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ADALBERO, OF LAON (; 977-1030)

Adalbero was very involved in the politics of the end of Carolingian dynasty in Western Frankia and its replacement by the Capetians, with the accession of Hugh Capet as king in 987. He was one of the writers who expressed the concept of society divided between the three orders.

ADOMNÁN , OF (DIED 704)

Adomnán was the ninth abbot of the of Iona, founded on the island of that name in the Hebrides by . He is particularly noted by in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People for having promoted the Roman dating of Easter. His best-known work is his Life of St Columba.

ÆLFRIC, ABBOT OF EYNSHAM (1005-C. 1010)

Ælfric joined the monastery of Cerne Abbas (Dorset) around 987. He may have been in charge of the school there, and he certainly produced a series of writings, including works in , principally homilies for reading and preaching and lives of , and a grammar of Latin written in Old English. In 1005, he became the first abbot of the reformed of Eynsham near Oxford, where he died around 1010.

ÆTHELEBERHT I, KING OF (DIED 616)

Ætheleberht, who had married the Christian, Frankish princess, Bertha, some while before, welcomed the mission of St Augustine when it arrived in Kent in 597. He permitted the conversion of his subjects, and was himself converted, perhaps soon after Augustine's arrival. Bede identified him as one of the seven overlords of southern (Bede, Eccl. History, II.15) and attributed to him a code of laws 'in the manner of the Romans', which is extant. He died in 616, but there are problems regarding the beginning of his reign. Bede places it in 560 or 561, but this seems too early.

ÆTHELFLÆD, 'LADY OF THE MERCIANS' (D. 918)

Daughter of King , and wife of Æthelred, ealdorman and ruler in , the Midland kingdom of England, who formed a close alliance with Alfred, she was called by a contemporary writer the 'lady of the Mercians'. She was actively involved in wars against the Viking invaders of Mercia, especially after her husband's death in 911, when she and her brother were active in the development of a system of fortifications, known as burhs). She was buried in the monastery of St Peter at , which she had founded.

ÆTHELFRITH, KING OF THE NORTHUMBRIANS (604-16)

Ruler of northern or from 592, his period of rule is presented by Bede in hisEcclesiastical History of the English People as notable for its conquests of the lands of the Britons. He defeated an invasion by the king of the Scots of western at the Battle of Degsastan in 602, and won a savage victory against the Britons at Chester between 613 and 616. He remained a pagan until his death.

ÆTHELRED II THE UNREADY, KING OF ENGLAND 978-1016 His accession was marred by the murder at Corfe (Dorset) of his half-brother, King , in which his mother was later suspected of involvement, and his reign was noted for persistent Viking attacks, culminating in the conquest of England by Swein and Cnut.

ÆTHELSTAN, KING OF ENGLAND (924-39)

Æthelstan's reign was notable for a series of military campaigns, including his victory over a combined force of Scots, Irish, and at the Battle of Brunanburh in 937; and also for a number of -alliances and other contacts with Continental Europe.

AËTIUS

A Gallo-Roman commander of the remaining Roman forces in Gaul in the middle of the fifth century, who led those forces in combination with those of the king of the to win the Battle of the Catalaunian Fields in 451 against the Huns.

AIDAN , OF IONA, BISHOP OF (635- 51)

Aidan was summoned by , king of the Northumbrians, to convert his kingdom, and with him he founded the monastery of Lindisfarne, on Holy Island, a tidal island on the coast. This was a monastery and a bishopric combined, and Aidan was the first bishop.

ALCUIN, SCHOLAR AND ABBOT OF ST MARTIN'S AT TOURS (C.735-804)

Alcuin was the leading scholar of the church of until, probably in 781 or 782, he moved to the court of Charlemagne at Aachen, where he taught and wrote, until becoming abbot of -Martin at Tours (France) from 794 until his death in 804. He was closely involved with Charlemagne, with whom he corresponded extensively, and also in the same way with the kings of Northumbria. He was the author of an important series of letters, books on the liberal arts of dialectic and rhetoric, a history of the church of York in verse, and a rebuttal of the heresy of Adoptionism.

ALFRED THE GREAT, KING OF THE WEST (871-99)

Faced with the invasion of his kingdom by the Viking Great Army, he won a decisive victory at Edington (Wiltshire), and in 886 he occupied which had been under Viking control. He began the process of building fortified sites and towns (burhs) for defence against the Vikings, he began also the reform of the English church which was to culminate in the later tenth century, and he gathered scholars at his court, and himself contributed to their work by translating books into Old English.

AMBROSE, BISHOP OF (373/4-397)

The son of the Praetorian Prefect (the principal Roman official) of Gaul, he was first an administrator, becoming governor of the province of which Milan was the head. After the death of its bishop in 373/4, he was persuaded to become bishop himself, even though he was not yet baptised. He was a successful bishop, acting at the highest level, for example, in excommunicating the emperor, Theodosius, for a massacre at Thessalonica (Greece). He convened the Council of Aquilea () in 381 and, in 391/2, the Council of Capua (Italy).

ANSKAR, ARCHBISHOP OF HAMBURG (832-65) Anskar conducted missions to the and, in 829, a mission to the Swedish trading-centre of Birka. He was made bishop of Hamburg in 831, and elevated to archbishop in 832. He had responsibility for missions to the , Danes, and Slavs.

ANTHONY OF EGYPT, MONK (D. 356)

Born at Queman on the River Nile, according to his biographer, Athanasius, he came of a good family and, after the death of his parents, he placed himself under the direction of an old man leading a holy life. Eventually he moved to live in a tomb, and then to a ruined fortress on the edge of the desert, where he struggled with demons who appeared to him in various forms, such as those of animals or beautiful women. Overcoming the temptations which these apparitions placed before him, he attracted a considerable following of persons who venerated him for his holiness and, wishing to escape their presence and to be alone in his spiritual struggles, he moved to an even more remote place, the Outer Desert, where he died in 356.

ARIUS, HERESIARCH (DIED 336)

He was ordained priest at Alexandria in Roman Egypt, and emerged as a champion of teaching that Christ was subordinate to God the Father. He was condemned for this teaching, known as Arianism, at Alexandria, and again at the Council of Nicaea (325). Arianism was nevertheless very influential in the fourth century and, amongst the barbarian peoples, well beyond that.

ATTILA, KING OF THE HUNS (435/40-453)

Becoming sole king of the Huns after murdering his brother Bleda in 445 Attila built up a powerful confederation of Hunnic and other peoples. He invaded: the Roman Empire in the east in 442-3 and 447; Gaul in 451, where he was defeated by Aetius and his allies at the Battle of the Catalaunian Fields; and Italy in 452.

AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO (354-430), FATHER OF THE CHURCH

Originally a devotee of the teachings of Mani, that is Manichaeism (that there are co-equal powers of good and evil), he was baptised a Christian by Bishop Ambrose in 386. In 388, he returned to Africa, and in 391 he was seized by the people of Hippo Regis and forced to become a priest. In 395, he became bishop of that city until his death in 430, at the time when the barbarian were besieging it. He wrote very influential works on , especially a sort of autobiographical meditation called theConfessions (395-8), and politico-religious discourse, the City of God, written at the height of barbarian invasions in 416-22. This sought to defend Christianity against the charge that the abandonment of the old pagan gods had led to the sack of by the Goths in 410. Augustine argued that the City of God was what really mattered and that, although it could be struggled towards on earth, it really belonged to the other world.

AUGUSTINE, ARCHBISHOP OF (597-604 X 609)

A monk at Rome, and prior of the monastery of St Andrew there, he was sent by Gregory the Great as leader of a mission to England which arrived in Kent in 597. The king, Æthelberht, received him favourably, and himself became converted to Christianity. Augustine became the first archbishop of Canterbury, where the king endowed his see, and consecrated as bishop of Rochester and as bishop of London.

BASIL, MONK AND BISHOP (C. 330-79)

Educated at various schools in the eastern Roman Empire, he became a monk, spent time in Syria and Egypt, and in 358 settled as a at Neocaesarea in Asia Minor. Soon after this, he wrote a rule for the monastic life, which is still the basis of monasticism in the eastern Church. In 370, he became bishop of Caesarea, and he was involved in the controversy over Arianism.

BEDE, MONK AND SCHOLAR (C.673-735)

Given as a child to the Northumbrian monastery of Monkwearmouth-Jarrow, Bede spent his whole career there as a monk and a priest. He was the author of a series of works, including the Reckoning of Time, theEcclesiastical History of the English People, and many writings on the , including homilies and commentaries. He was a very influential writer, whose works were widely copied in manuscripts right across Europe.

BENEDICT BISCOP, MONASTIC FOUNDER (D. 689)

Originally abbot of the monastery of St Peter and Paul (St Augustine's) in Canterbury, he was the founder and first abbot of the joint monastery of Monkwearmouth-Jarrow in Northumbria. Born of an aristocratic family, he decided to pursue a career in the Church, making a number of visits to Rome, and also to Lérins in southern Gaul, to learn about monasticism and to collect books and treasures. He founded Monkwearmouth in 673/4 and Jarrow in 681/2. His career is known from an account by an anonymous monk of Monkwearmouth-Jarrow and a very similar account by Bede.

BENEDICT OF NURSIA, MONK (C. 480-C. 550)

Educated at Rome, he became a monk at Subiaco in Italy, but in around 529 he moved to Monte Cassino, where around 540 he composed his rule for , the Rule of St Benedict Benedict. It became highly influential when it was adopted by the Carolingian Church at the beginning of the ninth century.

BIRINUS, AND BISHOP (D. 650)

A missionary to England in around 634, he converted the king of the West Saxons, , and established the see of the West Saxons, of which he became bishop, at Dorchester-on-Thames (Oxfordshire). Under Bishop Haeddi (676-705), his were translated to Winchester (Hampshire) after the see had been transferred there from Dorchester-on-Thames.

BOETHIUS, PHILOSOPHER(C. 480- C. 524)

Wrote a number of works on philosophy, for which he drew extensively on Greek writings, and he also wrote five Theological Tractates, presenting and discussing Christian doctrine. In 522, he became the most important official in the government of Theodoric the Ostrogoth, but he was imprisoned and condemned to death on charges of corruption and treachery, in particular collaborating with the Byzantine government against the kingdom of the . During his imprisonment, he wrote The Consolation of Philosophy, in which philosophy in person talks with Boethius.

BONIFACE (WYNFRITH), MISSIONARY AND ARCHBISHOP (C.675-754)

Born in England and christened Wynfrith, he received the name Boniface from Pope Gregory II, who also gave him the task of spreading Christianity in the pagan areas of Europe. He became archbishop of Mainz around 746, founded , notably Fulda (Germany) where he was buried, and established a number of episcopal sees in Germany and Austria. An important collection of his letters is extant. He was martyred at Dokkum in Frisia in 754 by a blow to the head.

BRUNHILD, QUEEN OF THE (D. 613) Daughter of Athanagild, king of the , queen of Sigibert, king of (Eastern Frankia), Brunhild married Sigibert in 566/7. Her sister Galswinth married King Chilperic of (Western Frankia) a little later, but he had her murdered so that he could marry his former lover Fredegund. Hatred between Brunhild and Fredegund formed part of the conflict between their respective husbands. Sigibert was killed in 575, and Brunhild was active in trying to protect the interest of her son Childebert II. After many conflicts, she was handed over to King Chlotar II in 613 and savagely executed.

CÆDWALLA, KING OF GWYNEDD (NORTH ) (D. 634)

Driven from his kingdom by King , Cædwalla invaded Northumbria in 633 in alliance with Penda, king of Mercia, and killed Edwin at the battle of Hatfield Chase. After ravaging the country savagely and killing Edwin's two immediate successors, he was himself killed and defeated by King Oswald at the battle of Heavenfield in 634.

CAESARIUS, ARCHBISHOP OF ARLES (502-42)

Educated at the monastery of Lérins in the delta of the River Rhone, he became archbishop of Arles in 502. He wrote many sermons, which have survived, as well as monastic rules for monks and for nuns.

CASSIAN, JOHN, MONK (C. 360-AFTER 430)

After being a monk at Bethlehem, he studied monasticism in Egypt. About 415, he founded two monasteries near Marseilles (France). He there used material collected in Egypt to write the Institutes, a rule for, and discussion of, monastic life, and the Conferences, consisting of conversations with the great leaders of monasticism in the eastern Mediterranean.

CASSIODORUS, STATESMAN AND AUTHOR (485/90-C. 580)

Born of a Roman senatorial family, he served the kings of the Ostrogoths in Ravenna, and wrote for them the Variae, incorporating official correspondence, and a History of the Goths, which is lost but which seems to have formed the basis of the similar work by Jordanes. At some point in the 540s, he went into exile at , returning to Italy in 554 to establish the monastery of Vivarium on his lands at Squillace near Naples. He built up a considerable library there, books from which were copied widely, including at Monkwearmouth-Jarrow.

CHARLEMAGNE, KING OF THE FRANKS (768-814), KING OF THE (774-814), EMPEROR (800-14)

The eldest son of Pippin III, king of the Franks (751-68), Charlemagne became sole king of the Franks after the death of his brother Carloman in 771. He conquered the Kingdom of the Lombards in 774, and led a campaign to Zaragoza (Spain) in 794, when his army was ambushed by Basques at the Pass of Roncesvalles as it was returning across the Pyrenees. In 788, he deposed Duke Tassilo and took over his duchy of Bavaria. He defeated the Avars and took possession of their treasure and, more importantly, he conquered the pagan area of Saxony, integrated it into the kingdom of the Franks, and made it Christian. He also undertook wars against the duchy of Benevento in southern Italy, and against the Slavs to the east. He was crowned emperor on Christmas day 800 in Rome. His principal palace was Aachen, where he built a major complex of church, hall, and other buildings in the later years of the eighth century. He was buried there.

CHARLES MARTEL, , EFFECTIVE RULER OF THE KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS (718-41) The grandson of Pippin II of Herstal, mayor of the palace of Austrasia (eastern Frankia), Charles Martel fought to establish his position as mayor of the palace of the whole kingdom of the Franks after Pippin II's death in 714, and had succeeded by 718. He was involved in resisting Moslem attacks across the Pyrenees and won a victory near Poitiers in 732.

CHARLES THE BALD, KING OF WEST FRANKIA (840-77) AND EMPEROR (875-7)

Son of the emperor Louis the Pious and his second wife Judith, Charles the Bald was the half- brother of Lothar and Louis the German, who were sons of Louis the Pious. He allied with Louis the German against Lothar, and at the Treaty of Verdun in 843 he was acknowledged as the ruler of west . Although his reign was marred by continuing tension with Lothar and attacks by the Vikings, he devoted considerable effort to promoting scholarship and art. On Christmas Day, 875, he was crowned emperor by the pope in Rome

CLOVIS, KING OF THE FRANKS (481/2-511)

Succeeding to his father Childeric, he won victories over the Roman commander Syagrius at Soissons, over the Alamanns at Tolbiac, and over the Visigoths of south-west Gaul at Vouillé in 507. He was converted to Christianity and baptised by Bishop Remi of Rheims, and his followers are said (by Gregory of Tours) to have followed suit. The date of this is very uncertain and, depending on the interpretation of the surviving texts accepted, it could have been in 486, 496 or as late as 503, 506, or 508.

CNUT THE GREAT, KING OF ENGLAND (1016-35), KING OF (C.1018-35)

Son of Swein Forkbeard, Cnut was present during his father's conquest of England in 1013-14, and returned in 1015 after his father's death. He won a resounding victory at Assandun () and at the end of 1016 he became king of England in succession to the deceased Edmund. He married Emma, second wife of his dead predecessor Æthelred the Unready, and worked closely with Archbishop Wulfstan of York to issue a series of laws. He became king of Denmark on the death of his elder brother Harald around 1018.

COLUMBA (COLUMCILLE), MONASTIC FOUNDER (D. 597)

A member of the Irish dynasty of the Uí Néill who ruled as kings of Tír Conaill, he left in 563 after being excommunicated in 561 for his involvement in a battle. He established a monastery on the island of Iona in the Hebrides, given to him by the king of the kingdom of Dalriada in western Scotland. He also founded other monasteries, including Derry and Durrow in Ireland, and his was an influential figure, including with kings. His life was written in the early eighth century by Adomnán.

COLUMBANUS (D. 615), MONK

An Irishman and a monk at Bangor (Ireland), he left Ireland in around 590 to undertake a perpetual . He established monasteries at Annegray and Luxeuil in eastern France, and Bobbio northern Italy. He wrote a rule for monks which survives.

CONSTANTINE (CAESAR 306-8; AUGUSTUS 308-37)

The son of the co-emperor (or caesar) Constantius Chlorus and his mistress Helena, became a courtier of the emperor Diocletian, and an officer in the Roman armies. He was with his father when the latter died at York in 306, and the armies elected him co-emperor. He led an army to defeat Maxentius, the son of the former emperor Maximian, at the battle of the Milvian Bridge outside Rome in 312, gaining control of the western empire. In 324, he defeated the eastern Roman emperor Licinius and took control of the whole empire. In the same year, he began the conversion of the city of Byzantium into a capital city which was to be known as Constantinople after him. He was himself a Christian, and he favoured Christianity. In 391, he issued the Edict of Milan, which granted religious freedom, he founded a number of churches, and he took a close interest in heresies, including chairing the Council of Nicaea which tried to deal with the heresy of Arianism.

CUTHBERT (D. 687), MONK AND HERMIT, BISHOP OF LINDISFARNE

Born in Northumbria, he became a monk at Melrose (Borders) in 651. He became prior of Melrose in 664, and in the he moved to Lindisfarne, where he became first prior, and then a hermit on the nearby island of Inner Farne (Northumberland). In 685, he was persuaded to become bishop of Lindisfarne, but in 687 he returned to the Inner Farne where he died on 20 March. He was buried in the cemetery at Lindisfarne but, when in 698 his grave was opened and his body found to be undecayed, it was installed in a raised in the church. The still undecayed body was taken with the community when it left Lindisfarne in 875, to be installed at Chester-le-Street () from 893 until it was finally moved to the newly established church of Durham in 995. His life was written in the early eighth century, both by an anonymous monk of Lindisfarne and by Bede.

DIOCLETIAN, EMPEROR (284-305)

Elected by the army as emperor after the murder of his predecessor, Diocletian made Maximian his co-emperor in 286, and in 293 he divided the empire between himself and Maximian as senior emperors (or augusti), each supported by a junior emperor (or caesar). His reign was a period of some military success and some stability, and he undertook governmental reforms, including organising the empire into thirteen administrative units called each ruled by a vicar, and issuing the Edict of Prices (301). He undertook a persecution of Christians which was only ended by his successors. In 305, he retired and forced Maximian to do likewise.

DIONYSIUS EXIGUUS, SCHOLAR

A Scythian monk, and a specialist in canon law and compute (calculating the dates of Church festivals, especially Easter). He worked in Rome from shortly after 496, and his Easter cycle was very influential for Bede.

EDWARD THE CONFESSOR, KING OF ENGLAND (1042-66)

The elder son of King Æthelred II, the Unready, and his queen Emma of Normandy, he went into exile during the reign of King Cnut, returning to England in 1041 and being accepted as king in 1042. His reign was marred by conflict with the family of the great English magnate Godwin, whose son Harold was to succeed him briefly as king in 1066. His principal achievement was the rebuilding and endowment of Westminster Abbey. His widow, Edith, commissioned a life of him, and he eventually came to be regarded as a saint and was canonised by the pope in 1161.

EDWIN, KING OF NORTHUMBRIA (616-33)

A scion of the Northumbrian dynasty of (southern Northumbria), Edwin was in exile during the reign of throughout Northumbria of the king of northern Northumbria, Æthelfrith, whom he defeated with the assistance of the East Anglians in 616. He took control of all Northumbria himself. Having married the Christian princess, Æthelburg of Kent, he was baptised in 627 and was responsible for the first conversion of his kingdom. This was reversed, however, when he was defeated and killed by the king of Gwynned, Caedawalla, at the battle of Hatfield Chase in 633. EINHARD, STATESMAN AND AUTHOR (DIED 840)

Einhard was a layman, educated at the monastery of Fulda (Germany), who came to Charlemagne's court at Aachen (Germany) in the 790s. There he was noted for his expertise in literature, mathematics, and in architecture and art. He acted as an ambassador to the pope in 806, regarding Charlemagne's plan to divide his empire. For a time, he was active in the government of Charlemagne's successor, Louis the Pious, but he eventually withdrew to the monastery of Seligenstadt (Germany), which he had founded. His Life of Charlemagne was probably written around 830.

EMMA, QUEEN OF ENGLAND (1002-1016, 1017-35)

The daughter of Richard I, duke of Normandy, Emma married Æthelred II the Unready, king of England (978-1016), in 1002, and was known in England as Ælfgifu. After her husband's death, she married the Danish conqueror, , king of England (1016-35), in 1017. Following Cnut's death, she was politically active on behalf of her son, Harthacnut. She died in 1052.

GODRIC, HERMIT (D. 1170)

Born in , he became a pedlar in until about 1089 when he made a pilgrimage to Rome. He later went to sea, bought shares in two ships, and became a captain. He made a series of to Jerusalem, Rome, and Saint-Gilles (France). Around 1105, he sold all his possessions and began various attempts to become a hermit in different parts of . Later, he attended school at Durham, and then became a hermit at Finchale on the River Wear below Durham. He was made an associate or confrater of , which after his death built a monastic cell around his tomb at Finchale.

GREGORY THE GREAT, POPE (590-604) the son of a senator, he became prefect of the city of Rome in 573, devoting his wealth to founding six monasteries in Sicily, and one in Rome, at which foundation he became a monk in around 574. The pope, however, compelled him to take posts in the Church, including one at Constantinople. Having become pope in his turn, he had to deal with a difficult situation in Italy, making a peace with the hostile Lombards in 592-3. He was also active with regard to other parts of Western Europe, sending the mission of Augustine to Kent in 597, and also assisting the progress of the Church in Spain, Gaul, and Lombardy. He was the author of a series of Christian works: the Dialogues (a book on the lives of Italian saints, including the author of the Rule of St Benedict composed in the form of dialogues between Gregory and his deacon Peter), The Pastoral Care (a book about how should act, which was later to be thought equally applicable to secular rulers), and The Moralia on Job (a book seeking to convey the teachings of Christianity through a commentary on the Old Testament book of Job, who was notable for patiently suffering God's retribution sitting on a dung-hill). Gregory the Great 590-604

GREGORY VII, POPE (1073-85)

Born in Italy as Hildebrand, he became a monk at Rome, and then chaplain to the pope, with whom he went into exile in Germany. He returned to Rome in 1049 with the newly elected Pope Leo IX, over whom and his successor he had great influence. Becoming pope himself in 1073, his reforming activities brought him into conflict with secular rulers, especially Henry IV, king of Germany, whom he effectively deposed, annulling his subjects oath to him. This led to insurrection against him by the princes of Germany and, in 1077, the king was forced to submit to the pope at Canossa (Italy). He nevertheless remained opposed to the pope, who had to rely on military support from the Normans in Italy. At the end of his life, he was forced to flee to Monte Cassino (Italy) and he died at Salerno (Italy). HARALD BLUETOOTH, KING OF DENMARK AND (C.958-C.987)

Son of Gorm the Old, Harald Bluetooth, became king of Denmark and Norway on his father's death, and he claimed to have established Christianity in Denmark. At Roskilde (Denmark), he established a palace and a cathedral, where he was buried.

HAROLD II, KING OF ENGLAND (1066)

In 1053, he succeeded his father, Godwine, as earl of , in 1055 he took responsibility for the defence of south-west England, and be was a very powerful man when died on 5 January 1066. Edward had made Harold his heir and the latter was crowned at once, even though Edward had probably previously promised the to William, duke of Normandy. Harold defeated the invasion of , king of Norway, at the battle of Stamford Bridge, but was defeated and killed almost immediately afterwards by William, duke of Normandy, at the battle of Hastings.

HENRY THE FOWLER, DUKE OF SAXONY (912-19), KING OF GERMANY (919-36)

Son of Otto, duke of Saxony, Henry succeeded his father as duke on his death in 912, and he became king in 919 after the death of Conrad I. He declined to be anointed or crowned by churchmen. He was active against the military threat of the Magyars from the east, and he built fortified towns (burhs) against them.

HINCMAR, ARCHBISHOP OF RHEIMS (845-82)

Educated at the West Frankish abbey of Saint-Denis (near Paris), he became a member of the court of Louis the Pious, after whose death he became closely involved with the government of his son, Charles the Bald. He was very active with regard to disputes in the Church, especially in that concerning the predestination of the faithful to go to heaven, and he was also a notable specialist in the law of the Church, that is canon law. From 861 to 882, he was the author of the Annals of Saint-Bertin.

HONORATUS, MONK (D. 429/30)

After his conversion to Christianity, Honoratus undertook a pilgrimage to the holy places and monasteries of Syria and Egypt. On his return, he settled around 410 on the island of Lérins near Marseilles (France), where he founded a monastery. In 427 or 428, he became Bishop of Arles.

ISIDORE OF SEVILLE, MONK, BISHOP AND SCHOLAR (C.560-636)

Born of a noble Roman family in the province of Cartagena, his father having fled to Seville from the incursions of the Visigoths, he became a monk around 589, and succeeded his brother as bishop of Seville around 600. He was a prolific author, and his works include a sort of encyclopaedia called the Etymologies, and a Great Chronicle from the creation of the world, as described in the , to the year 636.

JEROME (C.343-420), SCHOLAR

Having studied at Rome, where he was baptised, he went to Palestine to be a hermit in 374. After his return, he was secretary to Pope Damasus from 382 to 385. In 386, he settled at Bethlehem where he founded a monastery. He wrote many commentaries, but his prinicipal work was the Vulgate, the translation of the Bible from the original languages into Latin, in which he was encouraged by Pope Damasus.

JULIAN THE APOSTATE, EMPEROR (360-3)

Half-brother of the first Christian emperor, Constantine, Julian became deeply committed to the pagan philosophy of Neoplatonism. In 355, he was appointed co-emperor (or caesar) of Gaul and Britain, and in 360 his army refused to obey the emperor, Constantius, and elected him to be emperor. Constantius died before Julian entered Constantinople in 361 to take up this position. He promoted and sought to marginalise Christianity in his short reign. He was killed on campaign in Persia in 363.

JUSTINIAN, EMPEROR (527-65)

Nephew and colleague of his predecessor, the emperor Justin I, Justinian was crowned junior emperor in 527, and emperor (or augustus) on Justin's death later in the year. His reign was notable for a series of campaigns to wrest the former Roman Empire in the west from its barbarian rulers. In 533, Justinian's general, Belisarius, led a successful campaign against the Vandal kingdom in Africa. In 535, he led an army into Italy, capturing Rome in 536. But the Ostrogoths proved less easy to defeat, and the conquest of Italy was only completed in 562, under the command of another general called Narses. A further campaign in 551 gave Justinian a toehold in the south of the Visigothic kingdom of Spain. Justinian's reign was also notable for a major codification of Roman law, the Codex Justinianus, and for the lavish building work undertaken by the emperor, especially the construction of the great church of Haghia Sophia in Constantinople.

LEO III, POPE (795-816)

In 799, Leo III was apparently seriously injured by his enemies amongst the of the city of Rome, and fled to Charlemagne, king of the Franks, at his palace at Paderborn in Saxony. Charged by his enemies with improper behaviour, he was escorted back to Rome by Charlemagne's officials, and cleared himself publicly in front of that king on 23 December 800. Two days later, on Christmas day, he crowned Charlemagne emperor in the church of St Peter in Rome.

LOUIS THE PIOUS (778-840), SOLE EMPEROR (814-40)

Born in 778, the son of the Frankish ruler Charlemagne, Louis was made king of Aquitaine (south- west Gaul) in 781. As Charlemagne's only surviving son, he was crowned co-emperor at Aachen in 813, and succeeded as sole emperor on his father's death in 814. His reign was notable for his promotion of Christian culture and monasticism. He had three sons, Lothar, Louis, and Pippin, with his first wife Irmingard (d. 818) and a further son, the future King Charles the Bald, with his second wife Judith, and his reign was marred by protracted disputes over the sucession, including a conflict with his nephew, King Bernard of Italy. After causing the death of the latter as a consequence of having him blinded, he performed a public act of penance in 822. In 833, his three elder sons forced him to abdicate, but he was subsequently able to recover his position. Nonetheless, the question of the succession was not definitely resolved, and there were three years of civil war after his death.

MARTIN, MONASTIC FOUNDER AND BISHOP (C.315/C.336- 397)

Born of pagan parents, he was a Roman soldier, but he became a Christian. In 360, he founded a monastery at Ligugé in the valley of the River Loire (France). Around 371, he became Bishop of Tours, living as a monk and a missionary; and in 372 he established a colony of at nearby Marmoûtier

ODOACER (ODOVACER), RULER OF ITALY (476-93) A barbarian, possibly a Hun, Odoacer was the leader of the overthrow of the last Roman emperor in the west, Romulus Augustulus, in 475. He was proclaimed king by his barbarian soldiers, but the eastern Roman emperor, Zeno, only gave him the title of patrician. Nevertheless, he was the effective ruler of Italy, and he also gained control of Dalmatia on the other side of the Adriatic. Hostile to Odoacer's power, Zeno invited the Ostrogothic leader Theodoric to invade Italy, and the latter besieged Odoacer in the city of Ravenna, and subsequently had him murdered at a feast.

OFFA, KING OF MERCIA (757-96)

A very powerful king who extended his power throughout much of England, apart from Wessex and Northumbria, and who was probably the creator of Offa's Dyke to mark the border with Wales. He issued a law-code, which does not survive but is referred to the laws of King Alfred of Wessex; and he had his son, Ecgfrith, anointed to kingship in preparation for succeeding him, although his reign was very short and turmoil ensued in the kingdom of Mercia.

OLAF, SAINT, KING OF NORWAY (1015-28; D. 1030)

The son of a king of south-east Norway, Olaf had been baptised at Rouen in France, he returned to Norway in 1015 to claim the throne. He brought with him English clergy, and he set about establishing the . He was, however, expelled from Norway, and was eventually killed at the Battle of in 1030, while trying to regain his kingdom. were believed to have occurred around his body, and he soon came to be venerated as a saint.

OLAF TRYGGVASON, KING OF NORWAY (995-9/1000)

Olaf Tryggvason began his career as a leader of Viking raids, notably on England in 991 and 994. He was accepted as king of Norway from 995, and was energetc an determined in establishing Christianity not only in his own country, but also in Iceland, where he instigated the acceptance of the at the assembly (or Althing) in 999.

OSWALD, KING OF NORTHUMBRIA (634-42)

A son of King Æthelfrith of Northumbria, of the Bernician royal family, Oswald spent the reign of King Edwin of Northumbria (616-33), who was of the Deiran royal family, in exile in the kingdom of Dalriada in western Scotland, where he was converted to Christianity. After Edwin's death in 633, Oswald defeated King Cadwallon of Gwynedd, who was ravaging Northumbria, at the Battle of Heavenfield in 634, and seems to have eventually made himself overlord of much of England as well as king of Northumbria. In 635, he founded in partnership with the missionary from Iona, Aidan, the island monastery of Lindisfarne (Holy Island, Northumberland) as the bishopric for Northumbria. He was killed in 642 in battle against the pagan King Penda of Mercia at the battle of Maserfeld, possibly (Shropshire). His death was regarded as a sort of martyrdom, and he was venerated as a saint, with his body being enshrined at (Lincolnshire), his head at Lindisfarne, and his arms at the Northumbrian royal centre of Bardney.

OSWINE, THE KING OF DEIRA (D. 655)

The king of Deira, that is the southern part of Northumbria, he was murdered in 655 at the behest of his co-ruler, King of Northumbria, who built a monastery at Gilling, where Oswine had died, to commemorate him.

OSWIU, KING OF NORTHUMBRIA (642-70)

A son of King Æthelfrith of Northumbria, of the Bernician royal family, Oswiu became king after the death of his brother, King , although there was from then until 655 a king of Deira or southern Northumbria, Oswine. The power of Oswiu was, according to Bede, very extensive, and he was overlord of much of England. In 664, he convened the , which resolved several issues, principally the method of calculating the date of Easter.

OTTO I, KING OF GERMANY (936-73), EMPEROR (962-73)

Son of Henry I, the Fowler, Otto married Edith, daughter of King Æthelstan of the West Saxons. He was crowned in the palace-church at Aachen in 936. He had to deal with civil wars from 937 to 941, and he was very active against the military threat of the Magyars from the east, winning a decisive victory over them at the Battle of the Lech (near Augsburg, Germany) in 955. He was crowned emperor by the pope in Rome in 962, and he was closely involved with Italy from then until his death.

Born in 955 as the son of Otto I, he was crowned as king in 961 and as co-emperor in 967, succeeding to his father in 973. He was militarily successful against Henry the Quarrelsome, duke of Bavaria, whom he had imprisoned in 978, and to an extent against Lothar, king of West Francia; but his campaign in 982 to conquer southern Italy was a disastrous failure. He married the Byzantine princess Theophanu in 972, and died in Rome in 983.

OTTO III, KING OF THE GERMANS (983-1002), EMPEROR (996-1002)

Born in 980 as the only son of Otto II, he was crowned in Aachen on Christmas Day 983. During his childhood, his empire was governed by regents, and his position was threatened by the ambitions of Henry the Quarrelsome, duke of Bavaria. In 995 he went to Italy in response to an appeal for help from the pope, whose successor crowned him emperor in 996. He intervened in Rome again in 998 in support of the pope, and had a palace built for himself there. In 1000, he visited Aachen and opened the tomb of Charlemagne, whose body he was believed to have found undecayed, as a sign of that ruler's sanctity. Otto III died in 1002 at the age of twenty-one.

PAULINUS, BISHOP OF NOLA (353/5-431)

Son of a noble Roman family in Aquitaine, he was a senator and, for a time, governor of the Roman province of Campania (central Italy). After giving up this role, he was baptized and, in 393, ordained priest in Barcelona. In 394, he and his wife went to Italy to lead a monastic life by the tomb of St Felix at Nola (southern Italy).

PENDA OF MERCIA, KING OF MERCIA (D. 655)

A pagan king of Mercia and overlord of southern England, who attacked a number of Christian English kingdoms, being responsible for the deaths of King Anna of the East and King Oswald of Northumbria. After ravaging Northumbria repeatedly, he was killed by the army of King Oswiu of Northumbruia at the battle of the Winwaed in 655.

PEPIN III

See Pippin III.

PIPPIN III, THE SHORT, KING OF THE FRANKS (751-68)

Son of Charles Martel, on his father's death in 741 he and his brother Carloman became jointly Mayors of the Palace, the most powerful office in the Frankish kingdom. In 747, Carloman retired to Rome and Pippin assumed sole power. In 751, he obtained the authorisation of the pope, Zacharias, to be elected king of the Franks, and he had himself anointed king. The last Merovingian king of the Franks, who had had no real power, deposed and consigned to a monastery. Zacharias's successor as pope, Stephen, came to Francia in 754, re-anointed Pippin, and also anointed his two sons, Carloman and Charles, the future Charlemagne. He was very active in warfare, fighting campaigns against the Saxons, the Bavarians, the Aquitanians, and the Lombards. Nevertheless, his reign was notable for his commitment to Christian culture and the reform of the Church.

SIDONIUS APPOLLINARIS (C. 430-C. 486).

A member of a great family of senatorial aristocrats in the area of Lyons (France), he had a political career, including a period as prefect of Rome (468-9). In 470 or 471, he was elected Bishop of Clermont (France). His surviving letter-collection shows that he was a man of great wealth, deeply imbued in classical Roman culture.

THEODORIC, KING OF THE OSTROGOTHS (471-526)

Son of Theodemur, king of the Ostrogoths, Theodoric was a hostage in Constantinople, where he was educated. After he had become sole king of the Ostrogoths , he helped Zeno to become emperor of the Roman Empire in the east in 476. Zeno adopted him, and invited him to go to Italy with the Ostrogoths in 489 to take power from Odoacer, whom he had killed in 493. Theodoric was a successful ruler, who was on good terms with the Romans in Italy until the end of his reign. He was an Arian and built the church of San Apollinare Nuovo in his capital, Ravenna, as well as his own mausoleum, a remarkable building which still stands.

THEODOSIUS I THE GREAT, EMPEROR (379-95)

Proclaimed emperor in the east in 379, he became the ruler of the whole empire after the death of the emperor Gratian in 383, and he was responsible for the settlement of Goths as federates within the empire. In 394, he despatched an army to Italy to put down an attempted usurpation by a certain Eugenius, who was defeated at the Battle of the Frigidus. He was very active against heresy, and in 391 he prohibited pagan worship by law.

ULFILAS (ULPHILAS), MISSIONARY (C.311-83)

Born amongst the Goths north of the River Danube, Ulfilas lived in Constantinople where he was ordained bishop around 341. He returned to the Goths and spent the rest of his life as a missionary, in particular translating the Bible into Gothic, but omitting the Book of Kings as being too warlike.

VENANTIUS FORTUNATUS, POET (C. 535-C. 600)

Born in northern Italy, he received a classical education at the Roman schools of Ravenna. Around 565, he travelled to Gaul and became known as a poet. After spending time at the court of King Sigisbert of the Franks, he became first the secretary to the Frankish queen and abbess Radegund in her monastery at Poitiers in western Gaul, of which city he became bishop in 599. He was the author of eleven books of poems, a Life of St Martin in verse, and lives of other saints of Gaul.

WILFRID, ST, BISHOP AND ABBOT (C.634-709)

Born of an aristocratic family in the Kingdom of Northumbria, was patronised by the queen, Eanflæd. He made a journey to Rome, which had a great impact on him, and then spent three years at Lyon (France). Returning to England, he became abbot of Ripon, was ordained priest in 663, and took part in the Synod of Whitby, which resolved the method to be used for fixing the date of Easter, in 664. In the same year he was appointed Bishop of the Northumbrians, but when he went abroad to be consecrated in Compiègne (France), his see was given to Chad. He was restored in 669, and proved an ambitious bishop, rebuilding the cathedral at York, lavishly founding the abbey of (Northumberland), and - by his own account - introducing the monastic Rule of St Benedict to Northumbria. In 678, however, he was driven from his see, which was divided. Although an appeal to the pope was successful, the king of Northumbria, Ecgfrith, disregarded the papal decision and Wilfrid to Sussex, where he founded the abbey of Selsey, and to Wessex, where he acted for a time as bishop. Following a further appeal to the pope, his position in Northumbria was partially restored in 706, to the extent that he had control of the abbeys of Hexham and Ripon. After his death, his life was written by the Ripon monk Stephanus.

WILLIAM I, THE BASTARD, THE CONQUEROR, DUKE OF NORMANDY, KING OF ENGLAND (1066-87)

The illegitimate son of Robert I, duke of Normandy, he was nevertheless his heir and succeeded him as duke. In 1066, he conquered England, having himself crowned king at Westminster on Christmas Day 1066. He was a determined ruler, responsible for the Harrying of the North in 1069-70, and for the compilation of Domesday Book in 1086.

WILLIBALD, ENGLISH, MISSIONARY (D. C.787)

Beginning his career in England, where he was born, he made extensive journeys to Rome, the Holy Land, Cyprus, and Syria, visiting holy places and monastic communities, which he described in a book he dictated. He made a long stay in Constantinople, returned to Rome in 730, and spent time at the abbey of Monte Cassino (Italy). The pope sent him to Germany, where he became Bishop of Eichstatt in 742, and founded the monastery of Heidenheim. He came to be regarded as a saint after his death and his relics are venerated at Eichstatt.

WILLIBRORD, MISSIONARY (658-739)

Beginning his career as monk at Ripon (), he spent some time at the English monastery of Rath Melsigi (Ireland) before setting out with twelve companions in 690 to convert the Frisia, where he became Archbishop of Utrecht. He faced considerable opposition from the pagan Frisians, being driven out in 714 by their king Radbod to take refuge at the monastery of Echternach (Luxembourg) which he had founded. He returned to Utrecht in 719, following Radbod's death, continued his mission work there, and extended it into Denmark. He was venerated as a saint after his death.