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Did Mars Possess a Dense Atmosphere During the First ~400 Million Years?

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Did Mars Possess a Dense Atmosphere During the First ~400 Million Years? Did Mars possess a dense atmosphere during the first ~400 million years? M. Scherf1, H. Lammer1 1Austrian Academy of Sciences, Space Research Institute, Graz, Austria ([email protected], [email protected]); This is a preprint of an article published in Space Science Reviews. The final authenticated version can be found online at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214- 020-00779-3 Abstract It is not yet entirely clear whether Mars began as a warm and wet planet that evolved towards the present-day cold and dry body or if it always was cold and dry with just some sporadic episodes of liquid water on its surface. An important clue into this question can be gained by studying the earliest evolution of the Mar- tian atmosphere and whether it was dense and stable to maintain a warm and wet climate or tenuous and susceptible to strong atmospheric escape. In this review we therefore discuss relevant aspects for the evolution and stability of a potential early Martian atmosphere. This contains the EUV flux evolution of the young Sun, the formation timescale and volatile inventory of the planet including volcanic degas- sing, impact delivery and removal, the loss of the catastrophically outgassed steam atmosphere, atmosphere-surface interactions, as well as thermal and non-thermal escape processes affecting a potential secondary atmosphere at early Mars. While early non-thermal escape at Mars before 4 billion years ago is poorly understood, in particular in view of its ancient intrinsic magnetic field, research on thermal es- cape processes and the stability of a CO2-dominated atmosphere around Mars against high EUV fluxes indicate that volatile delivery and volcanic degassing can- not counterbalance the strong thermal escape. Therefore, a catastrophically 2 outgassed steam atmosphere of several bars of CO2 and H2O, or CO and H2 for reduced conditions, through solidification of the Martian magma ocean could have been lost within just a few million years. Thereafter, Mars likely could not build up a dense secondary atmosphere during its first ~400 million years but might only have possessed an atmosphere sporadically during events of strong volcanic degas- sing, potentially also including SO2. This indicates that before ~4.1 billion years ago Mars indeed might have been cold and dry. A denser CO2- or CO-dominated atmosphere, however, might have built up afterwards but must have been lost later- on due to non-thermal escape processes and sequestration into the ground. 1 Introduction Today Mars only possesses a very tenuous atmosphere of only about 6 mbar con- sisting mainly of CO2 (see e.g., Mahaffy et al., 2013; Webster et al., 2013; Fränz et al., 2017). Early Mars, however, in particular during the Noachian eon – roughly the period from ~4.0 to ~3.7 billion years ago (e.g., Werner and Tanaka, 2011) – and probably even later, is believed to have had periods with at least sporadic epi- sodes of liquid water on its surface (e.g., J. Bibring et al., 2006; Ehlmann et al., 2016; Mangold et al., 2016, and references therein; Kite, 2019). Several recent stud- ies are in addition suggesting that Mars could have had a denser atmosphere during the Noachian eon with an approximate pressure of around 500 mbar to 1 bar ( Hu et al. 2015; Amerstorfer et al. 2017; Cravens et al. 2017; Jakosky et al. 2018; Kurokawa et al. 2018) but not more than about 2 bar (Kite et al., 2014; Warren et al., 2019). In the Hesperian eon, at 3.5 billion years ago (Ga) atmospheric pressure did already not exceed a few 10s of mbar (Bristow et al., 2016). For the pre-Noachian eon, however, the time before 4.0 to 4.1 Ga, almost no geological records as well as empirical constraints on Mars’ atmosphere exist. But there are some studies that modelled and discussed the escape of its early atmos- phere (Tian et al., 2009; Lammer et al., 2013; N. V Erkaev et al., 2014a; Yoshida and Kuramoto, 2020). Odert et al. (2018) studied, in addition, the escape of steam 3 atmospheres from Mars-sized planetary embryos at different orbital locations around the Sun. There are several key factors that have to be taken into account to get a better understanding of the very early evolution of the Martian atmosphere and, thus, to evaluate whether Mars possessed an atmosphere during the first ~400 million years or not. The main questions to be resolved are the following: - Did Mars form early, i.e. within the disk lifetime (e.g., Dauphas and Pourmand, 2011)? If yes, did it accrete a hydrogen atmosphere which must have been lost later on (e.g., N. V Erkaev et al., 2014a)? - It is very likely that Mars outgassed a steam atmosphere from its solidifying magma ocean (Elkins-Tanton, 2008; Cannon et al., 2017). How much H2O and CO2, predominantly in case of oxidized, or CO and H2, in case of re- duced conditions, was outgassed from the solidifying Martian magma ocean and could subsequently be lost to space before the steam atmosphere con- densed (e.g., N. V Erkaev et al., 2014a; Odert et al., 2018)? To prevent it from condensation a shallow magma ocean below the steam atmosphere might be needed. - What are the initial volatile content and outgassing history of Mars? Could outgassing counterbalance atmospheric loss (Tian et al., 2009; Lammer et al., 2013; N. V Erkaev et al., 2014a)? - What is the role of early impactors; did they remove part of the atmosphere or deliver volatiles? Did they increase or decrease the atmospheric pressure (De Niem et al., 2012; Lammer et al., 2013; Pham and Karatekin, 2016)? Could impacts further help to maintain a shallow magma ocean over several million years (Maindl et al., 2015)? - How strong was thermal escape on early Mars (Tian et al., 2009; Yoshida and Kuramoto, 2020)? Was an early CO2 atmosphere stable against the high EUV flux of the young Sun? - What role did non-thermal escape processes played on Mars during the first ~400-600 million years (Terada et al., 2009; Lammer et al., 2013; Amerstorfer et al., 2017; Zhao et al., 2017; B. M. Jakosky et al., 2018; Dong 4 et al., 2018a; Sakata et al., 2020)? In case Mars had an intrinsic magnetic field early on (Acuna et al., 1999; Lillis et al., 2013), was it decreasing or increasing atmospheric escape (e.g., Blackman and Tarduno, 2018; Gunell et al., 2018; Egan et al., 2019)? - Could a CO2-dominated atmosphere be stable on early Mars? Under which conditions can it collapse to form permanent CO2 ices (e.g., Forget et al., 2013; Wordsworth et al., 2013; Soto et al., 2015), or will be converted to CO (Zahnle et al., 2008)? - The Martian surface evolution is coupled with the evolution of its atmos- phere. How do atmosphere-surface interactions affect a potential early at- mosphere and what can we learn from the remaining Martian water inven- tory, its carbonates and the oxidation of its soil (e.g., Lammer et al., 2003b; Niles et al., 2013; Hu et al., 2015)? - And finally: How did the EUV flux and mass loss evolution of the young Sun evolve (e.g. Wood et al. 2005; Guedel 2007; Ribas et al. 2005; Tu et al. 2015, Johnstone et al. 2015b; Airapetian and Usmanov 2016)? This is par- ticularly important to understand and quantify the early escape processes in the solar system and most importantly of early Mars, which was due to its small size highly susceptible to atmospheric escape (Tian et al., 2009; Lammer et al., 2013; N. V Erkaev et al., 2014a; Odert et al., 2018). In Section 2 we will briefly review our current understanding of the EUV flux and solar wind evolution of the young Sun which will be followed by Section 3 on the Martian formation timescales and the therewith connected potential accumula- tion and loss of a primordial hydrogen atmosphere. In Section 4 we will discuss the initial Martian volatile content together with its catastrophically outgassed steam atmosphere and how it might have escaped to space. Section 5 will review the in- fluence of impactors and volcanic degassing on the early atmospheric pressure, whereas Section 6 and 7 will discuss the influence of thermal and non-thermal es- cape processes, respectively, and the potential influence of the intrinsic magnetic field of Mars. Section 8 will discuss other factors that might affect the stability and evolution of an early atmosphere such as atmospheric collapse and interactions with 5 the surface. Section 9 will discuss most likely scenarios for the evolution of the early Martian atmosphere and potential future steps to better constrain its early at- mospheric history. Section 10 will conclude the review. 2 The EUV flux and solar wind evolution of the young Sun It is already known for a long time that the solar bolometric luminosity is increasing over time (e.g., Sackmann and Boothroyd, 2002; Guedel, 2007). The x-ray and EUV flux evolution on the other hand steadily decreased since the Sun arrived at the main sequence (e.g., Ribas et al., 2005; Guedel, 2007; Claire et al., 2012). In addition, observations of solar analogues show that the X-ray and the therewith connected EUV flux is initially saturated at very high levels before starting to continuously decay to lower values (e.g., Tu et al., 2015). This has significant importance for the evolution of early atmospheres since high EUV fluxes have a pronounced effect on the atmospheric structure of terrestrial planets and thus on atmospheric escape (see e.g., Johnstone et al. 2019, 2020; Kulikov et al.
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