Dissertation

Spatial Patterns of Soil Characteristics and Soil Formation in the transitional landscape zone, central part of Bogowonto Catchment, Java, Indonesia DISSERTATION zur Erlangung des Akademischen Grades einer Doktorin der Naturwissenschaften am Institut für Geographie der Fakultät für Geo-und Atmosphärenwissenschaften der Leopold Franzens-Universität, Innsbruck eingereicht von Nur Ainun Harlin Pulungan Betreuung: Univ. Prof. Johann Stötter (Institut für Geographie, Innsbruck) Assoz. Prof. Clemens Geitner (Institut für Geographie, Innsbruck) Prof. Junun Sartohadi (Fakultät für Geographie, UGM, Yogyakarta) Innsbruck, 2016 Leopold-Franzens-Universität Innsbruck Eidesstattliche Erklärung Ich erkläre hiermit an Eides statt durch meine eigenhändige Unterschrift, dass ich die vorliegende Arbeit selbständig verfasst und keine anderen als die angegebenen Quellen und Hilfsmittel verwendet habe. Alle Stellen, die wörtlich oder inhaltlich den angegebenen Quellen entnommen wurden, sind als solche kenntlich gemacht. Die vorliegende Arbeit wurde bisher in gleicher oder ähnlicher Form noch nicht als Magister- /Master-/Diplomarbeit/Dissertation eingereicht. 28.10.2016 Datum Unterschrift ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank to all those who supported the study and made this dissertation possible. Without their excellent guidance, encouragement, caring, patience, and effort, this study could have been never accomplished. To all persons who are mentioned or cannot be mentioned by name in this page, I am greatly indebted. First of all, I express my sincere gratitude to my first supervisor, Professor Johann Stötter for his valuable guidance, taught, and ideas to my scientific work, also for providing me with very kind atmosphere for doing research from the beginning until the end of this study. I also would like to thank to Assoc.Professor Clemens Geitner for his valuable comments, enormous advises that improve the quality of this work a lot, and particularly for supporting me doing laboratory research. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Professor Junun Sartohadi for his unceasing support, effort, guidance, and time which contributed a lot throughout this study. I would like to thankful to OeAD and Technology Grant of Asea-Uninet for providing me the opportunity and the scholarship to pursue my study at Innsbruck University. I would like to extend my grateful to Bogowonto Research Group members – Aries D. Wardana, Febrian Maritimo, Elok S Pratiwi, Rini Meiarti, Zuhara Candraningrum, Garri Kusuma, and Wayan Wisnu M – who helped me out to do fieldwork and several laboratory analyses in Geography, UGM. I also would like to thank to Pak Udin’ family in Margoyoso, Mas Dwi’ family in Loano for their kindness and helpful during my fieldwork. They have been becoming my new family. I also deeply appreciate Mrs. Niken Sawitri, Prof. Dewi Galuh Condro Kirono, Dr. Evita Hanie Pangaribowo, Dr. Dyah Rahmawati Hisbaron, Wirastuti Widyatmanti, Ph.D – for their priceless time in proofreading my dissertation; Simone Sandholz, Ph.D – for helping in Zusammenfassung translation; Ilva Dolģe, M.Sc, Eva Kauk, M.Sc, and Novi Rahmawati, M.Sc – for language checking. Thanks to my room fellow in Geography Institute – Richard Hastik, Haida Christin, and Stefanie Palma. Also, thanks to all my Indonesian’ friends in Innsbruck – Nina Novira, Sarrah Ayuandari, Utia Suarma, Syamsul Bachri, Hermawan Trinugraha, Agung Dewanto, Rm. Stenly Viany, Rm. Subali, Rm. Sukristiono, Nuri Efiana, Arko Wicaksono, Widiyanto and Bu Jenny for their friendliness. Also I am notably grateful to the persons who highly motivate my study - father and mother – their love, patience, and pray always strengthen me. Last but not least, thanks to Hariman Maulana who has been always supporting me during my study. Alhamdulillah... i TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i TABLE OF CONTENTS ii LIST OF FIGURES v LIST OF TABLES viii SUMMARY x ZUSAMMENFASSUNG xii Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Scientific background 1 1.1.1 Soils in Indonesia 1 1.1.2 Soils in Java 5 1.1.3 Focus and lack of soil research in Indonesia 7 1.2 Knowledge gaps 8 1.3 Research problems 9 1.4 Objectives and Research questions 12 1.5 State of the dissertation 13 1.6 Thesis outline 13 Chapter 2 Studies on relevant literature 2.1 Introduction 14 2.2 What is soil? 15 2.2.1 Soil definition 15 2.2.2 Soil systems 16 2.3 Soil genesis 20 2.3.1 Soil-forming factors 22 2.3.2 Soil-forming processes 23 2.3.3 Autochtonous vs Allochtonous 25 2.4 Soil in the tropics 27 2.5 Volcanic soils 29 2.6 Hydrothermal alteration 30 2.7 Human-induced soils 35 2.8 Soil geomorphology 36 2.9 Soil redistribution 38 2.10 Conceptual Framework 39 Chapter 3 Research systems, Methods, and Terminology definition 3.1 System of the study 41 3.2 Data acquisitions 43 3.2.1 Soil sampling in the field 43 ii 3.2.2 Environmental data 48 3.3 Soil sample analysis 48 3.3.1 Soil sample preparation for laboratory analysis 48 3.3.2 Soil morphological properties 48 3.3.3 Soil physical properties 49 3.3.4 Soil chemical properties 49 3.3.5 Soil mineralogical properties 51 3.4 Results analysis 52 3.4.1 Profile development analysis 52 3.4.2 Descriptive-statistic analysis 52 3.4.3 Spatial analysis 52 3.5 Terminology definition 54 Chapter 4 Understanding the characteristics of study area 4.1 Geographical sites 55 4.2 Physical-Environmental Setting 57 4.2.1 Climatic and soil hydrologic condition 57 4.2.2 Parent rocks and soil parent materials 61 4.2.3 Land surface morphology 63 4.2.4 Vegetation cover 64 4.3 Socio-Culture-Economic Setting 67 4.3.1 Demographic condition 67 4.3.2 Cultural development 69 4.3.3 Economic and livelihood 71 Chapter 5 Results 5.1 Overview 74 5.2 Spatial variation of soils 76 5.3 Soil development 86 5.3.1 Analysis of soil properties 86 5.3.1.1 Residual soils 86 (i) Morphological and physical properties 86 (ii) Chemical properties 98 (iii) Mineralogical properties 103 (iv) Recapitulation of residual soil property results 110 5.3.1.2 Redistributed soil material 113 (i) Morphological properties 113 Landslide-redistributed soil material 113 Human-redistributed soil material 117 (ii) Physical properties 118 Landslide-redistributed soil material 118 Human-redistributed soil material 120 (iii) Chemical properties 123 Landslide-redistributed soil material 123 iii Human-redistributed soil material 127 5.3.1.3 Recapitulation of soil properties based on soil-scape concept 132 5.3.2 Assessment of soil profile development 138 5.3.2.1 Residual soils 139 (i) Ratio of SOM in A-horizon to SOM in B- or C-horizon 139 (ii) Ratio of percentage of clay in C-horizon to percentage of clay 140 in A/A+B horizon 5.3.2.2 Human redistributed-soil material 141 (i) Ratio of SOM in A-horizon to SOM in B- or C-horizon 141 (ii) Ratio of percentage of clay in C-horizon to percentage of clay 143 in A/A+B horizon 5.3.2.3 Landslides redistributed-soil material 144 Depletion zone of landslides 144 Accumulation zone of landslides 151 5.4 Genesis of soil parent material 154 5.4.1 Soil parent material from weathered parent rock 155 5.4.2 Soil parent material from volcanic ash deposit 157 5.4.3 Soil parent material from altered parent rock 158 5.4.4 Redistributed soil material 160 5.4.4.1 Landslide-redistributed soil material 160 5.4.4.2 Human-redistributed soil material 163 5.5 Variations of soil formation 166 5.5.1 Monogenetic soils 166 5.5.2 Polygenetic soils 168 Chapter 6 Discussion 6.1 Soil-scape relationships 172 6.2 Soil formation and soil development 178 6.3 Soil-Human interaction 184 6.3.1 Influences of soil properties to human activities 184 6.3.2 Impact of human activities on soils 188 Chapter 7 Conclusions and Outlook 7.1 Conclusions 193 7.2 Outlook 196 References 198 iv LIST OF FIGURES Fig.1.1 Rainfall type distribution in Indonesia 2 Fig.1.2 Volcanic arcs of Java 6 Fig.2.1 Soil pedon, polypedon, and other units related to a soil-scape 16 Fig.2.2 Soil system behavior in time 20 Fig.2.3.Tropical and non-tropical climate range of the world 28 Fig.2.4 Evolution of magmatic-hydrothermal system during a cooling process of a 31 porphyry intrusion Fig.2.5 Types of alteration as a function of temperature, K+ and H+ activities 32 Fig.2.6 Diagram of hydrothermal alteration in rocks containing: (A) dominant alkali- 33 feldspar; (B) dominant plagioclase Fig.2.7 Conceptual framework of the study 40 Fig.4.1 Location of the study area 57 Fig.4.2 Rainfall pattern based on nearby climatic stations 58 Fig.4.3 Heavy rainfall in the study area affecting high velocity of run-off 60 Fig.4.4 The presence of seepage in the study area found 30 cm below the surface 60 Fig.4.5 Physiographic units of Java Island and the study area located 61 Fig.4.6 Distribution of lithology in the study area 62 Fig.4.7 Geomorphic units of the study area 64 Fig.4.8 Types of land uses in the study area 65 Fig.4.9 Land use map of the study area 66 Fig.4.10 Population in Central Java Province 67 Fig.4.11 Land uses percentage in Central Java Province 71 Fig.4.12 Sengon and Cinnamon as the wood commodity in the study area 72 Fig.5.1 Map of landscape systems of the study area 77 Fig.5.2 Map of landform segments of the study area and soil profile sites 79 Fig.5.3 Soil profile examples showing the soil color variation due to different 87 soil parent materials Fig.5.4 Reddish coloration in altered material due to Fe oxidation and hematite 88 development during hydrothermal alteration Fig.5.5 White coloration of altered material due to Silica enrichment during 89 hydrothermal alteration Fig.5.6 Horizon-based distribution of grain size of fine

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