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STONE ARCH BRIDGES:
AN UNDERUTILIZED TECHNOLOGY IN
THE MODERN UNITED STATES

by
Nicholas R. DiNardo

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of the University of Delaware in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Civil Engineering

2019 Summer
© 2019 Nicholas R. DiNardo
All Rights Reserved

STONE ARCH BRIDGES:
AN UNDERUTILIZED TECHNOLOGY IN
THE MODERN UNITED STATES

by
Nicholas R. DiNardo

Approved: __________________________________________________________
Michael J. Chajes, Ph.D. Professor in charge of thesis on behalf of the Advisory Committee

Approved: __________________________________________________________
Sue McNeil, Ph.D, Chair of the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

Approved: __________________________________________________________
Levi T. Thompson, Ph.D. Dean of the College of Engineering

Approved:
__________________________________________________________ Douglas J. Doren, Ph.D. Interim Vice Provost for Graduate & Professional Education and Dean of the Graduate College

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to take the time to thank all of my friends and family. Without their support, this paper may not have made it to the table or screen in front of you. Who are we without the ones we love?

I’d also like to thank all of the professionals in the field whom I contacted for

information, the many researches whose work I cited, and especially all the great professors at the University of Delaware who have taught and guided me to the finish line. Special shout-out to Dr. Chajes for believing in me and helping me throughout my graduate career.

Finally, there is one more person I’d like to thank. Thank you, David, for being

one of the greatest friends that I have ever had. You helped me sustain my creativity, was there for me through my struggles, and were always a pleasure to spend time with. May your soul rest in peace.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................viii LIST OF FIGURES........................................................................................................ x ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................xii

Chapter

Structural Deficiency of Bridges in the U.S. National Highway System........... 1 Climate Change .................................................................................................. 5

The Green House Effect ............................................................................... 5 Advanced Lifestyle....................................................................................... 6 The Effects of Climate Change .................................................................... 7

Solutions? ........................................................................................................... 9 HISTORY OF THE STONE ARCH BRIDGE................................................ 11 Discovering the Stone Arch and Ancient Bridge Building .............................. 12
2
Roman Stone Arch Bridges........................................................................ 13 Ancient Chinese Stone Arch Bridges......................................................... 16

Revival of the Stone Arch via the Industrial Revolution ................................. 17
Masonry Arch Bridges in the European Railway System.......................... 18 The American Rail System: Statistically Hidden but Physically There.... 22

The Carrolton Viaduct.......................................................................... 23 The Canton Viaduct.............................................................................. 23 The Rockville Stone Arch Bridge ........................................................ 24

Impact of Railway Masonry Arch Bridges................................................. 25
When and Why Did We Stop Using the Stone Arch?...................................... 26
The Traditional Method of Masonry Construction .................................... 27 Engineering and Design Before the 20th Century....................................... 29

iv
Constructability of Steel and Concrete....................................................... 30
Masonry Bridges Still a Solution in Some Nations.......................................... 30 Chapter Conclusion .......................................................................................... 32

Earth, Rocks and Geological Processes............................................................ 34
Igneous Rocks ............................................................................................ 35 Sedimentary Stones .................................................................................... 37 Metamorphic Rocks.................................................................................... 39

Strength and Durability .................................................................................... 40
Deterioration Mechanisms of Stone, Concrete and Steel........................... 40
Stable Stone.......................................................................................... 40
Salt Crystallization ......................................................................... 41 Aqueous Dissolution ...................................................................... 41 Freeze-Thaw................................................................................... 42 Thermal Expansion......................................................................... 43

Porous Concrete.................................................................................... 44
Corrosion Damage to Reinforcing Steel......................................... 44 Alkali-Aggregate Reaction............................................................. 45 Chemical Attack ............................................................................. 46

Corrosive Steel ..................................................................................... 47
Tarnishing....................................................................................... 47 Atmospheric Corrosion or Uniform Deterioration......................... 48 Galvanic Corrosion......................................................................... 48 Crevice Corrosion........................................................................... 49 Pitting Corrosion ............................................................................ 49

Identifying Stone Types Commonly Used for Construction...................... 50 Comparing Durability................................................................................. 53

Structural Mechanics of the Double Hinged Arch ........................................... 54
Schematic and Terminology of the Arch.................................................... 55 Experiment to Explain Load Path of the Arch ........................................... 56

v
Structural Analysis of the Arch Shape ....................................................... 57
Free Body Diagram and Section........................................................... 57 Solving for the Vertical Reactions ....................................................... 57 Solving for the Horizontal Reactions ................................................... 58

Limit States and Modes of Failure ............................................................. 61
Limit States........................................................................................... 61 Loading................................................................................................. 62 Modes of Failure for Block-Arches...................................................... 63

Chapter Conclusion .......................................................................................... 64 ECONOMIC VIABILITY OF STONE ARCH BRIDGES ............................. 65 Life Cycle Cost Analysis.................................................................................. 65
4
Steps of the LCCA...................................................................................... 66 The Time Value of Money ......................................................................... 66

LCCA for Concrete and Steel Girder Bridges in Pennsylvania ....................... 68
Average Deterioration Rates and Estimating Bridge Service Life............. 70 Dr. Barker’s LCCA Results........................................................................ 73 Estimates for Bridge Construction on the National Highway System (NHS) by the Federal Highway Administration........................................ 76

The Economic Value of Durability .................................................................. 77
Estimating the Service Life of a Stone Arch Bridge .................................. 77 Maximum Initial Cost of Stone Arch Bridge ............................................. 79 Equivalent Uniform Annual Costs (EUAC)............................................... 86 Maintenance ............................................................................................... 89 Salvage Value............................................................................................. 91

Applicability of the Stone Arch Solution ......................................................... 92
Limitations from Design and Construction ................................................ 92
Accelerating Construction.................................................................... 93 Cost of Stone ........................................................................................ 95

Conditions at Possible Sites of Interest ...................................................... 96

vi
Chapter Conclusion .......................................................................................... 97

6
Emissions from Steel Production ..................................................................... 98 Emissions from Cement Production............................................................... 100 Emissions from Producing Dimensional Stone.............................................. 100 Emissions from Bridge Building.................................................................... 102 Chapter Conclusion ........................................................................................ 107

THESIS CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK ........................................ 108
REFERENCES........................................................................................................... 110

vii

LIST OF TABLES

List of Roman bridges used for modern traffic (O'Connor, 1993),

(Barow & Ragette, 2013) Notes: ~ = approximately, LxWxH= Span Length by Arch Barrel Width by Arch Height......................................... 15

Number of Stone Arch Bridges in Various Railways as Reported by the UIC (Orban, 2004) * Estimated Number........................................... 19

Estimation of stone arch bridges (no culverts) in the European Railway Systems (Proske & van Gelder, 2009) ...................................... 21

The manifestation of reinforcement corrosion (Heckroodt, 2002).......... 45 List of stone types traditionally used for bridge construction (Proske & van Gelder, 2009) .................................................................................... 51

List of stone types suitable for building construction (Hugues, 2005).... 52 General durability of each classification of stone (Heckroodt, 2002)..... 53 FHWA condition ratings (FHWA, 1995)................................................ 71 Deterioration rates of concrete and steel girder bridges (Barker, 2016) . 72 Average service life concrete and steel girder bridges (Barker, 2016) ... 73 Life Cycle Cost results of total database (Barker, 2016)......................... 73 Life Cycle Cost of simple span bridges (Barker, 2016) .......................... 74 Life Cycle Cost of two-span bridges (Barker, 2016) .............................. 75 Life Cycle Cost results for brides with a maximum span of 140 feet (Barker, 2016).......................................................................................... 75

FHWA’s estimated bridge construction cost paired with Dr. Barker’s

results in 2017 dollars.............................................................................. 76 Average deterioration rates of stone arch bridges compared to steel and concrete girder bridges ..................................................................... 78

viii
Average service life of stone arch bridges compared to concrete and steel girder bridges .................................................................................. 79

Maximum cost for a stone arch bridge using the PPVC of just initial costs from Table 11 as the overall limit (overall database)..................... 82

Maximum cost for a stone arch bridge using the PPVC of just initial costs from Table 12 as the overall limit (single span bridges)................ 82

Maximum cost for a stone arch bridge using the PPVC of just initial costs from Table 13 as the overall limit (two span bridges).................... 83

Maximum cost for a stone arch bridge using the PPVC of just initial costs from Table 14 as the overall limit (bridges <140 feet)................... 83

Maximum cost for a stone arch bridge using the FHWA estimates from Table 15 as the overall limit ........................................................... 84

Impact on the increased budget column when the comparable bridge’s

service life varies..................................................................................... 85 Table used to express the short comings of presenting the results in

present value costs by varying the stone arch bridge’s service life......... 86

EUAC using calculated using concrete and steel girder initial costs from Table 14 and the average maximum stone arch cost from Table 21 ............................................................................................................. 88

Appraisal Descriptions of Condition Ratings (FHWA, Recording and Coding Guide for the Structure Inventory and Appraisal of the Nation's Bridges, 1995) ........................................................................... 96

Details of the five projects evaluated by Hoeckman & Nelis (Hoeckman & Nelis, 2012).................................................................... 104

Sources of emissions in each project and their respective percentages of contribution to the total amount of emissions (Hoeckman & Nelis, 2012)...................................................................................................... 105

Calculation of emission prevention from using stone arch bridges ...... 106

ix

LIST OF FIGURES

(Kangas, 2010) .......................................................................................... 7

Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4
Progression of the false vault (arch) (Proske & van Gelder, 2009)......... 12 Roman semi-circular stone arch bridge in Spain (Stellez, n.d.) .............. 14 Zhaozhou Bridge: 1,400-year-old segmented stone arch bridge with open spandrel walls that reduce lateral flood loads. (Morgan, 2007) ..... 16

Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7

The Carrolton Viaduct over Gwynn’s Falls (ASCE, n.d.) ...................... 23

Canton Viaduct (Boucher, 1968)............................................................. 24 The Rockville Stone Arch Bridge carrying modern train Rockville, Pennsylvania (American-Rails.com, 2007)............................................. 25

Figure 8

Figure 9
Construction of a stone arch barrel using traditional methods (Minnesota Department of Transportation , n.d.).................................... 28

The Danhe Bridge (HighestBridges.com, 2017) ..................................... 31
Figure 10 Visualization of the creation of Earth through the accretion theory
(Bliss) ...................................................................................................... 35

Figure 11 Left- Image of a Conglomerate Rock (Mark, 2015) Right-
Sandstone (Khattak, 2018) ...................................................................... 39

Figure 12 Limestone cavern produced by aqueous dissolution (ScienceStruck,
2018)........................................................................................................ 42

Figure 13 Schematic of a single span stone arch bridge (Proske & van Gelder,
2009)........................................................................................................ 55

Figure 14 Freebody diagram and internal reactions of an arch ............................... 58 Figure 15 Placing force, F, on structure and releasing the horizontal reaction at B 60 Figure 16 General depiction of the condition rating of any structure, element, or component over time (FHWA, Life Cycle Costs Primer, 2002)............. 71

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