An Outline Introduction to Western Literature Alexander C. H. Tung (董崇選) Contents Foreword Chapter One: The Two Origins Chapter Two: The Greek Period Chapter Three: The Roman Period Chapter Four: The Medieval Period Chapter Five: The Renaissance Period Chapter Six: The Neoclassical Period Chapter Seven: The Romantic Period Chapter Eight: The Period of Realism and Naturalism Chapter Nine: The Period of Modernism Chapter Ten: The Period of Postmodernism Pronunciation Guide to Proper Names Foreword This book is written for those readers whose native language is not English, and yet who have the need to learn some basic facts and opinions about Western literature. Bearing this aim in mind, the author has therefore chosen to use a very clear and simple kind of English to write the text and to provide just the essential knowledge of Western literature that makes the book only an “outline introduction.” This book can be used as a textbook for any course designed to give Western literature a general introduction. The author thinks that a good textbook for an introductory course to Western literature has to make students familiar with the background of the historical development from period to period. Furthermore, it needs to make students familiar with the important features of each period in the light of the literary genres and movements or schools, as well as with the major authors and works, involved in its historical development. Accordingly, this book is so arranged that each chapter contains three chief integral parts—“Historical Background,” “Literary Features,” and “Major Authors and Works,” plus one additional part—“Further Remarks.” This book can also be used as a reference book for any course designed to teach the history of Western literature or the appreciation of Western literature. In this book Chinese translations are provided for those names of authors or titles of works which are already known to have their popular Chinese translations or which the author thinks important and therefore had better have Chinese translations. In some cases when the already-existing popular Chinese translations are not good enough, they are replaced with new translations by the author. A Pronunciation Guide to Proper Names is attached to this book for those who may want to know how some proper names are pronounced. For the accomplishment of writing this book, I wish to thank my friend and former colleague, Professor Robert Glen of Chung Shan Medical University, who encouraged me to write this book, read its first draft, and gave me many valuable comments and suggestions for revising it. 回目錄 Chapter One: The Two Origins [Historical Background] The world’s civilization, we are told, has its earliest origins in the East, rather than in the West. It originated from 4500 B.C. to 2000 B.C. in Sumeria, Egypt, Babylonia and Assyria as well as in China and India, all of which have been considered by Westerners as Eastern countries. The main stream of Western civilization is, indeed, not as old as that of Eastern civilization. Yet, it still dates as far back as over 1000 years B.C. It is said to have its sources in Palestine and in Greece. The Hebrews, or the ancient Jews, began as a pastoral tribe. They spoke a language akin to other Semitic languages. They lived a life of persistent trials in the Arabian Desert, aspiring after their Promised Land of Canaan (now Palestine). Some clans of them once wandered into Egypt and were enslaved there. Eventually, Moses led the Hebrews to the verge of the Promised Land. They then replaced their primitive worship with Judaism, which shaped the basis of the Christian religion and became an essential origin of Western culture and literature. In 990-960 B.C., during the reigns of David and Solomon, they achieved their greatest political importance. Afterwards, they were carried into captivity by the Assyrians and the Babylonians. In 538 B.C. they were set free by the Edict of Cyrus of Persia. They then enjoyed a time of considerable prosperity before they fell under the domination of the Greeks and the Romans. Some Central European tribes invaded the Balkan Peninsula and conquered the native peoples there after 2000 B.C. They gradually blended with the natives and became part of the Greeks. By 1000 B.C., after the flourishing of Minoan culture and that of Mycenaean culture, the Greeks with their different racial groups (Arcadians, Dorians, Aeolians, Ionians, etc.) had built a group of city-states on the Peninsula and the islands near to it, bound by a common Indo-European language called “Greek” and by a common polytheistic religion replete with mythological gods and goddesses. The city-states, with warrior-leaders as kings, were often at war with each other. Still, they formed Hellas (the Greek world) and set their Hellenic world apart from the world of “barbarians.” Probably near the beginning of the 12th century B.C., the Greeks invaded Ilium (Troy) and started the Trojan War in order to gain control over the trade routes through and across the Hellespont. They won the war and dominated the Aegean Sea. Soon, however, the Hellenic or Aegean culture fell into its Dark Ages, although it produced two important figures, Homer and Hesiod, in this Heroic Age. [Literary Features] Religion is virtually the only concern of ancient Hebrew literature. For the Hebrews, God is the One Creator of the universe and mankind is His favorite creation. Linked to this monotheistic idea is an ethical doctrine with such concepts as faith, justice, mercy, holiness, and humility. The Bible is the representative work of this ancient Hebraic origin of Western literature. Although it contains many types of writing—such as histories, biographies, folk tales, short stories, songs, drama, and epistles, it is all religious and moralistic in content. In contrast, ancient Greek literature is secular and humanistic in nature. It embodies a mythology, a polytheistic system of gods and goddesses, but the deities are anthropomorphic. Just like human beings, they can be brave, passionate, loyal, and good in many ways, while they can also be capricious, lecherous, jealous, choleric, revengeful, wily, cowardly, and bad in other ways. Connected with the mythological deities are the Greek heroes, who also manifest human weaknesses as well as virtues. In this Heroic Age, the epic was the most distinctive type of literature. It consisted of “lays” (narrative poems) about the exploits of the great men of the past, which were originally transmitted through the mouths of bards. [Major Authors & Works] The Old Testament (舊約聖經, c. 950 B.C. - c. 150 B.C.) The Bible includes The Old Testament, The New Testament, and The Apocrypha. The Old Testament, or the Hebrew Bible, is a composite of thirty-nine books written originally in Hebrew by many unknown individual authors mostly between 750 B.C. and 350 B.C. It has in it a wide variety of literary forms and subject matter. It is sometimes classified into six groups (history, prophetic books, lyric poetry, drama, wisdom literature, and tales) or into five groups (songs, wisdom, oracles and prayers, narratives, and laws). In Jewish tradition, however, it is divided into three sections: the Law (or Torah), the Prophets, and the Writings. Its theme is God’s covenant with Israel. It depicts Israel’s triumphs and failures as a nation, its acceptance of God’s laws and return to God’s love, and its eternal hope through righteousness. The history books (six in all, the first five called the Pentateuch) trace the history of the Hebrews from the creation of the world down through their conquest of Canaan and their defeat and exile in Babylon to their rebuilding of Jerusalem. Genesis provides, among other things, accounts of the creation of the world and man, the fall of Adam and Eve, Cain’s murder of Abel, Noah’s flood, and the Tower of Babel. Exodus deals with the escape of the Hebrews from their bondage in Egypt, led by Moses. The Hebrews are said to have crossed the Red Sea and wandered forty years in the Sinai wilderness before reaching Canaan. The lyric poetry of the Hebrew Bible is best found in the Psalms, which is an anthology of 150 poems varying in tone and style. The poems have no rhyme and no regular meter, but they involve a lot of repetition and balance in phrasing and structure. The prophetic books are either long (e.g., the Book of Isaiah and the Book of Jeremiah) or short (e.g., the Book of Hosea). They are sermons of the Hebrew prophets, who as God’s spokesmen are righteous preachers. The wisdom literature refers to the Proverbs, which are prudential sayings chiefly in poetic form, and to the Ecclesiastes, which are essays pessimistic and skeptical in tone. The Book of Job is the best example of dramatic writing in the Old Testament. It is a philosophical drama written not for performance. It contains dialogues between Satan and God, and between Job and his comforting friends (Zophar, Eliphaz, and Bildad). It is centered on the problem of evil. For all his steadfast love for God, Job questions why he has been afflicted with the loss of his wealth, the death of his children, and the pain of boils. Finally the Voice out of the Whirlwind answers in place of God that man is presumptuous to know the motives of God. There are several tales in the Hebrew Bible. The Book of Ruth is about a Moabite called Ruth, whose embrace of Naomi’s people, land, and culture typifies the idea of unity under God. The Book of Jonah is about a prophet named Jonah, who was twice rebellious toward Jehovah, twice punished (once swallowed by a big fish and made to stay three days in its belly), and twice forgiven.