ethics and quality issues, and who have a variation of the commercial that depicts a man drive to give customers what they require. standing in the middle of a parking lot looking very confused because he cannot remember One issue that has continually frustrated where the car is parked. A package of ginkgo anyone entering the NTFP market has been the capsules is shown, and the man happily finds absence of well-established general information his car. This level of advertising has obviously sources similar to those available for true helped the industry by encouraging potential commodities, such as corn or soy beans. There consumers to try herbs as a possible long-term is no single reliable report for price informa- solution to health concerns. However, as tion, and most buyers who follow market demand has generally maintained an upward trends closely do not publish price lists be- trend, it has ultimately been a roller-coaster cause price information is confidential, volatile, ride. Supply and demand generally do not go and quality-sensitive. The NTFP industry has hand in hand. Growers and wildcrafters can yet to reach a level of sophistication necessary seldom react as quickly as the consumer, and to develop a common base of information. As a may take a year or two to catch up. By this result, growers and gatherers are left attempt- time, the consumer may have already gone on ing to find more creative ways to learn about to something else. This can make it especially the market. Networking is one of the best ways difficult for anyone in the initial stages of to learn and begin to understand the variety of working with herbs and getting into the herb price and quality structures. Books and the industry. Internet are helpful, but are only a first step. Prices vary significantly and most listings Because of the increased interest on the part rarely clarify whether prices are for raw mate- of the consumer, and because of the perceived rial or packaged products, or what level of quality is required for specific price points. This can potentially lead growers to undervalue an herb that is for sale. 1 Wildcrafting is the harvesting of wild plants in ways that will help increase a specific For example, one grower was asked to quote plant population and its health. The terms the price for several different crops he was wildcrafters, gatherers, and harvesters are about to plant. He had quoted $3.00 per pound used interchangeably. For more information on for each herb. As we started to discuss indi- ethical wildcrafting, contact the author. vidual items, he began to see that for some 2 Commodity Manager, Frontier Natural herbs the price was too low for him to even Products Cooperative, 3021 78th Street, P.O. break even, yet for other herbs the price was so Box 299, Norway, Iowa 52318, USA; Phone: high that he could not be competitive. 319-227-7996 ext. 1223; e-mail: [email protected]. 128 The domestic market is, on its own, difficult to If a potential customer has written specifica- monitor, and factoring in overseas markets and tions for a product, growers or gatherers can competition complicates it further. Growers use them as a guide for harvesting. Any infor- from other areas of the world are becoming mation that can be passed from the customer increasingly competitive, and more countries to the gatherer can be useful; the more you are making certified organics more available. know about their needs, the easier it will be to Part of the challenge has been to find ways of supply them. For example, some companies are competing with countries where the cost of concerned about color variation within a living is lower and where lifestyles are more specific lot or shipment. Obviously, there will spartan. Alternately, part of the opportunity is be some color variation because each herb is in finding ways of being better than the compe- an item from nature. But if a company requires tition and adding value without adding signifi- that a root color range from light brown to cant cost of equipment and buildings. One beige, but part of the harvest is very dark major area of opportunity is still in providing brown, it could be subject to rejection. The herbs that are certified organic. Buyers are grower or harvester may need to sort through increasingly searching for herbs that are and select color ranges to meet a customer’s harvested in both ethical and sustainable specific requirements. manners. Organic certification is a very good way to address this important consumer Some companies test for constituent levels, oil concern. I will explain this more fully later content, color, flavor, aroma, dirt, wrong plant when I address future niche opportunities. parts, salmonella, E. coli, and they may require botanical names (genus and species verifica- The experience that my company, The Frontier tion). Depending on the end use of herbs, some Natural Products Cooperative, has developed in companies may not place importance on spe- working with growers and gatherers has come cific characteristics, while others may test for from years of listening to our customers, everything. This can be risky, and successful growers, gatherers, herbalists, environmental- growers and gatherers maintain more than one ists, and scientists, in addition to those within customer so that if they cannot satisfy the the herb and world communities. To meet requirements of one customer, they can sell the consumer concerns, we require ethical materials to another. If customers ask for wildcrafting forms to be completed by gather- lemon balm, or any other herb, it is important ers, although we also rely on conversations and to know whether they require leaf only, leaf and visits with growers and gatherers to determine flower only, flower only, or the entire herb. The authenticity. Our visits allow us to assess amount of selection, cleaning, or selective whether or not harvesters are truly concerned harvesting that will need to be done must all be and understand ethical issues around harvest- calculated into the cost of production and ing, or whether the forms have simply become ultimately into the grower’s selling price. a process for marketing organic and ethically harvested products. Several forms and sets of Other requirements can include representative guidelines exist and are available for gatherers. preshipment samples for testing, different Some are more useful than others in helping levels of cleanliness, i.e., dirt and debris. Some train wildcrafters. The guidelines and question- customers will want fresh herbs, others will naires offered by United Plant Savers and by need them dried to very specific levels of mois- Rocky Mountain Herbalist Coalition are useful ture content. Knowing as much as possible and have been utilized by many companies that about what a customer requires will make a purchase herbs from gatherers. Learning these grower or gatherer more successful in making guidelines and following them will help new- an initial sale and will further the relationship comers to the field in selling herbs. in becoming a trusted long-term supplier. There is, clearly, some responsibility on the Within the industry, another major key element part of the buyer to ensure that growers and is understanding that not all customers desire gatherers obtain as much information as the same thing. Expectations for quality and possible. If a buyer cannot provide specific supply vary among buyers. Recognizing that information, serious problems may arise from not all customers want the same level of qual- misunderstandings of what is required. If there ity, or be willing to pay for it, is very important. are no specifications, it would be wise to, at the very least, obtain this fact in writing.

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GAINING THE EDGE an attempt to specifically add more controls. Rather, it is a method of ensuring future har- The importance of finding a niche cannot be vests while gaining the opportunity for gather- underestimated. Working closely with a buyer ers to take advantage of the premium for might help a gatherer focus in a specific direc- organic certification. There are also broader tion, yet does not provide flexibility within an benefits built into the certification process, as area of potential opportunity. gatherers can assist with plant population counts, observe reactions of populations to With herbs that are wildcrafted, there is in- harvesting practices, and contribute to the creasing concern voiced by consumers and definition of optimal sustainable population native peoples that areas are being overhar- levels. Making connections with groups who vested. One area of potential, then, is to re- are already studying plant populations and spond to this concern through certified organic practices can also be beneficial on a much ethically wildcrafted herbs. There are several larger scale. It can assist continental and global advantages of organic certification of efforts already under way with groups such as wildcrafted herbs. Buyers are assured of ethical United Plant Savers. Even though there is wildcrafting practices as outlined by the certify- considerable domestication and cultivation of ing organization. In this vein, wildcrafters are traditional plants, more and more information registered and required to know and follow is being distributed about the benefits of the guidelines provided. As well, gatherers are natural environment. The benefits of the eligible for the premiums that exist for certified permaculture3 environment and companion organic herbs. This provides for a good and planting have brought new awareness to how sustainable option in that many wildcrafters planting, population maintenance, and har- hold a vested interest in future harvests. Many vesting should be handled. harvesters have a natural understanding of our environmental situation including deforesta- Ethical wildcrafting is another possible way of tion, urban sprawl, mining, and uneducated gaining an edge in the marketplace. Various overharvesting. Without some measures that groups in the States have been working on control harvesting, it will become more difficult setting up ethical wildcrafting programs, and to maintain biodiversity and sustainability some have had good results. As the program within harvesting practices, with the possible develops, it will begin to offer classes in outcome of forcing more cultivation into mo- wildcrafting, ethics, and marketing. A registry noculture production, as opposed to harvesting of gatherers who have completed the program within an ecosystem. can be easily developed and provided to buyers. Ethical wildcrafting would be a much less Several organic certification agencies are very structured option than organic certification and concerned about these issues and have pro- could provide a whole new way of protecting grams in place for working with wildcrafters. specific areas of the environment. Clearly, the They will require that there is someone they ideas presented here could be perceived as a can contact who is in control of the land, form of encroachment on freedom of gatherers whether it is crown land, government land, or and a move towards increased controls over even timber mill land. Additionally, there must harvesters. And, yes, it can be viewed in this be maps of the area available for verification. way. Yet, we need to consider the destruction The group, agency, or company in control of experienced within some areas that have not the land then needs to provide written confir- mation that there has been no industrial contamination in the area of harvest and needs to submit a list of harvesters and information about their harvesting practices. 3 is a system of growing crops in balance with the environment. Unlike monocul- Seemingly, organic certifying agencies require a ture and , permaculture is good deal of information and demand a sub- the ultimate method of sustainability in which stantial amount of control over harvesting. Yet, the cultivated environment most closely re- if we look at a harvesting situation from an- sembles the natural environment. Several other point of view, the land has already been species are planted in the same environment to under some level of control with maps, owners, complement, nourish, and protect one another as or land managers. Organic certification is not seen in nature. 130 been protected in any way. The processes the current focus within the industry. Attend- suggested here are, in fact, milder and may ing regional, national, and international trade ultimately impact the harvesting process less shows will also help in establishing more than an extreme situation that could either connections. Many companies have representa- shut harvesting down altogether, or through tives at such shows, and it gives the grower or not sharing Mother Earth’s gifts, lose them to wildcrafter the opportunity to learn about the those who would take without respect. various companies interested in buying raw materials. It is also a very useful arena in which to gain valuable information about the MARKETING IDEAS FOR SUCCESS future directions of the industry as a whole. While seminars and conferences are not always The marketing of wildcrafted herbs is ulti- exciting, a wealth of information can be gained mately not very different from the marketing of from the speakers and from other attendees at cultivated herbs, and it is still extremely impor- such events. Most speakers are interested in tant to understand as much as possible about sharing more information than simply was the herb industry. If gatherers or growers are presented, and it is good to plan to meet either considering becoming involved in wildcrafting, during the conference or afterward via phone, they should plan on a great deal of hard work fax, or e-mail. to succeed. This applies regardless of whether work is in the field, the forest, or the market- It is also important to learn some of the more place. As a result, anything that can be done to technical aspects of herbs through tests such make the work easier and faster should be as high pressure liquid chromatography experimented with. If a tool, building, or vehicle (HPLC). The technical intricacies are not as can be converted, or a piece of equipment important as simply knowing how such a test adapted, it may make a difficult job both easier can affect your sale. Other things to be aware and faster. The opportunities are as endless as of include tests such as the steamed volatile oil the imagination itself. test (SVO), thin line chromatography (TLC), and quality control (QC), certified organics, ethical It is also wise to focus on quality. As a rule, the harvesting techniques, permaculture, and better the quality, the higher the price. Build- companion planting. Visibility is also impor- ing a reputation for providing high quality tant, and you can have your name or herbs will make the selling part of the work company’s name listed in catalogs, organic much easier, although understanding the directories, with university extension agents, customers’ quality requirements is paramount. with forestry service departments, in It is helpful to build contacts with government wildcrafting registries, or any other listing that departments of agriculture and university will help get your name in front of buyers. extension services that may offer ideas and Many of these publications are free or have a ways to improve your focus. Establishing minimal charge, and buyers consider them to contacts on the Internet, visiting web sites, and be very precious publications and find many making connections via e-mail can also help suppliers in this way. As a general rule, work- build relationships with specific buyers. ing directly with end-using companies, and staying away from “middlemen” as much as In terms of understanding market trends, local possible will more likely lead to a higher price health food stores can be a way of finding out for your products. However, this is not to say which products are popular, which have been that all middle connections are bad. In fact, in steady sellers, and which products are mar- some cases, they are very useful, especially if ginal in sales. This will help in the selection you have very small quantities. Middle people process of what to grow or wildcraft. It is can group several small quantities of like important to remember, however, that very quality into a larger lot for sale, and they may rarely does the shelf price reflect in any way have already developed the necessary connec- the price that the grower or wildcrafter can tions, allowing a grower to make a sale more expect. Shelf costs reflect quality, processing, quickly. Given that each situation differs, it is testing, advertisement, and other variables that necessary to weigh the pros and cons of work- make up the cost of an item on the shelf. It is ing with or without such a middle connection. also useful to check current herbal magazines It is also wise to develop more than one outlet and periodicals for discovering market informa- for your herbs. If nothing else, it is good to tion: who is advertising, and which herbs are have a backup in case you cannot meet the 131 NTFP Conference Proceedings quality requirements dictated by the primary Another useful activity is to find out what customers, or alternately, if your customer herbs are “at risk” and whether there are areas cannot purchase all you harvested. where such herbs can be cultivated. It is also possible to work with companies that will be Learning how other countries are growing and logging, mining, or developing an area with the wild harvesting herbs is also a useful activity. result of destroying plant populations. You Additionally, keeping in touch with the weather may be able to work out an arrangement channels to know drought areas in other entitling you to harvest the plants before they regions of competition and staying abreast with are destroyed. These can then be transplanted, world political situations all help you under- sold as seedlings or rootlets for others to stand your market better. Knowing the impact cultivate, or planted elsewhere. But finally, and of weather, or politics, or earthquakes, or other perhaps most importantly, learn as much as conditions can give you a bit of an edge when it you can about your customer. The more trust comes to selling a product. Customers them- you can develop with each other, the easier it selves can also be a good source of market will be to work through hurdles that will most information. The closer the growers’ relation- certainly arise. Trust and loyalty go hand in ship is with their customers, the better source hand when developing a long-term relationship of information both can be. between supplier and buyer.

132 Using Aspen for Artist Stretcher Frames: Adding Value Through Quality Service, Direct Marketing, and Careful Material Selection

Chris Polson1

Abstract.—Aspen wood, when carefully selected and kiln dried, makes excellent stock for artist stretcher frames. Direct marketing techniques including the Internet and word of mouth give access to national markets, providing a more diverse and stable customer base for operations from a rural area. High-quality service, as shown by product performance and rapid order fulfillment, yields high returns.

There is a clear need in the art supply market Benefits for Stretcher Use for high-quality, heavy-duty canvas stretchers Aspen wood is well suited to the job of taking suitable for large canvas paintings. We created and holding staples or tacks to fasten canvas. Twin Brooks StretchersTM to fill this need. Our Aspen’s strength and stability stand up to the stretchers are made from aspen wood sawn task of holding a taut canvas as it dries after and dried at our facility in Lincolnville, Maine, gesso application or other canvas preparation. and assembled at our own custom shop. Aspen Aspen wood does not tend to splinter. wood, when properly dried and selected, is stable, strong, and makes excellent stock for stretcher bars. We use a mechanical corner fastening system called a Tite Joint Fastener, Silviculture of Aspen which we believe to be a rugged, cost-effective improvement over traditional wedges. Bigtooth aspen (Populus grandidentata) and trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) grow predominately in northern regions of the world. Aspen is a pioneer tree species with several ASPEN WOOD adaptations that enable it to colonize newly Technical Advantages disturbed sites such as burned or harvested areas. When the main tree stem is removed, Aspen sapwood is firm and white with uniform hormonal control over latent buds on the root consistency and density through the cross system stops and heavy root sprouting occurs, section. The color of heartwood varies from often in the same growing season. The intact white to cream to light grayish brown. Aspen is root system provides abundant nutrition and free from sap and associated staining prob- water to the rapidly growing shoots, which lems. Properly dried to 6 percent moisture soon dominate growing space. Aspen tends to content and selected for straightness and grow in expanding groups from this habit of structural integrity, aspen is a strong, light- root sprouting. Aspen produces large quantities weight, stable wood. of lightweight seed early in the spring, which can get a headstart on bare soil over heavy seeded or later seed-bearing species. These seedlings grow rapidly compared to other tree species. 1President, Twin Brooks Stretchers, RR1, Box 5444, Rt. 173, Lincolnville, Maine 04849-9670, The abundant young aspen shoots that arise USA; Phone/Fax: 800-856-1567; e-mail: from both of these forms of regeneration ensure [email protected]. a rapid recolonization of harvested sites. This,

133 NTFP Conference Proceedings in turn, helps harvested land remain produc- Direct marketing techniques have helped us tive. Vigorously growing young shoots produce establish a diverse, stable customer base. a great deal of oxygen and consume a lot of Using low-cost Internet Web page advertising carbon dioxide, both desirable traits with a and communications as well as personal phone global warming trend upon us. These young service with a toll-free telephone number, we shoots also provide ideal food and cover for are able to maintain a national market pres- wildlife such as ruffed grouse, woodcock, ence. Personal phone service for developing white-tailed deer, and snowshoe hare. relationships for customized products is a must. Word of mouth business continues to be vital to our success. Products that get “used Source of Raw Materials up” and need to be reordered have been the mainstay of the business. We buy aspen logs that grow in the state of Maine. These logs come from a variety of harvesting sites including selective harvests, SERVICE patch cuttings, and clearcuts. Loggers in Maine are required to operate under strict Occupa- Having a dependable high-quality product and tional Safety and Health Administration stan- backing it up with services such as prompt dards and perform in accordance with the order fulfillment and a satisfaction guarantee Maine environmental laws as well as the pro- contribute significantly to the success of this gressive Maine Forest Practices Act of 1989. business. Providing options for customizing our product such as fractional sizing of stretcher When possible, we use logs cut from our own frames and various levels of custom canvas lands and lands here in Lincolnville. Other preparation gives customers a wide range of sources may include cuttings where the choices to fit their particular needs. smaller parts of the aspen stem are utilized for pulp and paper production. SUMMARY

Value-Added Benefits Non-timber forest product marketing from rural areas can be a viable business opportu- We saw our own logs on a small efficient nity. Product choices that favor success include bandsaw and dry the lumber in a state-of-the- items that get used up and need to be reor- art kiln that produces consistent high-quality dered as well as items that can be customized drying. By manufacturing stretchers at our to meet a variety of customer needs. Direct facility, we are able to get more value from the marketing techniques are critical to developing same raw material. This, in turn, allows us to a diverse and stable customer base. The offer high prices for logs, which benefits land- Internet is a fantastic tool for direct marketing owners, loggers, and their suppliers. and customer communications.

MARKETING ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Marketing from rural areas presents challenges The author thanks the USDA Forest Service and opportunities. Drop-in traffic tends to be and John Zasada for making it possible to low, and shipping expenses tend to be high. participate in this conference. Quality of life issues such as short work com- mutes, low traffic congestion, and proximity to natural environments are definite benefits of operating a business from a rural area.

134 Establishing an Alaskan Birch Syrup Industry: Birch Syrup—It’s the Un-maple!™

Marlene Cameron1

Abstract.—Ten years ago a small group of Alaskans began commer- cial production of birch syrup from the sap of the paper birch, Betula papyrifera, and established an industry that is expanding in response to demand and has the potential to make a significant contribution to Alaska’s economy. There are still many problems to be solved; re- search and development have taken a backseat to production in efforts to keep up with the overwhelming response to birch syrup and related products. However, as the industry matures and as the Alaska Birch Syrupmakers Association becomes more effective, solutions to these problems will follow.

BEGINNINGS OF THE ALASKAN BIRCH cook this year’s as long. Consequently, the SYRUP INDUSTRY syrup was thin, and one bottle fermented on the store shelf. Selling that syrup to the first In the spring of 1989, nearly 20 years after gift shop I approached, though, was a heady hearing an Alaskan sourdough tale about experience, and I was sure I was on my way to making syrup from birch trees the same way fame and fortune. maple syrup is made, I finally tried tapping six birch trees. It took all day to boil down a pan of Through the Small Business Development sap to syrup in the oven of an old propane Center, I learned about the Alaska Science & kitchen stove in the backyard. The result Technology Foundation (ASTF) and submitted a looked—and tasted—like Alaska crude oil. But hastily written pre-proposal for a grant. It was it was syrup! It seemed to me that this had real a surprise to learn the pre-proposal was ac- business possibilities. Having, however, abso- cepted, and I was invited to submit a full lutely no business sense, my mantra for suc- proposal. Knowing nothing about grant propos- cess was this: “If the tourists will buy moose als—or making birch syrup, for that matter—I nugget earrings, they’ll buy anything!” Thus started work on a proposal for a 3-year grant began a business under the worst possible impressively titled “Research and Development conditions. of a Birch Sap Products Industry in Alaska.” As an English teacher, I figured at least I could The next year we “went commercial.” That is, write a good story. we managed to sell our birch syrup to an Anchorage gift shop, known for helping new To “legitimize” my proposal, I began database Alaskan artisans and crafters. The syrup was searches through the University of Alaska and bottled in plastic, pre-printed maple syrup surprised myself by turning up a significant containers with paper labels glued over the amount of scholarly research and publications maple text. Since we knew our first year’s about birch sap and syrup. Most of the studies syrup was too dark and nasty-tasting, we didn’t had been done in the Ukraine, where both juice and alcoholic beverages were made with the sap, and in Finland, where the University of 1 President of Cameron Birch Syrup & Turku funded studies of birch syrup as an Confections, Inc., Wasilla, Alaska, USA; alternative sugar source. More searching Toll-free phone number: 1-800-YO-BIRCH discovered historical and traditional stories (962-4724); founder and charter member of about birch sap and syrup, and one book, the Alaska Birch Syrupmakers Association; published in London at the end of the 17th Web site: http://www.birchsyrup.com. 135 NTFP Conference Proceedings century, even had a recipe for birch wine, “now in maple sap is the complex sugar . so frequently made…and that so highly, vinous Moreover, the average sugar content of birch and spirituous, that it hath past for a sort of sap is 1˚ Brix and that of maple ranges from 2 foreign Wine (Westmacot 1695).” Isolated to 4˚ Brix. Acids present in birch sap are malic, studies of birch syrup were made in Canada at phosphoric, succinic, and citric. Inorganics the end of World War II and again some years present include significant amounts of potas- later, and one study was done in Fairbanks, sium, calcium, manganese, and thiamin. Alaska, and published in 1982. Canada and Because of the differences in chemical compo- the U.S., however, were not interested at the nents between birch and maple, the resulting time in pursuing birch syrup as a commercial color and flavor of birch syrup also differ from enterprise. maple. Fructose caramelizes (and burns) faster than sucrose; that, coupled with the fact that At the end of 1990, the final proposal was the low sugar content requires more process- submitted to ASTF, complete with all the ing, results in a syrup generally darker than required bells and whistles and estimates and maple. The flavor, too, is different; it’s a com- projections and justifications; I called it my plex flavor, reminiscent of many other things, work of science fiction. I admit to a rather but it ultimately is distinctive and unique. cavalier attitude about the whole project—there was no chance my insignificant little proposal Other major differences affect collection rather would be awarded a grant alongside really than processing. Tappable birch trees are important issues related to Alaskan fisheries smaller in diameter than maple, so generally and human bone growth and innovative com- only one tap per tree is made. In addition, the puter software. So when I was advised at the lifespan of the birch is shorter than the maple, end of February 1991 that we had been and the birch is susceptible to heart rot early awarded the 3-year grant as proposed (minus in life. Lack of strong root and trunk pressure, the trip to Japan I had thrown in), I was more along with the vagaries of Alaskan weather and shocked than anything else. It certainly was a geography, makes pipeline or tubing (as used wakeup call; things got serious. in large maple operations) an inefficient means of collecting sap. As I look back now on the development of the birch syrup industry, I marvel that the Board of Directors of ASTF truly had more vision than I Problems had. The support, guidance, and encourage- ment I received throughout the grant period, Some of the problems involved in collecting and and still receive, has been vital to the contin- processing birch sap in Alaska are inherent. ued growth of the industry. We set out to The low sugar content already mentioned determine if processing birch syrup could means that it takes at least 100 gallons of sap become a viable Alaska industry. If it isn’t a to make 1 gallon of syrup. In addition, the sap million-dollar industry yet, it certainly is viable season is much shorter for birch than for and it certainly has potential as a leader in maple. In south-central Alaska, the sap run Alaska’s non-timber forest products sector. lasts an average of 19-20 days. In the interior (Fairbanks), the season has been as short as 10 days. By the time the roots thaw enough for PRODUCING BIRCH SYRUP the sap to begin flowing, the temperature both day and night is well above freezing, unlike the The Un-maple™—Similarities and gradual freeze and thaw experienced by maple Differences trees. If the temperature climbs into the 50’s and 60’s before the sap run is over, the sap can The basic process to make birch syrup is the spoil before it ever reaches the sugarhouse. same as maple—evaporate most of the water from tree sap to concentrate the sugar to syrup Another problem Alaskan birch syrup produc- density of about 67˚ on the Brix scale. There ers faced in the beginning was a lack of experi- end the similarities. ence; none of the producers had been involved in the maple industry. In addition, there were The differences are considerable. The main no instructions or guidelines to follow, other sugars in birch sap are the simple sugars than scholarly research from other countries fructose and , whereas the main sugar 136 and “down home” suggestions from maple booth at the fair and election of officers. Fi- producers (who had never tried making birch nally, with some grant money from the ASTF, I syrup). It seemed logical, then, to begin with sent a sample of birch syrup to a food lab in maple technology. That system worked—we Oregon for nutritional testing, which allowed made syrup—but it became apparent very soon syrup producers to take a more professional that adaptations needed to be made if we approach to advertising and sales of birch wanted a high quality product. For example, we syrup. discovered that metal spouts, buckets, and tanks used in the maple industry were inap- For several years, we moved our portable propriate for the acidic birch sap—an expensive sugarhouse to the fair for the association’s use. discovery after large initial purchases. Originally we had the 2x6 evaporator still set up in it, and during the fair we boiled water Other problems—the toughest hurdles of all— with a little syrup in it for demonstrations. have been financial. We did not simply create a Logistics proved difficult and expensive— business, we created an industry. To do so setting up fuel and water tanks, paying fuel requires costly marketing, advertising, and costs for 2 weeks, and tending the evaporator product sampling to educate both retail and while trying to talk with customers became wholesale customers. In addition, it wasn’t more problematic each year. Also, as more clear just what niche market would be appro- syrup producers came on line, there wasn’t priate for birch syrup, so a lot of time and enough space to have the evaporator and sell money were spent discovering what did not product too, so the evaporator had to go. work. The cost of producing 1 gallon of birch Finally, in 1998, ABSA built its own building at syrup can be four to five times higher than the the fair. Now the association is looking to cost of producing 1 gallon of maple syrup; thus enlarge the building to accommodate the marketing is not simply a matter of introducing increased number of syrup producers and a new syrup. Not only is the cost of products and perhaps add a miniature demon- producing birch syrup higher than maple, but stration evaporator. the costs for equipment, supplies, transporta- tion, packaging, and shipping are higher as This year marks a turning point for ABSA. well. Alaska is 2,000 miles from the rest of the Member birch syrup producers are finally United States; manufacturing is and has moving to accomplish significant advances for always been a difficult and expensive undertak- the industry. We all agreed that we needed to ing because almost everything required (except get away from maple terminology and rename the natural resources) must be brought into our association; we can’t make sugar with the state. The most pervasive financial problem birch. So it is now the Alaska Birch and the most difficult to overcome, however, is Syrupmakers Association. The association is the fact that every birch syrup producer has now working on determining set quality stan- started business undercapitalized. Perhaps as dards of processing for ABSA certification. An more used equipment becomes available in the ABSA certification will indicate to buyers that state, more appropriate and efficient processing the product is made in accordance with strict methods are discovered, and traditional finan- processing standards. Much more detailed (and cial institutions recognize the industry as a controversial among syrup producers) will be a worthwhile investment, startup costs will come Best Practices manual that is produced by down and the new-business breakeven point ABSA, covering all aspects of the birch syrup will come sooner. operations—harvesting, transporting, process- ing, packaging, and forest stewardship. A committee has been appointed to develop a ALASKA BIRCH SYRUPMAKERS survey for ABSA members and a basic outline ASSOCIATION for the manual. Most important from an indus- try standpoint, however, is a proposal to the In 1992, the Alaska Birch Sugarmakers Asso- U.S. Food and Drug Administration for inclu- ciation (ABSA) was formed in an effort to create sion in the FDA Code of Federal Regulations, a certain amount of cohesiveness and validity which will define birch syrup for all U.S. pro- for the industry. Initially members met once a ducers. Once birch syrup is included in the year during the Alaska State Fair to share Code, the industry will be officially recognized ideas and talk about problems. The only official by the government and have “authority” behind agenda for several years was an association it when needed. 137 NTFP Conference Proceedings

GROWTH OF THE BIRCH SYRUP INDUSTRY has a retail outlet store attached to the kitchen and shop. The two newest syrup producers Commercial Syrup Producers aren’t even concerned with retail or wholesale marketing; they sell their syrup in bulk to the In 1990, three birch syrup producers began other producers who need more to fill the ever- business in Alaska, unknown to one another increasing demand. and in three widely separated locations— Wasilla, Trapper Creek, and Fairbanks. Three years later another operation started in south- Value-Added Products east Alaska, and since then one new producer has come on line almost every 2 years. There While it’s possible to make a profit with birch are now seven commercial birch syrup produc- syrup, you’d better have another income handy ers in the state—an impressive accomplish- if you want to eat and live in a house! To work ment for an industry only 10 years old and one toward a full-time, self-supporting business, in which startup costs are high and profits low. several of the birch syrup producers developed value-added products. Our business was the first to create new product lines with birch Sap Collectors syrup as a base. We now have several birch , marinade, salad dressing, popcorn, Quite by accident an unanticipated secondary reindeer jerky, coated nuts, and flavored birch industry evolved and has now become firmly syrups. Two other birch syrup producers are established within the birch syrup industry. A now making candy, one has a birch syrup/ year after we began commercial production, a honey blend, and the other has a birch few local people wanted to know if they could topping. Rather than birch syrup- tap trees and give us the sap to boil. From based products, two of the other producers are those eight people in 1992, who brought in a using their evaporating equipment year-round total of 3,000 gallons of sap, to the hundreds of to make Alaskan berry syrups—fireweed, collectors this past season who brought in rosehip, blueberry, and raspberry. This extends 40,000 gallons of sap, we’ve come a long way in the use of their equipment, making it more cost a short time. As a matter of fact, our business effective. now depends entirely on purchasing sap from collectors throughout the Matanuska-Susitna Valley. Collectors come in all shapes and FUTURE OF THE ALASKAN BIRCH SYRUP sizes—families, retired folks, individuals, INDUSTRY children, school classes, church groups, social service agencies, people who work, and people Most of the Alaskan birch syrup producers are who don’t work. Tapping trees gets people out experiencing a growing demand for birch syrup of the house after the long Alaskan winter, it’s and for the value-added birch products. Even easy and it’s fun to watch the sap collect, the though the price of birch syrup can be 4-5 season doesn’t last long enough to get boring, times higher than maple, it has a different and the money can add up considerably. Our niche, and as it becomes better known it is largest sap collector last season is a retired more in demand. While some Alaskan produc- woman who made over $2,000 in 20 days. ers would like birch syrup to remain a unique, Alaskan-only product, there is enough growing interest in it to warrant operations in other Marketing areas with large stands of birch.

Birch syrup producers have a variety of mar- It’s obvious that more syrup is needed. But keting strategies. In general, birch syrup is establishing larger operations is not the answer targeted toward the high-end users: local as it is in the maple industry; making birch tourist-oriented gift shops, tour companies (i.e., syrup is expensive, labor intensive for a short Princess Lines), gourmet shops, and fine period, and has a low return of syrup from sap. restaurants. Other marketing outlets include As I see it now, there is a point of marked Internet sales, mail order, gift shops outside diminishing return beyond which the cost of Alaska, bulk sales to Asia and Europe, natural equipment and tapping a vast number of trees food stores, espresso shops, and a local ice by the producer simply cannot justify the cream manufacturer. In addition, our business product. The solution is to establish more 138 small producers who sell to larger producers who can more effectively market the syrup.

LITERATURE CITED

Westmacot, W. 1695. Historia vegetabilium sacra: or, a scripture herbal. London: John Salusbury. 237 p.

139 NTFP Conference Proceedings

North American Networking Activities on Non-wood Forest Products by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Paul Vantomme1

Abstract.—FAO, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, is the largest autonomous agency within the United Nations system dealing with agriculture, fisheries, forestry, and related disciplines. FAO provides a neutral forum for policy dialogue, a source of information and knowledge, technical assistance, and advice to 180 member countries. Technical information and global networking on non-wood forest products (NWFPs) are provided mainly by the Forestry Department. The NWFP Programme, intended to be a “Centre of excellence in information sharing,” is implemented through the following main elements: information gathering, analysis, and dissemination; appraisal of the socioeconomic contributions of NWFPs to development; and improved networking. FAO and NWFP related activities of interest to the North American region are mainly channeled through The Committee on Forestry (COFO), The North American Forest Commission (NAFC), and the NWFP task group of the North American Forest Products Study Group (FPSG). URL addresses are provided for further reading.

WHAT FAO IS AND WHAT IT DOES structure with regional offices2 , and a physical presence/representation in more than 100 FAO, the Food and Agriculture Organization of countries. the United Nations, was founded in October 1945 with a mandate to raise levels of nutrition The primary roles of FAO are to serve as: and to improve agricultural productivity. It is • a neutral forum for policy dialogue the largest autonomous agency within the (including international governmental United Nations system with 180 member meetings, for example, on agricultural nations and more than 4,300 staff, including trade, on natural resource management specialists in agriculture, fisheries, forestry, issues, etc.), and related disciplines. FAO has headquarters • a source of information and knowledge in Rome, Italy, a comprehensive regional (technical information on products, methodologies, and statistical data on production and trade in agriculture), • a provider of technical assistance (field 1 Coordinator, Non-Wood Forest Products projects to develop/introduce new Programme, Forestry Department, FAO, Rome, products or technologies, to assist Italy; e-mail: [email protected]. governments in institutional capacity 2 For the North American region: Liaison Office building, etc.), for North America (LOWA), Suite 300, 2175 K • a provider of advice to governments. Street NW, Washington, DC 20437-0001, USA; More information on FAO, its mission, and Phone: (001-202) 653-2400; Fax: 653-5760; e- contacts can be downloaded from http:// mail: [email protected]. www.fao.org.

140 HOW FAO DEALS WITH NON-WOOD FOREST awareness of consumers. Its influence extends PRODUCTS (NWFP) to every continent, and its contribution to the protection of public health and fair practices in The term “non-wood forest products” (NWFP) the food trade is immeasurable: http:// and similar terms like “minor,” “secondary,” or www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/ “non-timber” forest products (NTFP) have ECONOMIC/ESN/codex/default.htm. emerged as umbrella expressions for the vast array of both animal and plant resources other than wood (or timber, in the case of “non- ACTIVITIES OF FAO’S NON-WOOD FOREST timber”) derived from forests or forest tree PRODUCTS PROGRAMME species. The term NWFP is used by FAO to refer to all plant and animal products derived from The aim of the Non-Wood Forest Products forests and other wooded lands. Programme is to be a “Centre of excellence in information sharing” for improved use of Technical information on products gathered in NWFPs. Wise use of NWFPs is seen as a contri- forests or from forest species falls under the bution to sustainable forest management and responsibility of FAO’s Forestry Department, to the conservation of the biological diversity of through its NWFP Programme. However, other forest resources, and simultaneously as a way programmes may also be involved with NWFPs, to improve income and food security for rural such as the Community Forestry, Marketing, people. The programme’s URL is: http:// and Extension programmes. More information www.fao.org/forestry/FOP/FOPW/NWFP/ on the activities of the Forestry Department in nwfp-e.stm. general and on the above programmes in particular can be downloaded from the FAO NWFPs may represent the major actual or Web site at: http://www.fao.org/forestry. potential source of income from forests with low timber production potential, such as For those NWFP products that are partly degraded/logged-over forests or those in arid domesticated and that can also be cultivated by and semi-arid zones. With a few exceptions, farmers, technical documentation may be however, it is unlikely that in production complemented with information provided by forests NWFP income can compete with FAO’s Agriculture Department, and particularly financial returns from timber harvesting. by the programme on the development of NWFPs are likely simply to supplement the underutilized plants of the Industrial Crops returns from timber rather than replace it as a Group at http://www.fao.org/WAICENT/ source of revenue. Increased production of FAOINFO/AGRICULT/AGP/AGPC/doc/ NWFPs in forests that are unsuitable for timber industr/Indcrop.htm. production, however, will enhance the value of these forests, and thus at least theoretically On NWFPs used for food and on food products provide a form of economic protection against in general, information and quality control conversion to other land uses. Care must be aspects are provided by the Nutrition Division, taken, however, that commercialization does at: http://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/ not result in overharvesting of NWFPs, since ECONOMIC/ESN/NUTRI.HTM. this can have its own negative environmental consequences. Management of forests for It is important that NWFPs, when promoted NWFPs in addition to timber is more likely to and traded as food products, comply with the benefit the local economy and to provide goods internationally agreed upon food quality and a source of income for forest-dwellers. requirements as described in the ‘Codex Alimentarius.’ This code on food has become The NWFP Programme is composed of the the seminal global reference point for following main elements: (a) information consumers, food producers and processors, gathering, analysis, and dissemination; (b) national food control agencies, and the appraisal of the socioeconomic contributions of international food trade. The code has had an NWFP to development; and (c) improved enormous impact on the thinking of food networking. producers and processors as well as on the

141 NTFP Conference Proceedings

(a) Information Gathering, Analysis, and many NWFPs, the available information Dissemination base on NWFPs is very dispersed, still insufficient, not aggregated at a national Specific categories of NWFPs and important level, and far from being comprehensive or topics for their development are highlighted global in scope. in the FAO Non-Wood Forest Products Series. Twelve volumes have been published The objective of this programme element is to date including the following titles: to gather, validate, and disseminate statis- Flavours and Fragrances of Plant Origin; tics and other descriptive information on Natural Colourants and Dyestuffs; Edible the production and trade of NWFPs at the Nuts; Non-Wood Forest Products for Rural national level for all countries. As a first Income and Sustainable Forestry; Trade step in this direction, and within the frame- Restrictions Affecting International Trade in work of an “EU-FAO Partnership Non-Wood Forest Products; Domestication Programme to Support Data Collection and and Commercialization of NWFP Through Analysis for Sustainable Forest Manage- Agroforestry Systems, Tropical Palms, NWFP ment in the African, and Pacific from Conifers; and Medicinal Plants for Regions,” country reviews are being pre- Forest Conservation and Health Care. These pared that describe the production and and many other publications on NWFPs can trade of major NWFPs. Similar exercises are be viewed online at: http://www.fao.org/ ongoing to cover countries of other regions, forestry/FOP/FOPW/NWFP/pubser-e.stm. i.e., in , the , and Asia. The results will be posted on the FAO Forestry Department Web site at: http:// The FAO NWFP Series is open for contribu- www.fao.org/forestry/FON/FONS/outlook/ tions and joint development of new titles Africa/acppro-e.stm as they become avail- with any interested agency, as long as they able. Data are obtained and validated deal with topics of global relevance within through partnerships with the relevant the overall scope of the NWFP Programme national agencies in the countries. of FAO. Several issues in this series have already been jointly compiled with govern- (c) Improved Networking mental and/or non-governmental agencies, and potential topics for new titles to be In the past years, an impressive network of developed include the following working contacts with organizations (governmental titles: The contribution of NWFP to food and non-governmental) and individuals security, Gender and NWFP, Sustainable working in the field of NWFPs has been harvesting of NWFP, Extension of NWFP, developed by the NWFP Programme of the and Certification of NWFP. Forest Products Division of FAO. To im- prove networking, an annual news bulletin, (b) Appraisal of the Socioeconomic Contri- Non-Wood News, compiled from voluntary butions of NWFP to Development contributions of relevant information about ongoing activities dealing with NWFPs, links Comprehensive statistical data and other more than 2,200 individuals and organiza- descriptive information on the production tions worldwide. The newsletter is available and trade of NWFPs are essential for an at: http://www.fao.org/forestry/FOP/ accurate appraisal of their true socioeco- FOPW/NWFP/newsle-e.stm. Printed copies nomic contribution to sustainable develop- are available free of charge upon request. ment. This, in turn, will contribute to the elaboration (and acceptance by policy- A comprehensive database is presently makers and senior decisionmakers) of under construction, the aim of which is to appropriate policies leading to more equi- gather and collate reliable information table access to non-wood forest resources about all partners involved with the and to a fair distribution of benefits ob- development of NWFPs and about the kind tained from them. of activities with which they are concerned. A first draft of this interactive database can Although FAO, as well as many other be consulted at: http://www.fao.org/ agencies, has already assembled a wealth of forestry/FOP/FOPW/NWFP/nwfpdb-e.stm; information on the socioeconomic role of it incorporates an option to download a 142 questionnaire (available in English, French, FAO AND NWFP RELATED ACTIVITIES IN or Spanish) for those who wish to be THE NORTH AMERICAN REGION included in the directory. The Committee on Forestry (COFO) Although FAO is an intergovernmental organization and, as such, its main line of Dialogue at the international level is an essen- communication is with member govern- tial complement to the efforts of individual ments, this is not its only source of countries to develop appropriate forest policies, information. Inputs from a broad range of institutions, and practices. FAO supports a interest groups, including the private number of statutory bodies specifically de- sector, universities, forest industries, and signed to provide neutral fora for discussion in non-governmental organizations, represent- the field of forestry. Foremost among these is ing environmental and developmental the Committee on Forestry (COFO). Heads of interests, are warmly welcomed. There is a forest services and other senior government need to ensure that dialogue takes place officials meet at FAO headquarters every 2 between interested parties and that years to identify emerging policy and technical duplication of efforts is avoided so that issues, to seek solutions, and to advise FAO skills and resources are most efficiently and others on appropriate action. Other inter- used. To further increase awareness about national organizations and, increasingly, non- NWFPs and to strengthen collaboration and governmental groups participate in COFO. Six partnerships at the national, regional, and regional forestry commissions complement the global levels, FAO’s NWFP Programme has work of COFO and cover the regions of Asia- co-organized several international expert Pacific, Africa, Europe, Latin America and the consultations on NWFP worldwide, includ- Caribbean, Near East, and North America. ing: These commissions normally meet between COFO sessions and provide a forum for mem- Global expert consultations: ber countries to discuss both technical and Social, Economic and Cultural Dimensions policy issues at the regional level. Information of NWFP. Bangkok, Thailand, 1994. on COFO, and their reports, can be down- Inter-regional Expert Consultation on loaded from: http://www.fao.org/forestry/FO/ NWFP. Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 1995. STATBOD/statb-e.stm.

Regional expert consultations: Asia and Pacific Region. Bangkok, Thailand, The North American Forest Commission 1991. (NAFC) Anglophone African Countries. Arusha, Tanzania, 1993. Established in 1959, the North American Latin America and Caribbean Countries. Forest Commission provides a policy and Santiago, Chile, 1994. technical forum for Canada, Mexico, and the Medicinal Culinary and Aromatic Plants in United States to discuss and address forest the Near East. Cairo, Egypt, 1997, and issues on a North American basis. Drawing on followup meeting in Beirut, Lebanon, regional experiences, it also provides advice to 1999. the FAO’s forestry program. The mandate of NWFP in Boreal and Cold Temperate NAFC, as with other FAO forestry commissions, Forests. Joensuu, Finland, 1998 (in is to advise on the formulation of forest policy collaboration with EFI/ECE and and to review and coordinate its implementa- Ministry of Forestry, Finland). tion at the regional level; to exchange informa- Expert Consultation on NWFP in the Congo tion and, generally through special subsidiary Basin. Cameroon, 1998 (in bodies, advise on suitable practices and action collaboration with CARPE, USDA Forest with regard to technical problems; and to make Service). appropriate recommendations to FAO. In this regard, NAFC supports research and sustain- Reports of these meetings can be viewed at able natural resource management activities the NWFP Web page, under “Publications.” through study groups that explore issues of concern to the three countries. Since together,

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Canada, Mexico, and the United States contain North American Forest Products Study a mix of boreal, temperate, and tropical ecosys- Group (FPSG) tems, the results of NAFC’s work can be ap- plied more broadly to assist other countries The mission of the FPSG is to promote and and regions facing similar conditions. The enhance the efficient and sustainable use of NAFC Web page is: http://www.fao.org/for- forest products within North America by estry/fo/statbod/nafc/nafc-e.stm. bringing together and expanding upon the body of information and scientific and technical Every 2 years, the North American Forest expertise related to North American wood and Commission brings together the Canadian, non-wood products. Mexican, and United States heads of forest service and other senior forest officials from The goals and objectives of the FPSG are to: those countries, FAO, and observers from non- • Facilitate the exchange of existing and governmental organizations to address forestry emerging forest products technology and natural resource matters, to advance within North America scientific knowledge, to promote cooperation, • Identify appropriate expertise in each and to facilitate the exchange of information. country The biennial sessions of NAFC are held in each • Facilitate a network of scientific or country in rotation. At its last meeting (19th technical experts to address issues of session, 16-20 November 1998, in concern to the forest products sector in Villahermosa, Mexico), the state of forestry in North America the region was reviewed through national progress and study group reports. Technical The study group is composed of four task papers were also presented and discussed on a) groups: forest-related traditional knowledge, b) applica- • Wood Products Standards tions of criteria and indicators of sustainable • Fiber Supply forest management at the field level, and c) • Certification forest resource assessment and monitoring. • Non-Wood Forest Products

A feature of NAFC is the Bureau of Alternates More information on FPSG work and reports is (BOA), comprised of senior forest service mem- available at: http://www.fs.fed.us/global/nafc/ bers from Canada, Mexico, and the United welcome.html. States. BOA reports to NAFC and advises on current activities and future direction; it meets The NWFP task group status report (output of on a regular basis to guide and oversee the the 1998 Merida meeting) recommends the work of the seven study groups; evaluate following regarding future work on NWFP, and progress of projects; commission analytical particularly regarding the possibility of holding papers on emerging issues; and identify oppor- a regional expert consultation on NWFP for the tunities to advance cooperative objectives. North American region: (quote) Another key function of BOA is to distribute “Discussions taking place regarding information to its extensive network. holding a non-forest products workshop in Mexico. The suggested dates for this The NAFC has established the following study workshop have now been proposed for groups that carry out cooperative research and September 2000 or 2001 for a management projects: atmospheric change and multinational workshop. Pinchot forests, fire management, forest products Institute provided funds to convene (including NWFPs), insects and disease, policy group after U.S. assessment is neotropical migratory species, silviculture, done. Best timing for workshop for U.S. forest inventory and monitoring, and forest is after credible report on assessment is genetic resources. completed.”

Discussions among staff of BOA and FAO are continuing regarding the possibility of holding the above regional expert consultation for North America. More information on the purpose and proposed content of this meeting can be obtained from the writer. 144 Birch: The Original Tupperware

The bark of the paper birch tree has been used for many generations by inhabitants of the northern forest around the world. Uses include covering for dwellings, canoes, containers for food storage, decorative containers, back packs, and shoes, among other things. Characteristics important in determining the use of bark include the density and size of lenticels (pores for gas exchange), bark thickness, and tendency to separate into annual layers. Betulin, a chemical compound making up 15-20 percent of the bark, gives the bark its white color. Betulin and other compounds in the bark are known to have fungicidal properties and are part of the reason that the bark decays so slowly, remaining long after the wood is gone. Bark kept dry and out of the elements seemingly lasts “forever.”

Bark can be removed from living trees without killing the tree, although the effect of bark removal on tree health is not well-known. Bark will regrow after removal. Care should be taken to remove the bark only in the appropriate season and to remove only the outer bark, leaving the inner bark undamaged.

Removal of bark from living trees drastically changes the appearance of the tree as shown here. Although a new layer of outer bark forms over time, the tree never looks the same as a tree from which bark has not been removed. The best trees from which to collect bark are those that will be cut for other purposes, as in a commercial timber sale. From an aesthetic point-of-view, it is best not to collect bark from trees growing along highways and well-traveled backroads. The tree in this photo has been damaged more than necessary because the vertical cut made to remove the bark damaged the inner bark layer and the outer part of the wood.

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Large basket made from a single sheet of bark. The design on the body of the basket is porcupine quill work. The figure on the basket cover is made by scraping away the dark brown layer that is charac- teristic of winter bark. The body of the basket is from summer bark. Split spruce roots are used to sew the bark together.

Slipper made by weaving strips of birch bark. Birch bark weaving was the traditional method used in Finland and Sweden for making various items from bark.

This container, from , illustrates the intricate designs cut into the bark and then layered on bark of a different color to highlight the design. In this basket, the darker bark is the inner layer of the outer bark. The lighter bark is from the outer layer of the outer bark and is the color normally associ- ated with birch bark.

Small decorative basket illustrating a different basket style and use of other natural materials. The seams between the pieces of bark are reinforced with sweet grass and the design is made with dyed porcupine quills. This basket was made with the white side of the outer bark showing.

146 Idealized drawing of a bud. Buds formed during the summer contain embryonic leaves, flowers, and cells that will form next year’s new growth. Any harvest- ing practice should take care to preserve an ad- equate number of buds so that the plant can recover following harvest.

Cross section of conifer stem. The cambium is the zone of cells that produces all of the wood to the inside and the phloem (sometimes called inner bark) to the outside. The cambium is directly or indirectly involved in producing many important NTFPs. Severe damage to the cambium can cause the tree to lose vigor or even die.

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CONCLUSION

148 The Future of the Non-Timber Forest Product Industry

Luc C. Duchesne1, Iain Davidson-Hunt2, and John C. Zasada3

The boreal and northern forests of North To our knowledge, this was the first widely America cover a vast area and have low popula- publicized international forum to focus on the tion density with many inhabitants living in development of an NTFP industry in this small communities. The inhabitants of these northern region. Many people from a variety of communities as well as those from urban areas organizations, e.g., universities, federal are dependent on the forest resource for many governments, First Nations organizations, and commodity and non-commodity values. Al- private enterprise helped to plan this though the socio-cultural outlook is changing conference and they each deserve credit for somewhat, past and current development has their efforts. Moreover, this conference was been mainly geared toward the extraction of successful because of the insights, caliber, and wood and fiber products and their manufactur- charisma of the presenters and participants, ing. Indeed, there is a rich history of gathering along with everyone’s willingness to share their many plant materials for food, technological, valuable experience and expertise. Many medicinal, and spiritual values among the First participants made new friendships and found Nations peoples and Europeans that migrated kindred spirits with whom to collaborate and to and settled these lands. But commercial move the NTFP industry forward. development of the non-timber forest products (NTFPs) industry, with a few exceptions (e.g., The Kenora meeting illustrated the growing Christmas trees, blueberries, mushrooms), is interest in the NTFP industry and its potential in its infancy. The purpose of the first interna- for socioeconomic development, biodiversity tional conference on non-timber forest prod- conservation, and the reinforcement of cultural ucts in cold temperate and boreal forests was identities. It also demonstrated the concerns of to bring together people from different walks of many from First Nations and other heritages life and with varying views on NTFPs in this about the fast-paced economic development vast region that spans the entire continent that can occur with little account for traditional from east to west and more than 25 degrees of and personal use of NTFPs. Many entrepre- latitude. neurs, academics, scientists, and policymakers have demonstrated that there is a growing NTFP industry worldwide. Speakers described how the NTFP industry is fueled by large international, national, and regional demands for NTFPs. Although this recognition is critical, 1 Research Scientist, Canadian Forest Service, it is also a cause for concern among those who 1219 Queen Street, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, have a more traditional view of NTFPs. This Canada, P6A 5N7; Phone: 705-949-9461 ext. international forum demonstrated that cultural 2173; e-mail: [email protected]. barriers that prevent the consumption of a 2 Ph.D. Student, Natural Resources Institute, particular NTFP at the local level may not exist University of Manitoba, and a founding member, in other countries. Although there is no doubt The Taiga Institute for Land, Culture and that development at the global scale is critical Economy, Suite A, 150 Main Street South, for the expansion of an economically viable Kenora, Ontario, Canada, P9N 1S9; Phone: 807- industry, concerns for regional and local use 468-9607; e-mail: [email protected]. must be seriously considered. 3 Project Leader and Research Forester, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Although we are satisfied that our conference Central Research Station, 1831 Highway 169 presented the growth potential of the NTFP E., Grand Rapids, Minnesota, 55744, USA; industry at the global level, we are also mindful Phone: 218-326-7109; e-mail: that the sustainability of this new industry, [email protected]. along with biodiversity conservation, depends 149 NTFP Conference Proceedings on various types of research and political One important task to come is the creation of efforts. History is replete with many examples an NTFP culture that will support this industry of plants and animals that are commercially as NTFPs start competing with mainstream extinct because of overharvesting. In practice, consumer products. On the one hand, people the growing success of the NTFP industry may in remote areas must be made aware that there deplete natural stocks and reduce the are international markets for NTFPs that are sustainability of this resource. Therefore, found in their vicinity. For this, we need to promoters of the NTFP industry must recognize diffuse this information in an acceptable that they also carry the responsibility to pre- format to potential entrepreneurs and harvest- serve this natural resource. In this proceed- ers and to present them with data showing the ings, several authors emphasized specific economic feasibility of NTFP harvesting and research needs dealing with domestication, processing. As well, there is a strong need for ecological, and economic research that must be societies at large to develop respect for the addressed. We advocate that such research NTFP culture. In turn, such respect will elicit activities be conducted now in support of the pride in a way of living that is often consistent growing industry. Particularly, we wish to see with ancestral values, especially for Aboriginal research activities conducted at the interna- people, but that has been neglected in favor of tional level. industrial and post-industrial cultural values. Also, NTFP harvesting is often seen as an Certification of NTFP is important and should activity conducted by entire families, and as also be undertaken and recognized at the such, can enhance family values. international level. Certification has three roles. First, it must ensure that the harvesting of Governments need to invest money in NTFP NTFPs is sustainable while biodiversity is research to promote the NTFP industry. To date conserved. NTFP harvesting is largely unregu- there has been little organized NTFP research, lated in temperate and northern ecosystems. presumably because the bulk of the past As such, this situation may lead to difficulties research was conducted to target specific in generating a sustainable harvest of products commercial needs and was supported by that are in high demand or are highly valued private agencies. In addition to the paucity of and may be conducive to losses of biodiversity information about NTFPs, some valuable at regional levels. Second, because many findings are held exclusively by private indus- NTFPs are food products as well as medicines, tries. Governments and their agencies should consumers must be guaranteed that the NTFPs increase the level of funding to provide public they consume are free of or environ- research that is undertaken in cooperation mental contaminants in a way that is similar to with NTFP entrepreneurs and enterprises and the organic certification of agricultural prod- that responds to the research topics they ucts. Certification will also be necessary for identify as priorities. The full-scale develop- domesticated NTFPs that are grown in agricul- ment of a sustainable NTFP industry requires tural settings. Finally, certification must also several steps. The first step is to make entre- address a concern for the socioeconomic status preneurs and governments alike understand of the people who depend on NTFPs for their the potentials of the NTFP industry. The next livelihood or for supplementing their income. stage is to implement pilot studies that will During the conference we were challenged with demonstrate how NTFPs can be harvested and the notion that by promoting the NTFP indus- processed while generating adequate income. try, we may be creating a new class of poorly A third step involves conducting research on paid migrant workers who spend backbreaking the domestication of NTFPs to create a sustain- days harvesting in harsh conditions for the able industry. Representatives of large com- benefit of others. While we recognize that there mercial buyers demonstrated that the supply of is potential for this kind of labor malpractice, an NTFP often cannot meet the international we see an exception in the current NTFP indus- demand for such a product. At times it will be try. In practice, there are several acceptable necessary to domesticate certain species to models for the development of an equitable meet commercial demand. However, local users NTFP industry, including the cooperative of NTFPs often find that they are no longer able approach. to find certain species due to both the pres- sures of commercial harvesting and/or habitat

150 conversion. These situations may not require local NTFP enterprises, and interna- the domestication of a product but may benefit tional buyers is critical to the success of from increasing the abundance of a product a sustainable NTFP industry. Presenters through semi-domestication or new cultural from the United States Forest Service practices (e.g., “seeding a forest” - woods-grown provided examples of research projects ginseng in New Brunswick). Other people may that focus on inventory and monitoring prefer to look at the restoration of habitat or of NTFPs in cooperation with NTFP species so that they can continue their per- enterprises to ensure that harvests are sonal use of an NTFP. sustainable. NTFP certification was also a possibility raised by the Forest Stew- First Nation participants spoke eloquently ardship Council as an area that needs about their long relationship with the many further clarification. inhabitants of the boreal and cold temperate 4. Implement pilot studies that will bring forests. First Nation people reinforced their together public sector researchers, interest in defining an approach to NTFPs NTFP enterprises, and local institutions through specific pilot cases that would not to facilitate the growth of sustainable focus solely on commercialization but could NTFPs. As was made clear in this include a variety of topics of concern to differ- conference, too often NTFP studies are ent First Nations. considerably weakened through a narrow treatment of marketable prod- In summary, we present six recommendations ucts or species biology. The develop- for the development of the NTFP industry in the ment of the NTFP industry draws on boreal and cold temperate forest regions: several fields of expertise, so there is a 1. Increase the knowledge held by local, need to integrate different types of provincial/state, and national gov- information by dealing simultaneously ernments, along with capital providers with both the marketing (demand) and (i.e., private banks, public lenders, the ecology of NTFPs (supply). economical development agencies, etc.), 5. Investigate the domestication, semi- about the potential and structure of the domestication, or restoration of NTFP industry. In particular, stress how NTFPs with significant commercial, this potential can serve the residents of or use value, for those species that forest communities in socioeconomic are under harvest pressure or threat development and as a means to address from habitat conversion. poverty and family issues. 6. Work cooperatively with First Nations 2. Governments and their agencies need to investigate topics such as the use of to support forest communities, local plants in healing practices of First institutions, and entrepreneurs in Nations; tenure; commercialization; the research and development of threat analysis; restoration; domestica- NTFP opportunities. Several NTFP tion; education; natural and cultural entrepreneurs demonstrated that heritage tourism and other issues successful NTFP enterprises, coopera- identified by Aboriginal people and tive or private, could emerge as success- peoples for NTFPs. ful small businesses based in forest communities. 3. Governments should support local resource stewardship to ensure biodiversity conservation in accor- dance with the needs of forest com- munities and national and interna- tional laws. As commercialization of NTFP occurs, it is imperative that NTFP enterprises are able to adequately monitor and assess the impact of harvest levels. This is an area where the cooperation between state agencies,

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The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program information (braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD).

To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call (202) 720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.

Mention of trade names does not constitute endorsement by the USDA Forest Service.

Printed on recyclable paper. Davidson-Hunt, Iain; Duchesne, Luc C.; Zasada, John C., eds. 2001. Forest communities in the third millennium: linking research, business, and policy toward a sustainable non- timber forest product sector; Proceedings of the meeting; 1999 October 1-4; Kenora, Ontario, Canada. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-217. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Research Station. 151 p. Contains a wide variety of papers given at the first interna- tional conference on non-timber forest products (NTFP) in cold temperate and boreal forests. Focuses on many facets of NTFPs: economics, society, biology, resource management, business development, and others.

KEY WORDS: Non-timber forest products, NTFP, traditional ecological knowledge, Aboriginal culture, forestry harvesting, use of northern forests. NTFP Conference Proceedings

Our job at the North Central Research Station is discovering and creating new knowledge and technology in the field of natural resources and conveying this information to the people who can use it. As a new generation of forests emerges in our region, managers are confronted with two unique challenges: (1) Dealing with the great diversity in composition, quality, and ownership of the forests, and (2) Reconciling the conflicting demands of the people who use them. Helping the forest manager meet these challenges while protecting the environment is what research at North Central is all about.