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SymbolicThemes in the European Cycle

FronciscoVaz da Silaa

Instead of setting out, in orthodox fashion, to archive the endless varia- tions characteristic of fairv tales into fixed types-rendering fragrnented, thus meaningless materials-the following analysis u'ill try to bring forth from the given flux its underlying symbolic themes. This approach will be presentedas applied to Iberian rnaterialsof the "Cinderella" cycle, consid- ered in a conparative perspective; then some thoughts rvill be proposed on the nature of fairv tales' symbolism. It has long been recognizedthat the "Cinderella" theme is rnore com- plex than meetsthe eye.In 1893,Marian Cox integrated in the "Cinderella t1pe" rnany tales in which the heroine is expelled fron, instead of being forced to remain at, home. This author defined three basic headings r,vithin the Cinderella type: "Cinderella proper" as the heroine ill-treated by a at home, later to be recognizedtry means of a shoe;"," defined as one'r,r'hoflees horne disguised in sorne skin to avoid marrving her "unnatural father"; and "Cap o' Rushes," expelled by her father and later disguised under sone rough cover for answerins in an apparently unsatisfactory way-usuall,v involving a comparison to salt-the qucstion: "how rnuch do you love rne?" Furthermore, Cox construed a fourth heacl- ing to accommoclate a large nurnber of "indeterminate tales" not fitting anv of the preceding classes,and yet a fifth relating to a male Cinderella (1893:lrxv).In 1951,this whole field-the indetcrminacy of r,vhoseborders was candidly admitted by Cox (nxiv)-has been termed by Anna Rooth the "Cinderella Cycle" (1951). Within this field, Christine Goldberg re- cently noted, "however the tales are defined, there will inevitablv be some variants that have characteristics of tr,voor rnore types" (1997.28). As far as Iberian tradition is concerned, Aur6lio Espinosa strove to detlne each of Cox's three nain groups in the following way: Cinderella proper is ill-treated at home, but is helped out by her dead mother, a fairy

SournenNForrrone 57:2 (2000), pp. | 59-I 80 t60 SouruEHNForxronn 57:2

the \trgin Mâry or yet bv an animal.She receir.es nasical dresses,meets the princeat the churchor in a ball,and drops a shoeas she escapes thence. After beingrecognized through the iostshoe, marriage is celebrated(1947 : +15 -16, 42.1).Catskin, for her partl fleesher incestuousfather. The cleadmother, a fairv or the \trgin helpsher. At the ballsshe neets the prince,r'vho lends her three gifts.These sheafterw'ards introduces into food sheprepares for the lovesickprince, u'ho healsinstantlv as he recogprizesher; rnarriageis cel- ebratecl(.i12). Last, her fathersentences Cap o' Rushesto death.She is how- everspared by the executioners,and then findsu'ork asa fov'l keeperat the royal palace.The prince fallsin love u,'ithher. At the marriagecelebration, all f'oodserved to the bride'sfather is salt-free.fu he finalh,'understandsthe valueof salt,the fathermakes peace li'ith his daughter(409). Nthough Espinosapresumes to presentthus the "Flispanictv'pe" of Cap o' Rushes,the "perfect version" of Catskin, and the "fundamental form" of Cinderella(1947 :109, +12, +15), he isv'ell awareof the prevailing mixture of themesin this group of tales,and hence of the idealcharacter of the aboveclassification. Indeed, this author noticesthat the rnain differ- encesare to be found in the initial sequences,the rest of the talesbeing basicallyidentical. Since classifications are built upon preciselythose ini- tial variations,which he moreover takesas secondaryhe cannot but ac- knowledgethe unsatisfactoryresults of tlpological endeavors,which he neverthelesspursues (+07, +16). Espinosafinds himself entangledin the hopelesstask of atternptingto distinguishinseparable tales because he fails to ask:how are they simulta- neouslyalike and different?In other words: what is the underlving foun- clationof observeddifferences? For, indeed,it is onlv on semanticgrounds- by askingwhat is the basisfor the equivalenceof differentmotifs-that the paralyzing.oppositron between unfathomable unity anclsuperficial differ- encescan Deovercome. In what follows, while I will first turn my attention to preciselysuch differencesas have served to split a comlnon field into meaninglessshreds, I will attempt using them to reconstitutethe underlying picture of which they are variant expressions.For a start, I will then ask:what is there in comlnon betweenfleeing a pressingfather and being expelledby an angry father?And betweenbeing forced to leavehome by a loving father and being kept home by a hateful stepmother?The very neatnessof thesein- versionsbetravs a seriesof variationson a single theme. But u'hat is this therne?This I will try to ascertainin the following section,entitled Rejrrce- notion.Then, in sectionsnamed Skins,Flowers, Sah, and Riddle,I will at- VAZ DA SILVA:Eunopr:,lx CrNor,Rr.Lr-.,\Cycr.r t6t

tempt to sheclsome light on the main symbolicclusters involved. Finally, someconcluding remarks will be offered. While all resultswill be inferred from analysisof Europeanmaterials in and by themselves,I shali occasionallvcall attention to the fact that many symbolictraits laid forth are not exclusivelyEuropean. Indeed it is usefulto keepin mind that different systemsof representations,operating in r.r'idelydifferent cultures, often displayequivalent s1'mbolic fbundations. Analysisconducted within one single context gains depth; comparative awarenessgrants perspective.Ultimately, I think, depth and perspective shouldstrengthen one another.

Rejuvenation According to a Pornrgueseversion of Catskin (entitlecl"The Wooden Doll"), a king and a queenhave a very ugly daughter.She is so ugly,in fact, that when they attend to the birthday party of a neighboring prince she dancesonly with her father.Then the queendies after extorting from the king the promise to remarry only a bride who is renderedbeautiful by a head-kerchiefshe leaves behind. Only the daughterfits this condition;hence the king decidesto marry her. The daughterflees home within a wooden doll, works as a fowl keeper at the palaceof the neighboring king, ancl theremarries the prince(Oliveira, 1:56-59). Note that the king'sclecision to rrrarryhis daughterstems from a promisernade to his dying wife, and the girl becomesbeautiful as she tries on her mother'skerchief'. In fact,this is one of manvways of sayingthat the daughteris, or becomes,just like her mother.Thus, in other Europeanversions the rnother'snecklace (Oliveira, 2:226-28),ring (Pedroso1984:no. 16) or shoes(Dozon 1881:no.6) u'ill fit only her daughter,who has golden teeth (Canziani1928:216-38; Cox 1893:no.t47) or hair just like her mother,of whom-in short-she is the live sernblance( no. 65). The so-called"unnatural f'ather" woos then in his daughtera new versionof his wife, ashe follows the promise- extolledby the deceased-of marrying no other woman. Now, whateverelse lies behind the answerthat Cap o' Rushespro- videsto her father'squestion of "how much do you love me," it seernsclear that the father expelsher on accountof not loving hirn enough.\\(lliam Shakespeareexpresses this very clearly as he has Cordelia-his own ver- sion of the f-airytale heroine-say, after her sisters'hyperbolic expressions of feignedlove, "I love your majestyaccording to my bond, no Inore nor less" (19f14:24).The father'swrath at this measuredansrveq seen in the light of his joy at the equivalentanswer by' the eldestdaughter in a Porru- t62 Sou'r'nrnxForxronn 57:2

plrese oral version (Barbosa l9l5:21'l), betrays a definite infaruation for the younger daughter. Indeed, Nan Dundes perceptively renarked, "the 'love like salt' plot appears to be a u'eakened form of the folktale plot in which a'mad'father tries to marry his ou'n daughter" (1980:215).One should not lose sight of the fact, hou'ever, that the "mad" father is really the deceasedrnother's puppet. More preciselv, then, the "love like salt" motif is a variation on the wooing, bv a father, of the live irnage of his deceasedwife. Consequendv it is still the dead mother, reproduced in the daughter for whom the king cannot contain his longing, rvho hovers be- hind the scenes. Furthermore, the stepmother fizure in fairv tales is essentialh'a nega- tive replacement for the mother. More exacth,',the "dark" stepmother re- placing the "golclen" mother is, quite literally, the dead u.onan's "dark shaclow" on earth. As Charles Ploix understood, the plight of the heroine under her stepmother's tyrannv is a form of enchantment ( I 89 1: 103 -'1); it is, in other words, a sy'rnbolicdeath. One might thus say that the heroine relegated to temporary death by the stepmother taps then the life-giving aspect of her departed rnother, and thus emerges beautiful-as a rejur-e- nated mother-from the death-connoting cinders. In other u'ords the step- mother leadsthe heroine into death, resurrection and marriage as a living image of the mother, just as, in "The Wooden Doll," the dving mother's injunction actually leads to the marriage of the daughter who perpetuates her. Both the excessively ioving father and the relentlessly hating step- mother represent then the dead rnother in apparently rnonstrous ways, as they operate the deceasedwoman's rejuvenation through the daughter ied into marriage to become a mother. The fundarnental theme reflected in various guises in the Cinderella cycle is then that of the rejuvenation of a supernatural woman through her daughter, bv means of a process of death and resurrection. This simple pattern is sotnetitnes complicated by the fact that in the Iberian tradition the mother's death is often replicated in an animal shape. Thus the heroine is sent out to tend a cow variously associatedwith the deceasedmother, who assistsher. The stepmother decides to have the cow killed; the aninal instructs the girl to rvash its entrails in a brook, and then follow whatever colnes out of them. The girl is lecl into the aquatic dwell- ing of three fairies,or elseneets the celestialMother. Then she receivesa series of three gifts such as marvelous beauty, golden hair or a shining golden rnoon or star on her forehead, and the abiliq, to produce flowers or gems whenever she speaks.Note hos'the motherly cow' put to death bv the stepmother, leads the girl to fairies rv'hoelaborate on the gift of beauty VAZ DA SIL\ -\: Et nopr-s CixorRrr-lr Cr-c.r-t t53

as seenin "The \Vooden Doll." The essentialidentity betweenthe cow and the rnother is explicitly statedin EasternEuropean versions, and fur- thermore the equationbetween the mother and the fairiesis madeclear by Iberian texts in which the dying mother bestowson her daughterone or more of the same"three graces" (Espinosa no. 111-13;Pedroso no. 23).

Skins Indeed,the usualdepiction of the heroine and her mother asmarvelously beautiful,with goldenhair, is certainlycomparable to that of fairies(P6cs 1989, 14- 1 5), while the stepmotheris often similar to that of a witch. Now, fairiesappear both unclerbenign and malevolent("witchy") aspects.Such ambivalenceis clearestin taleswhenever fairies put contrastedspells upon one single girl thus made to alternatebetween two states(see Cardigos 1996 128).For instance,in Italian talesthree out of four fairiesmay grant the heroine her usual three graces,while the fourth fhirv spellsher into becominga serpent(Calvino 1982:no. 150). Or else,four out of five frogs late her to "shine like the sun, evenwhen it is cloudy," but the fifth (to whom sheinadvertently broke a leg) spellsher to changeinto a snake"the minute shesees a rav of sun" (no. 64).The heroineis thus turned into both the ray of sun and the serpent,by fairiesas frogs-that is, in a zoomorphic shaperelated to the underworld(Calvino'227; cf. P6cs1 1989:13). C)ftenthe girl'.sduality is projectedonto contrastedpersonr. In Ibe- rian versionsof Cinderellaan envioushalf-sister frequently impersonates the grirn dimensionas she attemptsto replicatethe heroinelsadventure, only to becomeblack asnight, receivea donkey'stail or goat horn on her forehead,and be cursedto produceexcrement, toads or serpentswhenever shespeaks. After this happens,the stepmotherdoes her bestto tarnishthe stepdaughter'sshine by placingher under cindersor in a dark place,and attenpts to marry off her own daughterto the prince while disguisingher ugliness.'fhereis then a cyclical,inverted correlation betr.r'een the girl who becolnesluminous, is thereforeplunged into darknessand emergestherein in full radiance,and the one'il.hobecomes black, is neverthelesselevated to the lirnelight,but endsher davsassociated to excrementand serpents. More preciselvthe two stepsistersare as two aspectsof onesingle entiw, the "black" dimensionof which ernergeson stages'henever the bright one is put into clarkness.This of coursereplicates the relationshipbetween mother and step- mother asseen above, since-as CharlesPerrault v'as keen enough to point out-the contrastedhalf-sisters take after their own nothers. Now, the observedmodes of cyclicaldualitv stronglv suggestthat to be enchantedamounts to revertto an onhidiancondition. In order to brieflv 164 Soultrnx Folxroxr 57:2

confirm this, I will resort to widely known materials.The aquaticsetring of fairiesin the Iberian tradition corresoondsto Mother Hollet underw.a- ter realmin Grimm no. 24, and moreor-erthe fact that Iberian fairiesoften appearto the girlsin the guiseof birds(Pedroso 1984:no.1B, 37) is akinto the appearanceof Aschenputtel'sdead mother in the sameguise (Grimm no.21). This is significant,since the Grimms describethe girl who first visitsN{other Holle asthe "Cinderella of the house,"and indeedthis girl gets her golden hue from Mother Holle after spendinga snowv rvinrer underground,just asAschenputtel proper receivesher clothesfrom a tree sheplanted on her mother'stornb after thaur In both instances,the means for the heroine'.smarriage then comein Springtimefrom an underground/ underwaterreahn, the nafure of ll'hich is made clear bv the fact that the skin covering the fleeing heroine at the samepoint is often that of a re- centlydead woman (see Cox 1893 :nos. l1l, 117,1 5 5, 2 I 5, 2B I ; cf.Cosquin 1922:5-6; Goldberg1997 :33 -38; Hartland 1886:3 1 7). In view of this, it is v'orrh noting that Mother Holle is said to have suchlarge teeth that the "good" girl getsfrightened upon first seeingher. In a British version,the samecharacter is describedas a greenlady whom both girls (peepingthrough a kevhole)see dancing with a bogev,and the food offered in this housetakes those who would ear it to the graveyard (Briggs 199l:286-89).Furthern'rore, the joint considerarionof the British greenlady and of the big-tootheclGerman fair1,.living in an underground, aquaticrealm suggestsan ophidian entity,which indeedsrands clearly re- vealedin the caseof Arie, a Frenchcognate of Holle (Gennepl9B7:3019-23; Grimm 1882:412).From the perspectiveof the conrinuirybetween the deadrnother andher daughter,the deadmother's image reappearing at her prime through her daughtert shed of a skin therefore sug€iesrsrhe self-rejuvenationof an ophidianenriry. Reconsider, in this perspecrive,the (lrimms' version of "Cinderella." Here the dying mother tells her child that shewill watch her from up above,dren is buried down below.A tree growing on the grave,fiom rv'hichboughs a bird helpsout tlle heroine,slnthe- sizesthis apparentpolarity. As Marija Gimbutasremarked, a rreeand a ver- tically spiralledserpent are interchangeablesrmrbols connoting "a column of life rising from cavesand tombs," since"the life force of the snakeis linked to that of the dead.. . . Thus the snakesl.mbolizes the continuity of life betweenthe generations"(1989:121, 136-37).In the Grimrns'version the tree symbolizes,I suggest,such ophidian-like continuiry by linking the nother and the daughteras avian entiries-the first appearingin the guise of pigeons;the latter asa "goose,"commanding "all the birds beneaththe sky" and betrayingher identity by hiding in the dove-cote. VAZ DA SILVA: EuBctt't,:.rNCtNnERTI-t--q, Cr-cr.r' t55

This brings us back to the Iberian fairiesappearing as birds, and sug- gestsan overallpal(ern of the serpenr,/birdidentin. There is nothingre- ally new about this. Carl Ker6nyi, for one, noted that in ancient (]reece the daughtersof the serpent-tailed"Old One of the Sea"were "maidens resemblingswans" (1998:42-46, 5 l, 99).Likewise,William Ralstonpointed ogt that in Russiantradition "beauteousmaidens who usuallylive beneath the wave,but who can transform thernselvesinto birds and fly wherever thevplease," are mostly the daughtersof the "Water Kitg" (1873:119-20)' Not surprisingly,Claude Gaignebet-who acknowledgesthat the "woman-bird was one of the shapesof the supernaturalbride of whom M6lusine is the typical example"-is then well awareof Cinderella''s "otherworldly"origin (Gaignebetand Florentin 1974:95,103). From an- other point of view, Girnbutasbrought to notice a very old symbolismof life renewalclustering around a self-regeneratingentity that sheascribed to the "mlthic vi'aterysphere" (1989:2 5) and described"as separate figures and as a single divinity. . . . She is one and she is two, sometimessnake, solnetimesbird" (1982,11 2). The sarnenotion unclerscores,I suggest, the homology asfound in the Grimms' collectionbetween Cinderella'.s buried nother appearingin the guiseof a bird, and Holle connoting a serpent linked to the watery reahn. Note that Percht:r-a Gemranicvariant of Holle-would supposedlv blind anyonewho would peepat her on her annualvisits to houses(Frazer 1983,3:565-67).Inthe British tale referred to aborre,the GreenLady also blinds both girls asthey peepat her (but the water in her well restoresthe "good" girl'sevesight). In Grirnms"'Aschenputtel,"birds from the mother's grave'stree provide the heroine with shining garments'but pluck out the half-sisters'eyes. Mother Holle insteadre\\.'ards one girl by granting her a goldenhue, and punishesthe other by turning her black.The equivalence t"t*"gtr turning blind and pitch-dark (aswell asbetween shining out and regaining eyesight)is clear from Iberian texts in whicl-rthe heroine en- dowedwith "three graces"undergoes her period of darkness-from which sheemerges to light-not under ground,cinders, hides etc., but rather asa tirne of blindness.Isabel Cardigosnotes that' as "the heroine'seyes are gougedout . . . shelives in blackness,the essenceof her darkercompanion -trlte ttt. latterperfbrms the role of the king'sbride" (199(t,129).Further- more, this author remarksthat the deathof the "black" girl in "The \\4rite Bride and the Black Bride" theme correspondsto the end of a single heroine'senchantment as a snake(128, 1+1). Comnare also.the Grimms' version in which Cinderella'ssisters be- cone lame just beforeturning blind (Grimm no. 21), to the above-quoted 166 SoL;TrrERr.- For-xronE 57 :2

Italian versionin which a lame frog fatesthe girl to be a serpent(Calvino no. 64).Reciprocally, the irnageof the Grimms'halfuncovered Cinderella being recognizedby the prince as she standson a hear'1'clog and on a golden slipper (Grimm no. 21)-also presentin Iberian oral tradition (Oliveira,1:409- 1 1)-suggests (between darkness and light) anuneven gait. The implication is clear:a bride emergingfrom a snake-likecondition in the netherworld cannot immediatelywalk steadily.This callsattention to the recurringidentification of brideswith serpents.For example,"in Scot- land a serpentwas supposed to emergefrom the hills on Imbolc, the Day of Bride (Brigit) ('Todavis the day of Bride; the serpentshall come from the hole')" (Girnbutas1989: 1 3 5). Nso, in Greecethe word "nymph" means "bride," up to modern timesthe marriageof men with Nereidswas re- garded "a credible occurrence,"and indeed brides were customarilyas- sirnilatedto such descendantsof the serpent-like"Old One of the Sea" (Lawson1964:13 1, 133 -34; cf. Ker6nyi 1998:42-15 ,99).In the satnevein, the widespreadFrench custornof abductinga bride'sshoe -occasionally replacing it by a clog-erplicitly involvesthe idea of presentinga lame bride for marriage(Gennep 1980:2:'11 1-12). It wr-ruldthus seemas if ser- pentswere at the origin of brides;an unevengait in preparationfor mar- riagebetraying an ophidianorigin, just asbecoming lame upon renounc- ing marriagerneans a return to basics. In the light of the idea that the mother/daughteraxis of continuity entailsa rejuvenationin the bird/serpentshape characteristic ofenchanted, deathphases, it becornessignificant that the Catskin/Capo' Rusheshero- ine should often watch fbwl as she goesunder hide. C)neconclusion- empiricallyborne out by Spanishvariants in which the fowl keeperdresses in a pelican suit (Thggart 1990:94-99,106-9)-is that the bird-keeping heroineis herselflike a bird. Indeed,Germaine Maillet points out the equivalencebetween enduring one'sfate as a gooseherdand having the goose-shapedor othenvisedeformed foot characteristicof Berthe/Perchta/ Holle (Maillet 1980:lB5-89;cf.Grimm lBB2:129-33).The Grimmsthem- selveswere well-aware of the closeconnection between Berthe and a goose girl (Bunt l968:2:383;cf. Goldberg 1996).Moreover Propp noticedthe equivalencebetween furry and feathercoverings in tales(1983, 173-74), with the irnplicationthat the heroine'sfurrv skin is alsolike a bird'splum- age.Likewise the bear/wild rnan figure, in which Propp rightfully recog- nizedthe maleequivalent of Grirnm'sNlerleirauh (1983:173),appears in French Carnival custolnsin either fur or feathers(Gennep 1979922-21). The furrvheroine'sclose association v'ith geeseor otherfowl, corresponding to her identificationwith birds in "Cinderella" versions,is then to be un- VAZDA SIL\A: Europr,r,rCrxonRrr.r.c Cr-c;r-E t67

derstoodas one more instanceof the examinedbird/snake equivalence, to which firrry animalsrnay now be addedunder the common denorninator of an engulfingsecond skin. Frorn this point of view it is understandablethat oneItalian teller should describethe heroine'shide as both a wolf's fur and an old \\'omanlsskin (Cox 1893,no. 147),as indeed this equivalenceand the geriatricconnota- tion of the serpent'sslough (Frazer 1984:78-79 n. 8; Girnbutas1989:13-5) areone and the samethin€f. It alsomakes sense that, u'herethe snakesvrn- bolismis not apparent,the deadrnother should be presentedas a horned animal;horns aptly representingthe notion of a swingbetween periods of time, henceof becoming(Chassany lc)89 194-96;Gaignebet and Florentin 1971:54-55,78-79,l12,131, 135-36,158-61; Gaignebet and Lajoux 1985:I00;Gimbutas l9B2:91-95 Gimbutas l9B9:75-79,265-75). Nl in all, tl'ren,to live undera "black"woman's tyranny in cinders(oftentimes rep- resentedas a "cindersskin"), to go under a hide,to follorvthrough waterthe entrailsof a horned animal,to becomea bird and to join a serpentunder- ground are so manv imagesof rr s}'rnbolicdeath represented in terms of a shape-shiftingsecond skin, the sheddingof which figuresrebirth. This is seeminglya fundamentalimage in syrnbolicthought. Ananda Coomaraswamynoted that "in the traditional doctrine about transforma- tion or shape-shiftingall changesofappearance are thought ofin tennsof the putting on or taking offof a skin or cloak," of v'hich he speaksin the contextof a discussionon regeneration(1945, 398). More specifically,James George Frazer'sperception of the unity of old Nlediterraneanarea beliefs in birds' and serpents're.iuvenation through the molting of feathersand the castingof skins(198478-79) corresponds to Gimbutas'ssuglgestion that pre-historicalfigurines of "a combined snakeand water bird u'ith a long phallic neck" conveyan androplynoustheme linked to deathand re- generation,traceable to Upper Paleolithictimes in Old Europe(1982:144-45, 152-53).But let me go backto the tales.

Flowers One major inferenceto draw out of the equivalencebetween a maiden's enchantmentas envelopedrvithin a skin or cinders,and as joining a ser- pent undergroundis that sucha theme amountsto that of a maidenswal- lowed, or kept underground,by a dragon.Thke fbr examplethis Spanish tale in which a hero disenchantsa princessfrom a palaceof no return- referredto asan "enchantment"-by killing there a seven-headeclserpent (Espinosa1946, no. 139).In a variantthe "enchantment"is actuallythe enchantedmaiden, imprisoned bv a giant whose life lies within an egg t68 Sourr tt..Rr..-Forxronr'. 57 : 2

within a serpent(Espinosa 1987:no. 66). According to a third versionthe naiden definesher own enchantmentas the f'actthat her u'ardenv-ill not die unlessa hedgehog-appearing as the giant'salter ego as u'eil as the serpent'sallornotif-is defeated(Espinosa 1916, no. 141).Furthermore, a Portugueseversion clearly states that the maiden'senchantment is "a ser- pent" (Coelho,no. 22). So,the "enchantment"is both the princessand her rvarden. -Nfore pre- cisely,"enchantment" denotesa situation in r.vhichthe princessis cou- nectedto a snakethat is male and yet representshe. cotidition, u,hich is drereforeboth internal to her and externalized.Thus Cardigosremarks "the link betweentl're dragon and the rnaiden"as she, too "losesher tongue" (in the sensethat she becomesnute) u'hen the dragon is killecl and his tonppescut out (1996:64).But then, to liberate a princessby slaying a dragonshould be tantamountto slavingthe dragonin her (Coornaras\r'arlv 1915:393, 399 -lM ; Holbek 1987:42 5 -2 6). l{oreover,such equivalence is another wav of saving that a rnaiden is disenchantedfrom an ophidian condition into marriage. Indeed,marriage drives the serpentau'av (see Cardigos 1996:141). For example,according to a Spanishversion of the "Blind Girl" therne,a gdrl wasborn alongwith a serpent.The snakelives under an orangetree, washes and cornbsher "sister" everyda1'. As the girl rnarries,the serpentretreats into the deepsea. After marrying and givine birth the heroine is blinded and dispossessedofher husband;then the serpentreappears, disenchants her sisterby replacingher eyesin their sockets,and again goesawav (funpudia1925:no. 9). Or takethis Germanversion of Cinderella/Catskin in which the jealousstepmother u'ishes to get rid of the heroineby getting her married. She therefore causesher stepdaughterto swallow a voung serpent.As the heroine'sbelly grows she is calumniatedand expelledin tw.elvehandsorne dresses covered by a wood mantle. She works as a goosehercl,the princebeholds her dressesas she strips to follou'the geese into the water,then- afterthe maidenfalls asleep in the shade-he u'atches a huge serpentcome out of her lips. This snakehe drives au'aywith the very goldenring he u'ill useas a marriagetoken (Cox:no. 298). Furthermore, betweenthe maiden and her serpentthere is a blood connection.In a Portug;uesedragon-slayer tale, a drop of the serpent'sblood falling on the princess'shandkerchief foreshadows happiness in rnarriage (Oliveiran.d., 1:148-50).According to anotherPortu€pese tale the deliv- ered maiden is only really free for married life after the death of a seven-headedserpent, one drop ofu.hoseblood spillsonto the bride asshe lies in the bridal bed (Oliveiran.d., 1:106-08).Note alsothat it is after \:AZ DA SILVA:EtrnopE.tx CxlrRp,lr-,r Clc;l-t, r59

spilling sorneown blood from a finger that the persecutedrnaiden de- scendsinto Frau l{olle's r.r'ell.In such r,vellanother German verslon Ie- portsa water-nixie(Hunt 196i3,1:3 71). According to a Spanishversion the heroineherself is turnedinto a kind of water-nixie-insteadof beingblinded asabove-as shesuffers attack after giving birth to a child (Curiel Nlerchfn lg44:257-61).In yet anotherrexr reportedby the Grirnns, suchattack consistsin beingthrown into a well of blood (Hunt 1968,l:364).In short' then, to shedblood asa naiden brings t-rneclose to a serpentwithin a well (cf. verdier 1979:242-13);to marry is tantamountto bleedingthe serpent and driving it backinto the deepwaters; but to givebirth amountsto tem- porarily return into a serpent-likecondition akin to being plunged into a well of blood.Nl in all, the serpentappears, then, asthe shedblood of femalephysiology. In this sense,note that the blood of pubertvis frequentlynamed "flow- g15"-gtrugthe expressions"fleurs rouges,""Rosencrantz" for menses(See Grahn 1993:231-33)-and that a Corsicanmaiden has just srnelleda flower when sheis kidnappedby a dragon into a well (Massignon:no. 7). C)ther times a maiden is taken into the rnonster'sundergrouncl lair after her fa- ther cutsa rosethat bleeds(Belmont 1996:6(t).Ina sensethe rosieris the serDentlthus the snakelives under the rosebash (loc. cit.), the plant itself immobilizesthe girl'sfather in snake-liketangles (Cox:no. 297),the dragon's bloodis to be seenby the rosebush (Oliveira n.d., l:72-71),a1d the roses' scentturlts men into stone(cf. Oliveira, l:59-62,78-82).IJou'ever, it is alsotrue that the maiden asksher fhther fbr a rose as beautiful as herself Nasconcelos:no.1 11) or is otherwiseidentified to whateverflower sheasks fbr (cosquin 1978,2:21B), is fatedto produceroses as she speaks or \\'ashes (Espinosa:no.l1 1), asksfor a dress"'w'ith all sortsof rosesin the rvorld" (funpuclia,no. 32; cf.Thggart 1990:1 13), and is indeedin one casenamed "Flolr,.erof the Rose;"her mother being the roseplant and shethe bloom (Barbosa1917:107-08). The girl unclerthe dragon'sspell therefore bleecls while beingin bloom;indeed, she is a maiden"in flowers"in the senseof the Frenchexpression,,jeune fille en fleurs" (see!'erdier 1979:67,70-71.,193). it is therefrrreunderstandable that the serpent'spou''er ceases' and that ,,serpent's,'blood shouldappear, as the naiden is deflowered(cf. cardigos 1996:61).Evenafter marriage, howeveq the serpent'sspell returns cyclicall,v, everymonth and at every birth (cf. Coomaraswamv1915:397 -99) The serpent'.sspell now appearsas the very essenceof the fnother/ daughter'scontinuity. This we haveseen so far asboth skin sheddingand cvcic blood. The rwo irnagesare closelyrelated since the notiorl of such biood as"flowers" supposes,both logicallyancl in actualcross-culfural con- t70 Sou'lul.rN Folru.onr.57:2

ceptions,a processof bloomingand going into fruit (CalameGriaule 1987, 28; Delaney,Lupton, andToth 198ti:168;Gottlieb 19BB:58,74) whereby threeg;enerations-in our talesthe rosier,its bloom,and the fr-uitto are implied. Furthermore, to shedblood and to casta skin are generallv equivalentmodes of going about such renovation.As Gaignebetpersua- sivelycalls attention to the equivalencebetween the bird/defbrmedfoot, a shagpX,skin andmenstruation as related to Europeanf'emale figures named afterroses or the neu'moon,the implicationis indeedthat nenstruadon is likea regeneratingchange ofskin (1985:106-10). From a comparativeanalysis of Vedic and Celtic textsunder a differ- ent perspective,Coomaraswalnv likev'ise shows that the lunar periodiciff of women reflectsthe transformationof a Serpentinto the PerfectBride as effectedby femalesbearing floral names,and he speakstherefbre of "re- generation,thought of asthe castingof the slough"(19'15:397-99). From yet a different point of view, Chris Knight, working on Australian data, positsthe equivalenceof rycling and snakewomen (1991:'l5B).Quite in- dependentlvSteven l{ugh-Jones, working on an AmazonianIndian com- munity, statesthat "fbr the Barasana,to changeskins is a wav to rejuvena- tion and henceto immortality. . . . Menstruation, they say,is an internal changingof skin. . . . Immortality and periodicity arelinked. . . . Creatures thatshed their skins, a signof periodicity,are also immortal" (1979:182-83). That this renderingof remotebeliefs so aptly sums up the foregoinganalysis goesto suggest,I think, that a fundamentallayer of s1'rnbolisrnhas been attained.

Salt Since the expelledheroine's permanence under a skin is often explicitly associatedto salt,a convincinganalysis cannot proceed without taking this into account.It must noq'be askeclwhy is it that the heroineis condemned to death as soon as she expresses"love like salt" to her father?Why is it that during her exileshe is actuallydepicted as covered with salt?And how do theseproblems relate to the foregoinganalysis? In Iberianvariants the heroineusually answers her father'squestion by tellinghim that sheloves hirn "asthe tasteof salt"(Barbosa no. 15)"as salt in food" (Miii y Fontanals,no. 5), "as the flavor of flavors" (Soromenho and Soromenho,no.733); or "as food [or meatl wants salt" (Braga 1987:17 5 -7 6; Espinosa1946, no. 107; Oliveiran.d., | :372 74; Soromenho and Soromenhono. 731); or yet "as salt wants water" (Curiel MerchSn 1944:346.18;Espinosa, no.122); "as salt in water"(Espinosa, no. 120,121, 123, 124).Occasionally', she bluntly declaresto love him "like a good shit" VAZ DA SILVA: Errnopr.q.r CrNornBr-r-eCvcr.l: t7l

(Espinosa,no. 108; SanchezPerez, no. 87). The obvious messageis that the heroine expressesher love in a ciphered way (scatological references helping to the effect) so that the father misses her point. Beyond this su- perficial level of misunderstood true love for the "flavor of flavors," one must however account as much for the fact that both the heroine and her father are actually assimilated to salt, as for the ineluctable necessity of the father/daughter separation as soon as this comrnon value is mentioned. So, what exactly is the "value of salt" in the cultural context of these tales? Yvonne Verdier, basedon fieldwork conducted in a French village, notes that salt is syrnbolically akin to saucesas both enhance the flavor of food. Furthennore, she adduces evidence for a relationship "barely metaphori- cal, almost concrete" between saucesand menstruation, which of course supposesthe equivalence of menstruation and salt. Indeed, "avoir le cul en meurette" (literally, having the assas in a special sort of wine sauce)means menstruation, otherwise also called la salaison des femmes, "the salt of women." Flowever, salt is also conceived as a rnale, fertilizing principle; thus (male) trousers are called saloir ("salting trough") even though one name for this brine container is "rnother"l which points back to the "salt of women" fl/erdier 1979 32,40; cf. Testart 1991:43).Therefore we are faced with an equivalence between semen and menstruation under the common value of salt. Indeed, Alain Testart pointedly stressesthe cross-cultural equivalence of salt to both blood and semen, and he deduces from it a general underlying identiqr of these substances.Consequently, he inter- prets a widespread salt taboo enforced on nenstruating and pregnant women as a precaution against cumulating two instancesof one single value (1991 13-44, 47). Indeed this goes to explain both the recurrent ban on sexual relations during menses and the fact, reported from both and Portugal, that feminine blood threatens meat preserved by salt (Lawrcnce 1988:124; Verdier 1979:36-37, 40). Incidentally, the fact that feces appear as an allomotif of salt may be tentatively accounted for on the same grounds. \\4rereas semen and men- strual blood are bodily emissions peculiar to each sex, feces are sex-ually unnarked and, therefore, equivalent to salt as a synthetic value shared by both father and daughter. One interesting Spanish variant, discussed by JarnesTaggart (1990:106-11),associates putting on the pelican suit, the releaseof excrement and an implicit menstrual connotation, then links the final shedding of the skin to the notion of defecation prevented by means of a purple thread. Compare this to another text in w-hich the filthy def- ecating father is ordered to wash up so as to concede his daughter's hand in marriaqe (S'inchez Perez 1942:313). In other words both defecation and a 172 Sou'ruEnxFor-rronE 57:2

connection to salt, virrually uniting the father and his daughter, must stop before her marriage takes place. Now, the equivalence betv'een menstruation and the "flavor of fla- vors" is not a trivial one. Consider Nma Gottlieb's assertion that the haute cuisine of the Beng of Ivory Coast is a cuisine of menstruation, since women are supposed to cook better u.hen therr are menstruating; this being espe- cially true of a much relished dish that, after cooking for many hours, "de- velops intt-r a rich, deep red, not unlike the color of menstrual blood" (1988:7l-72). Note that in our talesthe heroine cooks both for her future husband and for her father. Cooking for tire prince generallv leads to the shedding of her skin. While some variants present the princess in her radi- ant dressesas she cooks (Ctrnziani 1928:238),according to others she still drops salt fiorn her chest rvhile cloing so (Thggart 1990:96, cf. 102; Curiel Merchdn 1941:316-18; cf. Espinosa, no. 120). The result of the cooking act that redeems both the bride and the bridegroom-that is the actual food, offered as the skin is shed, that heals dre love-sick prince-mav then be interpreted as a rnenstrual cuisine of enhanced flavor, as opposed to the insipid food served to the f'ather. I mean therefbre a cuisine of amorously enhanced flavor, in accordance u'ith both the equir.alence of flavor- enhancing salt and saucesto rnenstrual blood and u'ith the association of this substance to arnorous passion, as perceived by Verdier in contempo- rary France (1979 45-17). In this sense,the heroine'sinitial definitions of "love like salt" for her father-she as food and he as salt, she as salt and he as waster, her love for him as salt in water-definitely carry an incestuous connotation, as pointed out by Dundes from a different perspective (1980:2l+-22). Note, however, that frorn the moment when the heroine defines her lor.'ein terns of salt she suffers radical separation from her father while being covered with salt and shedding salt-water tears. Con- versely, it is as she marries a younger \\'ooer that she banishes salt frorn her relationship with her father. In other words the heroine's identification with father in terr-nsof salt triggers their radical separation, often decreed as a death sentence. Symrmetrically, her identity to mother requires that the older woman die frorn the outset; other-wisethe "Sno'il'\\hite" therne of a murderous lnotherwould crop up.As the daughter replacing her mother in terms of feminine blood becornes equivalent to father in terns of salt, the essential affinity between mother and fhther thus becomes clear in the terms of the fbrrnula "blood is to blood as salt is to blood" (Testart 1991:14) which, therefore, defines the essential identity of the three actors. Fur- thermore, the displacement of the value of salt from the king f'ather to the VAZ DA SILVA:EuROpra^- CrNol.Rrl.r.,c Cycrp r73

prince wooer suggeststhat the older and the younger man are united by salt as the t\,vowomen are by blood. Indeed, the compatibilitv of the incest theme to the f'act that the father/daughter's proxirnity triggers their part- ing demandsthatwe suppose-in accordancewithMaria Thtar (l9il7:152)- that the heroine as a rejuvenated mother finally marries, in the prince, her rejuvenated father. A definite overall incestuous configuration thus appears, fbr as long as one takes the view that all drarnatis persona are discrete units. Howevet the obserued essentiirlunity of the characters encourages one to speak instead of a fundamental androglny underlying all aspectsof a complex, ophidian entity that self-rejuvenatesthrough a process of death and resurrection, on the model of a serpent's cast of skin.

Riddle Recall that I have proposed that the mother rejuvenatesthrough her daugh- ter as a snake shedding its skin and that the dragon is a male warden repre- senting, nevertheless, the maiden's condition. Occasionallv the enchanted maiden is said to be kept underground by her own father (Ampudia, no. 12), and Bengt Holbek thus rightly identified the draplon as a paternal fig- ure (1987:425-26).This is however much t<,rosimple, since,as we saq the dragon as a flower is both a male and the essencethe girl inherits from rnother. That the dragon appears as fatheq nother, and the girl herself suggeststherefore a s1'rnboliclink between intimacy during menstruation and incest (cf. H6ritier 199,1:80).This can be stated more precisely by say- ing that the heroine appears engulfed in her own blood, in the ernbracing sense-suggested by the equivalence of salt and menses-of undifferenti- ated kin essence. In this case,a theme of obscured identitv should lie at the core of this group of tales. Indeed, my present model calls attention to the fact that the heroine under hide is-quite literally-an enigma to be unraveled (Goldberg 1997:29). Either as she hints, at the balls, that she is the same lowly wretch the prince loathes and mistreats at hone, or as she implies, at home, that she is the same radiant girl her step-relatives saw at the balls, no one can unveil in her until her hide falls off. The p-istof this theme is, then, that the hidden maiden appearsas rwo ,.prrni. persons, the final identification of whom leads to marriage. It is therefbre interestins that Claude L6vi-Strauss has come ro see such final "identification ofpersonr at tlrst presented as distinct" as char- acteristic of Oedipus-like thernes worldwide (1973:32). This author no- ticed a persistent correlation of enigrna and incest in narratives that "a1- t74 SoLrlilrn' For-xronr. 57:2

ways assimilatethe discoveryof incest to the solution of a live enigma personifiedby the hero." The reasonfor this, he suggests,is that "like the solvedenigma, incest unites terms that ought to remain separate:the son sexuallyjoins the mother, and the brother his sister,as the answerunex- pectedlyjoins the question"(3,1). Note that L6vi-Straussis actuallysaying two things:first, that a solvedenigma is tantamountto incest(thus, solving the riddle of the Sphinxgets Oedipus into wedlockwith his mother-see Vernant 1986:54),and second, that incestitself is like an unresolvedenigma (in the sensethat incesruousOedipus is finally the very enigma he pro- posesto discover-seeVernant 1972:101-105).Indeed, Sophocles point- edly saysthat Oeclipusbecame one with his father (1209-12)and a brother to his own children(1481-82) as he procreatedu'ith his mother.The hero synthesizingthree generations-thus figurativelyhal'ing four, two, and three feet-therefore becornesthe very enigma of the Sphinx,which he hasto handle anew as he discovershimself (Edmunds 1995:160;!'ernant I 986:54-55). In otherwords, L6r'i-Strauss's model implies that to solvea riddleleads to incest,which constitutesits perpetratoiitrtn the very enigma he was wont to solve.Beyond the hornologvbetween an answerjoining a forbid- ding question and a forbidden relative joining another,this model thus highlights the fact that incest operatesa dissolutionof the perpetrator's identitywithin a group of closestkin. As Sophoclesstresses that Oedipus shedin his father'sblood his own blood,and then repeatedthe sameact bv "plowing," in his mother's womb, the very place where he rvas"sown" (l+96-+99)-therefore becomingone with his father and a brother to his own children-the implication seemsto be that the incestuoushero be- comesengulfed in both own and kin blood ashe returns to his o$'n roots. Now, the foregoing considerationsby L6vi-Straussv.ere basedon a definition of enigmaas "a questionto which there will be presumablvno answer,"and its oppositeas "an answerto u.hichthere has been no ques- tion" (L6vi-Strauss1973:33). Marie-Louise Tendzeplaced her discussion on the " asgenre" within this frameas she proposed to define"the 'question,' inversionplacing the 'ansu'er'before the the acquisitionof the meansbefore its end,"as the definingcharacteristic of suchtales (1970:20-21). By this sherneans not merelv that the main characterpossesses prophetic powers(2 3), but more fundamentallvthat the hero or heroineis the preset solutionto a challengeyet to emerge(29-31). C)ne consequence of Tendze's insight is that the fairv tale'srnain character is a living enigmafor aslong as the motivating challengehas not yet come into being. In the terms of the VAZ DA SIL\A: EuRopt'r-i:-Cxnpnp,r-r.l Cvct-E t75

above discussion one might then say that the fairv tale'.smain charlcter is, structurally, an incestuous one. However, asTdneze remarkably suggeststhat all remaining characters appear as manifestations of either the main character or the antagonist- and that the latter may ultinately fuse with the forrner-(197029-31), the notion of incest appears, once trrore, as but a partial pointer to a {irnda- mental unity beyond contrasts; in other u.ords, as a reflection in sociologi- -lestart cal terms of the "monist philosophy" that seesas characteristic of symbolic thoug'htgenerally (1991:22,6+-65). Incleecl, in the obserwedtales, the unity of the white and red substancesof consanguinity under the com- mon value <,rfsalt su€igestsan undifferentiated kin essencepen'ading an ophidian entiw that self-rejuvenates through a process ofdeath and resur- rection. Now this is a variant irnage of the Dragon Slayer therne, seen by Propp as the basisof the entire store of fairy tales(1968:1 1.1), in which, to quote Propp's words, "he who u'asborn fiom the dragon w'ill kill the dragon" (1983:363,cf. 290-91)and, to useHolbelk's expression, "the hero wins the princessby slavine her father in efEgy" (1987,560), really (still accorcling to Holbek) by overcoming "the father in his daughter" (426).

Conclusion:The Problem in Perspective It has been au.hile now since Coomaraswarny highlighted the "metaphysi- cal foundations" of "serpent worship and its icclnography" in relation to a principle of "Suprerne Identity" beyond "outu,-ardly opposing forces" (1935:1), and pointecl out the operation of such notions in (1914:120-25; 19.1-i:+02-04). Indeed, it is in this perspectivethat Propp's anclHolbek's jointlr.'quoted statements-not so intendecl by their authors- deploy the fulI qualiw of their meaning. This of course posesa problem, which I will best introduce by drawing on the insights of anthropologists who likewise recognized, albeit in an altogether different context, the meta- physical implications of serpent symbolisrn. ((hoq' As far as Australian ethnography goes, Kenneth Maddock notes hard it is to do justice to aboriginal imagern if working within Radcliffe- Brorvn's conception of the rainbow serpent" as a "clearly delineated fig- ure." The reason fbr this, as Madclock explains,is that "what are called rainbow serpents belong among a host of fleeting fonns in and through which a fundamental conception of the world is expressed"(1978a:1, 5). This world conception he seesas generallv cyclical (1978b:1 I 5), anclmore- over subjected to a "metaphysical imperative" as it unites contraries in or- der to grasp the essenceof things (1978a:10).Following this lead, Knight 176 Sou'lul.rx FolxrcnE 57:2

proposesto seein the Australianrainbow snake the expressionof a "logic of alternation,metarnorphosis and change,perpetuaily incorporating within itself its own opposite"(1988:244). The convergenceof this view with re- sultsof my foregoinganalysis is ail the more remarkablein that Knight, still reasoningfiorn Australianmaterials, joins Sophoclesin perceivingincest- 'return definedas "a to the womb"'-21d blood-spillingas "merelv different aspectsof one samesin of excessivelystressing blood connection"(1991, '173).Furthennore, Knight definessymbolic death in Australianrites and mvths as a "self-dissolutioninto the corporate identity of 'the Snake,'a self-renunciationexplicitlv likened to an 'incestuous'return to 'the wornb' 'death' [. . .l otr the modelof a -orna,l'stemporary eachrnonth" (l9gl, +65). There areof courseno evolutionistconclusions to draw fron this con- vergence.That analyseson Australiandata relating to snakeslrnbolism so preciselycorrespond to the schernepainstakingly fbund through the analysis of European fairy tales would seem to imply, rather, that "traclitional" worldviews,embodied in both Europeanand other customsand lore, are closer to each other than any of them is to the basictenets of Western rationalism.One interestingepistemological implication follows.Knight, for one, remarksthat becausesnake s\.mbolism in Australiais associated with the innermostmysteries of secretrites and cults,their meaningis hardly likely to be "immediatelyrecognizable or familiar to thosewhose belief systemis rooted in the scientific rationalism of Western culture" (1988:242).One variantof this problem concerningthe srudyof myths and fairy talesgenerally is highlighted by Wendy O'Flaherw as she asks, "why is it that people have attemptedto applv hard scientificcriteria to phenomenathat they themselveshave defined as soft?" (198.1:10). Indeed it seemedobvious to Stith Thompson that "beforeit can be- comean objectof seriousand well-considered study, every branch of knowl- edgeneeds to be classified" (1977 413,mv emphasis).Likewise, it appears self-evidentto Propp that "classificationis one of thefir'st and ntostitnpor- tant stepsof study"( 1968: 1 1 , my emphasis).To acknowledgethat the "hard" criteria implied in this notion of scientificg;roundu'ork cannot but fail to capture such "soft" properties as arc essentialto the object seerns,how eveqcrucial from the point of vieu,'ofanalytical (as opposed to merelydes- criptive)studies of worldview(Dundes 1995, 230), in which-as thispaper strivesto suggest-fairv tale analysisis to be included.

D ep arto?nen to de Antropo login Institnto Superior de Ciencitrstlo Ti'abolho e da Em.presa , Portugal VAZ DA SILVA:Eunopp,rl- CrxutnrLL,r Cycr.n 177

NOTES

This article is the revisedversion ofa paper read at an adclressorglnized b,vthe Portu- guese Studies Prograrn at the Universitl- of California, Berkcley (Spring 1999). I{y stav at UC-Berkelev ,,1'35macle possible b-v the kind invitation of Candace Slater and the Departn-rer-rtof Spanislrand Portuguese,a six-rnonths sabbaticalleave granted br,' my home institution in Lisbon, and a Fulbright scirolarship.To all personsancl institu- tions inr-olveclI acknov'ledgemv gratinrde. Specialthanks are due to Nan Dundes for constant sLtpportand constr-uctivecriticism. Tu.o other articles addressingovcrlappinE; aspectsof the samesemantic field can be found in the journal Xlnnels tnd Thlesand in Studia X[ythologitt Shxicd, both in the 2000 volumc vear.

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