STONE ARCH BRIDGES: AN UNDERUTILIZED TECHNOLOGY IN THE MODERN UNITED STATES by Nicholas R. DiNardo A thesis submitted to the Faculty of the University of Delaware in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Civil Engineering 2019 Summer © 2019 Nicholas R. DiNardo All Rights Reserved STONE ARCH BRIDGES: AN UNDERUTILIZED TECHNOLOGY IN THE MODERN UNITED STATES by Nicholas R. DiNardo Approved: __________________________________________________________ Michael J. Chajes, Ph.D. Professor in charge of thesis on behalf of the Advisory Committee Approved: __________________________________________________________ Sue McNeil, Ph.D, Chair of the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Approved: __________________________________________________________ Levi T. Thompson, Ph.D. Dean of the College of Engineering Approved: __________________________________________________________ Douglas J. Doren, Ph.D. Interim Vice Provost for Graduate & Professional Education and Dean of the Graduate College ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to take the time to thank all of my friends and family. Without their support, this paper may not have made it to the table or screen in front of you. Who are we without the ones we love? I’d also like to thank all of the professionals in the field whom I contacted for information, the many researches whose work I cited, and especially all the great professors at the University of Delaware who have taught and guided me to the finish line. Special shout-out to Dr. Chajes for believing in me and helping me throughout my graduate career. Finally, there is one more person I’d like to thank. Thank you, David, for being one of the greatest friends that I have ever had. You helped me sustain my creativity, was there for me through my struggles, and were always a pleasure to spend time with. May your soul rest in peace. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ x ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................. xii Chapter 1 PRESSING ISSUES IN OUR DAY AND AGE ................................................ 1 Structural Deficiency of Bridges in the U.S. National Highway System ........... 1 Climate Change .................................................................................................. 5 The Green House Effect ............................................................................... 5 Advanced Lifestyle ....................................................................................... 6 The Effects of Climate Change .................................................................... 7 Solutions? ........................................................................................................... 9 2 HISTORY OF THE STONE ARCH BRIDGE ................................................ 11 Discovering the Stone Arch and Ancient Bridge Building .............................. 12 Roman Stone Arch Bridges ........................................................................ 13 Ancient Chinese Stone Arch Bridges ......................................................... 16 Revival of the Stone Arch via the Industrial Revolution ................................. 17 Masonry Arch Bridges in the European Railway System .......................... 18 The American Rail System: Statistically Hidden but Physically There .... 22 The Carrolton Viaduct .......................................................................... 23 The Canton Viaduct .............................................................................. 23 The Rockville Stone Arch Bridge ........................................................ 24 Impact of Railway Masonry Arch Bridges ................................................. 25 When and Why Did We Stop Using the Stone Arch? ...................................... 26 The Traditional Method of Masonry Construction .................................... 27 Engineering and Design Before the 20th Century ....................................... 29 iv Constructability of Steel and Concrete ....................................................... 30 Masonry Bridges Still a Solution in Some Nations .......................................... 30 Chapter Conclusion .......................................................................................... 32 3 THE DURABILITY OF THE STONE AND ARCH COMBINATION ......... 33 Earth, Rocks and Geological Processes ............................................................ 34 Igneous Rocks ............................................................................................ 35 Sedimentary Stones .................................................................................... 37 Metamorphic Rocks .................................................................................... 39 Strength and Durability .................................................................................... 40 Deterioration Mechanisms of Stone, Concrete and Steel ........................... 40 Stable Stone .......................................................................................... 40 Salt Crystallization ......................................................................... 41 Aqueous Dissolution ...................................................................... 41 Freeze-Thaw ................................................................................... 42 Thermal Expansion ......................................................................... 43 Porous Concrete .................................................................................... 44 Corrosion Damage to Reinforcing Steel ......................................... 44 Alkali-Aggregate Reaction ............................................................. 45 Chemical Attack ............................................................................. 46 Corrosive Steel ..................................................................................... 47 Tarnishing ....................................................................................... 47 Atmospheric Corrosion or Uniform Deterioration ......................... 48 Galvanic Corrosion ......................................................................... 48 Crevice Corrosion ........................................................................... 49 Pitting Corrosion ............................................................................ 49 Identifying Stone Types Commonly Used for Construction ...................... 50 Comparing Durability ................................................................................. 53 Structural Mechanics of the Double Hinged Arch ........................................... 54 Schematic and Terminology of the Arch .................................................... 55 Experiment to Explain Load Path of the Arch ........................................... 56 v Structural Analysis of the Arch Shape ....................................................... 57 Free Body Diagram and Section ........................................................... 57 Solving for the Vertical Reactions ....................................................... 57 Solving for the Horizontal Reactions ................................................... 58 Limit States and Modes of Failure ............................................................. 61 Limit States ........................................................................................... 61 Loading ................................................................................................. 62 Modes of Failure for Block-Arches ...................................................... 63 Chapter Conclusion .......................................................................................... 64 4 ECONOMIC VIABILITY OF STONE ARCH BRIDGES ............................. 65 Life Cycle Cost Analysis .................................................................................. 65 Steps of the LCCA ...................................................................................... 66 The Time Value of Money ......................................................................... 66 LCCA for Concrete and Steel Girder Bridges in Pennsylvania ....................... 68 Average Deterioration Rates and Estimating Bridge Service Life ............. 70 Dr. Barker’s LCCA Results ........................................................................ 73 Estimates for Bridge Construction on the National Highway System (NHS) by the Federal Highway Administration ........................................ 76 The Economic Value of Durability .................................................................. 77 Estimating the Service Life of a Stone Arch Bridge .................................. 77 Maximum Initial Cost of Stone Arch Bridge ............................................. 79 Equivalent Uniform Annual Costs (EUAC) ............................................... 86 Maintenance ............................................................................................... 89 Salvage Value ............................................................................................. 91 Applicability of the Stone Arch Solution ........................................................