ABSTRACT Title of Document: EMPOWERING IMAGES: NEGOTIATING THE IDENTITY OF AUTHORITY THROUGH MATERIAL CULTURE IN THE HELLENISTIC EAST, 140-38 BCE HyoSil Suzy Hwang, Doctor of Philosophy, 2014 Directed By: Professor Marjorie S. Venit, Department of Art History and Archaeology During the late-second to first century BCE, Tigranes II the Great of Armenia (140-55 BCE), Antiochos I Theos of Commagene (ca. 86-38 BCE), and Mithridates VI Eupator of Pontus (134-63 BCE) employed multivalent imagery to legitimize their positions and assert their authority amid the changing political landscape of the Hellenistic East. Each king’s visual program shaped and reflected the political dynamics of his reign, the mixed cultural identity of his population, and the threats posed by foreign powers. As the kings negotiated their positions within an environment rife with military conflict and in territories composed of multi-ethnic populations, they created nuanced visual programs that layered ties to multiple historic precedents and religious authorities. Each king’s program intended to communicate differently to diverse audiences – both foreign and domestic – while simultaneously asserting the king’s position as the ruler of a powerful and unified realm. This dissertation considers the rulers’ creation and dissemination of such imagery, revealing new dimensions of ruling ideologies and visual culture in the Late Hellenistic East. EMPOWERING IMAGES: NEGOTIATING THE IDENTITY OF AUTHORITY THROUGH MATERIAL CULTURE IN THE HELLENISTIC EAST, 140-38 BCE By HyoSil Suzy Hwang Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland, College Park, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2014 Advisory Committee: Professor Marjorie S. Venit, Chair Professor Meredith J. Gill Professor Maryl B. Gensheimer Professor Eva M. Stehle Professor Lillian E. Doherty © Copyright by HyoSil Suzy Hwang 2014 Disclaimer The dissertation document that follows has had referenced material removed in respect for the owner’s copyright. A complete version of this document, which includes said referenced material, resides in the University of Maryland, College Park’s library collection. Dedication To my family, with all of my love and thanks. ii Acknowledgements I have amassed a great number of individuals throughout this dissertation process to thank for helping me see it through its completion. Writing the following acknowledgements has proved to be one of the most rewarding tasks, allowing me to reflect on those who have supported me through this. It has allowed me to understand the depth of my debt to this community of scholars, mentors, friends, and family members, and to acknowledge their vast contributions to this project and my development as a scholar and a person. My graduate work leading up to this dissertation has been funded by the generosity of the Department of Art History and Archaeology at the University of Maryland, College Park, through teaching fellowships as well as graduate assistantships. I feel truly honored to have benefited from the valuable experiences these fellowships offered in addition to the support it provided for me to progress to this stage. The Jacob K. Goldhaber Travel Grant, a Graduate Student Summer Research Fellowship, two Dr. Erik B. Young International Travel Awards, the Washington Society of the Archaeological Institute of America’s Graduate Student Travel Award, and a joint fellowship shared between the Art History Department and Maryland’s School of Architecture, Planning, and Preservation all helped me reach this stage of the graduate school process. Additionally, the Bert Hodge Hill Scholarship funded the unforgettable and truly life-changing experience I gained from attending the American School of Classical Studies in Athens, Summer Session II. Dr. Marjorie Venit has served as a caring and enthusiastic mentor throughout my graduate career and this particular project. I cannot thank her enough for her iii guidance, incisive critiques, and good humor in helping me get to this stage. She always struck the right balance of sternness and gentle encouragement, and I wish her the happiest of all retirements. Additionally, I owe debts of gratitude to the entire faculty and staff of the Art History Department at Maryland, and most specifically to the members of my dissertation committee, Professors Meredith Gill and Maryl Gensheimer. My thanks extend to the University’s Department of Classics, particularly to Professors Eva Stehle and Lillian Doherty, who have been crucial to the development of this dissertation and have taught me to love Greek. Finally, I would like to thank members of Maryland’s School of Architecture: Christine Hinojosa and Cynthia Frank from the Visual Resource Center, Patricia Cossard from the Architecture Library, and Professor Robert Lindley Vann, for their continued support, interest, and guidance. I also thank Professor Vann for introducing me to Dr. and Mrs. Erik and Joyce Young, whose aid has been crucial to funding many trips and adventures. Throughout this process, many friends – especially my colleagues at the University of Maryland – have provided necessary intellectual and emotional support, and have reminded me to stay humorous and hungry through it all. I thank them for countless hours of supporting me, making many trips to visit through all of my moves (no matter how urban or rural), and encouraging me. I also thank Shawna and Kevin Faro for inviting me to be a special part of their lives, sharing in my trials, frustrations, and successes throughout my entire graduate career. I am lucky beyond belief to have had my family’s support throughout my graduate school career. Moreover, I gained even more family members during this iv process, and I was fortunate enough to find strength in all of them. Their love and encouragement saw me through the most difficult times, and I dedicate this dissertation wholeheartedly to my entire family. Finally, a special thanks to my two boys: Andrew and Dante. They have laughed and cried with me, lifted me up, and picked me back up countless times. Through numerous drafts, long conversations, great meals, sleepless nights, and groggy mornings, they have been my constant companions in DC, Maryland, New York, Berlin, London, France, Italy, and now at our log cabin in Virginia. Without them, this project would never have been completed, and I would not be the person I am today. v Table of Contents Dedication.………………………………………………………………………....…ii Acknowledgements.………………………………………………………………….iii Table of Contents.…………………………………………………………………….vi List of Maps.………………………………………………………………………...viii List of Figures.………………………………………………………………………..ix Introduction.…………………………………………………………………………...1 Chapter One: Tigranes the Great of Armenia and the Tyche of Antioch.…………………..15 The Founding of Antioch.……………………………………………16 The Goddess Tyche and the Tyche of Antioch in Ancient Sources... 20 Recovering the Tyche of Antioch through Later Copies.…………....25 The Greek Reading of the Palm and Mural Crown……...…………..28 The Syrian Reading of the Palm and Mural Crown……….…………32 The Tyche(?) of Antioch for Multiple Audiences………….………...39 The History and Politics of Tigranes the Great of Armenia.……...…50 The Tyche of Antioch on the Coinage of Tigranes the Great.……….54 Conclusion.…………………………………………………………..60 Chapter Two: Antiochos I of Commagene’s Zoroastrian Program at Nemrud Dagh.......….63 The History of Commagene.…………………………………………64 Previous Scholarship on Commagene.………………………………67 Antiochos I’s Hierothesion at Nemrud Dagh.……………………….73 The Artistic and Religious Program at Nemrud Dagh.………………83 Zoroastrian Doctrines.……………………………………………….91 The Visual Representation of the Yashts at Nemrud Dagh.……..…..95 The Political Climate of Commagene during Antiochos I’s Reign...105 Conclusion.…………………………………………………………111 Chapter Three: Mithridates VI Eupator…………………………………………………..…114 The Heritage of Mithridates VI Eupator…………………………....115 Mithridates VI and the Instigation of War against Rome……….….118 The Two Royal Coin Types of Mithridates VI………………….….122 Other Portraits of Mithridates………………………………………131 Greek and Eastern Reception of Mithridates as Alexander………...136 vi The Roman Reception of Mithridates’ Imitatio Alexandri………....146 Conclusion………………………………………………………….156 Conclusion.……………………………………………………………………...….160 Appendix A: The Nomos at Nemrud Dagh………………………………………….……167 Appendix B: Yasht 14…………………………………………………………………..…172 Appendix C: Additional Portraits of Mithridates VI Eupator…………………..……..….180 Maps...........................................................................................................................182 Figures………………………………………………………………………………185 Bibliography..…………………………………………………………………..…..270 vii List of Maps Map 1: Armenian Empire and parts of Asia Minor under Tigranes II the Great Map 2: Commagene during the reign of Antiochos I Theos Map 3: Asia Minor between 189-63 BCE Map 4: Pontic Kingdom under reign of Mithridates VI Eupator viii List of Figures Figure 1.1: Tetradrachm of Tigranes II the Great of Armenia; Tigranes on obverse, Tyche of Antioch on reverse; ca. 83-69 BCE Figure 1.2: Nemesis and Tyche; Attic red-figure amphoriskos; ca. 430 BCE; Berlin (inv. 30036) Figure 1.3: Bronze statuette of Tyche of Antioch; Roman; ca. 100-200 CE; J. Paul Getty Museum 96.AB.196 Figure 1.4: Bronze statuette of Tyche of Antioch; Roman; ca. 100-200 CE; Yale University of Art Gallery 1986.65.1 Figure 1.5: Bronze statuette of Tyche of Antioch; Roman;