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Ch. 3 MALE DEITIES

I. Worship of and its forms in

Vishnu is believed to be the Preserver God in the Hindu pantheon today. In the Vedic text he is known by the names like Urugai, Urukram 'which means wide going and wide striding respectively'^. In the Rgvedic text he is also referred by the names like Varat who is none other than says N. P. Joshi^. In the Rgvedhe occupies a subordinate position and is mentioned only in six hymns'*. In the Rgvedic text he is solar deity associated with days and seasons'. References to the worship of early form of Vishnu in are found in inscribed on the pillar at Vidisha. During the second to first century BCE a Greek by name Heliodorus had erected a pillar in Vidisha in the honor of Vasudev^. This shows the popularity of Bhagvatism which made a Greek convert himself to the fold In the Purans he is referred to as Shripati or the husband oiLakshmi^, God of Vanmala ^ (wearer of necklace of wild flowers), Pundarikaksh, (lotus eyed)'". A seal showing a Kushan chief standing in a respectful pose before the four armed God holding a wheel, mace a ring like object and a globular object observed by Cunningham appears to be one of the early representations of Vishnu".

1. Vishnu and its attributes

Vishnu is identified with three basic weapons which he holds in his hands. The conch, the disc and the mace or the Shankh. Chakr and Gadha.

A. Shankh Termed as Panchjany Shankh^^ the conch was as also an essential element of Vishnu's identity. Most of the early of Vishnu had the conch on its left side. This tradition of depicting the conch in its left hand developed since the Kushan period. The conch was shown in its left hand which was supported against the waist. B. Chakr The concept of the Chakr being associated with Vishnu must have begun from the Rgvedic period. The Rgved mentions that Vishnu sets in motion like a revolving wheel his ninety steed (days) with their four names (seasons) an allusion of 360 days of the solar year'". The Chakr or the disc is found in the sculptures of Vishnu dating even during the Gupt period. It is one of the most essential attributes of a Vishnu or identity. In the early sculptures of Vishnu the disc was shown in the upper hand resting against his shoulder. While in the later sculptures the disc was shown also in

79 the lower hand. The Chakr is named as Sudarshan in the Puran^* and also in the Brahmvaivarth Puran^^. Both the Shankh and Chakr are said to the weapons of Vishnu. C. Gadhd In the Agni Puran, Vishnu is termed as the Gadhadhar or 'The Possessor of Gadha. The Gadhd or the mace found in the Kushan period Vishnu sculpture was tapering towards the top. It had a carved round handle. The Gadha is also termed as Kaumodki in the Agni Puran. Hence Vishnu is also called as Kuamodkidhar . D. Padm.- It means a lotus. Vishnu is addressed as Kamldpati in the Purdns . In the Prakriti Khand of the Brahmvaivarth Puran the Padm is called the Shakii of Vishnu '*. The lotus became a attribute of Vishnu during the medieval era During the late Kushan period or the early Gupt period the lotus did not figure out in the hands of Vishnu^^. None of the early Gupt sculptures depict Vishnu holding a Padm.

2. Aniconic worship of in Goa:

A. Ammonite fossil worshipped as the Chakr

Not only has been worshipped in the form of an icon since times immemorial but the worship of his weapons in the natural form is also considered to be a part of worship. The worship of these weapons could be identified as a part of aniconic worship of Vishnu. The chapter 307, Ath Saptddhik-Trishatat-Mohanam of Agni-Purdn mentions that specific weapons of Vishnu like the Chakr, Shankh could be worshipped^". Many VaishnavitQ families in South Goa, especially in Paingini village of Kankona taluka worship Shdligrdm or the Sdligrdm in Konknni. It is a flat rounded stone having marks like of the spokes of a disc. Due to its close resemblance v«th the Vishnu's disc, its worship is considered to be the worship of Vishnu. In Paingini the Chakr represents Parshurdm, the sixth incarnation of Vishnu. The only temple of Parshurdm in Goa is located in Paingini in the Kankona taluka. Here there was no sculpture of Parshurdm worshipped till 1996. From the ancient times a Chakr of Shdligrdm was in worship^\ In other parts of Goa round polished stones of different sizes and shapes are worshipped. The worship of this disc shaped Sdligrdm or the round Sdligrdm is considered to be very holy. Hence stringent traditions and regulations are associated with this worship. There is tradition amongst every household who worship this

80 Saligram to offer it cooked rice in the aftemoon without fail. The rice has to be cooked and offered by a male member of the family after having bath. In the absence of a male member the family can appoint a priest of a nearby temple to carry out the ritual. If in case due to certain reasons the family cannot perform the ritual on regular basis then the Saligram is kept in the nearby temple where ever there is a tradition of offering cooked rice to the deity. In such cases the family is also free to bring the Saligram back in the house as and when they want or if they are capable of offering the rice in the house. There is also a very common folklore associated with the Saligram in Goa. The folklore mentions that the Saligram is available in the River Gandaki at . They were brought to Goa by the ancestors of the family who went on a pilgrimage to Gandaki. The Saligram is mentioned as Shalgram in the Purdnic texts. It is mentioned that wherever the stone is kept Vishnu and resides there^'.

The Prakrti Khand of Brahmvaivarth Purdn mentions that Tulashi's chastity was defiled by Vishnu by taking the form of demon Shankhchu(f'^. Therefore Tulashi cursed Vishnu that he will turn into a stone on earth. On this Vishnu replied Tulashi's body will take the form of Gandaki river and trees bom from her hair will be called as Tulashi^*. It also mentions that the curse made Vishnu turn into a mountain of stone near River Gandaki and the insects carve out the Chakr on the stones with their teeth^'. The Purdnic description mentions the carving out of the stone with their teeth by the insects. So to say the Saligram stone worshipped in the form of Chakr in Goa is nothing but the worship of the ammonite fossil. A fossil is the remains or plants or animals preserved in the rocks of the earth^^. Fossilization is a process in which remains of the plants or animals get preserved in the earth's strata The MoUusks or MoUuscas organisms classified as Cephalopoda^^ falling in the suborder called Ammonidea are called ammonites^^. Ammonites do not exist anymore today^'^. Ammonites were animals with shells usually coiled in flat spiral shape. They have coiled shell is divided internally into compartments by frilled or simple sutures of varying form^". The surface is highly ornamented with ridges. Some could swim while most crawled^^

81 B. The theory of evolution: - a) Worship of and ammonites

The use of shells in the Indian history is quite ancient. The phylum mollusca of the genus Dentalium was used as money by the ancient Indians^^. But however if one tries to dwell deep into the theory of evolution we can find out the reason behind the worship ammonite shell as a non-iconic representative of Vishnu. The worship of the ammonites is mentioned in the Agni Puran. It mentions that the worship of the Shalgram bedecked with circular marks known as Chakrs is essential to the worship of the manifestation of Vishnu^^. The ammonites are worshipped as Vishnu's manifestations because they closely represent the evolution process.

Carrol Lane Fenton mentions an interesting fact of the evolution process of the ammonites. Initially the ammonites were in the shape of a long shell termed as Ordovician Cephalopod having curves. The curves evolved into coils and the shells were flattened and compressed. They again uncoiled during the later stages. But they did not survive for long and hence vanished. But the coiled shells continued to develop and sprang into new group called ammonites^'*. Hence we can deduce from the above that Vishnu was believed to be the birth of life. Darwinism clearly states that life initially began in water and then came to the land'''.

Vishnu's Dashavtars: A Mythological Model representing the theory of evolution of vertebrates.

Vishnu is believed to have taken many Avtars to save the earth from peril or destruction. The Bhdgvat Puran mentions 22 incarnations of Vishnu as follows''^:-

1) Narayan \2)

2) Varah 13)

3) Narad 14) Nr si nh

4) Nar and Narayan 15) Vaman

5) Kapil \G)Parshuram

6) Dattattrey \l)RishiVyas

7) Yadny (fire sacrifice) 18) Ram

82 8) Rshabh \9)Balram

9) Prthu 20) Krishn

\0)Matsy (rish) 21) Buddh

\l)Kurm (Tortoise) 22)

Whereas in the works of Kalidas we find the following incarnations being mentioned 37 sr. no Name of the incarnation Name of the work 1 Vardh Raghuvamsh 2 Nrsinh Abhijnanshdkuntalam 3 Vdman Raghuvamsh & Meghduta 4 Parshurdm Raghuvamsh 5 Rdghav Ram Raghuvamsh 6 Balardm Meghduta 7 Meghduta

But however only 10 of these are widely accepted. Because they are 10 in number they are termed as Dashdvtdr"^. They are as follows:-

1) Matev(fish) 6) Parshurdm (axe man)

2) Kurm (tortoise) 7) Ram (warrior with bow and arrow)

3) Vardh () 8) Krishn (intelligent)

4) 7Vr5-/>7/2 (half man half lion) 9) 5w(^/2 (one who attained enlightenment)

5) Vdman (dwarf) 10) Kalki (destroyer)

If one tries to dwell deeply into these 10 incarnations they appear to form the theor\ of evolution of life especially of vertebrates. The origin of chordates (includes a variety of animals from worms to frogs, birds etc) is traced to the lancelet^^. The lancelet is small marine animal: a small slender translucent marine animal that is related to the ancestors of all vertebrate animals and lives buried in sand . It is considered to be the most primitive ancestor of the vertebrates'". From them evolved the early fish called Agnatha which had gill, fins and scales'*'^. From here evolved the Lobbed Fin Fishes from whom evolved the amphibians who could live on land as well as water . Studies show that there is a remarkable increase in the brain power and in

83 the complexity of the brain as we pass the stages from fishes to amphibians, reptiles and finally to mammals'*^. The struggle for existence took place from sea to land. This led to the evolution of reptiles from amphibians and from reptiles evolved the four legged mammals'*^ Even before the dawn of civilization the men in the stage of lower savagery believed that their progenitor was an animal"*^. The Puran also mentions that the entire earth was a water body in the beginning and from there emerged Vishnu*''. This is the reason why perhaps Vishnu is called as Jalpati daivai .

3. Sculptures of Vishnu in Goa:- All the sculpture of and its forms found in Goa are found in the Sambhang Mudrd or also known as ardhsampad*^ except for the two i.e. sculpture of Gopinath found in Netravali in Sanguem taJuka and a bronze image of Nrsinh found in Veling village of Ponda taluka. Similarly all the sculptures of Vishnu found in Goa except for the Gopinath sculpture of Netravali are Chaturbhuj (four armed) in style. He is called as Ixikshmi-pati^'^ or the husband of Lakshmi who holds a Nilotpal flower in her hand . The Parashar mentions that a jewel called Kaustubh adorns his chest along with other ornaments while he is the possessor of Shrivats^^. Many references to this Shrivats on Vishnu's chest are available in the Ramayan, Raghuvamsh, Kumarsambhav'^. In the Halayudh Kosh, Vishnu is said to have both Shrivats and Kaustubhmani on his chest'*. It was a sign or a mark of great men or Mahdpurush .

A. Vishnu sculpture of Lolye A very ancient sculpture of Vishnu is found in the remote areas of Lolye. The temple is a plain modem structure but the sculpture inside the Garbgrih has immense archaeological importance. This image seems to have gone unnoticed to many previous researchers and scholars of this field. This sculpture of Vishnu is four armed. He holds a personified mace in his upper right hand and a "Chakr" in his upper left hand. The personified mace or Gadha is depicted in the form of a woman in an Anjali Mudra near his right foot. His lower left hand holds a conch and he holds a Chitrfal in his lower right hand. According to N. P. Joshi, Chitrfal is a type of citrus fruit or a custard apple {Sitafaty'^. This fruit was seen in sculptures dating to the Gupt period". The style of depicting this fruit in the hands of Vishnu is seen in sculptures of the Chalukvs of Badami.

84 He is shown wearing a Karand Mukut and his neck is adorned by a jewel studded necklace. A Yadnyopavit is also seen around his torso. He wears a unique styled dhoti on his lower body. The pleats of his dhoti have beautiful frills running in between his legs. A round twisted thick lace runs around his waist. A small image o{Garud is also seen near his left foot. The style of clothing and other iconographical attributes of the sculpture ascertain that it is perhaps the earliest sculpture of Vishnu found in Goa till now having the influence of Badami Chalukyan school of art dating to circa 9'''-10 century CE. The shrine housing this image has lantern-shaped ceiling with a lotus in the middle. Outside the main shrine a Nag sculpture of the same period is also found.

B. Sculptures of forms (Roop Category) In Goa there are various temples dedicated to Vishnu. Out of his twenty four forms Some few forms are in worship here since ancient times. Vaman, Nrsinh and Shrikrishn are included in the list of the 10 incarnations of Vishnu as well in the list of the twenty four forms of Vishnu. The Vishnu Sahasrnam found in Mahabharat indicates one thousand names of Vishnu^^. But the twenty four names of Vishnu are most prominent amongst these. The twenty four names are also invoked in the Parashar- Samhita'^. Sculptures of these twenty four forms are found carved on the exterior of the temples at Belur, Akrekere, Bhadravati etc in Kamataka which were built by the Hoysal dynasty*"". The sculptures or icons of these twenty four forms are sculpted in a standing pose or the Sambhang Mudra. These icons have to be necessarily having 4 hands or Chaturbhuj in nature.

The icons of these twenty four forms are differentiated from each other based on the cyclic marmer in which the arrangement of the Shankh, Chakr, Gadha and Padm are shown in the deity's hands. The arrangement of the attributes starts from the upper right hand followed by the upper left hand then by the lower right hand and finally ends with the lower left hand. It follows a clockwise pattern. Each out of the twenty four forms has a different arrangement given. Hence there twenty four such permutations and combinations can exist. These permutations are defined in the ancient texts like Rupmandan and Pdtal- Khand of the Padm Purdn and also in Dharmsindhu. The attributes mentioned in the various text follow a certain cycle. Texts like the Dharmsindhu, and the Nirnaysindhu follow Dakshino-Dharvkarkram'''. While the texts like Agni Purdn and Rupmandan follow Dakshinddh-karkram. The

85 former one mentions the attributes beginning from the upper right hand then upper left hand followed by the lower left hand and finally ends with the lower right hand. While the latter starts with lower right hand, then by upper right hand followed by the upper left hand and finally ends with the lower left hand. The key word called dakshin to mean south is mentioned in the texts to describe the cycle of attributes. It is used as an indicator because the deity should always face the east^^. Hence the right hand should be to the south side and the left hand should be on the north side. However Dr. Gopinath Rao mentions that the latter one is a faulty as out of the twenty four forms there are a few forms which have the same cyclic arrangement^^. Vishnu's twenty four forms and his attributes is described in the 48* chapter titled Chatur Vishati Strotr Kathanam of Agfn.i Purdn aiso^'*. But the sculptures of Keshav found in various places of Goa, Kamataka and other parts of India appear to follow the sequence of Rupmandan.

The Agni Puran gives the followinji - Sr. Name of the Upper Upper lower left Lower no Form right hand left hand hand right hand. 1 Keshav Shankh Chakr Gadhd Padm 2 Narayan Padm Gadha Chakr Shankh 3 Madhav Chakr Shankh Padm Gadhd 4 Govind Gadha Padm Shankh Chakr 5 Vishnu Padm Shankh Chakr Gadhd 6 Madhusudhan Chakr Padm Gadhd Shankh 7 Trivikram Gadhd Chakr Shankh Padm 8 Vaman Chakr Gadha Padm Shankh 9 Shridhar Chakr Shankh Padm 10 Rishikesh Chakr Padm Shankh Gadhd 11 Padmanabh Padm Chakr Gadhd Shankh 12 Ddmodar Shankh Gadhd Chakr Padm 13 Vdsudev Shankh Chakr Padm Gadhd 14 Sankarshan Shankh Padm Chakr Gadhd 15 Pradyumn Chakr Shankh Padm Gadhd 16 Anirudh Gadha Shankh Padm Chakr

86 Sr. Name of the Upper Upper lower left Lower no Form right hand left hand hand right hand. 17 Purshottam Shankh Gadhd Padm 18 Adhokshaj Gadhd Shankh Chakr Padm 19 Nrsinh Padm Gadha Shank Chakr 20 Achyut Padm Chakr Shankh Gadhd

21 Upendr Gadhd Chakr Padm Shankh 22 Janardhan Chakr Shankh Gadhd Padm 23 Hari Padm Chakr Gadhd Shankh 24 Shrikrishn Gadha Padm Chakr Shankh

The Agni Purdn list also has some flaws. Attributes of Madhusudhan, Vasudev, Pradyumn, Upendr, Janardhan and Hari are different from Rupmandan and Dharmsindhu^^. Rupmandan gives the following characteristics:^' Sr. Name of the Upper right Upper lower left Lower no Form hand left hand hand right hand. 1 Vasudev Shankh Chakr Padm Gadha 2 Keshav Shankh Chakr Gadhd Padm 3 Ndrdyan Padm Gadhd Chakr Shankh 4 Mddhav Chakr Shankh Padm Gadhd 5 Purshottam Shankh Shankh Gadhd Chakr 6 Adhokshaj Gadhd Shankh Chakr Padm 7 Sankarshan Shankh Padm Chakr Gadhd 8 Govind Gadhd Padm Shankh Chakr 9 Vishnu Padm Shankh Chakr Gadhd 10 Madhusudhan Shankh Padm Gadhd Chakr 11 Achyut Padm Chakr Shankh Gadhd 12 Upendr Gadhd Chakr Padm Shankh Pradyumn Shankh Gadha Padm Chakr 14 Trivikram Gadhd Chakr Shankh Padm 15 Nrsinh Padm Gadhd Shank Chakr 16 Janardhan Chakr Shankh Gadhd Padm

87 Sr. Nameoftiie Upper right Upper lower left Lower no Form hand left hand hand right hand. 17 Vaman Chakr Gadha Padm Shankh 18 Shridhar Chakr Gadhd Shankh Padm 19 Anirudh Gadha Shankh Padm Chakr 20 Rishikesh Chakr Padm Shankh Gadhd

21 Padmanabh Padm Chakr Gadhd Shankh 12 Ddmodar Shankh Gadhd Chakr Padm 23 Hari Chakr Padm Gadha Shankh 24 Shrikrishn Gadhd Padm Chakr Shankh

Chronology of twenty four forms mentioned in the Dharmsindhu are: Sr Name of the Upper Upper Lower Lower no Form right hand left hand left hand right hand. 1 Keshav Shankh Chakr Gadhd Padm 2 Ndrdyan Padm Gadhd Chakr Shankh 3 Mddhav Chakr Shankh Padm Gadhd 4 Govind Gadhd Padm Shankh Chakr 5 Vishnu Padm Shankh Chakr Gadhd 6 Madhusudhan Shankh Padm Gadhd Chakr 7 Trivikram Gadha Chakr Shankh Padm 8 Vaman Chakr Gadhd Padm Shankh 9 Shridhar Chakr Gadhd Shankh Padm 10 Rishikesh Chakr Padm Shankh Gadhd 11 Padmanabh Padm Chakr Gadhd Shankh 12 Ddmodar Shankh Gadhd Chakr Padm 13 Sankarshan Shankh Padm Chakr Gadhd 14 Vdsudev Shankh Chakr Padm Gadhd 15 Pradyumn Shankh Gadhd Padm Chakr 16 Anirudh Gadhd Shankh Padm Chakr 17 Purshottam Padm Shankh Gadhd Chakr

88 Sr Name of the Upper Upper lower left Lower no Form right hand left hand hand right hand. 18 Adhokshaj Gadha Shankh Chakr Padm 19 Nrsinh Padm Gadha Shank Chakr 20 Achyut Padm Chakr Shankh Gadha 21 Janardhan Chakr Shankh Gadha Padm 22 Upendr Gadha Chakr Padm Shankh 23 Hari Chakr Padm Gadha Shankh 24 Shhkhshn Gadha Padm Chakr Shankh

The sequence of the twenty four manifestations is also different here. In the Rupmandan, Vdsudev is followed by Keshav and Janardhan is followed by Upendr but in case of Agni Puran and Dharmsindhu it is not so. The Agf^i Purdn also remains silent on third attribute of Shridhar and Purshottam. The attributes of Madhav and Pradyumn; Hari and Padmanabh mentioned in the Agni Puran are same hence there is no differentiation between the two forms.

In Goa out of these twenty four forms Keshav, Ndrdyan, Madhav, Padmanabh, Vasudev, Vishnu and Vdman are found worshipped in Goa. The sculptures of Keshav, Narayan, Madhav and Padmanabh are found in classical style. Whereas there is only one sculpture of Vdman found. Similarly a sculpture of Vdsudev is found in the Bicholim taluka of Goa. Both the sculptures portray a typical local influence and are worshipped as Lakshmi-Ndrdyan in Goa Keshav form is the most popular in Goa. Many temples dedicated to this deity are found in Goa. a) Consorts of the twenty four forms:- Though the consort of Vishnu is said to be Lakshmi in many Purans twenty four forms of Vishnu and have different consorts for each form. These names are mentioned in the second chapter of the third Rdtri of Narad- Panch Rdtram.

A few are also mentioned in Prapanchtantr-sar written by Shankdrachdry^^. This text gives the names of first 16 consorts. The Prapanchtantr-sdr ™ and the Ndrad- Panch Rdtram^' gives the following:

89 Sr. no Name of the Form Names of the consorts 1 Keshav Kirti 2 Narayan Kanti 3 Madhav Tushti 4 Govind Pushti

5 Vishnu Dhrti 6 Madhusudhan Shanti 7 Trivikram Kriya 8 Vaman Daya 9 Shridhar Medhd 10 Rishikesh Harshd 11 Padmanabh Shraddhd

12 Damodar Lajja Sr. no Name of the Form Names of the consorts 13 Vasudev Lakshmi 14 Sankarshan 15 Pradyumn Priti 16 Anirudh

C. Sculptures of forms Vishnu of found in Goa a) Keshav The term Keshav includes the syllable Shav which part from meaning dead body also means water in ^^. In Goa there are around four villages where sculpture of Keshav in a classical style is found viz. Priol, Khandepar, Nageshi, Ponda city, Lolye, Korgao and Aria. Out of the 6 sites only one of them is in Kankona taluka whereas one is in Pedne taluka while the others are in Ponda taluka of North Goa. The sculpture of Keshav found in the city of Ponda is a recent one. Hence it cannot be used for the study. Whereas the sculpture found in Nageshi is not under worship. He is depicted holding a conch in his upper right hand and a disc in his upper left hand. In his lower right hand he holds a lotus while in his lower left hand he holds a mace. The position of the weapons found in these sculptures is in accordance to the Rupmandari'^. He is described having the same attributes in all the ancient texts like the Agni Purdn, According to the traditional texts like the Rupmandan, Fatal Khand

90 of Padm Puran, Keshav is mentioned to be the first form of Vishnu. The Shilpratn a text written by Shrikumar, mentions Keshav as the possessor of Chakr, Shankh, Gadha and Padrn''^. In Manasollas King Somtshwar mentions that Keshav should posses all the four attributes in a clock wise direction, i.e. Padm in the lower right hand, Shankh in the upper right hand, Chakr in the upper left hand and Gadha in the lower left hand'^. One can observe from the above description that the placement of the attributes mentioned in each of the hands o^ Keshav is not the same as mentioned in other texts. In the same text it is mentioned that he should be adorned with Kirit, Har, Keyur and should wedS a Pitambar for his lower body'^. i) Keshav sculpture of Priol:- This is the tallest sculpture of Keshav in Goa It can be assigned to the early Kadamb period. Copper plates of the Kadamb king Tribhuvanmall I consecrating Nageshwar temple in the same village were found. They were sent to Lisbon on 18 January 1731 and were found in Santana in Tiswadi taluka^^. From this we can corroborate that the sculpture of Keshav can be assigned to 11* century CE. The sculpture is in perfect condition without any mutilated parts. All the Keshav sculptures of the classical style found in Goa wear the Ma^ar Kundal type of earrings. The sculpture being massive is supported by two square pilasters of stone from behind. The layout of the sculpture follows the traditional pattern. But in this case the style of art is different. The Prabhavalli though contains the 10 incarnations of Vishnu is not intricately carved like the one in Lolye. The ornaments though present, do not have a 3D effect like that of the Lolye sculpture. Keyur, Skand-mala are very faintly carved. The Kirit styled crown is also depicted in this sculpture the hair locks of the deity are depicted. The personified Garud is depicted near his right leg while his consort Kirti is depicted near his left leg. She is holding a lotus in her left hand. The door jamb and the threshold of the sanctum of this temple are unremarkable and resemble the doorways of Shri Mahadev temple, Kurdi and Shri Saptkoteshwar temple, Opa Three lotuses are carved undemeath the lintel guarded by four serpents. Ganpati occupies the central position on the lintel. Two small elephants appear to emerge out from the threshold. Conches and other floral patterns are also carved on the threshold. ii) Keshav sculpture at Aria He is shown wearing a Kirit styled crown on his head, having a halo around it. Omaments like the Keyur, Skand-mala, Kankan are seen on his shoulders and arms. Various necklaces adom his body. The Prabhavalli above the head is mutilated and is 91 not found today whereas the Dvarshakha which supported the Prabhavalli still stand on the either side. The mutilated Prabhavalli had display of the 10 incarnations of Vishnu. His consort Kirti is shown near his left foot with a lotus bud in her right hand. A Garud and a devotee are shown in Anjali Mudraa near his right foot. But all these three images near his feet are not fully carved and seem to be incomplete. An inscription of four characters and is present on the Dvarshakha to the left hand side of the deity. The inscription reads as 'Shiri-Vauva . It is not known what it means. Perhaps it could be the name of the sculptor. On paleographic grounds the characters could be assigned to an early 12 centur. The inscription is in Nagari script™. The sculpture can be assigned to the 12"^ century and portrays a typical Kadamb influence, iii) Keshav sculpture of Lolye:- Lolye is a village lying in the southern most taluka of Goa The image ofShri Keshav here is incomparable to any image in Goa The official Portuguese records of the temple mention that the temple was reconstructed in the Hindu year 1846 (Prabhav Samvatsar) which corresponds to 1768 CE*''. A detailed study of the sculptures found in the areas of Belur and Halebidu which were once flourishing capitals of Hoysal dynasties one can deduce that this sculpture of Keshav can be dated to the 12"" century AD. A lot of influence oiHoysal art is seen on it. It must be probably carved when the Goa Kadamb kings accepted the Hoysal rulers as their feudal lords. The following folklore is associated with sculpture. It says that the creek near the temple today was a navigable rivulet through which traders came with ships to the village. In one such ship carrying loads of Chandan logs the present sculpture of Keshav was found in the same mutilated state as it is today^V

The sculpture is very delicately carved and appears to be a filigree work but on stone. This sculpture is perhaps the most exquisitely carved sculpture oi Keshav in Goa. It is around 117cm in height. The layout of the sculpture includes a Prabhavalli emerging from the mouths of two Makars supported by Dvarshakha. The Prabhavalli contains miniature images of all the 10 incarnations of Vishnu starting from the right side of the deity. It is carved by a Kirtimukh on the top. He holds conch and a disc in his upper right and left hand respectively. The lower right hand and the lower left hands are missing but from the iconography, it is quite clear that a Padm must have been the missing attribute of the lower right hand while a Gadhd existed in his lower left hand.

92 However the lower most portion of the Gadhd is still visible while the hand and the handle of the Gadhd are gone missing. Another uniqueness of this sculpture are the personified forms of the Nag and Garud standing near his left and right leg respectively. This is the only sculpture in Goa where the Nag is shown in a personified form. Besides these two sculptures there are two female Chauh bearers on their extreme ends. His consort Kirti is absent. The sculpture is adorned with all types of jewelry and ornaments. The Skand-mald on his shoulders, Keyur for his arms, Kankan for his hands, Katisutr around his waist, while Nupur and Padsar are seen on his legs and feet. The Katisutr has a bell hanging in its central portion. The Kirit styled crown adorns his head. iv)Sculpture oiKeshav in Nageshi:- This sculpture is again a different specimen from the others. It is not in worship today and kept in the storeroom of the Shri Ndgesh temple at Nageshi in Ponda taluka. The storeroom is above the main Mahadvdr of the temple which once formed Nagdr- Khdnd. The sculpture contains a ver>' intricately carved serpentine shaped Prabhavalli containing filigree works of lotus motifs. The 10 Avtdrs are carved in between the intricately carved Prabhavalli. Buddh the lO"* avtdr or Vishnu is depicted seated in a Padmdsan right in the middle of this Prabhavalli just above the crown of Vishnu. A Kirtimukh adorns the central portion of the Prabhavalli right on the top. The Shankh and the Chakr in the upper right and the left hands respectively are well preserved while there is a provision made to insert a feigned Gadhd in the lower left hand of the sculpture. The lower right hand does not depict a lotus in hand but holds a round stem of the lotus signifying the Padm. The two Ayudh-Purush; one holding one holding the Shankh juid the other holding the Chakr are seated besides his right and left legs respectively. Near the Shankh Purush stands the Garud while near the Chakr Purush stands Kirti holding a lotus in her left hand. The sculpture can be assigned to the dating to the 11*-12* century CE and is carved in the later Chalukyan style. v) Sculpture oiKeshav in Khandepar The one in Khandepar is also a new sculpture. But the remains of the portion of the old Prabhavalli points out to the fact that a sculpture of Keshav assigned to the 12*- 13"' century was once worshipped here. The Prabhavalli in the present temple is beautifully carved and is display of 12* century Kadamb art. It is triangular in shape with two miniature sculptures of on its either ends. Above them are miniatures

93 o{ and in the top most part one can see a miniature of Vishnu. Each miniature is encased in niche surrounded by Makars. vi)Sculpture ofKeshav in Korgao This sculpture is found worshipped as one of the affiliate deities oiShri Kamleshwar in the Pedne taluka of Goa. The sculpture here is very intricately carved. The sculpture has a huge Prabhavalli which coils around the head of the deity. It emerges from the mouth of two Makars seated on the Dvarshdkhas. The Prabhavalli is more striking and hits the eye then the sculpture. However it is mutilated on the top. The 10 incarnations of Vishnu are incorporated in circular discs within this Prabhavalli. Two female motifs shooting an arrow with a bow in the opposite direction are shown on the base of the Prabhavalli. Miniature of a Garud in an anthropomorphic form is shown near his right leg while his female consort Kirti is shown near his left leg with a lotus in her left hand. The deity is depicted with all types of omaments like the Har, KaustubhMani on his neck and chest respectively, Keyur for his arms. Mekhala for his waist, Makar Kundal for his ears, Kankan for his hands, Nupur and Padsar for his feet. There is a one line illegible inscription in Nandi Nagari characters on its pedestal. The sculpture is assignable to circa 13'''-14* century CE and is carved typical Kadamb style. b) Narayan:- Ndrayan is the second epithet of Vishnu^^. The epithet is quite popular in Goa and this name is assigned to almost all the forms of Vishnu irrespective of its iconic definition. The etymological roots of this deity can be traced to Nar + Ayan- where Nar means a primeval man and Ayan means belonging to the solstice (point on the ecliptic) in Sanskrit . So he was a solar deity if we go by his name. Yet another meaning of Nar means water and Ayan means coming or approaching in Sanskrit*''. So the deity could be also symbol of Jal-devtd. The Purdnic version of Ndrdyan tells us that the name comes from the waters Naras^^. While Rgved mentions that Ndrdyan is beyond the sky, earth and the gods. He is the water that contained the earliest embryo in which wall the gods were collected*^. Ndrdyan should hold Padm, Gadhd, in his upper right and left hands respectively while Chakr and Shankh should be in lower left and right hands respectively. In Goa the sculptures of Ndrdyan are found in classical as well local form. The sculptures found in local form are prototypes of classical art. There are two classical styled sculptures of this form are found in Goa One of them is found

94 in the Savai village of Ponda taluka while the other is found in village Mulgao of Bicholim taluka Apart from a prototype of the Mulgao sculpture is also found in the village of Narve of Bicholim taluka. In addition to this sculptures of Lakshmi- Narayan are found in the village Rivna of Sanguem taluka and in a ward lying in the Bicholim suburbs. However the latter one can be assigned to the 18* century and hence not included in this study. i) Narayan of Savai.- The sculpture oi^ Narayan found in this village is the only of its kind, out of the other sculptures of Narayan found in Goa. It is one of the best specimens of later Chalukyan art. Narayan holds a beautifully carved lotus in his upper right hand and a Gadha in his upper left hand. He should be holding a conch in his lower right hand and a disc in his lower left hand. But in this case both external hands made copper are fitted. His body is richly embellished with omaments. He wears Keyur on both his arms, beaded necklaces around his neck and shoulders and a Yadnyopavit on his body. He wears Makar Kundal in his ears and a Kirit styled crown on his head. The serpentine shaped Prabhavalli around him contains the 10 incarnations of Vishnu. The Prabhavalli rests on elephant heads on either side, above which two lions in the Kadamb emblem style are depicted. Two Makars are mounted on the Dvdrshdkhds on either side. Shridevi and Bhudevi flank the image on either side near his feet. They have snail-curls type hair which is a common feature of the later Chalukyan art. There is very little stone matrix seen supporting the image. The crown shown on the sculpture is a very common feature of the later Chalukyan school of art. The image can be probably assigned to later Chalukyan era. ii) Sculpture of Narayan of Mulgao The image is huge and colossal and probably the tallest image of Narayan in Goa This form of Vishnu should be depicted holding a conch in his lower right hand and a disc in his lower left hand. But in this case both the lower hands are mutilated and hence the details are not known today. The Prabhavalli is intricately carved with motifs and patterns or flowers and various other designs. Small images of the three deities Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh are seen carved in a niche in the Prabhavalli. Brahma is seen in a niche on the right hand side, Mahesh on the top (just above the head of the main sculpture) while Vishnu is seen on the left hand side. In other images of Narayan or Vishnu, the Prabhavalli normally contains the 10 Avtdrs of Vishnu. However in this case these are absent. Elephant, lion and Makar mounted on the 95 'Dvdrshdkha, adorn the sculpture on both the sides. The crown he wears is of Kiril type crown. The sculptor has tried to show even the details of hair coming out underneath the crown on the forehead. Makar Kundal type of earrings adom the ears. The ornaments worn around the neck and the waist are noteworthy. Rest all the ornaments like the Keyur, Kankan. Nupur, Padsar, Skand-mdld are depicted on his body. His consort Kdnti ^'^ is shown holding a lotus in her left hand near his left foot. The sculptor has tried to show various details of the body like the delicate skin folds of the neck, the nails of the hands and feet etc. A personified image of the Garud holding a is seen near his right foot. Near the sculpture of Garud and there are two Ayudh-Purush standing near them on the either sides of his feet. The left hand side appears to be the Chakr-Purush while the right hand side appears to be the Shankh-Purush. However not much can be said about them because the attributes in both their hands is mutilated. The image is probably carved out of soapstone and can be assigned to the n"* century. Influence of Chalukyan, Hoysal, and Kadamb art is seen on the image. It appears to be the only image of the Kadamb period found in Goa with the Prabhdvalli containing the images olBrahma, Vishnu and Mahesh. iii) Sculpture ofNdrdyan of Narve:- The records of the temple mention that it was established by in 1650 AD by Sagaiji Shet who was bom in Diu^^. Although it is a 17* century sculpture it has been included in this study since it is a perfect prototype of Kadamb school of art made by the local artisans. The records mention that Sagaiji Shet had come to Goa to trade with the Portuguese. He then felt the need of establishing a temple for the Gujirs^'^ (Gujratis) community of Goa^. The Garbgrih of the temple houses a sculpture of Ndrdyan locally addressed as Lakshmi-Nardyan. The sculpture of Lakshmi-Nardyan in the temple is very interesting as a strong local influence of Kadamb art is seen on the earrings, the crowns, ornaments and other sculptural details. Therefore it is possible to assign a date to the sculpture. Archaeologically this image can be assigned to the 17*^ century but the sculptor has tried carved it like an image of Kadamb period (12'*' century). The image is around 128cm tall and is a pure prototype of the sculpture of Ndrdyan of Mulgao, which dates to the 12* century. The sculptor has beautifully tried to create model of the 12 century by incorporating Chalukyan and Kadamb influences. The image seems to have been made in the northern talukas of Goa by local sculptors. Overall the image is very impressive and beautiful, possessing a ver> ancient look. It is one of the few surviving images of Ndrdyan in Goa in a very good

96 condition. He wears a Yadnyopavit across his body. Many necklaces adorn his neck. One of the necklaces which is noteworthy is a pendant of tiger claws facing the opposite direction. His body is also embellished with many other ornaments like the Keyur, Kankan, Nupur etc. He is shown wearing a pair of^Khadau (wooden footwear) on his feet. Kirit Mukut styled crown is seen on his head and a pair of Ratn Kundal type earrings for both his ears. The image has Dvarshakha on both its sides. The Dvarshakha on the right side has motifs of the first three incarnations of Vishnu, whereas the left side has the last two incarnations carved on it. The rest five incarnations are absent. Above these Dvarshakha motifs of elephants, Makar, lions are carved. The top most triangular portion of the Prabhavalli has small images of the Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh carved in niches just like in the sculpture of Mulgao. An image of Garud; is seen near his right foot whereas Shridevi is seen holding a lotus near his left foot. c) Mddhav The word Adhav in the names means spring or is the other name for the Hindu month Vaishakh which is the second month of spring^'. The sculptures of Mddhav in classical style are found in two places in Goa. One of the find spots is in Vichundre village of Sanguem taluka while two sculptures are found in the Dhavli and Bon villages of Ponda taluka. The sculptures at Vichundre and Bori are traditionally called as NdrdyandQv. Another sculpture purely in local style is also found in the village of Shiroda of Ponda taluka Besides this there is an ancient worship of Mddhav in the

one during the recent times. Hence this image is not included in the study. Iconography of Mddhav specifies that he should be holding a disc in his upper right hand, a conch in his upper left hand, a lotus in his lower left hand and a mace in his lower right hand^'. i) Sculpture of Mddhav in Vichundre: - The site lies in a remote village called Vichundre in the Sanguem taluka in South Goa. It is traditionally called as Ndrdyandev of Vichundre. The site is notified as a Protected Monument by the Goa State Archives and Archaeology Department^'. However the sculpture does not satisfy the iconographic requirement of Mddhav mentioned in the Rupmandan. He is locally addressed as Ndrdyandev instead of

97 Madhav. The site and the sculpture of Vichundre is quite ancient may date to the 13' - M"" century. The main image is worn off due to constant exposure to sun and rain. The Pmbhavalli around the head of the sculpture contains the ten Avtars carved of Vishnu. ii) Sculpture of Madhav in Dhavli:- This is a very unique sculpture of Madhav found in Goa. It is the only of its kind and is 88cm in height. The sculpture holds a Chakr and a Shankh in it upper right and left respectively. The lower right hand is very uniquely depicted. He holds a Chitrfal and supports a Gadha by the same hand. The lower left hand is shown is a Katvyalambit Mudra and at the same time holds a Padm. The Prabhavalli is divided into two sections. The topmost semicircular section has miniatures of all the twenty four forms of Vishnu. While the layer below it depicts the 10 incarnations of Vishnu. The Kirtimukh is not shown on the topmost central part of the sculpture but is embedded between the two layers of the miniatures. The Dvdrshdkha is well carved. Makars are seen resting on them from which emerges the Prabhavalli. The two female consorts Shridevi and the Bhudev?^ are seen standing near either of its legs. A Garud is shown kneeling in the Anjali Mudra near his left leg. Ornaments like Kirit styled crown for his head, the Skand-mala, for his shoulders Keyur on his arms, Katisutr for his waist Kankan for his hands and Nupur for his legs and Pddsar and rings are seen on his feet and fingers respectively. Normally most of the classical styled sculptures sport Makar Kundal in their ears but in this case he is depicted wearing Ratn Kundal. The presence of the Chitrfal in this case should not be used as an indicator to date the sculpture to the Badami Chalukyan era The overall features and the style of carving do not allow the sculpture to be dated to such an early period. Moreover Chitrfal supported by a Gadhd was a common feature of the sculptures of the western Chalukyan period^^ The style of the crown appears to be a transition phase of the later Chalukyan to Kadamb art. The sculpture can be assigned to the early 12"" century CE. iii) Madhav sculpture of Shiroda:- The ancient temple of Mddhav Ganpati in this village is located in the village of Shiroda in Ponda taluka The exposed laterite temple of a small height houses the image of Madhav. The sculpture overall depicts a very local influence. The Padm is depicted like un-bloomed lotus bud while the Gadhd is supported behind his right hand. The same hand is depicted in a Varad Mudra. The PrabhdvalU contains the 10 98 Avtars of Vishnu embedded within the niches of a crawling creeper which runs on the Prabhavalli. The ornaments too show a local influence. The dhoti is in a typical traditional style. The Yadnyopavit is a just plain thread without any omamentation. Two female Chauri bearers are present on either sides of the sculpture and Kirti and Garud a common feature in the classical sculptures is missing. The sculpture can be assigned to the M"" century, iv) Sculpture oiMadhav at Bori:- This sculpture though in local style is worth studying. The sculpture portrays Mddhav in a complete local style. The sculpture does not follow any traditional layout of a Vishnu sculpture. The sculpture is depicted having a muscular body. The cuff muscles on the legs are clearly visible. The Dvarshakhas are non-existent. They are depicted by just a horizontal moulding, the Makhars and the lions on the Dvarshakhas have changed into running tigers. The Prabhavalli around him contains miniatures of all the 10 incarnations. The pedestal of the sculpture depicts fishes swimming within weeds in the water. The sculpture can be assigned to the late 14"" century or early 15* century.

d) Vishnu. - A sculpture of Vishnu is already discussed in the same chapter above. However that sculpture does not fall in the category of the twenty four Roop (forms). The sculpture discussed above is one of the earliest conceptualization of Vishnu. As per the classification of the various texts like the Rupmandan, Agni Puran, Vishnu Samhita or the Vishnu Sahasmam Strotram Vishnu also forms a part of the twenty four forms group. There are two such sculptures found worshipped in the villages of Shiroda and Kavlem in Ponda taluka. The sculpture of Vishnu found in Kavlem is or later period them as compared to the sculpture found in Shiroda The sculpture of Vishnu according to Rupmandan should hold Padm, Shankh in his upper right and left hands respectively and a Chakr and a Gadha in his lower left and right hand respectively^^. i) Vishnu sculpture of Shiroda:- The sculpture of Vishnu worshipped in the Rdyeshwar temple at Shiroda is a unique fusion of local and classical art. The sculpture includes all the features of Kadamb and Chalukyan school of art but also projects a strong influence of local art. It can be assigned to the early 14* century. The Skand-mdld, Keyur, Kankan. Yadnyopavit, Hdr, Katisutr, Mekhala are shown but the degree of intricacy is very less. The 99 Prabhavalli is semicircular in style with a slighting pointing edge in the centre where the Kirtimukh is placed. It has all the 10 incarnations of Vishnu carved on it. Each of them are placed in a Chalukyan styled niches of the Prabhavalli. However this Prabhavalli too is a degenerated version of the Chalukyan art. The sculpture could be assigned to the 13* century, ii) Vishnu sculpture of Kavlem in Ponda: The sculpture of found in the Kavlem village holds a Padm, Shankh, in his upper right and left hands respectively while a Chakr and a Gadha in the lower left and right hands respectively. A Prabhavalli emerges from the mouths of two Makars sitting on Dvarshakhds on the either sides. A Garud is shown standing near his right leg while his consort, Kirti near his left leg. The overall style of the sculpture and all the ornaments shown make it look like a classical style sculpture of the Kadamb period. But the Padm, Kirit and the Prabhavalli depicted here is purely in local style. The local sculptor has tried to imitate the classical style by incorporating the feature of the Kadamb school of art. The sculpture can be assigned to circa 17* century to early 18 centurv.

e) Vaman:- The name basically means dwarfish or fine or minute in Sanskrit^^. However, the iconographic description in both the cases is very different. In Goa he is worshipped as one of the twenty four forms of Vishnu as the icon found; satisfies the prescribed iconographic criteria. Moreover the sculpture is in static pose and is Chaturbhuj in style. The sculpture has two female deities near his either feet. Probably they represent the Bhudevi and Shridevi. Being local in style the two female deities do not hold any attributes in their hands. The omate embellishment as seen in the case of classical style sculptures is absent in this case. The Kirit is simple and tapering. Yadnyopavit, is like a round thread and is more realistic then artistic. The Har, Katisutr. Keyur. Kankan, and the Padsar are very plain and simple. He is draped with a local dhoti covering the lower part of his body. The PrabhavaUi is semicircular in shape containing miniatures of all the 10 Avtars of Vishnu intertwined between creepers. The Padm in his lower right hand is symbolic representation of a lotus bud. The sculpture is a product of pure local art and can be assigned to the late 14* CE.

100 f) Padmandbh- The term Padm means lotus and Ndbh signifies navel''^. This sculpture of Padmandbh was acquired by the Goa State Museum from Kunkaliye a village of Ponda taluka . He is shown holding a Padm in his upper right hand and a Chakr in his upper left hand. The lower right hand holds a conch while the lower left hand supports the Gadhd. The Dvdrshdkhd is very unique in thus sculpture and is only of its kind in Goa. It has a lion motif supported by a Bhar-Vahu. The Prabhdvalli is ornate and perhaps had the 10 incarnations of the god carved on it. But however all of them are not present today. The top of the Prabhaavalli is crowned by a Kirtimukh. The Padmanahh is adorned by all kinds of jewelry like the Makar Kundals for the ears, Katisutr for the waist, Keyur for the arms and Kankan for the hands. The sculpture can be dated to the n"* century and is in Kadamb style.

g) Vasudev- The etymological roots of Vdsudev can be traced to which means water in Sanskrit . This sculpture is worshipped in the village of Kulan in Bicholim taluka It is a sculpture depicted in local art. The deity holds a Shankh and Chakr in his upper right and left hands respectively while Padm and a Gadha in his lower left and right hands respectively thus, following the iconographic description of Vdsudev given in Rupmandan^^\ The Prabhdvalli is semicircular in shape unlike the Prabhdvalli found in the classical sculptures of the later Chalukyan and the Kadamb period. Miniatures of all the 10 incarnations of Vishnu are depicted on this Prabhdvalli. The miniatures begin from the right hand side of the deity and end on the left hand side. The Skand- mdld is absent on the shoulders. But Keyur and the Kankan are present. Similarly the Nupur too are not shown as a dhoti till the feet are covered. The Pddsar are depicted in the form of a round wire. The Yadnyopavit and the Katisutr along with the necklaces are shovm. The Kirit styled crown is long and tapering. The Garud is shown kneeling near its right leg while his consort Lakshmi^^^ is shown near his left leg. Ratn Kundals adorn his ears. The height of the sculpture is around 73 cm and can be assigned to the IS^'-IS* century.

D. Sculptures oiavtdr icons of Vishnu . Out of the 10 of Vishnu ]us\. four are found worshipped in Goa. Out of which just four are worshipped in Goa. Nrsinh is worshipped in Veling village of Ponda 101 taluka, Parshurdm is worshipped in aniconic form in Kankona taluka, while Ram is worshipped in the Pilgao village of Bicholim taluka and Krishna is worshipped in the form of Gopindth in the village of Netravali in Sanguem taluka. a) Nrsinh:- The Vishnu Puran and the Nrsinh Puran give the Puranxc information of Nrsinh. Chapter 40 of Nrsinh Puran mentions that Hiranykashyapu had received a boon from Brahma which made him immortal. He asked.- 'I should not die by dry or wet matter. Neither should water kill me nor air. No stick or insect should kill me. I should not die by pricking of a thorn nor by hitting of a stone nor piercing a weapon. No celestial bodies should kill me nor should any animal or monkey. I should not meet death inside the house nor outside. I should not die during the day nor during the night.''''\ He forces his son Prahldd to worship him and not Vishnu since he had become immortal"^''. Finally Hiranykashyapu kicks a pillar of his palace and asks Prahldd to prove that Vishnu is omnipresent"'^ Finally Vishnu appears in the form of half man - half lion and kills him on his lap by using his sharp claws in the dusk^"^. Thus he is neither killed during the day nor in the night. He neither killed by an animal nor man nor by any celestial bodies. He is neither killed in the sky nor on land.

No stone sculptures of Nrsinh belonging to the ancient or the medieval period are found in Goa today. However the worship of Nrsinh now in Veling village of Ponda taluka is quite ancient. It was originally located in the village of Sancoale or Sankvale prior to the advent of the Portuguese'"'. The deity was shifted during the 16* century to Ponda to save it from desecration from the hands of the Portuguese. The Portuguese have referred the deity as Narsu"^^. The folklore in Veling mentions that the deity was shifted to the present place by a canoe by the fisher-folk community from Sankvale. It was brought to the present site from Kamale, a village lying on the banks of River Zuari in Ponda taluka. The back of Nrsinh temple today faces the Veling village. It is built in accordance to Mdnasdr. Chapter IX of Mdnasdr mentions that the temple of Nrsinh should not face the village and should be buiU with its back towards the village""'. The sculpture of Nrsinh worshipped in this temple is a recent one. But one old bronze sculpture is also found in this temple. The sculpture is in Chaturbhuj form and is seated in an Utkutik pose. The two lower hands are stretched on the knees. The right hand is in Abhay Mudrd. while the lower left hand is Varad Mudra. It holds a Chakr and a Shankh in its upper left and right hands respectively.

102 Such type of sculpture is termed as Keval Nrsinh^^^ - to mean only Nrsinh. No emphasis appears to have been given on the ornaments. The Keyur, Nupur, Padsar, Yadnyopavit and the Hdr are shown. But they are shown in the form or round string. The Kaustubh jewel hanging on a chain is seen on his chest. It cannot be a called Shrivats because it is suspended from a chain. The crown is Kirit styled and bears a very close resemblance to the crowns depicted in the Vijaynagar school or art. There is depression kept purposely in the middle of the forehead perhaps to apply kumkum. The worship of Nrsinh was very popular during the early Chalukyan, Kadamb and Hoysal period. The early Chalukyan depicts him in a standing pose. The lion is shown in an anthropomorphic form. The face of the lion was depicted without any ornamentation. An exquisitely carved sculpture of face of Nrsinh is found within the mud fortified area of Hanagal near Sirsi in Kamataka, while Nrsinh was worshipped also by the Hoy sals and the Vijaynagar kings. The King of Vijaynagar Krishnadevrdi had consecrated a 6.7m tall sculpture of Nrsinh in Hampi in 1582 CE"'. b) Rdm- Though the worship of Ram in Pilgao continues to exists today the sculpture of Ram, iMkshman and Sitd in the temple today are very recent. The sculptures older then these are placed in a niche in the walls of the water tank of the same temple. Those also do not have any antique value and belong to a modem period. Hence the antiquity of the worship cannot be ascertained. However the temple existed till 18'*' January 1684. On the same day it was pulled down by the forces of Shah Alam and the idol was broken into pieces''^. Hence the exact archaeological importance of the worship is not knovm. c) Gopindth:- The sculpture of Gopindth was found in the village of Netravali in Sanguem taluka. Gopinath is the worship Shri Krishna. Krishn forms a part of the \Q Avtdrs of Vishnu and is also one of his twenty four forms. But in the case of the sculpture found in Netravali it is to be categorized into the 10 Avtdrs because the sculpture is in a dynamic pose and is not Chaturbhuj. The sculpture has a very typical layout. Two Dvdrshdkhds adorn the sculpture on both the sides. The serpentine Prabhavalli emerges from the top of these two Dvdrshdkhds. But in this case the Makars are absent. The miniatures of the 10 incamations are depicted in the spaces between the Prabhdvalli. The sculpture depicts him playing a flute. The left hand and the flute are mutilated. The flute is termed as Venu in the Vaikhandsagam^^' and also known as 103 Vamshi or Kuzhal in South lndia"^ Such sculptures are termed as Vem-Gopal or the Gangopal^^\ The Gadha and a Chakr are depicted on the left hand side of the Prabhavalli while the Padm and the Shankh are shown on the right hand side of the Prabhavalli one below the other. Three well grown cows along with two calves with a shepherd are seen near his left foot. Three female cowherdesses are seen near his right legs while two Chauri bearers are seen on the either sides on the Dvarshdkhas. in the Vaikhansagam they are called as Gop-Gokanyd"^. The sculpture is shovm in the Trihhang^^^ pose and the deity is shown in the Ardhsampad style. A Gariui is also found on the base of the image. A huge tree is depicted his head. A small bun, projecting towards the left hand side forms the hairdo. Such hairstyles are common features of Kadamb and Hoysal sculptures in Kamataka. In the temple of Soumy Keshav at Nuggihalli in Kamataka built by the Hoysals a similar sculpture with a similar layout is found. Similar hairdos are also seen on many Kadamb virgals of Goa. All the ornaments are depicted in the sculpture. But here the crown is absent. The Ratn Kundals are very prominent. The Yadnyopavit, Skand-mala, Keyur, Kankan. Mekhala are present. The Nupur and the Padsar are also prominent. A short dhoti above the knee covers the lower part of the body. He is shown standing on Padm. d) Buddh He is believed to be the last incamation of Vishnu. The Bhagvat Purdn mentions that Vishnu took the incamation oiBuddh who was bom to Ajan in Magadh^^^. The Ag^i Puran a little different description is given about Buddh. It is mentioned that "the gods were defeated in a war by the demons and the gods. Finally the gods approached Ishvar who incamated as Buddh and was bom to Shuddhodan. He infatuated the demons and made them relinquish the Vedic religion. Buddh became Ahart (the enlightened one). The demons became followers of Buddh and made others also to forsake the Vedic religion and became Pdshandin. Lots of sinful deeds were committed by them hence in the KaUyug the Mlechas in the guise of kings will devour men. This is the time when Vishnu will take the form oCKalki who will extirpate the Mlechas and establish order and dignity and lead the people to the pure path of religion. Almost all the sculptures of forms of Vishnu found in Goa show him in the panel of their Dashavtar on their Prabhavalli. There are two sites in Goa where sculptures of Buddh were found. One of them is in Mushir waddo in the village of Colvale in Bardez taluka of North Goa while the second one is the village Rivna of Sanguem taluka of South Goa 104 i) BuddhofCohale- It was found in the fields of Edward DePurans while digging in 1931^^". It was taken to museum of Indian Historical Research Institute, St. Xavier's College, Bombay by Fr Henry Heras. The sculpture depicts seated in a Dhydn Mudra seated in a Padmasan pose. A cloth covers his body from the navel to left shoulder. A pleated cloth is also shown on his left shoulder. The drapery is also seen covering the lower part of his body. It is assigned to the 6* century CE by the Museum^^'.However the sculpture appears to date to a period later then that perhaps to the 12 -14 century CE ii) Buddh of Rivna:- It was found in the village of Rivna by the Goa State Archives & Archaeology in 1976. The sculpture was found underneath a mound of earth in the orchard owned by Sarvottam Desai. The sculpture was found headless. Buddh is shown in - Sparsh-Mudrd with his right hand touching the ground. The drapery found in this case is almost in the same style as of the found on the sculpture of Colvale. It is perhaps the largest statute oiBuddh found in Goa till now.

E. Other sculptures of Vishnu:- a) Sculptures Lakshmi-Narayan sculptures:- The sculpture of should be depict Narayan and Lakshmi in an embracing pose. Narayan should embrace her breasts with his left hand while his other hands should Gadhd, Shankh, and Chakr while the iMkshmi should hold a Padm, Darpan, and a golden Kalash in her hand^^^. i) Sculptures Lakshmi-Narayan sculpture of Rivna An interesting sculpture of Lakshmi along with Narayan is found in the village of Rivna in the Sanguem taluka. The village of Rivna of the Sanguem taluka has many ancient settlements. A sculpture of Buddh, was discovered in one of the fields of Rivna which is now in the Goa State Museum*^^. The village also has laterite caves. Tradition has it that the village was known as Rishivan during the ancient times but no epigraphic evidences mentioning this name is available. However a poetic compilation of 1721 CE mentions that it was once known as RiShivan^^'^. Shri Vimleshwar in this village is worshipped in the form of a ShivUng. The small and unique sculpture depicts Vishnu along with his consort Lakshmi standing besides him. The sculptures oi Lakshmi-Narayan found in the temple of Halshi or in the temple of 105 Kamal Ndrayan at Degamve in Khanapur taluka or in the A.S.I Museum at Lakkundi (ancient Kalyani) in Kamataka shows Lakshmi seated on the left leg of Vishnu. According to the Sanskrit te.xts the Lakshmi should hold a lotus in her left hand and her right hand should embrace Vishnu's neck. Similarly Vishnu's left hand should embrace LakshmCs breasts. Moreover both should be in a seated position'^^ But in this sculpture it is not so. Here Vishnu is shown standing in a Sambhang Mudrd. On his left hand side goddess Lakshmi too is shown standing besides him holding a lotus in her left hand. The right hand of the goddess is in Katvyalambit Mudrd. Vishnu is shown holding a lotus in his upper right hand and a Chakr is his upper left hand. His lower right hand is in Abhay Mudrd. An Akshmala ftosary) is seen around the fingers of this same hand. He holds a Gadhd in is his lower left hand. He wears a Kir it styled crown and wears Ratn Kundal styled earrings. Though the sculpture is quite small the sculptor has tried to carve out details like of ornaments like the Keyur. Kankan for his arms and hands respectively while Nupur and Pddsar for his legs and feet respectively. Lakshmi is shown without a crown but her hairdo is kind of a bun which is projected above the left hand side, above her ears. The hair is neatly combed as even the comb marks are indicated on her hair. She also wears Ratn Kundal styled earrings and necklaces around her neck. A minute study of this sculpture reveals that it has been left incomplete. The sculptor has not finished the sculpture fully as chisel marks are still visible on the sculpture. A Garud is seen kneeling nsax Ndrdyan's right foot while a small image of person is seen seating near the left foot of the goddess. It is difficult to identify this entity as it is badly damaged. The presence of the Akshmdld instead of the Shankh is a noteworthy feature of this sculpture. This is the only sculpture in Goa of the medieval period which can literally interpreted as Lakshmi-Ndrdyan. The sculpture can be assigned to the 12* -13* century and has a strong influence of the Kadamb style of carving. b) Sculpture oiAnant Ana in Sanskrit means respiration or breath'^^. In this sculpture Vishnu is shown in a reclining posture on a serpent on the ocean bed. The sculpture is found in the village of Savai in Ponda taluka and is popularly known as Anant. The Matsy Purdn gives a good detailed description of this form of Vishnu. It is mentions that Vishnu reclines on the body of Shesh Ndg with one of his hand supporting his head just like a pillow. His one of his legs touch the navel of Lakshmi. Garud sits beside him fluttering his wings 106 to fan him'^'. While the chapter titled Sthanak-shayanadi-bhedh of the Vaikhansagam mentions that there are four categories of Vishnu sleeping on the serpent. Viz. Yogshayan, Bhogshayan, Virshayan and the Anantshayan or the Jalshayan'^^. Agni Puran also gives the description oiJalshayan, it mentions that he rests on his left side in the waters of the primordial ocean. From his umbilical cord emerges a lotus which blossoms into a four faced Brahma while Lakshmi his consort shampoos the feet of the god^^''. Kalidas in his Raghuvamsh describes in detail the Bhogasan form of Vishnu resting on a serpent'^". It mentions that Vishnu was reclining on a serpent whose foot was resting on Lakshmi's thigh. She was seated on a lotus pedestal. He was wearing a Kaustubh Mani which was a mirror for Lakshmi. He also sported a Shrivats mark. Bhrigu and other Rishis had come to enquire about the soundness of his sleep.

The sculpture of Vishnu shown in a reclining posture worshipped in the temple at Savai-Verem in Ponda taluka is around 122cm long and 46cm wide. It belongs to the Bhogshayan category. This image of Vishnu or popularly known as Anant in the temple is carved on a rectangular slab. The four armed deity is shown reclining on a seven hooded serpent called the Shesh Nag^^\ His upper right hand is depicted supporting his head while the upper left hand holds a conch. The lower right hand is in a Katak Mudra and the lower left hand is stretched on the thigh of the left leg. His left leg rests on tortoise which is second incarnation of Vishnu. Shridevi is seen seated near his head grooming herself in a mirror. While his right leg is seen resting on Bhudevi 's hand. Six figures of sages are shown in a praying pose near his head. Brahma is depicted seated on a lotus which emerges out from his navel. Dashavtdrs are carved on this panel. The Matsy and Kurm Avtars are depicted in the form of a fish and tortoise right at the bottom of the panel, while Varah and Nrsinh are shown on above his legs. Vishnu is shown resting his right leg on the back of the tortoise. Nrsinh is shown in a dynamic pose tearing of the intestines of Hiranykashyapu. Besides him is shown Vaman holding an umbrella along with Ram holding a bow. Below is depicted Parshurdm holding an axe along with Krishn holding a flute. Below them is depicted Buddh in a Dhyan Mudra and Kalki riding a horse. This form of Vishnu is also called as Anantshayan"^. The depiction of Lakshmi seated with a mirror in her hand and grooming her hair categorizes this sculpture as Bhogshayan. Vishnu is adorned with all the possible ornaments like the Kirit for his head, Skand-

107 mala on his shoulders, Keyur for his arms, Har on his neck with a huge pendant; the Kaustubh. Makar Kundah embellish his ears while the Kankan for his hands. The Nupur and the Pddsar are seen on his feet. The Mekhala and Yadnyopavit can be seen on his waits and the torso respectively. As described in the Sanskrit texts he is depicted wearing a Pitdmbar^^^. This sculpture is very unique in Goa and is the only stone sculpture in Goa where Vishnu is shown in this position. There is lot of Kadamb -Hoysal influence seen on the carving. The image probably dates to the late 12' century CE. A very similar image is found in the village of Halebidu in Kamataka'^"*. Folklorist Vinayak Khedekar narrates a legend which mentions that the said image was found in a boat of a Muslim trader which was filled with logs of -Chandan wood. Gopi-Chandan is a type of clay which is widely used in temples for reUgious purposes. The image was handed over to the village by him very respectfully. The twin villages of Savai and Verem came under the Kadambs right from the 11"* century AD. These twin villages; along with their neighboring villages are mentioned in the copper plates of the Kadamb King Shasthdev II which date to 1038AD. Village Savai is mentioned as Sduvai and Verem is mentioned Verak in the records c) yl(^/»a//?-Worship of the Sun: The references to Sury worship can be traced to the Rgvedic period. There are around 10 hymns dedicated to in the Rgvedic text. He is called as the eye of Mitr, Varun and Agni^^^. The name Mitr also figures amongst the list of ancient Persian deities for the Sun God who was also associated with fertility. Some bas-reliefs in found in ancient Persia depict him as a man holding his phallus ready for sexual act''^. The Ao tribe of Assam believes that if the sunlight becomes inclement for few days then the village will suffer from lack of food'^^. Many sacrifices and rituals are carried out to the ruling spirits like the sun and the moon'^^. The sun cult in ancient Iranians was instrumental in remodeling the worship of Sury in northern India''*". The Gupt and pre-Gupt images of Surya show Iranian features''*'. Ushd or dawn is Surya s wife. Being the son of Goddess ylc//Y/ he is termed asAdity or Aditey^'^^. In theAtharv- ved there are four hymns dedicated to him which are believed to be of charm during pregnancy''*^. References to rising and setting of the Sun being worshipped with gifts being offered to him are found in the Atharv-ved^'*'*. The Matsy Purdn mentions the details of Sury and his Chariot or the Rath. In chapter no. 125 of the Purdn it is mentioned that the Rath has just one wheel. Brahmd was the creator of the Rath. The 108 Rath is pulled by seven horses. The names of these horses are Gdyatri, Trishtup, Jagati, Anushtup, Pangkti, Brhati, Ushnik^^^. In the Vishwakarm Vdstusdtram he is mentioned as Divdkar and who rides a chariot of seven horses but the names of these horses are not given''"'. TheMatsy Puran mentions that the image of Sury should have beautiful eyes and hold lotuses in his hands. The chariot should have one wheel and should be drawn by seven horses. The lotuses should be held high above the shoulders. On the either side of the sculpture images of Dand and Pingal should be present'"*^. The Agni Puran has a entire chapter dedicated to iconography of Sury. The chapter is titled Sury Devtd Pratima Lakshnam. While describing the iconography of Sury it mentions the Dand stands besides his right foot holding a pen and an inkpot in his hand and Pingal near his left foot holding mace in his hand*'**. It also mentions that the ink pot and the pen in Band's hand is symbolic of computation of age of the universe whereas the mace in Pingal's hand is an insignia of his master's divine sovereignty''*^. While in the Vishwakarm Shilp it is mentioned that Sury's chariot has one wheel and is drawn by seven horses. The Kurm Puran mentions the names of seven rays of the sun. Sushumr, Harikesh, Vishwkarmd, Vishwvyachd, Sayandvasu and Arvdvasu. The seven horses are perhaps the representation of the seven rays. Sury is described of wearing an armour and a shield over his chest and holds lotus in his hands"". In the Bhdgvat Puran he resembles time. According to the Puran his Rath has just one wheel named Sanvatsar. The wheel 12 spokes resembling the 12 months of the year and the wheel has 6 mouldings representing the 6 seasons'". It is also mentioned that the Rath is driven by Arun. The basic iconography of Sury requires the sculpture to be Dvibhuj holding a lotus in each of his hand. He is should also shown mounted on a chariot of seven horses. In Tanjavur a village by name Surynarkoyil has a temple dedicated Sury and the nine planets. The village got its name from this 11* century temple'".

In Goa an inscription found in one of the Shaivaite caves at Harvale in Bicholim taluka reads Sambalur-Vdsi Ravi which is translated as Ravi the resident of Sdmbalurav^^ . This proves that in Goa too the worship of the sun was quite prevalent even during the Bhoj era In Goa there are six images of Sun found'^'*. Two images are in the Goa State Museum while four are in the A.S.I Museum at Old Goa'"'. Another sculpture identified as Mdrtand Bhairav holding a sword in his right hand and a lotus in his left hand has been found in Usgao-Par in Ponda taluka. In Goa, the 109 Kulmi tribe too extensively believes in the sun and the moon. A song is sung by the elderly experts of the tribe in the night without any breaks. He is accompanied by a few more men. The song is termed as Gudulya Gane. Before beginning the song the sun and the moon are invoked in the following manner:- 3TFft "g^ ^^T^ WcJ^ F^ xft^ ^g^

^ vitllci^^^TrJTTsllo^illcb

Though there are around six archaeological evidences of Sury worship sites existing in Goa A pedestal of a Sury sculpture displaying the seven horses and the two female forms Usha and Pratyusha shooting an arrow in the opposite direction near his feet was found in Madgaon in the Salcette taluka'^^. Ushd and Pratyusha represent the dawn and the darkness. The pedestal is part of sculpture which no longer exists and can be assigned to circa 13"'-14''' century CE. It is around 45cm wide and was found in 1961 in the Church Cemetery of Madgaon^". Yet another sculpture of Sury, interpreted as Martand Bhairav by Dr. Mitragotri was found in Par-Usgao of Ponda taluka. But the sculpture appears to be of 17*-18"* century hence cannot be included in this study'^**. Yet another two sculptures of Sury are found in Usgao. He is worshipped as Adinath. The sculpture in the temple can be assigned to circa 15*-16* century while the sculpture outside the temple under a tree can be assigned to the 14*- 15* century. i) Sculpture oi Adinath in Usgao The sun is worshipped as Adinath in the Ponda taluka of Goa. It is the only temple dedicated to the Sun God existing in Goa today, but the sculpture lying under the tree outside the temple has more antique value then the one inside the temple. This sculpture of Adinath holds a lotus in each of his hand. He is standing on a chariot driven by seven horses. Usha and Pratyusha, are replaced by miniatures of two male attendants kneeling down besides his feet on either sides in Anjali Mudrd. The traditional Prabhavalli in this sculpture is missing and is replaced by a huge Prabhamandal. The exquisitely carved halo around the head and the crown is the main focus of carving. He is adorned with huge Ratn Kundal for his ears. Har, Yadnyopavit, Mekhald are seen on his neck, torso and waist respectively. His feet are adorned with Nupur while &Kirit Mukut crowns his head.

110 The roof of temple of Adimth is a masterpiece of art. The roof is covered with tiles. It is a two-tier roof supported by huge wooden beams. The gap between the two layers of the roof provides excellent ventilation to the assembly hall below. This makes it stand out from all the other roofs. The roof is supported by round masonry columns with Kaavi art running along their periphery. The temple perhaps had wooden carved columns earlier which were replaced by masonry columns. The temple also has beautifully carved wooden grills for its windows. The roof is perhaps designed to meet the concept of the deity, ii) Sculpture of Sury of Kudne. The sculpture was found in the Kudne village of the Bicholim taluka. Kudne is identified with Kundivatak of the 7* century Badami Chalukyan copper plates''^. The sculpture is now kept in the Archaeological Survey of India, Museum at Old Goa.

This sculpture is assigned to IS^-M* century CE"'°. He can be described holding two fully blovm lotuses in his hands. He wears a crown and Ratn Kundah for his ears. The body is covered with a armour while boots are seen on his feet. The Frabhavalli is plain and not many ornaments are seen on his body except the Hdr. Interestingly the sculpture does not ride the chariot driven by seven horses which proves that it belongs to an very early period probably to the 1^-%^ century CE. As described in the Matsy Purdn, his attendants; Dand and Pingal are shown on the either sides of his feet. Dand is depicted holding a long staff in his hands near his left leg while Pingal depicted near his right leg. Dr. V.T.Gune mentions that the sculpture has remarkable affinity to Kushan period Sury reliefs of '^V

F. Spread of through a folk form called Kalo:- The Kdlo or the Dasha- avtdri Kdlo is one of the performing art forms in Goa which includes dance cum drama in its performance. A night is marked for the Kalotsav by the temples during the Jdtrd. It is a form of folk theatre comprising of dialogues, fighting scenes, songs and instrumental pieces. The name Dashavtar suggests that it is a depiction of the ten incarnations of Shri Vishnu. The central alley of the Sabhamandap is used for the performance. Surprisingly, one finds a similarity in the musical compositions of Kalo in all the talukas of Goa. Wooden and cloth masks are the main centre of attraction. Each mask or an icon represents a mythological figure To elucidate, a wooden head of a swan signifies Shri Saraswati; the beautiful but a malicious looking mask of a woman represents Putnd (demoness). Kdlo does not

111 involve the participation of women. All the female characters are enacted by men. It includes various rhythmic dance movements based on the cymbals, harmonium and the Pakwdz. The Haridds compeers and guides the audience through the various mythological scenes in Marathi. It begins with an invocation to Ganpati. He and his consort Riddhi and Siddhi are introduced in the first scene. Matsy; the first incarnation of Vishnu, to retrieve the Ved hidden by Shankdsur (demon) in the deep oceans is stupendously portrayed in the second scene. Shankhasur is slayed and the Veds are returned to Brahma. With the intention of killing baby Krishna by her poisoned milk, Putnd, the demoness takes the form of a charming woman to breast feed him. The wooden mask used for the character of Putnd. The character begins the scene by looking at the audience minutely. He then pulls up different men from the audience and request them to mate with her. She then conceives and delivers. Putnd later on moves to baby Krishna (wooden sculpture of Vishnu) and breast feeds him. The scene further depicts Krishna sucking the milk along with the poison and Putnd ails in pain and tries to push him from him away from her breast. During this the Hardds sings:-

And finally Putnd is depicted collapsing on the ground. This scene is known as Putnd Vadh. A similar scene of Putnd is also enacted in the ^^'^. Characters like Mhdtdri (old widow), Kuddumdti (clowns) are seen in the Kdlo at Paingini. A character in mango leaves is also illustrated as a clown in the Kdlo at the Shri Shdntddurgd temple, Verem in Bardez. Poklo, Chichubai etc are Some interesting mythological figures depicted in Shri Santeri temple of Keri, Ponda. Still many more, are encompassed in the Kdlo at Anant temple of Savai Verem in Ponda. Such dance- cum-drama category performing arts are performed along the coastal line in the states of and Kamataka. In Kamataka we have a similar kind of performance called the Yakshgdn while in Kerala the 17'*' century Kathakali also has a similar story of the Putnd being killed by Krishna^^^. The act oi Putnd killing baby Krishna depicted in Kathakali is almost similar to the enactment in Kdlo. In Kathakali a wooden doll to represent baby Krishna is used to depict it sucking Putnd's milk'^'* while in Kdlo a wooden sculpture of one of the twenty four forms of Vishnu represents baby Krishna. Same is the case with Yakshgdn.

112 G. Influence of Vaishnavism on local and folk worships and their syncretism:- The influence of Vaishnavism in Goa is so strong that many local and folk deities were given titles and names associated with Vishnu and its forms. There are three such cases in the Kankona taluka while one in the Ponda taluka. The folk deity called the Manadevi in the Sadolshe village of Kankona taluka were renamed to Mohini. Similar is the case with the worship of Purush in the village of Paingini in Kankona taluka; a local ancestor god who was renamed as Purshottam, to mean one of the twenty four forms of Vishnu. Nirakar is yet another form of worship which is now regarded as the worship oiNrsinh. a) The worship of Nirakar The deity Nirakar is considered to be one of the Vaishnav deities. The worship is more popular in the Kankona taluka. It is also found in the Uttar district along the coast uptill Ankola. In the villages of Khalwade, Kindle, Dele and Mashem of the Kankona taluka the temples of Nirakar are found. The most famous one being in village of Mashem. In all these temples the object of worship is a massive wooden pillar. The pillar has intricate carvings consisting of various floral pattems. The pillar would not have any carvings or reliefs of any deities. The concept of worship appears to be a very ancient one of worshipping the Formless- thus meaning Nirakar. The worship of pilasters or pillars or poles in ancient cultures is considered to be a type of phallus worship"'^ In some villages of the same taluka a bunch of peacock feathers tied together represents Nirakar. According to the village traditions member of the tribal community owns the sole right to hold this bunch during religious procession in the village. The temple of Nirakar in Mashem decorates the pillar with the metal face oi Nrsinh thus changing the concept to a Vaishnav deity. In almost all the temples of Nirakar the priests belong to the tribal community. However recent changes in appointment of the priests in these temples have taken place. The temple of Nirakar in Mashem is an exception to this. b) The worship of Purush as Purshottam:- The temple of Parshuram in Paingini faces ^e Purshottam temple. The local address this deity as Purus which means ancestor. But the deity is given the title of Purshottam- a form of Vishnu. However the iconography of Purshottam prescribed in the Sanskrit texts mentions that he holds Padm and Shankh in his upper right hand and left hand respectively while a Gadha and a Chakr in his lower right and left hand respectively. But the sculpture of Purshottam in the temple does not satisfy the above 113 criteria. The sculpture of the shows the deity in a Dvibhuj form. He holds a Dand in his right hand while a small ball in his left hand. The type of ball depicted in his hand cannot be identified. It could be perhaps a ball of mud. The sculpture is not very intricately carved. It has a plain Prabhavalli with sketchy floral patterns on the top. Likewise the sculpture is not decorated with any ornaments. Except for a Karand Mukut on his head there are no other ornaments signifying royalty on his body. There is garland of flowers around his neck. The lower part of the body is covered with a dhoti reaching above his knees. A Yadnyopavit of thread can be seen on his torso. The Valay styled Nupur and Padsar are seen on his feet. There are two attendants looking like ascetics stand on the either side of his legs. The attendant to the lefit hand side wears a g-string to cover his lower body and holds a flower in each of his hands. While the other one holds Kamandalu in both his hands. The sculpture could be assigned to the late 14* century or to the early \5^ century. c) Worship of Manddevi asMohini:- This worship exists in the village of Sadolshe in Kankona taluka. The folklore existing-about this deity is as follows:- The deity would fulfill any wish coming to a devotees mind if the devotee would place a red flower at the threshold of the temple. Hence the name Manadevi, which in literal sense means 'Goddess of the Mind". The official statuettes of the temple dating to also refer to her as Manddevi. '*'*'. For every ritualistic occasion the pujdri i.e. the Velip^^^ of the Betdl temple of Paingini would perform the rituals'^^. The original iconography of the sculpture inside the temple cannot be traced today because the sculpture present in the temple today is a recent one and is of brass. It depicts her in a Chaturbhuj form mounted on a lion. She holds a Chakr and a Shankh in her upper right and left hands while the lower hands do not hold any attributes. In the mezzanine of the temple there is a wooden sculpture of the same deity with no carvings. It appears that the sculpture functioned like a form on which ornaments were put to decorate it. Here also she is shown mounting a lion, i) Purdnic description of Mohini and its iconography:- The Mohini mentioned in the Purdns is very different. According to the Bhdgvat Puran she is considered to be the 13* out of 22 incarnations of mentioned in the Purdn^^^. Vishnu took the form of Mohini to deceive the demons and take away the pot of Amrut, a product of Samudr Mathan; to give it to the Gods. While Nrsinh Puran mentions that the demons got attracted to her beauty and kept the pot of Amrut 114 on the ground which helped her to give it to the Gods'™, the Matsy Puran mentions that the pot was handed over to Mohini by the demons who were deceived by her looks'^\ Mohini was very beautiful and wore Hdr in her neck and Keyur on her arms'^^. She wore Nupur on her feet and a Katisutr of her waist

II. Worship of .S/i/v The Kurm Purdn mentions the various names ofRudr. Bhav, Sharv, Ishdn. Pashupati, Bhim. Ugr and Mahddev"'^. The Shri Rudr Bhdshyam, mentions his name Shambu^^^. In this he is described having three eyes with a crescent moon and Gangd on his head who is adorned with ashes and serpents'^^. The Rudr from Rgved was later on associated and unified with Shiv. In the Rgved he is mentioned Rudr, Mitr and Varun make the world move'^'. The qualities of Rudr mentioned in the Rgved are quite different from Shiv. He has the title of Vajrbaho or the possessor of the Vajr^''^. He is compared to Agni or the fire in the Vedic texts'^^. There are hymns to avoid the darts or arrows of Rudr. He is believed to be full of mercy and has thousand of healing powers . He is described as terrible and malevolent god with injurious features He has the epithets like Kshyadvir-nAer of heroes'*^. Like the later texts which describe Shiv with matted hair, the Rgved too mentions him of having braided hair'^^. The fifth Kdnd of Shatpath mentions that he along with Som eradicates darkness from the earth'^'*.

The key icon in indentifying the cult of Shiv is the presence of worship of the Ling or the phallus. Phallisicm is one of the ancient forms of Shiv worship not only in India but also elsewhere. The phallic cult was found amongst Assyrians, Romans, Egyptians, Tahitians, Persians, and the Greeks'*^ The worship of phallus was prevalent in parts of North America, Mexico and New Guinea too'^^. The phallus worship can be also seen in the Hadappa civilization. In the Rgyedic text this phallus worship is referred to as the worship of Shishndev who was worshipped by the Dasyus^^^. In the Rgved Indr is besought not to let the Shishndev approach the sacrifice""*. It is further mentioned that Indr slain Shishndev when he won the treasure of hundred gated fort'*^. With the growth of epics and Purans the phallic worship came to be closely associated with Shiv and ^^. From here it is quite evident that the Rgvedic worship of Rudr and today's Shiv were different concepts. They were merged later during the Purdnic era. The Shiv Samhitd inculcates the worship of Rudr 115 Shiv in the form of a Ling . According to the Shiv Puran he was named as Rudr by Brahma because he cried loudly'^^. The worship of Ling associated with Shiv cult is

found prevalent in India right from 3'^'' century BCE'^^. Rudr was a deity whose worship was common to the Vedic people and was not a sectarian god. He was worshipped even before Vaishnav deities were formed'^'*. Rudr also appears to be precursor of the Puranic Shiv. His Vedic form which had the powers for healing animals, and humans changed to a completely different form. In the Rgved, Agni is identified with Rudr. It is to this influence that the later Shiv owes to his complexion of having a blue throat and matted hair'^^ Shiva has been in worship since the Kushan period. The Kushan king Vima Kadphises or Kadphises II styled himself as Mdheshwar^^. On his coins he is represented wearing a necklace and holding a trident in his hand leaning against a bull'^'. On the reverse coins of Kanishk I representation ofOesha (Shiva) and Ommo (Umd) are also seen'^ .

X.Shaivism in Goa:- In Goa we have Shiv worshipped in the forms of Lings. Rdmnath, Nagesh Vdmneshwar, Vimleshwar, Saptkoteshwar, Mangesh, Mallikdrjun, Goveshwar Rdyeshwar, Kallnath, Gannath, Rudreshwar, Kamleshwar are Some of the popular 572/V temples in Goa which are worshipped in the forms of Ling. These icons although having a long span of history dating to the pre-Portuguese period are in aniconic form. Hence it is difficult to date these aniconic forms and consider them for them for the present study. However the study of development of the temple of Mallikdrjun and the Ddmodar gives an overview of the influence of Shaivism on local deities.

A. Shiv as Mallikdrjun in the form of phallus . The main temples of Mallikdrjun are found in tribal areas of Kankona taluka. The Kulmi tribe pronounces the name as Malkdjdn or Malkdjan. He is worshipped in the form of an unpolished Ling. The folklore has it that the deity was found to the Kulmi tribe while clearing the forests in Kankona. The folklore mentions that the sickle flung and hit a Ling which started oozing out blood. On seeing this, the Kulmi immediately removed his turban and wrapped it around the Ling. The group immediately offered the deity par-boiled rice on a leaf of the Karmal tree. This day was the full moon night of the Hindu month of Ashadh^"^. A similar folklore related involving the tribe is also told with regards to the Mallikdrjun at Srishailam in Andhra Pradesh. Just like the 116 Kulmis of Goa the area of Srishailam around the Shri Mallikarjun temple there is inhabited by the Chenchu tribe. It is told that Shiv fell in with a Chenchu girl and thus stayed permanently. From that day onwards the Chenchus call themselves as the protectors of Mallikarjun of Srishailam'^"". Some ritual like invocation offering of cooked rice are still entitled to be carried out by the member of the Kulmi community in the temple of Mallikarjun at Sristhal in Kankona even today^^V Moreover, according to Shri Vinayak Khedekar, the name Mallikarjun a ' Big God' as the word Mall means big or grand in the Kulmi parlance and the word Jan means a knowledged person^"^. Another etymology of the name is traced that Malka is the name of a local flower which grows on the Arjun tree. These flowers were offered by the Kulmi to this deity hence the name Mdlkajdn^^^. In the vocabulary of the Munda tribe residing in the Chota Nagpur plateau Malikinjan means a person who has authority^''''.The name Mallikarjun appears in the Shiv Purdn as one of the twelve Jotirlings but in both the cases it is quite evident that he is associated with the tribes of that particular region. Moreover the Shiv Purdn does not mention of any such tribal association about the deity. According to Shiv Purdn Mallikarjun is the name of the second Jotirling^^^. It further mentions that the Kdrtikey their son had gone to move around the Earth after killing the demon Tdrak. Pdrvati got very upset when her son did not returned. Hence she requested Shiv to send the gods to call him. Kartikey refused to come from the Kronch hill even after the gods pleaded to him. The separation from their son made Shiv and Pdrvati go to the Kronch hill. On hearing them come Kartikey left the hill. From that day Shiv and Pdrvati resided on the hill. On every full moon night they visit the hill to see their son^"**.

B. Shiv as Ddmodar in the form of phallus:- The temple oi Ddmodar is located in the village of Jambauli of the Sanguem taluka of Goa. He is believed to be a form of Shiv and is worshipped in the form of a polished Ling. Mahdshivrdtri is one of the big festivals here and is celebrated by offenng of Bel leaves on the Ling. He is commonly referred to as Ddm-bdb. The name Ddm is believed to be the pet name for Ddmodar. While the suffix bdb is normally used by Goans to address a senior most respected personality even today. It was originally located in the city of Madgaon in the Salcette taluka till 1560 CE^"^. It was later shifted to this place during the time of Portuguese inquisition which had banned

117 Hindu worships and idolatry. In 1886 CE Lopes Mendes, a Portuguese traveler writes:- O diabo tomando a forma dofinado cavalleiro, e, para zombar dosjesuitas c omecou afazer correrias ate morisando os Madgaonkar, que, para contentar este poderoso inimigo Ihe erigiram urn grande pagode onde foi adorado coma deus dos habitantes de aldeia ''^^ It means that 'There are also old chronicles which mention that the people of Madgaon worshipped an idol representing the figure of a Cavalleiro (horse rider) called Damodar Prabhu, the son of Dessai, of the Governor of Madgaon, and that having married, had been killed with his bride during a confrontation by the inhabitants of Chimbel. The devil taking the form of the deceased Cavalleiro (Horse Rider), was jeering the Jesuits started to make them run. The people of Madgaon, had contented this powerful enemy had erected it a great pagoda where he was adored as god of the village by the inhabitants.' Yet another record furnishes the name as Macagi Ddmodar^^"^. The present Church of Holy Spirit in Madgaon, was built on the site of the temple of Macagi

C. Shiv as Rdmnath in the form of phallus:- The worship of Rdmnath in Goa is found in many places. It mostly forms a part of the affiliate deities of a main temple. The worship belongs to the Shaivaite cult and the object of veneration is a Ling. One of the major temples of Rdmnath, although situated in of Ponda taluka today was once located in the Lotli village of Salcette taluka prior to the Portuguese Inquisition^". In the ward of Vargaon of the Lotli village there is an area which is still called as Deul-Bhdtt to mean the orchard of the temple^'^. Though Rdmnath is a Shaivaite form of worship the name is a confluence of Vishnu and Shiv. However, not much light can be thrown by the historic records on the etymology of this name. Some relate the deity to Rameshwar of Rameshwaram in Tamil Nadu. It is told that Ram himself made a Shivling of sand and worshipped Shiv there. Hence it is called as Rdmeshwar^^^. However this mythological reference cannot be used in Goan context as no references of any kind are available to say that Goa had relations with Rameshwaram in Tamil Nadu. The original temple of Rdmnath in Lotli was set to fire by the Captain of the Rachol Fort during the 16"' century^'*. The village Communidade^^^ appealed to the Court of Law in Portugal and obtained an order directing the Captain to reconstruct the temple. The

118 Captain made a representation to the Viceroy D. Antao Noronha, who not only approved his procedure but even authorized him to set fire to as many temples possible^^^. Before shifting the deity to the present site the village of Lotli in Salcette had the following deities:- Ramnath, , Karia Santeri, Siddhinath, Ndrayan, Gram Purush, Bhagvati, Shridev and Vamonio^^^ Almost all these deities along with Ramnath were shifted to the present place. However, there is no Nandi facing the Ramnath Ling in this temple today. The stone sculpture of Nandi (facing the Ramnath Ling) which existed in this temple was removed in 1904 CE. Instead a small miniature sculpture was placed in the Garbgrih facing the Ling^^^. But in 1936 according to the list of sculptures found in Goa was created by the Portuguese. In this list a sculpture of a Nandi found in the village of Lotli is mentioned^'^. This sculpture was kept in the Museum at Old Goa. In 1904 CE while carrying out the renovation of the temple of Ramnath at Rdmndthi, a lot of reshuffling of the positions of the deities in the temple precincts were done. The sculpture of Ndrayan, (called Lakshmi Ndrayan) which was in a separate shrine on the left hand side of Ramnath was moved inside the Garbgrih and was placed on a pedestal above theZmg of Rdmndth^^^. Hence Garbgrih has two deities today, one a Vaishnav and the second Shaiv. The repositioning of the deities was carried out under the guidance of Shrimad Indirakant Tirth Shripad Wader Swami a pontiff of Gokam Partgal Mutt. An important point to be noted is that Ndrayan sculpture is placed above the Shaiv object of worship. Another noteworthy feature of this temple is of the devotees. All the kuldvis of the temple today are Vaishnavs and not Shaivaites.

2. Shiv in the iconic forms . With respect to the iconic forms of Shaivaite deities we have major stone sculptures of Umd-Maheshwar, Kdlbhairav, Chaturmukh Mahddev found in Goa. A Mukhling is also found near Sarmal waterfalls in the Pedne taluka. In addition to this a sculpture of Virbhadr was also found in the Shiroda village of Ponda taluka.

A. Umd-Maheshwar or Umd-sahit-Maheshwar.- The concept of such sculptures is to depict IJmd or Pdrvati along with Maheshwar or Shiv in one sculpture. This sculpture depicts both the deities embracing each other either in a standing or a sitting pose besides each other.

119 A shlok of in Rupmandan gives the following description of Uma-Maheshwar ^\

Hl^feJJi ^lk[ef £R^ ^%^ ^ II

TJTTfi^nSTT ^ilfpHHi^H -^cilxHf^dM II It means that Maheshwar should hold aMatuling and Trishul in his right hands while one left hand should embrace Uma and the other left hand should posses a snake called Nagendr. While Uma should embrace him with her right hand while her left hand should hold a mirror. Below them should be Vrushabh, the bull Kumar or Kartikey. A mythological character called Bhring should be depicted dancing on the lower pedestal. He should be depicted having a skinny body^^^. In the Rudrbhashyam written by Skand-dev mentions when Shambhu is with Pdrvati, he bears smiling lotus like face, a crescent moon and on his head and is adomed with sacred ashes and serpent^^^. The sculptures of Umd-Maheswar or also called as Uma-sahit- Maheshwar are found in two villages of Goa Two sculptures are found in the Kurdi village of Sanguem taluka while the other one sculpture was found in Goa Velha and is now in the A.S.I Museum, Old Goa. Yet one sculpture is found in the Kudne village of Bicholim taluka. a) Umd-Maheswar sculptures of Kurdi:- Though this village is completely submerged under the Salauli dam waters today, the earliest recorded temple built by King Shasthdev I, the founder of the Kadamb dynasty^^'* was found here. It dates to the 960 CE^^^. Two sculpture of Uma- Maheshwar were found in this village. Both are kept in the Archaeological Survey of India Museum in Old Goa. One of the sculpture ^icXs Maheshwar seated along with Uma on his left lap in an Alingan Mudra. He is depicted seated in a Sukhdsan posture, in a Chaturbhuj form with his left hand is holding her waist. Attributes of all the other hand are missing. Perhaps his upper right hand was holding the Trishul as only the staff of the weapon can be seen. Attributes of Uma also are mutilated. The couple is shown seated on the Nandi. Miniatures oi Kartikey seated on a peacock and Ganpati with the dancing Bhringi in between them as described in the Rupmandan are seen on the pedestal respectively below the Nandi. The sculpture can be assigned to the early Kadamb period i.e. circa 11*-12* century. The second sculpture of the couple deity in a mutilated from found in the same village does not depict them in a standing pose 120 but shows the deities standing in Alingan Mudra besides each other. The sculpture measure 76cm in length and 88cm in height^^^. Uma holds a lotus in her left hand while her right hand embraces Maheshwar. Maheshwar's right hand is in Abhay Mudra. The lower part of the sculpture and the Prabhavalli is mutilated. b) Uma-Maheshwar sculpture in A.S.I Museum, Old Goa. This sculpture was discovered in Goa Velha during an excavation and is documented as Accession No. 15^^^. The sculpture mutilated and only torso is in good condition. It is 85 cm X 87cm.^^^. The attributes are also absent as a result it is difficult to decide whether the sculpture is of Lakshmi-Ndrdyan or Umd-Maheshwar. A lizard spotted near the knee of the goddess gives a clue that it is a sculpture of Uma-Maheshwar and not Lakshmi-Ndrdyan. Rupmandan mentions the Vdhan of Gauri or Umd to be Godhd which is a lizard . It mentions Gauri to be seated on a lizard . The couple is depicted sitting in an Utkutikdsan, with the god embracing the goddess's breast with his left hand. Goddess is shown seated on his left lap embracing him with her right hand. The sculpture is intricately carved and richly decorated with ornaments and can be assigned to the 12' century. c) Umd-Maheshwar sculpture of Kudne: - It exists in the Kudne village of Bicholim taluka in a temple o(Shri Kudneshwar. In a niche of the said temple a beautiful sculpture of Umd-Maheshwar. In this sculpture, the couple is depicted embracing each other modestly in a standing pose. Four armed Maheshwar holds a Trishul in his upper right hand and a three hooded serpent called Ndgendr in his upper left hand which passes behind Fdrvati 's neck. He holds a fruit in his lower right hand and embraces Umd around her waist by his lower left hand. Umd is depicted two armed with her right hand is shown embracing Maheshwar around his neck while she holds a Darpan in her left hand. The images are adomed with various ornaments. Maheshwar is shown wearing diJatd Mukut on his head. This is one of the rarest images found in Goa which has a Jatd Mukut styled crown on its head. This type of crown is normally seen on images of Shiv. A crescent moon is seen embedded in his crown. Ratn Kundal styled earrings adorn the couple's ears while beautiful necklaces and jewelry adorn their body. A set of Nupur are seen in Umd's feet. A huge halo is seen around Maheshwar's head but the halo is not ornamental and is very plain. A Nandi bull is seen near Maheshwar's right foot while a lion is seen near Umd's left foot. The sculpture can be assigned to the late M"" century and appears to be a prototype of the second sculpture found at Kurdi. The

121 sculpture can be assigned to the 14'*'-15''' century. The sculptors have tried hard to create a prototype of the 12* century Kadamb styled sculptures. In this image the sculptor has also tried to assimilate Some influences of the later Chalukyan school of art.

B. Kalbhairav. Kalbhairav is yet another angry form of Shiv. The Shiv Puran mentions the birth of Kalbhairav in its Shat-Rudr Samhita. It gives the following account:- Once all the deities decided to find out who had the essence of Universe in him. Hence they approached Brahma who told them that it was him who had created the world hence he contained the spirit of the universe. Vishnu who was also present said that since Brahma had emerged from his navel it was him who contained fundamental of nature^^'. There was an argument between the two when the four Veds intervened. The Rgved mentioned that Shiv was eternal truth of the universe and he had in him the fundamental of the world. On this Brahma and Vishnu said that Shiv was dark in complexion and moved around in a seminude form with his body covered with ashes. How can he be the essence of the universe^^^. Just then a strong beam of light collapsed between the two. There was man amidst the beam standing with a Trishui in his hand. He was adorned with a serpent and the crescent moon. Brahma laughed looking at him who was none other than Shiv himself Brahma asked him to take refuge under him . On this emerged the powerful Kalbhairav from Shiv. He cut Brahma's fifth head vwth the nail of his left hand finger.^'* Further, to wash off his sin of cutting Brahma's fifth head Mahadev asked Kalbhairav to go to Varanasi asking alms with a Kapal in his hand^^^ Adorned with Sarp Kundals in his ears and Brahma's head hanging for his hands he left for Varanasi'^^^. According to the Vajney Samhita and Atharv-Ved, the early Rudr has a flesh eating dog with a broad mouth near him^^.

a) Sculptures of Kalbhairav in Goa:- The worship of Kalbhairav in Goa is not very common. There are two classical styled stone sculptures of this deity found in the Sanguem and Ponda taluka A sculpture of recent times is found in the temple of Kalbhairav in the village of DhargaJ in Pedne taluka. While a small wooden sculpture of Bhiksha-Bhairav is kept in the Goa State Museum.

122 i) Kalbhairav sculpture of Netravalli. Sanguem:- This sculpture was found in the small hamlet called Vargani village of Netravali at the foot of a hillock in Vargani. The sculpture of Kalbhairav found here is a very rare one. The four-handed deity holds a Trishul and a damru in his upper left and right hands respectively. In his lower left hand he holds a Fatr. The lower right hand has a mutilated Khadg. The lower left hand probably caught the Kapal or the Fatr. Brahman fifth head is depicted hanging from this hand. He is shown in a nude form standing in a Tribhang pose. There no much ornaments seen on him. There is no crown or Mukut. His earrings are of Sarp Kundal type. Nupur and Padsar adorn his feet while Kankan embellish his hands. A Fret-Gan, is seen near his right foot while a dog is shown near his left foot. The image is around 93cm x 44 cm. It can be dated to late 12* century AD. Its pose and the ornamentation portray a very close Hoysah influence. An image very similar to this one is found in Halshi which was once the capital city of the Coa. Kadamb%. ii) Kalbhairav sculpture of Ndgeshi Ponda:- The image of Kalbhairav in Nageshi is a beautiful piece of Kadamb art and can be assigned to the 13"' to 14"" century AD. Like the sculpture found Netravalli this image too is depicted in a Tribhang Mudra. He is depicted in a Chaturbhuj form holding a Damru in his upper right hand, a Khatvdng' in his upper left hand. The sword here is replaced by a Gadha in his lower right hand. A Fatr is seen in his lower left hand. However the fifth head of Brahma hanging from his hands is missing. He is shown wearing Sarp Kundal styled earrings in his ears. The Dvarshdkhas are seen on either sides of the main sculpture but the Frabhdvalli which should have been above this is absent. The upper ends of the Dvarshdkhas are free and have triangular edges. A hooded serpent crowns his head. Beautiful necklaces adom his ears. A garland of human skulls is shown passing around his legs. The interesting part of this sculpture is the two nude female attendants on the either sides. The attendant near his right leg is shown holding an umbrella above her head in her right hand and a Fatr in her left hand. The attendant near his left leg holds a dagger in her right hand and a Fatr in her left hand. This image appears to be a prototype of 12* century image of Kalbhairav found in Netravali.

123 C. Chaturmukh Mahadev. The sculpture was found in Madgao in the present Salcette taluka of Goa while digging the foundation of a church and was acquired by the Goa State Museum in 1961^^*. It has four faces of Shiv looking in four cardinal directions. All the four faces have a Jatamukut on their head and Shiv's third eye is well depicted on their forehead. A feminine face of River Gangd can be seen atop the four heads. Worship of such sculptures in the form of Chaturmukh Shiva was prevalent even during the Kushan period or 2"'' cent CE^^^

D. Virbhadr- A manifestation of Shiv which came into existence when he heard of 's death. Only one image of Virbhadr is found in Shiroda in Ponda taluka but it is of post 16* century.

E. Worship of Kdrtikey as Kuvaleshwar In the village of Korgao in Pedne taluka the temple complex of Shri Kamleshwar consists of the main temple of Kamleshwar worshipped in the form of a Ling; a temple of Vishnu worshipped in the form of Keshav which is described above and temple of Kuvaleshwar. The sculpture is only of its kind in Goa. Historically speaking this is also the only worship of Kdrtikey in Goa. Yet there are Some apprehensions about the sculpture being really of Kdrtikey or whether it belongs to a local deity. The priest of the temple considers him to be a Jain Tirthankar. But the elaborate dress pattern and omaments leads one to believe that he is possibly a Hindu deity and not related to Jainism, as it is difficult to have Jain sculptures with heavily bedecked omaments and dress. The stone image of Kuvaleshwar Ufe sized standing in a Sam- pad Mudrd depicted in a Dvibhuj form. His both the hands and legs are mutilated. Hence it is difficult to ascertain the attributes of his hands. But from the sculptural remains one can come to a conclusion that a weapon with a long staff was placed in his right hand. The left hand attributes have completely vanished however a bunch of feathers forming the bird's tail is seen on his waist on the left side. The Agni Purdn mentions the iconography of Skand in the following manner. The sculpture of Skand should have two hands only; the right hand should hold a while the left hand should hold aKukut^'*^. As described above the sculptural remains in the right hand of Kuvaleshwar is appears to be Shakti while the feathers appear to be the Kukut (a type

124 of a bird). The sculpture is depicted having long curls of hair hanging below the crown. Long earlobes with round earrings hang on his shoulders. One can see a typical dress form wound around his waist of the Badami Chalukyan style. The sculpture can be assigned to the 9'*'-10''' century CE. Kdrtikey, Sharjanmd or Skand as he is called in the Purdnic literature was bom after Shiv's penance was destroyed by Kdmdev by shooting his arrow of lust. No sooner the arrow touched Shiv, his seed sprung into Agni who could not retain it and in turn threw it in Ganga. Ganga too unable to retain it threw it in the reeds. Thus Kdrtikey was bom and that's how he was called Sharjanmd which means Reed-bom^'".

3. Worship oi Ganpati.- The god Ganpati is not only worshipped in India but also throughout the world. His presence is noted in Pakistan, Nepal, Srilanka, Afghanistan, Central Asia, Tibet, china, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos, Indonesia and even as far as Bomeo in the Pacific^'*^. He is also worshipped in Buddhism and Jainism very ardently He is known through various Purdnic literature like the Shiv-Purdn, Mudgal Puran. Ganesh Purdn and the Ganesh Gitd. Most of these Purans can be dated to post 10* century CE^'*'*. Literature like the Ganpati Atharvshirsh came in as late as the 16*-17* century^'*^ The name Ganpati appears to be the oldest name and is found in the Rgve^"^. The name Ganpati appears to have come from two words Gan+pati. The term Gan appears in the Rgved and the Atharv Ved to mean tribes, assembly, flock or a troupe^'*^. While the term Pati refers to an owner, landlord or even a husband^*^ The name Vinayak also is used to address him. It also appears to have come from the Sanskrit term Vinay, which again refers to a leader in the Rgved^*'^. The name Vighneshwar refers to doer of an obstacle or one who objects to the all the positive attitudes'^^". In the Bhdgvat Purdn it is mentioned that Ddkini, Yatudhdn, Kushmdnd, Bhuth, Pret, Pischdch, Yaksh, Rdkshas, Vindyak, Putnd and other dreadful diseases flee on hearing Vishnu's name. The shlok mentions;-

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125 According M.K.Dhavlikar the names like Vighneshwar and Vighnkarta signify that the god was initially an obstacle creator- Vighnkarta and later was transformed into Vighnharta- obstacle remover^". This transformation happened during the Gupt period approximately during the 6"" century CE. His importance grew to such a level that a sect of Ganpaty came into existence during the 9*** century CE^^\ S.M. Michael mentions that he assumed a unique position because of the influence of " . The Ganpaty cult popularized their god by setting up the cult oi Shakti Ganpati which had various representations. This Ganpaty sect spread from Central India to other parts of the world^^^ Initially, a sacred elephant which was a totem worship of a tribe was given a therianthropic form^^^. Sculptural representations of five Vinayaks looking like the early Yakshs are found during the Kushan era^'^. Furthermore there are references to four Vinayaks in the Puramc literature^'^. Besides the deity Vinayak is also folk deity^'^. The Agni Puran mentions the names of deities like Ganpati, Ganadhip, Ganesh, Ganayak, Gankridd, Vakrtund. Ekdanstrshtro.Mahodar. Gajvaktr, iMmbkukshi, Vikal, Vighnandsh, Dhumrvarn and Mahendra to be worshipped^^". All these facts point out that point out that the early totem elephant worship was culminated into one deity.

i) Purdnic references of Ganpati's birth. In the Shiv-Purdn it is mentioned that once felt the need of having a Gan of her own just like how Shankar had Nandi and Bhrngi. She wanted the Gan to listen to her and be an object of adoration. Therefore she removes the dirt from her body and makes a human figure. She places him near the threshold of the house and orders him not to allow anybody inside while she has bath. Shiv unaware of all this arrives and attempts to enter the house. He is stopped by the little boy at the threshold who claims to be Pdrvati 's son. Both pick up a fight. Shiv arrives his Gan and Vishnu, in the middle of the fight Shiv cuts his head off with his Trishul. Pdrvati seeing her son dead curses that if her son does not come alive then the whole universe will suffer. Brahma then requests Shiv to go to the forest and bring the head of the first animal they meet on the way. His Gan find a single tusked elephant whose head is then attached to the boy '. But the Vdman Puran gives a different account of the birth of Ganpati. The name Ganpati does not find a place here. He is referred as Gajdnan. In this Puran it is mentioned that it was predicted that the child bom from Shiv and Pdrvati would

126 topple off from his throne. Agni swallowed the Shukr or the semen ejected out by Shiv so that Parvati could not bear a child. On hearing this act Farvati cursed the Gods that they also will not bear sons from their respective wives. While having bath Parvati applied ubtan on her body from which created a Chaturbhuj human figure and placed it on the ground. Following her, Shiv went for bath. As soon as the water from Shiv's body fell on the trunk (face) of the figure he got up in start. Shiv brought the boy out and handed him to Parvati. Parvati was surprised to see her creation of an elephant faced boy. Shiv named as Vindyak without a Ndyak he was called Vindyak.^^ There are variations in the explanations of origin of Ganpati in the Purdns. ii) Ganpati worship in Goa Before going to the sculptures and worship a brief overview of the worship of this deity in Goa is important to know. The festival of was celebrated much before the advent of the Portuguese rule. The immersion of Ganpati in temple water tanks is noted by many Portuguese writers. A Portuguese extract from the writings of Lopes Mendes is given below:- 'Ainda existe o tanque d'esse pagode infernal que se denomina Damdol. no qu at OS gentios de Madgaon langam annualmente o Ganesfinda a sua Ganeshac hovote' Literally it would mean 'The tank of this infernal temple exists in Damdol, in which the gentios of Madgaon launch the figures of Ganes annually called Ganesachovote'^^^. The above extract means that though the temple of Damodar in Madgaon no longer exists today its tank called Damdol still exists. In this tank the non believers of Christianity () immerse idols of Ganpati annually and which is called Ganesh Chaturthi. Lopes Mendes also illustrates the immersion of Ganesh. taking place in the River Mandovi in great pomp and gaiety^*''*. The Portuguese Inquisition laid stringent rules on the Hindus banning the practice and celebrations of all festivals and rituals during the 16* century. This affected the Chaturthi immersions and various immersion traditions came into force. In the ancestral house of Pai Fondekar at Madgaon the clay idol of Ganpati worshipped in the current year is kept in a niche in the wall of the house. That idol is immersed on the following Chaturthi late in the evening and the cycle repeats. While in the house of Mamai Kamat in , a picture of Ganpati drawn on paper is worshipped instead

127 of a clay idol. This pictures is kept in a special wooden box. This was done so that the box could be closed immediately if incase the house was raided by the Portuguese^^'. According to Dr. Shankar Mamai Kamat, Ex-Director of Archives & Archaeology' this tradition began during the Portuguese rule when there was ban on idolatry. The Dande family from Verem have been supplies the picture for the past many years. a) Sculptures of Ganpati found in Goa Though the worship has been quite ancient not many independent temples of Ganpati have been found recorded in Goa. Most of the temples in Goa has Ganpati as a part of its affiliate deity irrespective of whether it's a Vishnu or a Shiva temple. Miniatures of this deity will be found carved in wood or stone which forming the part of a wooden column supporting the temple Sabhamandap or forming the part of lintel. However around four to five sculptures of Ganpati in classical style are found in Goa The other sculptures are difficult to date as no specific pattern or layout is seen their carving. In addition to this only one independent temple of Ganpati is recoded to exist in Goa from the pre-Portuguese era This temple was located on the Diwar island of Tiswadi taluka and then was later shifted Khandola village of Ponda taluka i) Sculpture of Ganpati from Kurdi The 10* century temple of Shri Mahadev in Kurdi has a very ancient image of Ganesh outside the main shrine and also one carved on its door lintel. The temple was transplanted near the Salauli dam. This lO* century Chaturbhuj form image is completely mutilated and hence not many details of it are seen but vestiges of a Parshu in his upper right hand and a Padm in his upper left hand can be seen. The lower two hands are completely mutilated. The deity is shown seated in a Lalitdsan. ii) Sculpture o^ Ganpati from Shiroda In an ancient temple of Shri Madhav Ganpati in Shiroda in Ponda taluka one can see a l^thj^th ggjjimy fCadamb style image of Ganesh . This image is probably one of the few ancient images of Ganpati which is undamaged and intact. Ganpati is depicted in Chaturbhuj form seated in an Utkutikdsan. He holds a Parshu in his upper right hand while a Padm in his upper left hand. A Patr containing a heap of laddus in shown in his lower left hand. The lower right hand is in the Abhay Mudra, holding a broken tooth between his thumb and the forefinger. A snake is wrapped around his belly. A typical later Kadamb style PrabhdvaUi can be seen above his head.

128 iii) Sculpture of Ganpati from Vema A sculpture of an Ganpati was discovered in Vema at the old site of the Mhalsa temple in Salcette taluka. The sculpture depicts the deity seated in Utkutikasan in a Chaturbhuj form. He is depicted holding a Parshu and a Padm in his upper right and left hand respectively, while the lower right and left hand is in Abhay Mudra (along vwth a broken tooth) and a Patr containing Laddus. He wears a Kirit Mukut on his head a snake coils around his belly. iv) Sculpture of Ganpati from Khandola A temple oi Ganpati existed on the island of Diwar in village of Naveli of the Tiswadi taluka prior to the 16**' century. The temple probably dated to the Kadamb period as the vestiges of the temple can be still seen in the Chapel of the Church of Piedade in Diwar. The ceiling of the temple having stone slabs with lotus medallion in the middle and pierced stone windows are the vestiges of the old temple. Probably during 1540 to 1545 CE the image was shifted from Diwar as according to a decree issued by the King of Portugal in 1540 CE, all the temples of Tiswadi were to be pulled down^^^. This deity was initially shifted to Khandepar in the Ponda taluka and then to Khandola near MasheP^'. Fr. Henry Heras furnishes the date of transforming the temple into the Chapel as 1547 CE^^^. Based on the vestiges found on the Diwar island today the temple probably dated to the 12* century CE. This is the only temple in which Ganpati is the principal deity.The ancient sculpture oi Ganpati shifted from Diwar is still worshipped in the temple at Khandola The sculpture is carved in a typical Kadamb style. In this sculpture there is no Mukut like in case of others. He is shown wearing a Jatd Mukut which is also called as Mudi Mukut by the sculptors^*'^. This form oi Mukut is believed to be of very early style. The deity is shown in a Chaturbhuj form. Although the upper left hand and the lower right hand of the sculpture is mutilated one can deduce the attributes of these hands. Since the upper right hand holds a Parshu the upper left hand probably had a Padm. While the lower left hand has a laddu the lower right hand was depicted in a Abhay Mudra holding a broken tooth. Ganpati is depicted seated in a Lalitdsan. A Yadnyopavit across his body, a Udharbandh around his belly while the Skand mala on his shoulders embellish him. A rat is shown near his right leg. v) Sculpture oi Ganpati from Pilar in Goa Velha The sculpture is kept in the Museum of Pilar at Goa Velha^™. completely mutilated. The hands and its legs are missing. But from the carvings one can assign it to the 12*

129 century CE. It belongs to the Kadamb school of art and has Hoysal influence on it. It does not have a crown but has a Jatd Mukut. The necklace around its neck is profusely carved. He wears a Yadnyopavit whose thread coils can be spotted. An Udarbandh around his belly. vi) Sculptures of Ganpati from Nageshi There are two sculptures of Ganpati found in Nageshi. One sculpture is kept in the Nagarkhdnd of the temple while second one is a small sculpture found behind the Garbgrih of the main temple under a tree. The sculpture preserved in the Nagarkhdnd of the temple appears to be of a very early period as he is shown wearing no Mukut for his head. The head is shown like a real life elephant's head. The sculpture depicts the deity seated in Sukhdsan in a Chaturbhuj form. He is depicted holding a Parshu and a Fadm in his upper right and left hand respectively, while the lower right and left hand is in Abhay Mudrd (along with a broken tooth) and a Patr containing Laddus. He wears a. Kirit Mukut on his head a snake coils around his belly. A rat is shown near his left leg. The sculpture can be assigned to the Badami Chalukyan era and can be dated to the 9*-10'*' century CE. The second sculpture probably belongs to a very later period. It appears to be disproportionate and is incompletely carved. He too is depicted in Chaturbhuj form seated in a Sukhdsan pose, the attributes of the upper right hand is unclear. A Parshu can be seen in his upper left hand and a broken tooth and a Patr of laddus in his lower right and left hands respectively. He wears Kirit Mukut. He is seated on a pedestal which has motifs of a lion. Probably the pedestal belongs elsewhere. vii) Sculpture oi Ganpati from Kundai:- In a temple housing the images of Saraswati, Vishnu, Shivling, Mahishasurmardini a sculpture Ganpati is also worshipped. Its Prabhdvalli contains very intricate carvings crowned with a Kirtimukh right on the top. In the sculpture Ganpati is seated in a Sukhdsan pose in a Chaturbhuj form. He is depicted holding a Parshu and a Padm in his upper right and left hand respectively, while the lower right holds a broken tooth while aPa/r conXainm^, Laddus is seen in his lower left hand . He wears a. Kirit Mukut on his head a snake coils around his belly. Ornaments like the Kankan for his hands and Skand mala on his shoulders can be seen. The sculpture can be assigned to the jQthjjth (.g^^yjy (^£ Qf ij^g early Kadamb period. A similar miniature with same attributes is seen carved on a 11"" century stone lintel of Shri Keshav temple at Priol.

130 4. Other minor deities associated with Shiv and Vishnu (Garud and Nas. sculptures) A. Anthropomorphic form of Garud: Around two independent sculptures of Garud are found seen in a kneeling position in Goa. In the ruins of the temple in Vichundre. Garud is shown in a Chaturbhuj form with his lower two hands in an Anjali Mudra while his upper right hand is in Abhay Mudrd and hi upper left hand holds a snake. It has an un carved Prabhavalli around it. The sculpture found in the Vishnu temple in Korgao has less stone matrix and is shown in a Dvibhuj form. The carving here is more intricate then the above mentioned sculpture. The feathers of the wings are neatly depicted in this sculpture.

B. Anthropomorphic forms of the serpent or Ndz: The worship of icons of the serpent or the Nag are not only found India but also in other ancient cultures. They are widely worshipped in Egypt, Persia, Greece, Chma, Babylonia, and Italy^^'. In the MahdhhdratM is mentioned that two sisters by name and Vinata were married to Rishi KaShyap. Kadru became a mother of 1000 Nags, who were the progenitors of the entire serpent race; while her sister gave birth to a Garud and Arun who became a powerful enemy of the Ndg^'^'^. A similar story is mentioned in the Kathd-Saritd-Sdgar a compilation of folk stories by Somdev who lived in the early medieval period^^^. The powerful descendants of the Nag race were Shesh. , Airdvat, Takshak, Karkotak, Kdliyd, Aild, Nild, Anild, Nahush^^"^. Garud became the carrier of the Sury while Garud became the carrier of Vishni?''^. Goa must have also been influenced by the Ndga. cult who worshipped the serpents. The Shiv temple of Gokam on the coastal belt, now a part of the Uttar Kannada district of Kamataka finds a reference in the Harivansh Purdn. It mentions that four sons of a Yadu tribe bom to the four wives of Ndgd established a kingdom called Mdhismati which is identified with modem Gokam and Banvasi^^^. This points out to the fact that the entire coastal strip was ruled by the Ndga.. In Goa too there are many legends associated with the serpents and the family lineage. Beliefs like the cobra representing the ancestor or the pure soul called as Brdhman in local parlance are found. The particular fondness of Shiv and Kdli for snakes makes it quite evident that the Ndga cult has entered Shaivism to a great extent^^^. Although the serpent is also associated with Vishnu, its connection with Shiv is more dominant then with the former. Part from the cult which came from outside the aboriginal Kulmi tribes of Goa also worships the Shesh Ndg. Their worship and devotion to the serpent god is found

131 in their invocation song given below. There are two invocations. In the first invocation they invoke the Great Old Nag who balances the Earth on his back. While in the second invocation the Shesh Nag who resides deep in the Earth's belly is invoked. First invocation:- FT^ ^=T^ Wc|FT^ ?T^ 3TT^ ^^TFT

Second invocation:- 3Tpft ^^ ^^\A\^ W^^ W^ ?^ L|ldloilc^| ^TSr^fTJ^

aqr^MtsTT ^^ITcf^ 3TN^....'F«TT.... 3TN^...

Form the above invocations it is very evident that the Kulmis conceptualize two serpents. The one who retains the Earth on his back is called the Adi Nag while the Shesh resides deep within the Earth From the above song it is quite clear that the concept of Nag for the Kulmi is quite different from the Nag found in the Purdns related to Vishnu. The Puranic Nag is believed to rest in the oceans with Vishnu reclining on it. But for the Kulmi he rests in the Patal (deep below, in the Earth). Interstingly, a similar kind of narration about the Shesh Nag found in the Adi- Parv of Mahabhdrat is given here^^*. It is mentioned that the Shesh Nag. eldest of all detached himself from his brethren because of the constant fights which were taking place between them. Brahma looking at his asceticism gave him a boon. On this, Shesh Nag requested Brahma to allow him to be righteous with his mind filled with tranquility and asceticism for the welfare of the creatures. Brahma told him that the Earth moves unsteadily and along with moves the tovms, villages and people. Brahma requested him to make her steady. Shesh consented and the Earth made him an opening from which he could enter and support her from beneath. From then on at the command of Brahma he carries the sea-girdled Earth on his head. Three anthropomorphic forms of the serpents of Vishnu are found in Goa. The Vishnudharmottar Purdn mentions that the Nags should be depicted in such a way that they should have the shape of gods but should be adorned with snake hoods^™. As described in the text the sculptures of serpents found in Goa also display the same characteristics. The head and the torso of the body is of a human figure while the legs are converted into five or four coils of the snake. The Nag also associated with other religions like Jainism and Buddhism^*". However the sculptures found in Goa do not bear any closeness to these religion as most of these are either found Vishnu temples or are found as independent worships in the forests. Yet another theory coined by some historians mention that the annual shredding of snake's skin represents rejuvenation. Hence the ancients connected it

132 with the idea of an eternal succession of forms, reproduction which was an ongoing process in nature^*'. This theory was connected to the succession of ages prevalent amongst the ancient Greeks and also amongst the ancient Hindus which was termed as Yug'^\ i) Sculpture of the Nas in Lolye. Kankona taluka. The one found in Kankona taluka is called Shesh and is found in the village of Lolye in Kankona taluka. It faces the sculpture of Vishnu of the early Chalukyan period described above. The sculpture is fusion of five hooded snake resting above a human figure.. The deity is shown in a Dvibhuj form sitting in a Padmasan. He has a five hooded snake crowning his head. There is no headgear present but a band is worn around the forehead. He is shown wearing Kundah, Har, Keyur and Kankan. The earlobes are elongated and a loin cloth around his waist can be seen. ii) Sculpture of the Nae in Talauli. Ponda : The second form was found in the village of Talauli in Ponda taluka and measure about 80cm x 36cm in length. It depicts a human figure with two hands which are now mutilated. Probably a five hooded snaked crowned his head. But only two hoods are present now. The lower part of the body from navel is depicted in the form of coils of the snake. The deity is shown with neat combed hair wearing a kind of a band Both these sculptures can be assigned to circa 9*-10* century CE and depict a Badami Chalukyan influence. iii) Sculpture of the Nas in Sasorem. Kepem : The third one belongs to a little later period probably to the 12"" century CE. The sculpture is found in the jungles of Sasorem in the Kepem taluka It resembles the one found in the Ponda taluka. The human head is small compared to the previous and looks more life-like. He is shown wearing a Mukut while the five hooded snake is depicted above his Mukut. Yadnyopavit, Hdr, Mekhald are present while the two hands are mutilated. Like the one found in Ponda his lower body too is depicted in the form of snake coils tapering towards the bottom. iv) Sculpture of Nag in Gaondongri. Kankona taluka. This sculpture is located in the precincts of the Shri Mallikarjun temple in the Gaondongri village of Kankona taluka. It is a part of the affiliate deities of the main deity, the sculpture is eroded and therefore the minor details are not visible. The sculpture is almost the same as that of the one found in Taluali and Sasorem of the

133 Ponda and Kepem taluka respectively. The Dvibhuj sculpture has both its hands mutilated

III. Icons of rare deities 1) Indra On May 30* of 2010 around four sculptures of the ancient and medieval period were retrieved from the temple tank of Shri Chamundeshwari in Vargao of the Bicholim taluka. the operation took two days. Last year the temple priest Shri Devidas alias Dada Sainekar informed me of a sculpture of Shri Parshuram existing in the temple tank. My curiosity to study this sculpture arose as no sculpture of Parshuram was found in Goa till date though the worship of this deity existed in Goa form the ancient times. But due high level of water it was difficult to retrieve this sculpture out of the tank. This year after taking the prior permissions of the temple committee it was decided to send two swimmers to retrieve this sculpture. On ST' May 2010 a sculpture of Indra was the same sculpture which was thought to be of Shri Parshuram.

A. Indra- its importance during the Vedic period :- During the Vedic period no specific iconic representation of any deities developed^^ \ But it was for sure that the deities were personified^*''.The most important amongst the few of the deities of the Vedic period are Indra, Varun and Agni. Som a kind of celestial drink was consumed by these deities. Each of these deities were assigned specific duties. Indra was the mighty god of war while Varun was the supreme moral ruler associated with water^*'. He is regarded as the national god of the Rigyed. And has the largest number of hymns dedicated to him. Nearly 250 hymns are addressed to him. One of the hymns describe him as the wielder of thunder storm^"^. Som, the divine drink is said to confer powers of immortality to men and gods. It also has curative powers. Som invigorates Indra in his fight with Vrita^^^. The word Indra in Rigvedic context means one bom without a rival^*^. The word Indra is derived from the word Indha which means kindler, according to Shatpath Brahman text^^^. This text belongs to the later Vedic period. Not just in Vedic religion did Indra have importance but even in Buddhism his authority as the King of Power and War has not decreased. Buddh during his royal life is identified with Indra during the course of ceremonies Interestingly in the Vedic period his physical characteristics are primarily hidden under his superimposed attributes but a host of fanciful myths have

134 surrounded him^^'. Though during the later Vedic period the worship of Indra declined his power and might still remained unchallenged. In the Brhat Samhita a beautiful amalgamation of the Vedic and the Purdnic deities I seen. In one of its chapters it describes how Indra helped Vishnu by giving him his Dhvaj during the time of war^^^. His key feature of identity is the Vajra which he holds in his hand•^^^ It is the thunderbolt by which he is said to destroys the evil demon Vritta. B. Sculpture found in Goa Brhat Samhita clearly mentions that the sculpture of Indra should hold Vajr in one of his hands and his Vahan Airavat should be near him^^'*. The sculpture is in Chaturbhuj form. He is depicted in Sambhang Mudra showing holding a Vajr in the upper right hand, an Ankush in his upper left hand. In his lower left hand he holds a Kamandalu. A small elephant is carved near his right foot. The elephant is called Airavat who is the Vahan of Indra. These attributes are the key features of Indra. The attribute in the lower right hand is unclear as it is mutilated but probably is a Padm. The face is fully mutilated as a result of which, the eyes, nose and the mouth are ver\ unclear. According to Anshubhedgama Indra has to be attended by two Gandharv women with Chamars in their hands^^'. There are two female Chauri bearers seen on either side of his feet. The ornamentation is very intricate and is very identical to the ones seen on the sculptures at Degamve, Halshi and also Belur and Halebidu. Due to the sculpture being submerged under water for many years the minute carvings have almost wom off He is shown wearing a Karand Mukut on his head with Makar Kundal styled earrings in his ears. His neck is adorned with beautiful necklaces. Keyur is seen for his arms. He wears Pddsar for his feet and Mekhald for his waist. The Udharband circles his stomach. There is a very fine and intricately carved Prabhdvalli around his head. The Prabhaavalli is supported by two Dvarshakhas' on the either side of the deity. The top ends of the Dvarshakhas have 'Makar' mounting on it. A filigree work emerges out from the mouth of the both the Makars. The top of the of the sculpture is crowned by a Kirtimukh. Both the Chauri bearers are shown in the Katvyalambit Mudraa. However the sculpture on its right hand side is unfinished as chisel marks are still seen. Also ornaments like the Skand- mala is also absent on his shoulders. The sculpture found in Goa probably dates to the 12* century AD of the Kadamb period. It is one of the rarest sculptures found in Goa So far no stone sculpture of Indra belonging to this century is found in Goa.

135 C. Development of iconic representation oilndra Since the vdhan of Indra is an elephant the Ankush which is an ^^^ had to be an integral part of his iconic representation. The Ankush was a weapon used by the Mahuts in the ancient times to control the elephant. Not only Indra but also other gods like Ganpati who is associated with elephants were given an Ankush in their hands. Similarly Indra association with thunderstorm made the ' Vajra' an integral part of its iconography. Indra's Vajra is made up iron ore.^^^ The Kamandalu formed a part of his iconography perhaps due to his relation with jxuce. Interestingly his vahan whose name is Air aval is also related to rain. The meaning of Air aval in Brhat Samhitd means a completely formed rainbow without any breaks in the middle.^*^^

2. Brahma The Agni Purdrt^^^, the Matsy Purdn^^^ and the Kurm Purdn^^' mention that Brahma was bom from the navel of Vishnu. While the Brahmvaivarth Purdn, mentions that after performing various penances by concentrating his mind he created the Earth and the mountains, then the seven oceans, rivers, rivulets, streams, trees, villages and cities'''^ A. Iconography of Brahma Various sculptural details are mentioned in different texts regarding this deity. The Matsy Puran mentions the following about the sculpture of Brahmd^'^^: He should have four faces and should be depicted mounting a swan or seated on a lotus. His lower hand left hand should hold a lotus while the lower right hand should hold a sruv while his upper right hand should hold a Dand. Savitri should be placed on his left and Saraswati on his right. Mdnasollds mentions a similar description of Brahma's sculpture'"'*. B. Worship of Brahma in Goa. He is worshipped in five villages of Goa: two villages of Pedne taluka viz. Parse and Vimoda; in the Kolomb village of Sanguem taluka, and Brahmkarmali village of taluka However there is no sculpture of Brahma in Vimoda. It is just an iconic representation in worship while the sculpture of Kolomb and Parse are contemporary and can be assigned to 15* century CE. They are perfect examples of local art. All the sculptures (except of Vimoda) oi Brahma are characterized as a four headed deity holding the Veds in one hand while \he Akshmala in the other hand 136 a) Brahma sculpture of Brahmkarmali The sculpture oi Brahma was taken to Sattari taluka from the village of Karmali. This Kadamb period sculpture is very unique to Goa and is one of the masterpieces of Kadamb art. Since it was shifted from village Karmali (near Old Goa), the village in which the temple exists today is called as Brahmkarmali in Sattari. This image dates to the Kadamb period. It is a beautiful specimen of Kadamb school of sculpture. The Chaturmukh (four faced) image wears a beard and is depicted in a standing pose with four hands. The sculpture is shovvoi him holding aKamandalu and the Veds in his left hands. A Sruv and an Akshmdld are seen in his right hands. Saraswati and Savitri flank the image near his foot. The Prabhavalli has figures of the Hansa (Goose), birds, elephants etc. The striking feature is the two Kadamb lions with a raised paw on the either side near his shoulders. The beaded ornaments on the image; an influence ofHoysala art is noteworthy. The sculpture is about 1.5m tall, b) Brahma sculpture of Kolomb The sculpture was acquired by the Goa State Museum. It depicts him in a Chaturbhuj form holding a Pdsh and a Ankush in his upper right and left hands respectively while the lower right hand is in Abhay Mudrd and the lower left hand holds a Kamandalu. The sculpture measures 91 cm x 50cm. A small swan can be seen near his right leg while a Chauri bearer near his left leg. c) Brahma sculpture of Parse The sculpture is now acquired by the Goa State Museum and can be assigned to to circa 14*^-15'*' century. A good example of local art he is shown Chaturmukh with his lower right and left hands holding Veds and a Kamandalu while both his upper hands holding a Sruv. The sculpture is around 120cm x 30 cm.

IV. Icons of Folk deities 1) Betall:- Betall sculptures are found in every taluka of Goa However their worship is not ver> popular in the Sattari taluka as found in other talukas. The sculptures of Betall were initially made from the wood of the Chdfo tree. The wood of this tree is supposed to be strong and water and termite resistant. However in the later years the wooden sculptures were replaced by stone sculptures. Yet there are instances where the stone sculptures of Betall are dating to very early period. In some villages of North Goa a

137 twin worship of this Betall is found. One sculpture is slightly taller than the other. They are termed as Atal and Betall. The features of these sculptures are:- a) The sculpture depicts the deity in Dvihhuj form holding a Khadg in one hand while pdn-patr in the other. b) The deity is always shown in a semi nude form with a huge penis. He sports a beard and the overall physique appears to be of an old man with sturdy sagging shoulders. The mouth is open due to the canine teeth projecting from the sides. The bones of the body and the rib cage are very clearly shown. c) A string of bells around the waist, a scorpion on the chest and crown of hooded serpents are the only ornaments on the sculpture. Sometimes a hooded serpent is also shown encircling his arms and legs. d) Although the sculpture portrays the bones and the ribcage through the flesh the deity does not look weak but is made to look old, sturdy and aged.

A. Classically influenced Betall sculpture of Lolye. The sculpture is around 3m tall and is found near the temple of Shri Arya in Lolye village of Kankona taluka. The image is different from the other Betaall sculptures found elsewhere in Goa and is probably the only of its kind in Goa. The two armed deity holds a sword in his right hand and apan-pdtr in his left hand. He has huge bulging eyes which gives it a fierce look. A huge halo surrounds his head. The sculpture is nude and ribcage on his chest is clearly carved out. Even the veins of his hand, neck and the legs are perfectly hewn. He wears a necklace of beads around his neck and a necklace of bells runs across his legs from his back. Another unique feature of this image is the absence of a crown which is normally found on Betaall sculptures. In the Betaall sculptures found in other parts of Goa a crown of hooded serpents adorns the head. However in this case, an ornamented band around the forehead has taken the place of the crown. Though Betall is local deity of Goa one can see the influence of Kadamb -Hoysal art on this sculpture. He is made to stand in a particular style which a special element found in Hoysal art. Although there is no much intricacy seen in omamentation of the sculpture, the intricacy depicted in carving out the veins and muscles of the body is worth admiring. The sculptor has tried to carve this image on the lines of images of Virbhadr ox Kdlbhairav. This image can be assigned to the late 13' century or early 14"" century. The sculpture is carved

138 on the lines of Vetal sculptures found in Doddgaddavali in kamatak which were carved by Hoysal carvers. e) Ravlu or He is popularly known as Ravlu in many villages. Originally he was worshipped in an aniconic form which consisted of a flat stone slab vwth carved motifs on the top. The motif includes pair of feet impression surrounded by the head of the bull in all four directions. Yet another aniconic form which could be moved from one place to the other in cases of festivals was a metal hand in an upright position depicting the Abhay Mudra. Later some sculptures of Ravalnath were also made. The icon Ravalnath appears to have been evolved partly from Shaivism and folk concept. He is shown four handed with his upper two hands holding the Trishul and a Damru while the lower right and left hand hold a Khadg and a pan-patr. He is not nude but normally wear a short dhoti. His one of his leg normally the right is slightly deviated from facing the devotee. His vahan is the horse

139 Research findings and Analysis I) Worship of Vishnu its forms and attributes in Goa/ Cult of Vaishnavism:- Ten avtars were popularized and appear to follow the theory of evolution which states that life first began in water and then on land. Like in the theory he was assigned the avtar of Matsy or fish, followed by Kurm or turtle; Varah (boar), Nrsinh half man half lion, Vaman- dwarf man, Parshuram- axe man. Ram- warrior, Krishna- the thinker, Buddh- wise one, Kalki- evil. Out of his 10 incarnations, the last incarnation of Kalki and is yet to come. He is also worshipped in the form of Saligram which are ammonite fossils; Some of the early forms of life. Darwinism clearly states that life initially began in water and then came to the land^*'^ Hence the worship of these early forms of life in the form of Vishnu was logical. Moreover the ammonites resemble the Chakr of the Vishnu. II) The sculptural representation of Vishnu in Goa:- The Shankh, Chakr and Gadha the key identifying features to which a Padm was also added later. In India there is so far no temple dedicated to the Vaman and Kalki. The worship of Vishnu entered Goa's culture through these dynasties. Apart from these worships a few of the twenty four forms are also worshipped from the ancient times in Goa. Sculptures of Keshav, Narayan, Padmnabh, Vdsudev, Vaman, Vishnu, Anant are found in various talukas of Goa. The Sun, a Vedic deity was also brought into Vaishnavism. The worship of the sun is very primitive and is even found in the tribal culture of other parts of India.

Ill) Worship ofShiv, its forms and attributes in Goa/Cult of Shaivism:- Shaivism in Goa is mostly practiced by worshipping the Shivling. These icons or the phallus cannot be assigned a certain period. Some deities like Damodar appear to be a form of ancestor worship whose name was Makaji Damodar Parab and was killed along with his wife by inhabitants of Chimbel. All the devotees of this temple are Vaishnavaites and Shaivaites. This corroborates the fact of the deity having nothing to do with the cults of Vaishnavism and Shaivism initially as it was a form of ancestor worship306. In case of Ramnath, one can see a strong confluence of Vaishnavism and Shaivism. In Goa, the worship of Ganpati is not found amongst the tribals. He is also not found in their folklore. The worship might have brought in and propagated by the Kadamb dynastv.

140 Notes and References

' Joshi. P. N., Bharatiy Murtishastr, Nagpur, 1979, page 45. ^ Macdonell A.A., The Golden Book of the Holy , Delhi, 2007, page 98. ' Op.cit, page 46. "* Op.cit, page 98. ' Ibid, page 98. ^ Susan Huntington, Art of Ancient India, New York 1985, page 57 ^ Jitendranath Banerjea, On Indian Images, Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, Volume 7, June-Dec, 1939, page 88 ^ Agnimaha Puranam, volume II, Delhi, 2005, page 270 •^Ibid, page 270 '"ibid, page 269 " Sircar CD., Some Problems Concering the Kushanas, Kannada Research Institute, Kamatak University, Dhanvar, 1971, page 8 '^Ibid, page 272 '^ Macdonell A. A., The Golden Book of the Holy Vedas, Delhi, 2007, page 98. '"* Joshi. P. N., Bharatiy Murtishastr, Nagpur, 1979, page 50. Brahmvaivarth Puran. volume I, Delhi, 2001, page 197 '^AgnimahaPuranam, volume I, Delhi, 2005, page 120 '''Op.cit, page 266 '^ Ibid, page 138 *^ Sivaramamurti C.,The Weapons of Vishnu, Artihus Asiae, Vol 18, No. 2, Artibus Asiae Publishers 1955, page 135 ^"^ Agnimaha Puranam, volume II, Delhi, 2005, page 275 ^' Nutan Shila Vigrah Pratisthapna, Shri Parshuram Devasthan Samiti, Paingini, 8"^ April 1996, page 10 ^^ Brahmvaivarth Puran, volume I, Delhi, 2001, page 270 " Ibid, page 264 ^^ Ibid, page 266 ^^ Brahmvaivarth Puran, volume I, Delhi, 2001, page 268 ^^ Shimer Woodbum Hervey, An Introduction to the Study of Fossils. USA, September, 1922, page 21. Casanova Richard, Fossil Collecting, London 1960, page 43. ^^ Op.cit, page 315. ^^ Lull Swann Richard, Fossils, USA, 1935, page 41 ""Fenton Lane Carroll Richard, The world of Fossils, London 1933, page 37. ^' Shimer Woodbum Hervey, An Introduction to the Study of Fossils, USA, September, 1922, page 315. ^^ Op.cit. ' Agnimaha Puranam, volume I, Delhi, 2005, page 117 ^'^ Fenton Lane Carroll Richard, The world of Fossils, London 1933, page 35, 36, 37 '' Ron Taylor, Evolution, London, 1978, page 3

141 ^^ ShrimadBhagvat Purdnam, Vol I, Gorakhpur, 2001, page 55. " Trivedi DR., Visnu and his Incarnations in the Works ofKalidasa, East and West, Vol 22, No 1/2, March-June 1972, page 54-59. '^ Rao Gopinath T.A., Elements of , Delhi 1997, page 120 ^'^ Rhodes T.H.F., Evolution of Life, London, 1976, page 161 '*" Microsoft® Encarta® Reference Librarv' 2004. ^^ Op.cit, page 161 ^^ Ibid, page 163 ^^ Ibid , page 175 '*'* Gaskell Holbrook Walter, The Origin of Vertebrates, London, 1908, page 17 ^^ Ibid, page 23 '**' Vanamamalai N., Hero Stone Worship in Ancient South India, Vol 3, Social Scientist, , May 1975, page 44 ^^ Vayu Puranam, Sammelan Mudranalay, Allahabad, 2005, page 801 ^^ Pandit Durgaprasad, Kashinath Parab, The Dashavataracharitra ofKshmendra, Bombay, 1891, page 20. ''^ Joshi N.P., Bharatiy Murtishashtr, Nagpur, 1979, page 4 ^^ Parashar Samhita, Sri Pancharatar agama Samrakshna Trust, Srirangam, 2000, page 72. ''ibid, page 75. " Ibid, page 207. " Srivastava L. A., The Srivatsa Symbol in , East and West, Vol 29, No 1/4, Dec 1979, page 47 '' Ibid " Ibid, page 46. '^ Joshi N.P., Bharatiy Murtishashtr, Nagpur, 1979, page 51 " Harle J.C, Gupta Sculpture, New Delhi, 1996, page 46 '^ Rao Gopinath T.A., Elements of Hindu Iconography, Volume 1, part 1, Delhi 1997, page 227 ''^ Parashar Samhita, Sri Pancharatar agama Samrakshna Tust, Srirangam, 2000, page 72. '*" Personal visit to these places on 19* May 2008. ^' Dharmsindhu, Pune, 1979, page 456 ^^ Vaikhansdgam, Trivandrum, 1935, page 44 ^^ Rao Gopinath T.A., Elements of Hindu Iconography, Volume 1, part 1, Delhi 1997, page 230 ^* Agnimahd Purdnam, volume I, Delhi, 2005, page 118 ^'Ibid, ^^Dharmsindhu, Pune, 1979, page456 ^^ Balram Srivastav, Rupmandan, Motilal Banarasidas, Delhi, 1996, page 134 *^ Op.cit. page 456-457. ^^ Prapanchsdr Tantr of Sankaracarya, New Delhi, 1935, page 42. ™ Ibid, page 42. ^' The Narad Pancha Ratra, Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1865, page 164.

142 ^^ Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary (2008 revision) ^^ Balram Srivastav, Rupmandan, Motilal Banarasidas, Delhi, 1996, page 134 ^'' Shilpratn. Trivandrum Sanskrit Series, XCVIIl, part II, 1929, page 132. ^' Arundhati P. Chitrakala in Manasollasa, Delhi, 2003, page 83 ^^Op.cit, page 132. ^^ Pissurlencar Pandurang/n^cr/coes Pre-Portugues de Goa, O Orient Portugues, 1938, page 400 ^^ Gune V.T., Ancient Records of Goa, New Era (Nave Parva), Volume 11, No. 8, August 1966, page 17. ^^ Ibid, page 17. ^^ Boletim Official Geral, Govemo Geral do Estado da India, T' April 1932, page 401 ^' Personal communication with Shambhu Prabhudesai, Lolye, 28the may 2011. Dharmsindhu, Pune, 1979, page 456 " Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary (2008 revision) ^' Ibid *' Marcus F. Margaret, iMskhmi/Narayan, The Bulletin of the Cleavland Museum of Art. Vol 47, No7, Sept 1960, page 173 '" Ibid ^^ The Narad Pancha Ratra, Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1865, page 164. ^^ Boletim Official do Estado da India, Goa, 9"" January 1928 page 132. ^^ The Gujarati community is called as Gujirs in Konkani. ^° Op.cit. page 132. " Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary (2008 revision) ^^ Balram Srivastav, Rupmandan, Motilal Banarasidas, Delhi, 1996, page 134; Agni Puranam, volume I, Delhi, 2005, page 117 '^^ Schedule, Sr.No 10, The Site of Narayandev at Vichundre, The Goa Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act 1978 and Rules 1980 ^'* Agnimaha Puranam, volume I, Delhi, 2005, page 96 ^^ Rea Alexr, Chalukyan Architecture, Madras, 1896, plate XCVII ^^ Balram Srivastav, Rupmandan, Motilal Banarasidas, Delhi, 1996, page 135 ^^ Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary (2008 revision) '' Ibid Catalogue of Remarkable Sculptures in the Goa State Museum, Directorate of Museums, Govt of Goa, 2006, page 4 "'° Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary' (2008 revision) '"' BaJram Srivastav, Rupmandan, Motilal Banarasidas, Delhi, 1996, page 134 '"^ Ihe Narad Pancha Ratra, Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1865, page 164. 103 Nrsinh Puran. Gita Press, Gorakhpur, page 133. '"•* Ibid, page 140. 105 Ibid, page 155. '"^ Ibid, page 57 '"^ Foral de Salcette, Vol No. 3070, 1568, page 473. "^* Ibid, page 473

143 ^^ Prasanna Kumar Acharya, Architecture ofManasara, Delhi, 2006, page 63 '*• Rao Gopinath T.A., Elements of Hindu Iconography, Vol 1, part I, Delhi 1997, page 150 ^^ Archaeological Survey of India Information Board, display at the Site, IS''' May 2008 *^ Pandurang Pissurlekar, Portuguese Maratha Sambandh, Pune, 1967, page 118 '^ Vaikhansagam, Trivandrum, 1935, page 204 ''^ S. Kiishnaswaim, Musical Instruments of India, Asian Music, Vol II, University of Texas Press, 1971, page 35. '^ Rao Gopinath T.A., Elements of Hindu Iconography, Vol 1, part I, Delhi 1997, page 207 "" Vaikhansagam, Trivandrum, 1935, page 204 '^ Ibid, page 204 '* Shrimad Bhagvat Mahapuran, Volume I, Gorakhpur press, 2001, page 57. ^'^ Agnimahd Puranam, volume I, Delhi, 2005, page 44 ^^ Heras Henry, Pre-Portuguese Remains in Portuguese India, Joumal of Bombay Historical Society, 1932, page 18. ^' Label mentioning the period as 6* century CE is placed on the sculpture at the Indian Historical Research Museum, Mumbai, 9"" May 2008. ^^ Shilpratn, Trivandrum Sanskrit Series, XCVIII, part II, 1929, page 128. ^^ Catalogue of Remarkable Sculptures in the Goa State Museum, Directorate of Museums, Govt of Goa, 2006, page 44 ^'* Konkanakhyan, V.M. Salgaoncar Foundation, Vasco, 2001, page 38 ^^ Balram Srivastav, Rupmandan, Motilal Banarasidas, Delhi, 1996, page 160. -* Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary (2008 revision) ^^ Matsy Puran, Gorakhpur Press, page 948 '* Vaikhansagam, Trivandrum, 1935, page 50, 51, 52 ^^ Agni Puranam, volume I, Delhi, 2005, page 122. ^^ Raghavan V, Raghuvamsa ofKalidasa, Publishing House, Madras, 1973, page 297-298 ^' Vaikhansagam, Trivandrum, 1935, page, page 204 ^^ Moortheshwari K, Reclining Postures of Vishnu, Chennai, 2010, page 80 "*' Matsy Puran, Gorakhpur Press, page 948 ^^ Rao Gopinath T.A., Elements of Hindu Iconography, Vol 1, part I, Delhi 1997, page 263 ^' Moraes M. George, The Kadamba Kula, Bombay, 1931, page 388 ^^ Macdonell A.A., Max Muller Holy Vedas 2007, page 88 ^' Cutner H, A Short History of Sex Worship, London 1940, page 46 ^^ William Carlson Smith, The Ao Naga Tribe of Assam, London 1925, page 87 '' Ibid, '" BanerjeaN. J, Joumal of the kidian Society of Oriental Art, Vol VXI, Calcutta, 1948, page 50 ^' Ibid ••^ Macdonell A. A, Max MuWer Holy Vedas 2007, page 88 ''^ Saxena Pravesh, The Concept ofAditya in , Historical and Critical Studies in Atharvaveda, Nag Publishers, Delhi, 21-26 Oct 1981, page 149

144 ^Mbid, page 152 *^ Matsy Puran, Gorakhpur Press, page 427 46 Viswakarma Vastusastram, Sri Vani Vilas Press, Srirangam, 1958, page 792 *'^ Op.cit, page 989 ^^ Agni Puranam, volume I, Delhi, 2005, page 127. ^'Ibid. ^" Rao Gopinath T.A., Elements of Hindu Iconography Vol 1, part II, Delhi 1997, page 306 ^' Shrimad Bhagvat Mahdpuran, Gorakhpur press. Volume 1 page 586. " Op.cit, page 300 " Desai G.S., Four Stone Inscriptions from Goa, Epigraphia Indica vol XXXVII, 1967,page 283 ^'' Mitragotri R. V., Socio Cultural History of Goa, Panaji, August 1999, page 208. " Ibid, '' Ibid. " Goa State Museum, Accession Register No 38, page 9 '^ Mitragotri R. V., Socio Cultural History of Goa, Panaji, August 1999, page 209. ^^ Gune T.V., Goa Gazetter, 1979, page 73 ^° Archaeological Survey of India, Goa Circle, Accession Register Nol, page 78, sr. no 326 ^' Ancient Shrines of Goa, Government of Goa, Daman & Diu, February 1965, page 12. ^•^Pitkow B. Marlene, Putna 's Salvation in Kathakali: Embodying the Sacred Journey. Asian Theatre Journal, Vol 2, 2001, page 243 "^'ibid, page 238 ^^ Ibid, page 242 ^' Jennings Hargrave, Phallic Worship, London 1880, page 12 ^^ Rui Gomes Pereira, Hindu Temples and Deities, Panaji, 1977, page 153 Member of the Kulmi community who performs religious ritual ^* Shri Lakshmi-Nardyan Devalay, Shri Parshuram Pancahigram Devasthan, Paingini, 3'^*' June 1996, page 1 69 Shrimad Bhagvat Puranam, Gorakhpur, 2001, page 57 70 Shri Nrsinh Puran, Gorakhpur, 2001, page 130 71 Matsy Mahd Puranam, Gorakhpur, page 156 ^^ Shrimad Bhagvat Puranam, Vol I, Gorakhpur, 2001, page 813 ^Mbid, page 814 ^'^ Kurm Puran, Gorkahpur, page, 51. ' Aiyar Ramchandra K.T, Shri Rudr Bhdshyam of Skand , Madras, 1994, page 10, ^'^Ibid, ^^ Umarani Trivedi, Vaidik Sahity Me Rudr, Department of Sanskrit Pali Prakrit, Allahabad University, 1963, page 1 ^* GondGondaa J, Epithets in the Rgveda, Netheriands, 1959 ,page 125 79 Op.cit. ^^ RajaKRajaKunhai n C, Ihe Vedas, Andhra University, 1957, page 78. Gonda J, Epithets in the Rgveda, Netheriands, 1959 ,page 126.

145 ^^ Ibid. ^^ Max Muller F, Sacred Books of the East, Vol 32, Delhi, 1988, page 422. *** Eggeling Julius, Satapata Brahman, Oxford Press, 1894, page 67. *^ Westropp M. Hodder, Ion Phallic Worship, Journal of the Anthropological Society of London Vol 8, 1870-71, London, page 137 to 140 ^^ Sellon E., Linga or the Phallic worship in India, Journal of the Anthropological Society of London Vol 3, 1865, London, page 138 ^^ Pnyatosh Banejee, Ihe Antiquity of Linga Worship in India, J.B.R.S., Vol XI, Part 2, page 171. *^ Mahadevan P.M.T., Saivism and the Indus Valley Civilisation, Journal of the Ganganatha Jha Research Institute, Vol FV, Allahabad, November 1946, page 6. ^^Ibid, ^ Op.cit. page 172. ^' Hazra C.R., The Siva , Journal of the Ganganatha Jha Research Institute, Vol X, Nov, Feb, May Aug 1952-53, page 13. ^^ Shrishivmahapuran, Volume II, Savitri Thakur Publications, Varanasi, 2009, page 969 ^•' Priyatosh Banejee, The Antiquity of Linga Worship in India, J.B.R.S., Vol XI, Part 2, page 175. ^'' BhandarkaBhandark r Gopal Ramkrishna, Vaisnavism, Saivsim and Minor Religious Systems, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune 1928, page 164 ^' 1Narahar i G.H., Soma andRudra in , Adyar Library, Madras, 1952, page 63 Sircar CD., Some Problems Concering the Kushanas, Kannada Research Institute, Kamatak University, Dharwar, 1971, page 2 '' Ibid '' Ibid, page 7 ^ Desai, M.S, Shri Mallikarjun Devasthanacha Itihas, Sristhal, Kankona, 24"* March 1992. page 6 ^"^ Ibid, page 4 '"' Ibid, page 33- 35 ^"^ Khedekar V. Vinayak. Goa Kulmi,, Raibandar, Goa, 18* Feb 2004, page 150 ^"-Ibid, page 151. ^"'^ Encyclopedia Mundarica, Vol IX, Delhi, 2009, page 2764 ^°^ Shrishivmahapuran, Volume II, Savitri Thakur Publications, Varanasi, 2009, page 1161 "•'" Ibid. ^"^ Foral de Salcette, Vol No. 3071, 1568, page 26. ^°* Lopes Mendes, A India Portuguesa, Vol II, Lisbon 1886, page 172 ^°^ Rui Gomes Pereira, Hindu Temples and Deities, Panaji, 1977. page 83 ^'" Ibid, ^"Ibid, page 102 ^'^ Angle Pai Narayan Shridharand, Shri Rdmndth, Ponda, March 2005, page 98 ^'^ Shri Ramnath Devasthan Smarnika, Ramnathi, Ponda 1999, page 2.

146 ^'^ Rui Gomes Pereira, Hindu Temples and Deities, Panaji, 1977, page 102 ^^^ Portuguese name for the ancient Gaunkari system of Goa. ''" Ibid, ^'^ Dhume, Shenvi Vinayak, Devbhumi Gomantak, Kumbharjua, 1987, page 146 ''' Ibid, page 145 ^^^ Keni Chandrakant, Shri Rdmndth Devasthan, Saraswat, Vol XII, No. 4, page 10 "° Op.cit. ^^' Balram Srivastav, Rupmandan, Motilal Banarasidas, Delhi, 1996, page 134; Agni Purdnam, volume I, Delhi, 2005, page 155. ^^^ Ibid, page 156. ^^^ Aiyar Ramchandra K.T, Sri Bhashyam ofSkanda Deva, Madras, 1994, page 10. ^^'^ Gadre S.A. Important Inscriptions ofBaroda State, Vol I A.S.I, 5* July 1943, page 65 ^^' Gune V.T., Ancient Records of Goa, New Era (Nave Parva), Volume II, No. 8, August 1966, page 16 ^^^ Archaeological Survey of India,Goa Circle, Accession Register Nol, page 4, sr. no 15 ^^' Prasad. K.R.P, A Rare Sculpture of the Kadamba period from Old Goa, Purabhilekh Puratatva, Vol II, No 1, Jan-June 1984, page 87 ^^^ Ibid, page 87 ^^^ Balram Srivastav, Rupmandan, Motilal Banarasidas, Delhi, 1996, page 191 "•'Ibid, page 191 ^^' Shrishivmahapurdn, Volume II, Savitri Thakur Publications, Varanasi, 2009, page 967 ^^^ Ibid, page 968 ^^^ Ibid, page 969 "'' Ibid, page 970 ^-'^ Ibid, page 971 ^^^ Ibid, page 972 "^ Khare H. Ganesh , Murtividnyan, BISM, Pune, 2012, page 82 ^^^ Goa State Museum, Accession Register No 38, page 9 "' Agarwala C.R., Unpublished Sculptures and Terracottas in the National Museum, New Delhi and some allied problems. East and West. Vol 17, No. 3/4 , Sept-Dec 1967, page 276 ^""^ Agnimahd Purdnam, volume I, Delhi, 2005, page 125 ^'*^ Greatness of Shiva, Mahimnastava, Tr. Arthur Valon, Madras, 1925, page 10. ^'*^ Narain K.A., Ganesa: a Protohistory of the Idea and the Icon, Ganesh , Studies of an Indian God, Delhi, 1997, page 19 ^« Ibid ''' Ibid. ''' Ibid, "* Bhandarkar Gopal Ramkrishna, Vaisnavism, Saivsim and Minor Religious Systems. Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune 1928, page 149 ^^' Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary (2008 revision)

147 ''' Ibid. ^'^^Ibld. ^^^ Sampoomanand, Ganesh, University of Kashi, Varanasi, 2001, page 5 "' Shrimad Bhagvat Puranam, Vol II, Gorakhpur, 2001, page 129. "' Dhavlikar M. K, Ganesa: Myth and Reality, Ganesh , Studies of an Indian God, Delhi, 1997, page 49 "' Ibid, -'•' Michael M. S., The Origin of the Ganapati Cult, Asian Folklore Studies, Vol 42, No. 1. 1983, page 112-113 -" Tiwari Pushpa, Cultural Study ofGanesha Purdna, Department of Ancient History, Culture and Archaeology, University of Allahabad, 2002, page vii "" Ibid, page 59 "^ Ibid, "^Ibid. ^^^ Ibid, page ii. ^''° Agnimahd Puranam, volume I, Delhi, 2005, page 175 ^°' Shrishivmahapuran, Volume I, Savitri Thakur Publications, Varanasi, 2009, page 669-694 ^^^ Shri Vaman Purdn, Gorakhpur Press, page 230-232 ^^•' Lopes Mendes, A India Portuguesa, Vol II, Lisbon 1886, page 172 '"' Ibid, page 30 '" Gonsalves, Portas Ines Catarina, Akamai Kamat Genealogia de Uma Familia Hindu. Mhamais of Goa, Panaji, 2004, page 183 ^^^ Dhume Shenvi Vinayak, Gomantak Punybhumi, Government Printing Press, Goa Daman &Diu, 1981, page 36 ^" Ibid. ^'''*Heras Henry, Pre-Portuguese Remains in Portuguese India, Joumal of the Bombay Historical Society, London, September 1932, page 47 ^""^ Discussion with Puttuswamy Gudigar a sculptor of classical style and recipient of Kamataka Rajyotsava Award, 25* September 2012. ^™ Costa Jose Cosme, The Heritage ofGovapuri, Pilar Publications, Pilar, 2002, page 13 Momer Momer William, Brahmanism and Hinduism, London, 1891, page 313. 27? Fergusson James, Tree and Serpent Worship, Oriental Publishers, Delhi, 1971, page 59. ^^^ Kathd-Saritd-Sagar, Vol I, Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta, 1980, page 182 "^Op.cit. ^'^ Vogel J, Indian Serpent Lore, Indological Book House, Varanasi, Delhi, 1972, page 47 ^^^ Subramaniam, K.R., The Origin ofSaivism and its History in the Tamil Ixind, Madras, University Joumal, February 1927, page 10. "^ Ibid, page 25. "** Ibid, page 57. ^^^ Visknudharmottar Purdn, Khand III, Parimal Publications,, Delhi, 2002, page 140. ^^° Dubey Hari Prasad, Minor Local Deities in Ancient Indian Art and Literature, Dept of Ancient History, Culture & Archaeology, University of Allahabad, 1992, page 143 281 Squier G.E, The Serpent Symbol, American Archaeological Researches, Vol 1, New

148 York, 1851, page 157 ^^^ Ibid; Faber Stanley George, The Origin of Pagan Idolatry, Vol 1, London, 4'*' March 1815, page 440, ^*' AG. Mitchell, Hindu Gods &. Goddesses, UBS Publishers, London, 1992, page 5 2«^ Ibid ^^^ Op.cit, page 363 ^^^ , hidra-hymn I, 32. ^^^ Majumdar C.R, The Vedic Age, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996, Mumbai, page 375 ^** T. A. Gopinath Rao, Elements of Hindu Iconography, Vol II part II, page 516 ^^^Ibid. ^^ AL.Bhasham, A Wonder that was India, London, 1954, page 82 ^^' Majumdar C.R, The Vedic Age, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996, Mumbai, page 52 ^^^ Brhat Samhita, Delhi ,2008, page 280-1-2 293 A. L. Bhasham, The Wonder That was India, page 236 ^^^ Brhat Samhita, Manoj Pocket Books, 2008, Delhi, page 439 ^^' T.A. Gopinath Rao, Elements of Hindu Iconography Volume 2, part, Delhi, 1997, page 519 ^^ Ibid, page xiii ^^^ R.C Majumdar, The Vedic Age, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996, Mumbai, page 371 "' Brahat Samhita, New Delhi, page 323 "' Agnimaha Puranam, volume II, Delhi, 2005, page 31 ""' Matsy Puran, Gorakhpur Press, page 686 '"' Kurm Puran, Gorakhpur Press, page 12, 42 '"' Brahmvaivarth Puran, volume I, Delhi, 2001, page 27 '" Matsy Puran, Gorakhpur Press, page 987 Shirgondekar, Manasollasa of King Someswara, Vol II, Baroda Institute, 1989, page 62. ^"^ Ron Taylor, Evolution, London, 1978, page 3 ^'"' Sardesai Manoharrai, Cults Beliefs and Legends in Goan Hindu Temples, Saraswat Vol XII, No 2, 2003, page 25

149