HIST3105 War and Society in Ancient , 750-350 BC

This course investigates all aspects of war in its social context in archaic and – from the causes of conflict, via the question of how to train, raise, maintain, and control citizen and mercenary armies, to the range of forms of warfare from ritual clashes to campaigns of annihilation. In particular, the course tackles some of the current in modern scholarship: the notions that war was the ‘normal’ of international relations in Greece; that the citizen army was an essentially ‘middle-class’ body; that warfare was restricted to a game-like competition in the archaic period and became a destructive ‘total’ conlict only in the classical period; that the Athenian navy drove the development of radical ; and that the ‘mercenary explosion’ of the fourth century was a result of economic and political crisis in the Greek city-states. How the fought has been much-debated in recent research, and this too will be the subject of detailed study. A crucial aim of the course is to provide an understanding of how Greek warfare was shaped by the social, economic, and cultural constraints of its time, how it developed, and why wars were so common in .

Our main sources are long narrative accounts of wars which cannot be divided up into thematic sections corresponding to the main topics set out above: a single paragraph of or will contain information on several different topics. One of the challenges of studying Greek warfare is to assemble such disparate bits of evidence from a variety of passages and sources while still paying due attention to the context in which this material appears. A second aim of the course is to provide students with the knowledge and skills to tackle this challenge, by enabling them to study the sources as coherent narratives while analysing their implications for any and all aspects of Greek war and society. Accordingly, this course adopts an unusual structure. The first term is devoted to a close study of the evidence on a source-by-source basis. The understanding of the evidence acquired in this way then forms the basis for thematically organised discussion of ten key topics in the second term. As a result, this course entails a particularly heavy load of reading in the first term, when a weekly average 100 pages of source material needs to be carefully and critically read, along with some secondary material on the nature of each source. This will only be feasible if students do a good deal of preparatory reading over the summer. Moreover, in order to read the sources most effectively, one needs to have some idea of the main problems and debates in the study of Greek warfare, and it will be necessary to read at least one general study of the field before the start of the course. Correspondingly less reading will be required for the second-term classes, which should enable students to spend more time working towards the Special Subject dissertation.

Teaching: the course will be taught by Prof. Hans van Wees, on Mondays, 2-4, in Room G02, Department of (UCL); e-mail: [email protected]; phone: 020 7679 3633.

Prerequisites: students are expected to have passed at least Beginners’ Greek, or an equivalent course, but all sources will be read primarily in English translation. Students are also expected to have completed at least one course in archaic and/or classical Greek history.

Assessment: the taught unit will be assessed by a three-hour written exam (100%).

Non-assessed work: Students will be required to write two 1,500-word pieces of source analysis during the first term (one on the Monday after Reading Week, the other due on the

1 first day of the second term), and one 3,000-word essay on a topic to be agreed with the tutor during the second term (due on the last Monday of term). Students will also be required to make two oral presentations in class, one in each term. The first will discuss the source material assigned for the class, the second will discuss one of the questions formulated for each theme discussed in class. It is acceptable for these presentations to be the basis for the non-assessed coursework. NB: all this non-assessed work is compulsory, i.e. students who do not complete it will not be allowed to enter the final examination and thus will not be able to pass the course.

SET TEXTS (1,005 pp. in total):

Aeneas Tacticus, How To Defend A City Under Siege (53 pp.) , (30 pp.) , (171 pp.) I.1-6 [3 pp.], 65-86 [15], 163-70 [3], III.1-4 [2], 39-60 [8], 120-5 [2], V.30-54 [11], 70-91 [8], 94-103 [4], VI.5-46 [15], 76-84 [3], 87-93 [2], 102-20 [7], 132-40 [3], VII.101-4 [2 pp.], 138-152 [8], 157-72 [7], 201-238 [15], VIII.1-18 [6], 26- 33 [3], 40-97 [21], IX.26-30 [3], 33-39 [3], 51-85 [14], 114-22 [3] , (89 pp.) II.1-483 [11 pp.], III.1-120 [3], 264-461 [4], IV.220-VII.482 [52], XI.670-762 [2] XVII [17] Thucydides, History (180 pp.) I.1-55 [33 pp.], 66-88 [15], 118-25 [5], 139-II.27 [23], II.56-65 [8], 71-8 [6], III.15-26 [6], 36-52 [13], 68 [1], IV.89-101 [9] V.26 [1 p.], 40-81 [26], VI.6-32 [18], 43-52 [5], 67-71 [3], VII.10-20 [5], 27-30 [3] and Callinus, fragments (6 pp.) Xenophon, Anabasis (293 pp.) Xenophon, Commander (30 pp.) Xenophon, Hellenica (153 pp.) I.1.33-36 [1], I.2 [4], I.5-7 [20], II.1-2 [10] III.2.21-31 [3 pp.], II.4-5 [18], IV.1.17-3.23 [19], IV.4.7-8.39 [34], V.1 [10], VI.1-2 [15], VI.4 [11], VII.5 [8]

2 Students are advised to buy their own copies of Homer’s Iliad, Herodotus’ and Thucydides’ Histories, and Xenophon’s Anabasis and Hellenica (all available in Penguin , and in other translations), but texts and translations are also available in the library, and on-line (Perseus). Aeschylus’ Persians and Xenophon’s Cavalry Commander are also available in library and on-line. Aeneas Tacticus is not available via Perseus; David Whitehead’s translation and commentary is preferable to the Loeb edition. Handouts with fragments of archaic poetry and other material will be xeroxed and distributed.

PROGRAMME OF CLASSES

TERM 1 : SOURCES

1-3: AN EYEWITNESS ACCOUNT OF A MERCENARY EXPEDITION 1. XENOPHON, ANABASIS I AND II (80 pp.) 2. XENOPHON, ANABASIS III-V.5 (103 pp.) 3. XENOPHON, ANABASIS V.6-VII.8 (110 pp.)

4: WAR IN ARCHAIC POETRY: HOMER, CALLINUS, TYRTAEUS (95 pp.)

5: EARLY GREEK WARS IN ORAL TRADITION: HERODOTUS’ HISTORIES (86 pp.)

6: XERXES’ INVASION IN HERODOTUS AND AESCHYLUS (115 pp.)

7-9: CONTEMPORARY : THUCYDIDES AND XENOPHON 7: THUCYDIDES ON THE ARCHIDAMIAN WAR (119 pp.) 8: THUCYDIDES AND XENOPHON ON THE DECELEAN WAR (96 pp.) 9. XENOPHON ON HEGEMONIC WARS, 402-362 BC (118 pp.)

10: TECHNICAL TREATISES: AENEAS AND XENOPHON (83 pp.)

TERM 2: THEMES

11: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND CAUSES OF WAR

12: CITIZEN MILITIAS I: EQUIPMENT, STATUS AND IDEALS

13: CITIZEN MILITIAS II: TRAINING AND ORGANISATION

14: MERCENARIES: WHO AND WHY?

15: CAMPAIGNS: GOALS, METHODS AND LOGISTICS

16: COMBAT I: HOMER AND THE SEVENTH CENTURY

17: COMBAT II: THE CLASSICAL PERIOD

18: SIEGE WARFARE: CHANGING METHODS ANDRISING COSTS

19: NAVAL WARFARE: CHANGING METHODS AND RISING COSTS

20: THE NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF GREEK WARFARE

3 GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

Students must read in advance at least one of the following (* = recommended): J.K. Anderson, Military Theory and Practice in the Age of Xenophon (Berkeley 1970) P. Ducrey, Warfare in Ancient Greece (New York 1986) Y. Garlan, War in the Ancient World: A Social History (London 1975) V.D. Hanson (ed.), : The Classical Greek Battle Experience (London 1991) *L. Rawlings, The Ancient Greeks at War (Manchester 2007) J. Rich and G. Shipley (eds.), War and Society in the Greek World (London 1993) *P. Sabin, H. van Wees and M. Whitby, The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare, Volume I, chapters 1-9 (Cambridge 2007) *H. van Wees, Greek Warfare: Myths and Realities (London 2004) H. van Wees (ed.), War and Violence in Ancient Greece (London 2000)

Further general bibliography:

F. E. Adcock, The Greek and Macedonian Art of War (Berkeley 1957) M-C. Amouretti et al., Le regard des Grecs sur la guerre : mythes et réalités (Paris 2000) T. Bekker-Nielsen and L. Hannestad (eds.), War as a Cultural and Social Force (Copenhagen 2001) E. Bragg et al (eds.), Beyond the Battlefields: new perspectives on warfare and society in the Greco-Roman world (Oxford 2008) P. Connolly, Greece and at War (London 1981) D. Dawson, The Origins of Western Warfare (Boulder/Oxford 1996) A. Ferrill, The Origins of War (London 1985) Y. Garlan, Guerre et économie en Grèce ancienne (Paris 1989) V.D. Hanson, The Wars of the Ancient Greeks (1999) S. Hodkinson and A. Powell (eds.), & War (Swansea 2006) P. Krentz, ‘Warfare’, in A. Shapiro (ed.) Cambridge Companion to (2006) J. Lee, ‘Warfare in the classical age’, in K. Kinzl (ed.) A Companion to the Classical Greek World (Oxford 2006), 480-508 J.E. Lendon, Soldiers and Ghosts: a history of battle in (New Haven 2005) A.B. Lloyd (ed.), Battle in Antiquity (London 1996) W.K. Prichett, The Greek State at War, vols. I-V (Berkeley 1971-1990) K. Raaflaub, War and Peace in the Ancient World (Oxford 2007) K. Raaflaub and N. Rosenstein (eds.), War and Society in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds Asia, the Mediterranean, Europe and Mesoamerica (Washington 1999) L. Rawlings, ‘Warfare’, in A. Erskine (ed.), A Companion to (Oxford 2009) A. Santosuosso, Soldiers, Citizens & The Symbols of War (Boulder/Oxford 1997) H. Sidebottom, : a very short introduction (Oxford 2004) H. Singor, ‘War and international relations’, in K. Raaflaub and H. van Wees (eds.), A Companion to Archaic Greece (Oxford/Malden 2009) L. Tritle, From Melos to My Lai. War and Survival (London and New York 2000) H. van Wees, ‘The city at war’, in R. Osborne (ed.) Classical Greece (Short Oxford ) (Oxford 2000) H. van Wees, ‘War in archaic and classical Greece’, in P. de Souza (ed.), The Ancient World at War: a global history (2008), 100-117 J.P. Vernant, ‘City-State Warfare’, and Society (London 1980), 19-44

4 J.P. Vernant (ed.), Problèmes de la guerre en Grèce ancienne (Paris 1968) J. Warry, Warfare in the Classical World (New York 1980) E.L. Wheeler, The Armies of Classical Greece (Aldershot 2007)

Some collections of sources in translation:

M. Sage, Warfare in Ancient Greece: a sourcebook (London 1996) C. Fornara, Archaic Times to the End of the (1983) P. Harding, From the End of the Peloponnesian War to the Battle of Ipsus (1985) P.J. and R. Osborne, Greek Historical Inscriptions 404-323 BC (2003)

CLASS BIBLIOGRAPHIES

1-3. AN EYEWITNESS ACCOUNT OF A MERCENARY EXPEDITION 1. XENOPHON, ANABASIS I AND II 2. XENOPHON, ANABASIS III-V.5 3. XENOPHON, ANABASIS V.6-VII.8

Set texts: as in class titles, above. Other sources: Xenophon, Hellenica 3.1.1-6 Questions: What does Anabasis tell us about equipment, organisation, discipline, logistics, pay, etc., of a mercenary army?How is this likely to have differed from a militia army? What does Xenophon tell us about the motivations and idea(l)s of mercenary soldiers? What biases can we detect in Xenophon’s account, and how do these affect its reliability?

Bibliography J.K. Anderson, Xenophon (1974) J.K. Anderson, Military Theory and Practice in the Age of Xenophon (1970) A. Dalby, ‘Greeks abroad: social organisation and food among the Ten Thousand’, Journal of Hellenic Studies 112 (1992), 16-30 R. Lane Fox (ed.), The Long March: Xenophon and the ten thousand (2004) J.W.I. Lee, A Greek Army on the March: soldiers and survival in Xenophon's Anabasis (2007) G. Nussbaum, The Ten Thousand: a study in social organization and action in Xenophon’s Anabasis (1967) J. Roy, ‘The mercenaries of Cyrus’, Historia 16 (1967), 287-323 J.P. Stronk, The Ten Thousand in : an archaeological and historical commentary on Xenophon’s Anabasis, Books VI.3-VII (1995) R. Waterfield, Xenophon's Retreat: Greece, Persia and the end of the Golden Age (2006)

Further on Xenophon, see classes 8-10; further on mercenaries, see class 14

5 4. WAR IN ARCHAIC POETRY Set texts: Homer, Iliad II.1-483 [11 pp.], III.1-120 [3], 264-461 [4], IV.220-VII.482 [52], XI. 670-762 [2], XVII [17]; Tyrtaeus and Callinus, fragments [6 pp.] Other sources: frs. 1-3; Archilochos frs. 101, 110-11, 114, and elegies frs. 1-6; Alcaeus frs. 69, 112, 140, 350, 400, 401b; , frs. 13a, 14 Questions: What does epic poetry tell us about causes of war, forms of combat, arms and armour, leadership and organisation, the nature of , etc.? How does this compare with the fragments of the lyric poets? To what extent is the epic material consistent? To what extent is it realistic? What are the problems in using fragmentary poetry? Bibliography G.S. Kirk (general editor), The Iliad: A Commentary. Vols. I-VI(1985-1993) M.M. Willcock, A Companion to the Iliad (1976) General M.I. Finley, The World of Odysseus. Second edition (1977) R. Fowler (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Homer (2004) J. Griffin, Homer on Life and Death (1980) I. Morris & B. Powell (eds.), A New Companion to Homer (1997) M. Mueller, The Iliad (1984) J. Redfield, Nature and Culture in the Iliad (1975) H. van Wees, Status Warriors: war, violence amd society in Homer and history (1992) Combat: see Class 16, below Organisation W. Donlan, ‘Chiefs and followers in pre-state Greece’, in id. The Aristocratic Ideal (1999) P. Greenhalgh, ‘The Homeric Therapon and Opaon’, BICS 29 (1982), 81-90 H. van Wees, ‘Princes at dinner’, in J.P. Crielaard (ed.), Homeric Questions (1995), 147-82 H. van Wees, ‘Leaders of men ? Army organization in the Iliad’, CQ 36 (1986), 285-303 Warrior mentality and ‘heroic code’ P. Greenhalgh, ‘Patriotism in the Homeric world’, Historia 21 (1972), 528-37 J. Shay, Achilles in Vietnam (1994) C. Starr, ‘Homeric cowards and heroes’, in id., Essays on Ancient History (1979), 97-102 L. Tritle, ‘Hector’s body: mutilation of the dead in ancient Greece and Vietnam’, Ancient History Bulletin 11 (1997), 123-36; also Tritle 2000, 34-54 H. van Wees, ‘Heroes, knights and nutters’, in Lloyd (ed.) 1996, 1-86

5. EARLY GREEK WARS IN ORAL TRADITION: HERODOTUS’ HISTORIES Set texts: Herodotus, Histories I.1-6 [3 pp.], 65-86 [15], 163-70 [3], III.1-4 [2], 39-60 [8], 120-5 [2], V.30-54 [11], 70-91 [8], 94-103 [4], VI.5-46 [15], 76-84 [3], 87-93 [2], 102-20 [7], 132-40 [3] Other sources: , On the Malice of Herodotus; Diodorus, fragments of book 8-10 Hand-out with texts relating to and of Argos Questions: What was the nature of Greek oral tradition about warfare? How did Herodotus shape his account of archaic warfare, and why? What information about Greek warfare can we extract from Herodotus?

6 Bibliography

Commentaries: D. Asheri, et al., A Commentary on Herodotus, books I-IV (2007) W.W. How and J. Wells, A Commentary on Herodotus (1912) R. W.Macan, Herodotus: the fourth, fifth, and sixth books (1895) L. Scott, A Historical Commentary on Herodotus Book VI (2006)

E. Bakker, I. de Jong, and H. van Wees (eds.), Brill’s Companion to Herodotus (2002) P. Derow and R.Parker (eds.), Herodotus and his World (2003) C. Dewald and J. Marincola (eds), The Cambridge Companion to Herodotus (2006) D. Fehling, Herodotus and His ‘Sources’ (1989) J. Gould, Herodotus (1989) F. Hartog, The Mirror of Herodotus (1988) Herodotus and the Invention of History : papers in Arethousa 20 (1987) P. Hunt, Slaves, warfare, and ideology in the Greek historians (1998) E. Irwin and E. Greenwood (eds.), Reading Herodotus: a study of the logoi in Book 5 (2007) D. Lateiner, The Historical Method of Herodotus (1989) N. Luraghi (ed.), The Historian’s Craft in the Age of Herodotus (2001) O. Murray, ‘Herodotus and oral tradition’, in Sancisi, H. & Kuhrt, A. (eds.), Achaemenid History II: The Greek Sources (1987), 93-115 J.M. Redfield, ‘Herodotus the Tourist’, Classical Philology 80 (1985), 97-118 J. Romm, Herodotus (1998) G. Shrimpton, History and Memory in Ancient Greece (1997) R. Thomas, Herodotus in Context (2000) R. Thomas, Oral Tradition and Written Record in Classical (1987)

J.K. Davies, ‘The tradition about the ’, in S. Hornblower (ed.), Greek Historiography (1994), 193-212 J. Hall, A History of the Archaic Greek World (2007), 1-8 (Lelantine War), 145-54 (Pheidon) E. Wheeler, ‘Ephorus and the prohibition of missiles’, TAPA 117 (1987), 157-82

6. XERXES’ INVASION IN HERODOTUS AND AESCHYLUS Set texts: Herodotus VII.101-4 [2], 138-152 [8], 157-72 [7], 201-238 [15], VIII.1-18 [6], 26- 33 [3], 40-97 [21], IX.26-30 [3], 33-39 [3], 51-85 [14], 114-22 [3] Aeschylus, The Persians [30] Other sources: Simonides, frs. 1-22; Diodorus XI.1-19, 27-39; Ctesias FGrH 688 F 13.27-30 ; Plutarch, On the Malice of Herodotus; Life of ; Life of ; Fornara nos. 48-61, esp. Themistocles Decree (55), and Oath of Plataea (57) Questions: What were Herodotus’ sources for the events of 480-479 BC? To what extent did he draw on Aeschylus? How do Aeschylus and Herodotus differ in their presentation of events? How reliable is Herodotus’ account of these campaigns and battles? What do these two sources tell us about the norms and ideals of warfare, and about Greek perceptions of themselves and of their enemies? Bibliography R.W. Macan, Herodotus: the seventh, eighth & ninth books, with introduction, text, apparatus, commentary, appendices, indices, maps (1908)

7 W.W. How and J. Wells, A Commentary on Herodotus (1912) A.M. Bowie, Herodotus, Histories Book VIII (2007) M.A. Flower and J. Marincola, Herodotus, Histories Book IX (2002) E. Hall, Aeschylus: Persians, edited with an introduction, translation and commentary (1995) A.J. Podlecki, Aeschylus, The Persians.Translated with introduction and commentary. Second revised edition (1991) D. Boedeker, ‘Heroic historiography: Simonides and Herodotus on Plataea’, in Boedeker and Sider (eds.), The New Simonides (2001), 120-34 J. Dillery, ‘Reconfiguring the past: Thyrea, and narrative patterns in Herodotus’ American Journal of Philology 117 (1996), 217-54 M. Flower, ‘Simonides, Ephorus and Herodotus on the ’, Classical Quarterly 48 (1998), 365-79 E. Hall, ‘Asia unmanned’, in Rich and Shipley (eds.) 1993, 106-33 T. Harrison, The emptiness of Asia: Aeschylus’ Persians and the history of the fifth century (2000) R. Nyland, ‘Herodotus’ sources for the Plataiai campaign’, Antiquité Classique 61 (1992), 80- 97 C. Pelling, ‘Aeschylus’ Persae and history’, in id. (ed.), Greek and the Historian (1997), 1-19 A. Burn, Persia and the Greeks: the defence of the West, c. 546-478 BC (1984) P. Cartledge, Thermopylae : the battle that changed the world (2006) G. Cawkwell, The Greek Wars: the failure of Persia (2005), ch. 5; appendices 1, 3-6 C.C. Chiasson, The question of tragic influence on Herodotus (1984) P. Green, The Year of Salamis, 480-479 (1970) C. Hignett, Xerxes’ Invasion of Greece (1963) J. Lazenby, The Defence of Greece (1993) B. Strauss, The (2004) H. van Wees, ‘The oath of the sworn bands’, , in A. Luther et al (eds.), Das frühe Sparta (Mainz 2006), 125-64 H.T. Wallinga, Xerxes’ Greek adventure: the naval perspective (2005) J. Wiesehöfer, ‘Greeks and Persians’, in K. Raaflaub and H. van Wees (eds.), A Companion to Archaic Greece (2009), ch. 9

7-9. CONTEMPORARY HISTORIOGRAPHY

7. THUCYDIDES ON THE ARCHIDAMIAN WAR Set texts: I.1-55 [33 pp.], 66-88 [15], 118-25 [5], I.139-II.27 [23], II.56-65 [8], II.71-8 [6], III.15-26 [6], 36-52 [13], 68 [1], IV.89-101 [9] Other sources: , esp. Acharnians and Knights; Diodorus XII.33-76; Plutarch, ; ;Fornara nos. 123-140 Questions: What aspects of war receive particular attention from Thucydides? Are there any significant blind spots or omissions? Can we detect any political or other biases in his account? What is the value of the speeches, as opposed to the narrative, as historical evidence?

8 Bibliography A. Gomme, et al. A Historical Commentary on Thucydides, Vols. I-V (1945-1981) S. Hornblower, A Commentary on Thucydides, Vols. I-III (1991-2009) G. Cawkwell, Thucydides and the Peloponnesian War (1997) W.R. Connor, Thucydides (1984) J. de Romilly, Thucydides and Athenian Imperialism (1963) K.J. Dover, Thucydides (1973) S. Hornblower, Thucydides (1987) E. Greenwood, Thucydides and the Shaping of History (2006) V.J. Hunter, Thucydides the Artful Reporter (1973) L. Kallet-Marx, Money, Expense and Naval Power in Thucydides (1993) L. Kallet-Marx, Money and the Corrosion of Power in Thucydides (2001) J. Price, Thucydides and Internal War (2001) A. Rengakos and A. Tsakmakis, Brill’s companion to Thucydides (2006) T. Rood, Thucydides: Narrative and Explanation (1998) V.D. Hanson, A War Like No Other: how the Athenians and Spartans fought the Peloponnesian War (2005) S. Hornblower, The Greek World, 479-323 BC. Third edition (2002), Chs. 9-13 D. Kagan, The Peloponnesian War (2003) D. Kagan, The Archidamian War (1974) D. Kagan, The Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War (1969) J. Lazenby, The Peloponnesian War: a military study (2004) J. Roisman, The General and his use of military surprise (1993) G.E.M. de Ste Croix, The Origins of the Peloponnesian War (1972) P. de Souza, The Peloponnesian War, 431-404 B.C (2003) J. Wilson, Athens and Corcyra: strategy and tactics in the Peloponnesian War (1987)

8. THUCYDIDES AND XENOPHON ON THE DECELEAN WAR Set texts: Thuc. V.26 [1], 40-81 [26], VI.6-32 [18], 43-52 [5], 67-71 [3], VII.10-20 [5], 27-30 [3] Xen. Hellenica I.1.33-36 [1], I.2 [4], I.5-7 [20], II.1-2 [10] Other sources: Aristophanes, esp. ; Diodorus XIII.39-51, 68-74, 97-107; Plutarch, ; ; Fornara nos. 148-170 Questions: As for previous class – and the same questions apply to Xenophon. How do Thucydides and Xenophon differ in their accounts? How do these accounts differ from Thucydides’account of the Archidamian War? How did the two phases of the Peloponnesian War differ? Bibliography (for Thucydides, see also class 7; for Xenophon, see also classes 1-3, 9)

P. Krentz, Xenophon, Hellenica I-II.3.10 (1989) G.E. Underhill, A commentary with introduction and appendix on the Hellenica of Xenophon (1900) E.M. Soulis, Xenophon and Thucydides : a study on the historical methods of Xenophon in the Hellenica with special reference to the influence of Thucydides (1972) D. Kagan, The Fall of the Athenian Empire (1987)

9 9. XENOPHON ON HEGEMONIC WARS, 402-362 BC Set texts: Hellenica III.2.21-31 [3 pp.], III.4-5 [18], IV.1.17-3.23 [19], IV.4.7-8.39 [34], V.1 [10], VI.1-2 [15], VI.4 [11], VII.5 [8] Other sources: Xenophon, Agesilaus; Plutarch, Agesilaus; ; Diodorus XIV-XV; Hellenica Oxyrhynchia; Harding nos 1-57; Rhodes and Osborne 1-42 Questions: How does Xenophon’s account in this part of the Hellenica differ from his account of the Peloponnesian War, and why? What were his sources? Is there any sign of political bias, or of a personal agenda, on Xenophon’s part? How does Hellenica differ from Anabasis in its representation of aspects of warfare? Bibliography (see also classes 1-3) P. Krentz, Xenophon, Hellenica II.3.11-IV.2.8 (1995) G.E. Underhill, A commentary with introduction and appendix on the Hellenica of Xenophon (1900) J. Dillery, Xenophon and the history of his times (1995) V. Gray, The character of Xenophon's Hellenica (1989) C. Grayson, ‘Did Xenophon intend to write history?’, in B. Levick (ed.), The Ancient Historian and His Materials (1975), 31-43 C. Tuplin, ‘Military engagements in Xenophon’s Hellenica’, in I. Moxon et al. (eds.), Past Perspectives (1986), 37-66 C. Tuplin, The Failings of Empire: a reading of Xenophon, Hellenica 2.3.11-7.5.27 (1993) C. Tuplin (ed.), Xenophon and his World (2004) N. Wood, ‘Xenophon’s theory of leadership’, Classica & Medievalia 25 (1964), 33-66

J. Buckler, The Theban , 371-362 BC (1980) J. Buckler, Aegean Greece in the fourth century BC (2003) J. Buckler and H. Beck, Central Greece and the of power in the fourth century (2008) P. Cartledge, Agesilaos and the Crisis of Sparta (1989) C. D. Hamilton, Sparta’s Bitter Victories: politics and diplomacy in the (1979) C. D. Hamilton, Agesilaos and the Failure of (1991) S. Hornblower, The Greek World, 479-323 BC. Third edition (2002), chs. 15-16 D. Lewis, et al. (eds.), Cambridge Ancient History, second edition: Vol VI: The Fourth Century BC (1994) L. Tritle (ed.), The Greek World in the Fourth Century (1997)

10. TECHNICAL TREATISES Set texts: Aeneas Tacticus, How To Defend A City Under Siege [53 pp.] Xenophon, The Cavalry Commander [30 pp.] Other sources: Asclepiodotus, Tactica; Arrian, Tactica; Onasander, Strategikos Note also Xenophon, Cyropaedia Questions: Why did Xenophon and Aeneas write their treatises? To what extent is their advice practical? Do their treatises have a theoretical dimension? To what extent are they representative of fourth-century warfare? Why have (only) these two classical military technical treatises survived?

10 Bibliography (see also classes 12 on cavalry, 13 on leadership, 17 on siege warfare) S. Hornblower, The Greek World, 479-323 BC. Third edition (2002), pp. 184-97 P. Vidal-Naquet, ‘The tradition of the Athenian ’, in id. The Black Hunter (1986) D. Whitehead, Aeneas Tacticus: How to Defend a City under Siege. Second edition (2001)

11. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND CAUSES OF WAR

Questions What factors encouraged or inhibited the outbreak of war in the Greek world? In what ways and why was ‘international prestige’ a cause and goal of Greek wars? In what forms and why was ‘profit’ a cause and goal of Greek wars?

Bibliography

International relations F.E. Adcock & D.J. Mosley, Diplomacy in Ancient Greece (New York 1975) R.A. Bauslaugh, The Concept of Neutrality in Classical Greece (Berkeley 1991) P. Karavites, ‘Greek Interstate Relations... in the Fifth Century BC’, Parola del Passato 39 (1984), 161-92 K. Raaflaub, ‘Politics and interstate relations in the world of early Greek poleis’, Antichthon 31 (1997), 1-27 P. Rhodes, ‘Making and breaking treaties in the Greek world’, in P. de Souza and J. France (eds.), War and Peace in Ancient and Medieval History (Cambridge 2008), 6-27 T.T.B. Ryder, Koine Eirene (Oxford 1965) B. Strauss, ‘The art of alliance and the Peloponnesian war’, in C.D. Hamilton and P. Krentz (eds.), and Polemos (Claremont 1997), 127-46 H. van Wees, Status Warriors (1992), 168-72 H. van Wees, ‘War and peace in ancient Greece’, in A.V. Hartmann and B. Heuser (eds.), War, Peace and World Orders in European History (London 2001), 33-47

Kinship and friendship G. Herman, Ritualized Friendship and the Greek City (Cambridge 1987) S. Hornblower, A Commentary on Thucydides, Vol. II (Oxford 1996), 61-80 C. Jones, Kinship Diplomacy in the Ancient World (Cambridge, Mass. 1999) A. Missiou, ‘Reciprocal generosity in the foreign affairs of fifth-century Athens and Sparta’, in C. Gill, N. Postlethwaite and R. Seaford (eds.), Reciprocity in Ancient Greece (Oxford 1998), 181-98 L. Mitchell, Greeks Bearing Gifts (Oxford 1997) L. Mitchell, ‘Philia, Eunoia and Greek Interstate relations’, Antichthon 31 (1997), 28-44

Panhellenism and Greek identity M. Anderson, ‘The Imagery of the Persians’, G&R 19 (1972), 166-74 J. Dillery, Xenophon and the History of His Times (London 1995), 41-98 E. Hall, ‘Asia Unmanned: Images of Victory...’, in Rich and Shipley (eds.) 1993, 106-33 E. Hall, Inventing the Barbarian (Oxford 1989) J. Hall, Hellenicity. Between ethnicity and culture (Chicago 2002) J. Henderson, ‘Amazons in Early Greek Art and Pottery’, in S. Goldhill and R. Osborne (eds.), Art and text in Culture (Cambridge 1994), 85-137 L. Mitchell, Panhellenism and the Barbarian (2007)

11 S. Perlman, ‘Panhellenism, the polis, and imperialism’, Historia 25 (1976), 1-30

Attitudes to war and peace D. Arnould, Guerre et paix dans la poésie grecque (New York 1981) J. de Romilly, ‘Guerre et paix entre cités’, in Vernant (ed.) 1968, 207-20 N. Spiegel, War and Peace in Classical Greek (Jerusalem 1990) D.J. Bederman, International Law in Antiquity (Cambridge 2001) K. Raaflaub, War and Peace in the Ancient World (Oxford 2007) G. Zampaglione, The Idea of Peace in Antiquity (Notre Dame and London 1973)

Causes of war E. Badian, ‘Thucydides and the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War: a historian’s brief’, in J. Allison (ed.), Conflict, Antithesis and the Ancient Historian (1990); reprinted in Badian, From Plataea to Potidaea (1993), 125-62 J. Cobet, ‘Herodotus and Thucydides on war’, in I. Moxon et al. (eds.), Past Perspectives : Studies in Greek and Roman Historical Writing (London 1986), 1-18 G. Crane, ‘Power, prestige, and the Corcyrean affair’, Classical Antiquity 11 (1992), 1-27, also in G. Crane, Thucydides and the Ancient Simplicity (Berkely 1998) G.E.M. de Ste Croix, The Origins of the Peloponnesian War (London 1972) A. Momigliano, ‘Some observations on the causes of war in ancient historiography’, Studies in Historiography (London 1966), 112-26 P.J. Rhodes, ‘Thucydides on the causes of the Peloponnesian War’, Hermes 115 (1987), 154- 65 R. Sealey, ‘Thucydides, Herodotus and the causes of war’, CQ 51 (1957), 1-12

Revenge H.J. Gehrke, ‘Die Griechen und die Rache. Ein Versuch in historischer Psychologie’, Saeculum 38 (1987), 121-49 J. de Romilly, ‘La vengeance comme explication historique’, Revue des Etudes Grecques 84 (191) 314-37 H. van Wees (ed.), War and Violence in Ancient Greece ( 2000), chapters by J.E. Lendon (1- 30), J. Shay (31-56), and N. Fisher (83-123) H. van Wees, Status Warriors (1992), 172-207

Case study: Sparta and Elis, 420-400 C. Falkner, ‘Sparta and the Elean War, c. 401/400: revenge or imperialism?’, Phoenix 50 (1996), 17-25 C. Falkner, ‘Sparta and Lepreon in the Archidamian War’, Historia 48 (1999), 385-94 J. Roy, ‘Spartan aims in the Spartan-Elean war of c. 400’, Electronic Antiquity 3.6 (1997) J. Roy, ‘The quarrel between Elis and Sparta in 420 BC’, Klio 80 (1998), 360-8

Piracy P. de Souza, ‘Greek Piracy’, The Greek World, ed. A. Powell (London 1995), 179-98 P. de Souza, Piracy in the Graeco-Roman World (Cambridge 1999) A. Jackson, ‘Privateers in the ancient Greek world’, in War and Society, ed. M.R.D. Foot (London 1973), 241-53 A. Jackson, ‘Wars and raids for booty in the world of Odysseus’, in Rich and Shipley 1993, 64-76 A. Jackson, ‘Sea-raiding in archaic Greece with special attention to ’, in G. Oliver et al. (eds.), The Sea in Antiquity (Oxford 2000), 133-49

12 H. Ormerod, Piracy in the Ancient World (Liverpool 1924/1978)

Booty Y. Garlan, ‘War, piracy, and in the Greek world’, in Classical Slavery, ed. M.I. Finley (London 1987), 7-21 A. Jackson, ‘Wars and raids for booty...’, in Rich and Shipley (eds.) 1993, 64-76 B. MacDonald, ‘Leisteia and leizomai in Thucydides ...’, American Journal of Philology 105 (1984), 77-84 W.K. Pritchett, The Greek State at War, Parts II, III, and V (1972-1990) H. van Wees, Status Warriors (1992), 207-58, 299-310

The : booty or revenge? A. Jackson, ‘The original purpose of the Delian League’, Historia 18 (1969), 12-16 K. Raaflaub, ‘Beute, Vergeltung, Freiheit?’ Chiron 9 (1979), 1-22 R. Sealey, ‘The origin of the Delian League’, Ancient Society and Institutions. Studies...Ehrenberg, ed. E. Badian (Oxford 1966), 233-55

Hegemony and empire M. Finley, ‘War and Empire’, Ancient History: Evidence & Models (London 1985), 67-87 J. Wickersham, Hegemony and Greek Historians (London 1994) M. Finley, ‘The fifth-century empire: a balance sheet’, in id., Economy and Society in Ancient Greece (New York 1981), 41-61 R. Meiggs, The Athenian Empire (Oxford 1972) P.J. Rhodes, The Athenian Empire (Greece & Rome New Surveys 17; 1985) J. Cargill, The (1981) J. Cargill, Athenian Settlements of the Fourth Century BC (Leiden 1995) J. Dillery, ‘Xenophon’s Poroi and Athenian Imperialism’, Historia 42 (1993), 1-11 R. Kallet-Marx, ‘Athens, Thebes, and the foundation of the Second Athenian League’, Classical Antiquity 4 (1985), 127-151 S. Ruzicka, ‘ and the genesis of the Social War’, Classical Philology 93 (1998), 60-9

Spartan hegemony and imperialism P. Cartledge, Agesilaos and the Crisis of Sparta (London 1987) C. Hamilton, Agesilaos and the Failure of Spartan Hegemony (Ithaca 1991) S. Hodkinson, ‘Warfare, Wealth and the Crisis of Society’, in Rich and Shipley (eds.) 1993, 146-76 H.W. Parke, ‘The development of the second Spartan empire’, JHS 50 (1930), 37-79 H. van Wees, ‘Conquerors and serfs’, in S. Alcock and N. Luraghi (eds.), and Their Masters (Washington 2003), 33-80 D. Yates, ‘The archaic treaties between the Spartans and their allies’, CQ 55 (2005), 65-76

12: CITIZEN MILITIAS I: EQUIPMENT, STATUS AND IDEALS

Questions: Who were the hoplites, and why were they such a significant military force? How significant were the military roles of non-hoplites? What was the relation between military role, social status and political power in archaic and classical Greece?

13 Bibliography

Hoplite arms and armour J.K. Anderson 1970, 13-42 J.K. Anderson, ‘Hoplite weapons and offensive arms’, in Hanson (ed.) 1991, 15-37 H. Hoffmann, Early Cretan Armourers (Mainz 1972) E. Jarva, Archaiologia on Archaic Greek Body Armour (Rovaniemi 1995) J. Lazenby and D. Whitehead, ‘The myth of the hoplite’s hoplon’, Classical Quarterly 46 (1996), 27-33 A.M. Snodgrass, Early Greek Armour and Weapons (Edinburgh 1964) A.M. Snodgrass, Arms and Armour of the Greeks (Ithaca 1967; updated edition 1999)

Social and economic status of hoplites L. Foxhall, ‘A view from the top’, in L. Mitchell and P. Rhodes (eds.), The Development of the Polis in Archaic Greece (London 1997), 129-31 V.D. Hanson, The Other Greeks (1995), esp. 347-50, 366-7 V. Rosivach, ‘Zeugitai and hoplites’, Ancient History Bulletin 16 (2002), 33-43 H. van Wees, ‘The myth of the middle-class army’, in Bekker-Nielsen and Hannestad (eds.) 2001, 45-71 H. van Wees, ‘Mass and elite in Solon’s Athens’, in J. Blok and A. Lardinois (eds.), Solon of Athens (Leiden 2006), 351-89 (and the second half of the next ch., by K. Raaflaub)

Cavalry J.K.Anderson, Ancient Greek Horsemanship (Berkeley 1961) G. Bugh, The Horsemen of Athens (Princeton 1988) R. Gaebel, Cavalry Operations in the Ancient Greek World (2002) P. A. Greenhalgh, Early Greek Warfare (Cambridge 1973) A. Hyland, The Horse in the Ancient World (Stroud 2003), 126-44 P. Low, ‘Cavalry identity and democratic ideology’, PCPS 48 (2002), 102-22 I.G. Spence, The Cavalry of Classical Greece (Oxford 1993), esp. 164-230 L. Worley, , the Cavalry of Ancient Greece (Boulder 1994)

Light-armed J.K. Anderson 1970, 111-38 J.G.P. Best, Thracian and their Influence on Greek Warfare (Groningen 1969) G.T. Griffith, ‘Peltasts and the origins of the Macedonian ’, in Ancient Macedonian Studies in Honor of C. Edson (Thessaloniki 1981) H.A. Harris, ‘Greek throwing’, G&R 10 (1963), 26-36 F. Lissarague, L’autre guerrier : archers, peltastes, cavaliers (Paris 1990) W.K. Pritchett, The Greek State at War, Part V (Berkeley 1991), 1-67 M. Vos, in Archaic Athenian Vase Painting (Groningen 1963)

Servants and slaves J.K. Anderson 1970, 29-30, 46, 48 P. Hunt, Slaves, Warfare and Ideology in the Greek Historians (Cambridge 1998) W.K. Pritchett, The Greek State at War, Part I (Berkeley 1971), 49-51 R. Sargent, ‘The use of slaves by the Athenians in warfare’, Classical Philology 22 (1927), 201-12, 264-79

14 Soldiers and citizens M. Christ, The Bad Citizen in (2006), ch. 3 V.D. Hanson, The Other Greeks. The family farm and the agrarian roots of western civilization (New York 1995) V.D. Hanson, ‘Hoplites into democrats : the changing ideology of the Athenian ’, in Demokratia, eds. J. Ober & C. Hedrick (1996), 289-312 E. Havelock, ‘War as a way of life in classical culture’, in E. Gareau (ed.), Classical Values and the Modern World (Ontario 1972), 19-78 P.T. Manicas, ‘War, stasis, and Greek political thought’, Comparative Studies in Social History 24 (1982), 673-88 R.T. Ridley, ‘The hoplite as citizen’, Antiquité Classique 48 (1979), 508-48 H. van Wees, ‘Politics and the battlefield’, in A. Powell (ed.), The Greek World (1995), 153- 78 H. van Wees, ‘, oligarchs and citizen militias’, in A. Chaniotis and P. Ducrey (eds.), Army and Power in the Ancient World (Stuttgart 2002), 61-82, with a response by V. Gabrielsen on pp. 83-98. P. Vidal-Naquet, The Black Hunter (Baltimore 1986); also ‘The black hunter...’, in Myth, Religion and Society, ed. R. Gordon (1981), 147-62, and ‘La tradition de l’hoplite athénien’, in Vernant (ed.) 1968, 161-81

Hoplite reform P. Cartledge, ‘Hoplites and heroes: Sparta’s contribution to the technique of ancient warfare’, Journal of Hellenic Studies 97 (1977), 11-23 P. Cartledge, ‘The birth of the hoplite’, in id. Spartan Reflections (2001), 153-66 H.L. Lorimer, ‘The hoplite phalanx’, Annual of the British School at Athens 42 (1947), 76- 138 K. Raaflaub, ‘Soldiers, citizens, and the evolution of the early Greek polis’, in The Development of the Polis in Archaic Greece, ed. L.Mitchell & P.Rhodes (1997), 49-59 K. Raaflaub, ‘Archaic and classical Greece’, in Raaflaub and Rosenstein 1999, 129-62 J. Salmon, ‘Political hoplites ?’, Journal of Hellenic Studies 97 (1977), 87-122 A.M. Snodgrass, ‘The hoplite reform and history’, JHS 85 (1965), 110-122 A.M. Snodgrass, ‘The “hoplite reform” revisited’, Dialogues d’Histoire Ancienne 19 (1993), 47-61

13: CITIZEN MILITIAS II: TRAINING AND ORGANISATION

Questions: In what ways did Greek men train for war, and how effective was their training? How were Greek armies organised, and how effective was their organisation? How, and how effectively, did officers maintain control in Greek armies?

Bibliography

Training J.K. Anderson 1970, 85-110 L. Burckhardt, Bürger und Soldaten (Stuttgart 1996) [chapter on ephebes] L. Rawlings, ‘Alternative agonies’, in H. van Wees (ed.) 2000, 233-59 W.K. Pritchett, The Greek State At War, Part II (1974), 208-31

15 P. Vidal-Naquet, The Black Hunter (1986) [chapter on ephebes] E.L. Wheeler, ‘Hoplomachia and Greek dances in arms’, Greek, Roman & Byzantine Studies 23 (1982), 223-33 E.L. Wheeler, ‘The hoplomachoi and Vegetius’ Spartan drill-masters’, Chiron 13 (1983), 1- 20

Organisation - general J.K. Anderson 1970, 67-83 O. Murray, ‘War and the symposion’, in W. Slater (ed.), Dining in a Classical Context (Ann Arbor 1991), 83-103 O. Murray, ‘The symposion as social organization’, in R. Hägg (ed.), The Greek Renaissance of the Eighth Century BC (Stockholm 1983), 195-9 D. Ogden, ‘Homosexuality in warfare in ancient Greece’, in Lloyd (ed.) 1996, 107-168 F.W. Smith, ‘The fighting unit’, Antiquité Classique 59 (1990), 149-65

Organisation - Athens F.Frost, ‘The before Kleisthenes’, Historia 33 (1984), 283-94 B. Whitehead, ‘The archaic Athenian zeugitai’, CQ 3 (1981), 282-6 V. Rosivach, ‘Zeugitai and hoplites’, Ancient History Bulletin 16 (2002), 33-43

Organisation - Sparta J.K. Anderson 1970, 225-54 P. Cartledge, Agesilaus (London 1989), 427-31 [on Spartan military organisation] J. Lazenby, The (Warminster 1985) A. Powell and S. Hodkinson (eds.), Sparta and War (Swansea 2006) H. van Wees, ‘The oath of the sworn bands’, in A. Luther et al (eds.), Das frühe Sparta (Mainz 2006), 125-64

Leadership and discipline J.K. Anderson 1970, 67-83 P. Beston, ‘Hellenistic military leadership’, in H. van Wees (ed.) 2000, 315-35 W. Donlan, ‘The structure of authority in the Iliad’, Arethusa 12 (1979), 51-70 (also in Donlan, The Aristocratic Ideal, 1999) D. Hamel, Athenian Generals. Military authority in the classical period (Leiden 1998) S. Hornblower, ‘Sticks, stones and Spartans. The sociology of Spartan violence’, in H. van Wees (ed.) 2000, 57-82 W.K. Pritchett, The Greek State at War, Part II (Berkeley 1974), 232-245 E.L. Wheeler, ‘The general as hoplite’, in Hanson (ed.) (1991), 121-70

Decision-making W.R. Connor, The New Politicians of Fifth-Century Athens (Princeton 1971) C. Fornara, The Athenian Board of Generals from 501 to 404 (Historia Einzelschrift 16; 1971) L. Kallet-Marx, ‘Money Talks : Rhetor, demos, and the resources of the Athenian empire’, Ritual, Finance, Politics, (eds.) R. Osborne & S. Hornblower (Oxford 1995), 227-52 W. Lengauer, Greek Commanders in the Fifth and Fourth Centuries BC : Politics and Ideology : A Study in Militarism (Warsaw 1976) C. Mossé, ‘Le rôle politique des armées dans le monde grec...’, in Vernant (1968), 221-9 W.K. Pritchett, The Greek State at War, Part II (Berkeley 1974), 4-116

16 14: MERCENARIES: WHO AND WHY?

Questions How and why did the use of mercenaries by Greek and other states change during the archaic and classical ages? What motivated men to take mercenary service? To what extent were mercenaries better equipped, trained and organised than citizen militia men?

Bibliography (see also Classes 1-3, above)

N. Fields, ‘Et ex ego’, Ancient History Bulletin 15 (2001), 102-30 G.T. Griffith, The Mercenaries of the Hellenistic World (London 1935), ch. 1 B. Lavelle, ‘Epikouros and epikouroi in early and history’, Greek, Roman & Byzantine Studies 38 (1997), 229-62 L.P. Marinovic, Le mercenariat grec au quatrième siècle... (Paris 1988) H. Miller, ‘The practical and economic background to the Greek mercenary explosion’, Greece & Rome 31 (1984), 153-60 H.W. Parke, Greek Mercenary Soldiers (Oxford 1933) R.K. Sinclair, ‘The King’s Peace and the employment of military and naval forces, 387-78’, Chiron 8 (1978), 29-54 M. Trundle, Greek mercenaries : from the late archaic period to Alexander (London 2004) D. Whitehead, ‘Who equipped mercenary troops...?’, Historia 40 (1991), 105-13 S. Yalichev, Mercenaries of the Ancient World (London 1997), chs. 6-9

15: CAMPAIGNS: GOALS, METHODS AND LOGISTICS

Questions To what extent was the conduct of war inhibited by ritual and other rules in archaic and classical Greece? What did Greek armies try to achieve by ‘cutting and burning’ enemy territory? In what ways did the simplicity of Greek logistics affect the nature of warfare?

Bibliography

W. Connor, ‘Early Greek Land Warfare as Symbolic Expression’ P&P 119 (1988), 3-27 C. Morgan, ‘Symbolic and pragmatic aspects of warfare in the Greek world of the 8th to 6th centuries BC’, in Bekker-Nielsen and Hannestad (eds.) 2001, 20-44

War and religion S. Deacy, ‘ and . War, violence and warlike deities’, in H. van Wees (ed.) 2000, 285-98 M. Goodman & A.Holladay, ‘Religious scruples in ancient warfare’, CQ 36 (1986), 151-71 A.H. Jackson, ‘Hoplites and the gods : the dedication of captured arms and armour’, in Hanson (ed.) (1991), 228-49 M.H. Jameson, ‘Sacrifice before battle’, in Hanson (ed.) (1991), 197-227 R. Parker, ‘Sacrifice and battle’, in H. van Wees (ed.) 2000, 299-314 W.K. Pritchett, The Greek State at War, Part I (1971), 105-126

17 Open battle versus deception V.D. Hanson, ‘Hoplite battle as : when, where, and why?’, in H. van Wees (ed.) 2000, 201-32 P. Krentz, ‘Deception in archaic and classical Greek warfare’, in H. van Wees (ed.) 2000, 167-200 P. Krentz, ‘The strategic culture of Periclean Athens’, in C.D. Hamilton and P. Krentz (eds.), Polis and Polemos (Claremont 1997), 55-72 P. Krentz, ‘Fighting by the rules: the invention of the hoplite agon’, Hesperia 71 (2002), 23- 39 J. Ober, ‘The rules of war in classical Greece’, in id. The Athenian Revolution (Princeton 1996), 53-71 W.K. Pritchett, The Greek State at War, Part II (1974), 147-89, 246-90 J. Roisman, The General Demosthenes and his Use of Military Surprise (Stuttgart 1993) E.L. Wheeler, Stratagem and the Vocabulary of Military Trickery (Leiden) E.L Wheeler. ‘Ephorus and the prohibition of missiles’, Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 117 (1987), 157-82

Agricultural devastation L. Foxhall, ‘Farming and fighting’, in Rich and Shipley (eds.) 1993, 134-45 Y. Garlan, Recherches de poliorcétique grecque (Paris 1974) V.D. Hanson, Warfare and Agriculture in Classical Greece (Pisa 1984; updated edition 1998), esp. Ch. 6 J. Ober, ‘Thucydides, Pericles and the strategy of defense’, in id., The Athenian Revolution (Princeton 1996), 73-85 R. Osborne, ‘The field of war’, in Classical Landscape with Figures (London 1987), 137-64 I.Spence, ‘Perikles and the defense of Attika’, Journal of Hellenic Studies 110 (1990), 91-109 J. Thorne, ‘Warfare and agriculture: the economic impact of devastation’, Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 42 (2001), 225-53

Mobilization A. Andrewes, ‘The hoplite katalogos’, in G. Shrimpton and D. MacCargar (eds.), Classical Contributions ... in Honor of M. McGregor (New York 1981), 1-3 M. Christ, ‘Conscription of hoplites in classical Athens’, Classical Quarterly 51 (2001), 398- 422 M. Christ, The Bad Citizen in Classical Athens (2006), ch. 2 M.H. Hansen, Demography and Democracy (Herning 1985), Appendix V (pp. 83-9)

Logistics J.K. Anderson 1970, 43-66 D. Engels, and the Logistics of the Macedonian Army (Berkeley 1978) N. Hammond, ‘Army transport in the fifth and fourth centuries’, GRBS 24 (1983) 27-31 W.K. Pritchett, The Greek State at War, Part I (Berkeley 1971), 30-52 W.K. Pritchett, The Greek State at War, Part II (Berkeley 1974), 133-46

18 16: COMBAT I: HOMER AND THE SEVENTH CENTURY

Questions Is it possible to gain a coherent overall picture of how a battle works from the Iliad? Does Tyrtaeus allude to a different, non-Homeric, manner of fighting? What contribution does iconographic evidence make to our understanding of combat?

Bibliography

G. Ahlberg, Fighting on Land and Sea in Greek Geometric Art (Stockholm 1971) F. Albracht, Battle and Battle Description in Homer (London 2005: German original from 1886, 1895) H. Bowden, ‘Hoplites and Homer’, in Rich and Shipley (eds.) 1993, 45-63 G. Kirk, ‘War and the Warrior in the Homeric Poems’, in Vernant (ed.) 1968, 93-119 O. Hellmann, Die Schlachtszenen der Ilias (Stuttgart 2000) J. Latacz, Kampfparänese, Kampfdarstellung und Kampfwirklichkeit (Munich 1977) J.E. Lendon, Soldiers and Ghosts: a history of battle in classical antiquity (New Haven and London 2005), 20-57 W.K. Pritchett, The Greek State at War, Vol. IV (1985), 7-33 W.K. Pritchett, ‘A recent theory on Homeric warfare’, in Studies in Ancient Greek Topography, Part VII (Amsterdam 1991), 181-90 [contra van Wees] H.W. Singor, ‘Eni protoisi machesthai. Some remarks on the Iliadic image of the battlefield’, in Homeric Questions, ed. J.P. Crielaard (Amsterdam 1995), 183-200 H. van Wees, ‘The development of the hoplite phalanx’, in H. van Wees (ed.) 2000, 125-66 H. van Wees, ‘Homeric warfare’, in A New Companion to Homer, eds. I. Morris & B. Powell (1997), 668-93 H. van Wees, ‘The Homeric way of war’, Greece & Rome 41 (1994), 1-18 and 131-155 H. van Wees, ‘Kings in combat’, Classical Quarterly 38 (1988), 1-24 E.L. Wheeler, ‘The general as hoplite’, in V.D. Hanson (ed.), 1991, 126-31

17: COMBAT II: THE CLASSICAL PERIOD

Questions What was the role of ‘pushing’ in classical hoplite battle? How did classical hoplites manage to retain cohesion in battle? To what extent did hoplite battle change during the fifth and fourth centuries BC? Is it possible to produce reliable reconstructions of particular classical battles?

Bibliography

G. Cawkwell, ‘Orthodoxy and hoplites’, CQ 39 (1989), 375-89 M. Detienne, ‘La phalange’, in Vernant (ed.) 1968, 119-42 A.D. Frazer, ‘The myth of the hoplite scrimmage’, CW 36 (1942), 15-16 A. Goldsworthy, ‘The othismos, myths and heresies : the nature of hoplite battle’, War in History 4 (1997), 1-26 V.D. Hanson, The Western Way of War (Oxford 1989), esp, 135-95 V.D. Hanson (ed.), 1991, 15-170 [papers by Anderson, Vaughn, Hanson, Lazenby, Krentz, Wheeler]

19 A.J. Holladay, ‘Hoplites and heresies’, Journal of Hellenic Studies 102 (1982), 94-103 P. Krentz, ‘Casualties in hoplite battles’, Greek, Roman & Byzantine Studies 26 (1985), 13-20 P. Krentz, ‘The nature of hoplite battles’, Classical Antiquity 4 (1985), 50-61 P. Krentz, ‘Continuing the othismos on the othismos’, Ancient History Bulletin 8 (1994), 45-9 J.E. Lendon, Soldiers and Ghosts (New Haven 2005), 58-114 R. Luginbill, ‘Othismos : the importance of ...’, Phoenix 48 (1994), 51-61 S. Mitchell, ‘Hoplite warfare in ancient Greece’, in Lloyd (ed.) 1996, 87-106 W.K. Pritchett, The Greek State at War, Part IV (Berkeley 1985), 33-93 L. Tritle 2000, 55-78 H. van Wees, ‘The development of the hoplite phalanx’, in H. van Wees (ed.) 2000, 125-66

N. Whatley, ‘On the possibility of reconstructing Marathon and other ancient battles’, Journal of Hellenic Studies 84 (1964), 119-39

18: SIEGE WARFARE: CHANGING METHODS AND RISING COSTS

Questions What were the techniques of siege warfare, and how they did develop? Did siege warfare become more prominent in the classical period, and if so, why? To what extent was siege warfare compatible with hoplite equipment and ideals? What were the material costs of siege warfare and how were these covered?

Bibliography

J.-P. Adam, L’ militaire grecque (Paris 1982) J.McK. Camp, ‘Walls and the polis’, in P. Flensted-Jensen et al. (eds.), Polis & Politics (Copenhagen 2000), 41-57 P. Ducrey, Le traitement des prisonniers de guerre dans la Grece antique (Paris 1968) Y. Garlan, ‘Warfare’, Cambridge Ancient History 6 (Cambridge 1994), 678-92 Y. Garlan, Recherches de poliorcétique grecque (Paris 1974) P. Karavites, Capitulations and Greek Interstate Relations (Gottingen 1982) P.B. Kern, Ancient Siege Warfare (1999), chs. on Greece A.W. Lawrence, Greek Aims in Fortification (Oxford 1979) E. Marsden, Greek and Roman Artillery, vols. I and II (Oxford 1969-71) M. Munn, The Defense of (Berkeley 1993) J. Ober, Fortress Attica (Leiden 1985) J. Ober, ‘Hoplites and obstacles’, in V.D. Hanson (ed.), 1991, 173-96 S. van de Maele and J. Fossey (eds.), Fortificationes Antiquae (Amsterdam 1992) F. Winter, Greek Fortifications (Toronto 1971)

Costs and funding of warfare A.M. Andreades, A History of Greek Public Finance (Cambridge, Mass. 1933) M.M. Austin, ‘Society and economy’, Cambridge Ancient History 6.2 (1994), 527-58 M.M. Austin, ‘Hellenistic kings, war, and the economy’, CQ 36 (1986), 450-66 B. Bertosa, ‘The supply of hoplite equipment by the Athenian state down to the ’, The Journal of 67 (2003), 361-79 M. Cook, ‘Timokrates’ 50 talents and the cost of ancient warfare’, Eranos 88 (1990), 69-97 Y. Garlan, Guerre et économie en Grèce ancienne (Paris 1989)

20 E. Jarva, Archaiologia on Archaic Greek Body Armour (Rovaniemi 1995), 148-54 L. Kallet-Marx, Money, Expense, and Naval Power in Thucydides’ History (Berkeley 1993) P. Millett, ‘Warfare, economy and democracy..., in Rich and Shipley (eds.) 1993, 177-96 D. Whitehead, ‘Who equipped mercenary troops...?’, Historia 40 (1991), 105-13 P.J. Rhodes, ‘Problems in Athenian eisphora and liturgies’, American Journal of Ancient History 7 (1982), 1-19 R. Thomsen, ‘War taxes in classical Athens’, Armées et fiscalité dans le monde antique (Paris 1979), 135-47 C.H. Wilson, ‘Athenian military finances, 378/7 to ... 375’, Athenaeum 48 (1970), 302-26

19: NAVAL WARFARE: CHANGING METHODS AND RISING COSTS

Questions How was naval warfare conducted in the archaic period? When, how and why was the introduced? How was the trireme used in combat? Did developments in naval warfare affect political life in Athens and other naval states? What were the costs of naval warfare, and how were they met?

Bibliography

The role of the fleet M. Amit, Athens and the Sea. A study in Athenian sea-power (Brussels 1965) L. Casson, Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World (Princeton 1971; second ed. 1995) V. Gabrielsen, Financing the Athenian Fleet (Baltimore 1994) V. Gabrielsen, ‘The naukrariai and the Athenian navy’, Classica &Medievalia 36 (1985), 21- 51 C.J. Haas, ‘Athenian naval power before Themistokles’, Historia 34 (1985), 29-46 B. Jordan, The Athenian Navy in the Classical Period (Berkeley 1975) A. Momigliano, ‘Sea power in Greek thought’, Classical Review 58 (1944), 1-7; also in id., Secondo Contributo alla Storia degli Studii Classice (Rome 1960), 57-67 C. Starr, The Influence of Sea Power on Ancient History (New York 1989) H. Wallinga, Ships and Sea Power Before the Great Persian War (Leiden 1993)

The nature of naval warfare G. Cawkwell, ‘Persian and Greek naval warfare; the diekplous’, in id. The Greek Wars (2005), 221-32 A. Holladay, ‘Further thoughts on trireme tactics’, Greece & Rome 35 (1988), 149-51 J. Lazenby, ‘Naval warfare of the ancient world’, International Historical Review 9 (1987), 438-55 J. Lazenby, ‘The diekplous’, Greece & Rome 34 (1987), 169-77 J.S. Morrison, J.F. Coates and B. Rankov, The Athenian Trireme. Second edition (Cambridge 2000) J.S. Morrison and J.F. Coates, Greek and Roman Oared Warships (Oxford 1996) J.S. Morrison and R.T. Williams, Greek Oared Ships 900-322 BC (Cambridge 1968) B.S. Strauss, ‘Democracy, Kimon, and the evolution of Athenian naval tactics’, in P. Flensted-Jensen et al. (eds.) Polis & Politics (Copenhagen 2000), 325-36 I. Whitehead, ‘The periplous’, Greece & Rome 34 (1987), 178-85

21 Status of naval personnel B. Bertosa, ‘The social status and ethnic origin of the rowers of Spartan ’, in War & Society 23 (2005), 1-20 A.J. Graham, ‘Thucydides 7.13.2 and the crews of Athenian triremes’, Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 122 (1992), 257-70; with ‘Addendum’ in TAPA 128 (1998), 89-114 B.S. Strauss, ‘Perspectives on the death of fifth-century Athenian seamen’, in H. van Wees (ed.) 2000, 261-83 B. Strauss, ‘The Athenian trireme, school of democracy’, in Demokratia, eds. J. Ober & C. Hedrick (1996), 313-26

Costs: see also above, class 18 V. Gabrielsen, Financing the Athenian Fleet (Baltimore 1994) V. Gabrielsen, ‘Naval warfare: its economic and social impact on Greek cities’, in Bekker- Nielsen and Hannestad (eds.) 2001, 72-98

20: THE NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF GREEK WARFARE

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