TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………... 1 Humanism ………………………………..………………………………………………6 Foundations of Humanism ……..……………………………………………….. 7 Reformation and Renaissance ...…..…………………………………………… 10 Civic Humanism ……..………………………………………………………….12 Humanism in Education and Royal Service ….....…………………………….. 13 More, the Politician ……..………………………………………....…………....15 Humanist Works ……..……………………………………………………...…..18 Letter to Oxford 1518 ……..……………………………………………..18 Utopia ……..……………………………………………………………..19 The History of King Richard III ……..………………………………….. 21 Erasmian Humanism ……..…………………………………………………….22 More’s Defense of Erasmus ……..………………….…………………...24 Humanism: Conclusion ……..……………………………………………….....25 The Great Matter and the Acts that Followed ……..…….…………………...……... 27 Henrician Reformation ……..…………………………………………….…….31 Conservative Reformation v. Lutheran Reformation …..…………...…... 32 Assertio Septem Sacramentorum ……..……………................................32 Discussions of Supremacy ……..……………...……..……..…..…………........35 More’s Resignation ……..……………...……..……..…..……………............... 35 Acts of Succession and Supremacy ……..……………...……..……..…..…….. 37 More’s Dissension ……..……………...……..……..…..……………....………. 39 Effect on Humanism ……..……………...……..……..…..……………............. 41 More, The Martyr ……..……………...……..……..…..……………....……………… 43 Vita Contemplativa ……..……………...……..……..…..……………..……......44 Valencia holograph ……..……………...……..……..…..…………….... 44 Espositio Fidelis de Morte Thomae Mori ……..……………...………… 47 Martyr Made ……..……………...……..……..…..……………..........................49 Conclusion ……..……………...……..……..…..……………....……………………….51 More’s Legacy through Margaret Roper ……..……………...………….53 Considerations Today More, The Humanist ……..……………...……..……..…..…………….............53 More, The Catholic ……..……………...……..……..…..……………...............54 More, The Politician ……..……………...……..……..…..…………….............55 More, The Torturer ……..……………...……..……..…..……………...............55 More, The Man …..……………...…..……..…..………...……..........................57 Bibliography ……..……………...……..……..…..……………..................................... 58 i 1 INTRODUCTION Saint Thomas More – writer, lawyer, scholar and patron saint of lawyers within the Roman Catholic faith. Humanist, statesman, family man and friend to the king. Devoted Catholic and martyr. More was canonized by the Roman Catholic Church in 1935, 400 years after he was executed under Henry VIII, King of England (1509–1547), for his refusal to acknowledge the king as Supreme Head of the Church of England. More, a classically- trained lawyer, used the humanist tools of rhetoric and dialogue in defense of his uncompromising devotion to the Roman Catholic Church and its administration throughout his life, including at his trial for treason. More, London-born on February 7, 1478, spent his early education at St. Anthony’s School before being placed in the household of then-Lord Chancellor to Henry VII, John Morton, Archbishop of Canterbury. 1 While attending Oxford University from 1492-1494, More studied with Thomas Linacre and William Grocyn, 2 both of whom directed More to the studia humanitatis (study of the liberal arts, or humanities). Quickly becoming one of the “pioneers of humanist studies,”3 More focused on the works of Plato 1The basic chronology of More’s life present in Introduction can be found in Arnold, Jonathan. The Great Humanists: An Introduction . London: New York, 2011. Print. 2 More would not meet Desiderius Erasmus until 1499. 3 Wakelin, Daniel. Humanism, Reading, and English Literature, 1430-1530 . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. Print. p. 2. 2 and Aristotle, and he strove to increase his own virtue by excelling in oration and using his skills to serve as an active citizen. 4 Encouraged by his father to study law, More was admitted to Lincoln’s Inn in 1496 and became a barrister in 1501. While More felt a responsibility to work in law and do civic work, he longed for Holy Orders, to become a monk and living the vita contemplativa , or contemplative life. More went so far as to enter a Carthusian monastery to help aid in his determination of which life he should pursue. As a humanist, he was called to live actively according to his philosophy; as a monk, More could live a life of quiet contemplation. 5 However, More also wanted to live as a married man, fully enjoying the benefits that accompany matrimony.6 This pushed him closer toward a civic-minded career, and, in 1504, More became a Member of Parliament. In 1505, he married Jane Colt, who would die in childbirth in 1511, after having borne him three daughters and a son during their six-year marriage. One month later, More, recognizing his children’s need for a mother, would marry Dame Alice Middleton.7 He would later purchase the wardship of an infant girl and adopt another daughter. Along with his biological children, stepdaughter and daughter-in-law, all would be educated under the instruction of Latin and Greek studies, 4 Arnold, p. 176. 5 Ibid. 6 Chambers, R.W. Thomas More. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1963. Print. p. 87. 7 Weir, Alison. Henry VIII: The King and His Court. New York: Ballantine Books, 2001. Print. p. 146. 3 exceling in these studies, and two of his daughters would carry a reputation for scholarly ambitions. 8 In 1509, More’s career began to garner notoriety. Elected as a bencher at Lincoln’s Inn, More also became a member of the Mercers’ Company and had a major role in negotiations with an embassy from Antwerp at the Mercers’ Hall. The Mercers’ Company, one of the more prominent guilds in London, offered membership to More as a result of his “professional, oratorical and legal skill.” 9 While other members had to pay membership fees, the Mercers’ Company served as a kind of patron to More, offering him both offices and embassies. The positions More accepted allowed him to prove himself in office, as well as a lawyer and civic leader. 10 One year later, More was elected a Burgess in Parliament and, later that same year, he became an undersheriff of London, a position he would retain until 1518. More was instrumental at a merchants’ conference in Antwerp in 1515 after he was sent via royal commission to represent English interests. While there, More drafted his most famous text, Utopia , a dialogue and commentary on his ideal republic, completing it upon his return to England in 1516. 11 In 1518, More resigned as undersheriff and was made a member of Henry VIII’s Privy Council as well as Master of Requests. More grew close to the king as a companion, as the two would hold private conversations and, according to William 8 Ibid. 9 Arnold, p. 178. 10 Ibid. 11 Ibid. 4 Roper, 12 would discuss astronomy, geometry, divinity, humanism and politics – humanist topics that the king discussed only with his closest friends.13 This also was the year More wrote his letter to Oxford University, praising the virtues of the Greeks and endorsing the teaching of the classics within the school. When More took on the role of under-treasurer in 1521, he was knighted, as was custom with the position. Two years later he was elected the Speaker of Parliament. In 1529, when Cardinal Thomas Wolsey could not complete the task of obtaining an annulment of Henry VIII’s marriage with Katharine of Aragon, More succeeded him, albeit grudgingly. He would resign only three years later, much to the king’s chagrin. More would continue to disappoint Henry when he refused to accept the king’s Acts of Succession and Supremacy. Thomas More would have played no role in the divorce and second marriage of England’s King Henry VIII had he the option. A loyal servant and devout Catholic, More also was a practicing humanist, endorsing education in grammar, rhetoric, history and moral philosophy in order to create a more-engaged citizenry. More’s education and loyalty gave Henry reason to keep him close. This education and loyalty allowed the lawyer to express his opinions and beliefs openly to his king. However, it was his silence on the king’s Act of Supremacy that exemplified More’s use of humanism as a practice in virtue. Having realized and confirmed his own virtue, More refused to acquiesce to the king. He used skilled rhetoric in his defense, but was found guilty nonetheless. More practiced humanism in some form through every stage of his life, and it was with him at 12 William Roper, married to Margaret More Roper; More’s son-in-law and first More biographer. 13 Marius, Richard. Thomas More: A Biography. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1985. Print. p. 192. 5 the execution block as he spoke his final words with such skill that they are remembered today. 6 HUMANISM While the term “humanism” was not coined until 1808 by a German educator to describe a classical education program, 1 humanists were considered a defined group as early as fifteenth-century Italy. Teachers and students of classical learning, humanists also were those who utilized their studies as tools of imitation within their lives, work, and philosophies. Nearing the turn of the century, the sudden spread of such classical studies made its way to Tudor England, affecting every aspect of life, including religion and politics. 2 Instruction on grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history and moral philosophy were linked to classical Greek and Latin sources, all of which were thought to hone wisdom and moral virtues.3 The exact nature of English humanism, however, has become a debate amongst scholars who believe the philosophy, once agreed upon for decades, has been over-generalized, over-simplified,