JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY AND ETHNOMEDICINE

Ethnobotany of wild used for starting fermented beverages in Shui communities of southwest Hong et al.

Hong et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:42 DOI 10.1186/s13002-015-0028-0 Hong et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:42 DOI 10.1186/s13002-015-0028-0 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY AND ETHNOMEDICINE

RESEARCH Open Access Ethnobotany of wild plants used for starting fermented beverages in Shui communities of southwest China Liya Hong1, Jingxian Zhuo2,3, Qiyi Lei4, Jiangju Zhou4, Selena Ahmed5, Chaoying Wang6, Yuxiao Long7, Feifei Li1 and Chunlin Long1,2*

Abstract Background: Shui communities of southwest China have an extensive history of using wild plants as starters (Xiaoqu) to prepare fermented beverages that serve important roles in interpersonal relationships and cultural events. While the practice of using wild plants as starters for the preparation of fermented beverages was once prevalent throughout China, this tradition has seen a decline nationally since the 1930s. The traditional technique of preparing fermented beverages from wild starters remains well preserved in the Shui communities in southwest China and provides insight on local human-environment interactions and conservation of plant biodiversity for cultural purposes. The present study sought to examine the ethnobotany of wild plants used as starters for the preparation of fermented beverages including an inventory of plants used as a starter in liquor fermentation and associated knowledge and practices. Methods: Fieldsurveyswerecarriedoutthatconsistedofsemi-structured surveys and plant inventories. One hundred forty-nine informants in twenty Shui villages were interviewed between July 2012 and October 2014 to document knowledge associated with wild plants used as a liquor fermentation starter. The inventories involved plant voucher specimens and taxonomic identification of plant collections. Results: A total of 103 species in 57 botanical families of wild plants were inventoried and documented that are traditionally used as starters for preparing fermented beverages by Shui communities. The majority of the species (93.2%) have multiple uses in addition to being used as a starter with medicinal purposes being the most prevalent. Shui women are the major harvesters and users of wild plants used as starters for preparing fermented beverages and transfer knowledge orally from mother to daughter. Conclusions: Findings from this study can serve as a basis for future investigation on fermented beverages and foods and associated knowledge and cultural practices. However, with rapid development, utilization of wild plants and the cultural systems that support them are at risk of erosion. Cultural preservation practices are necessary in Shui communities for the continued use and transmission of this ethnobiological knowledge as well as associated biodiversity. Keywords: Fermented beverages, Biodiversity, Xiaoqu starter, Traditional ethnobotanical knowledge, Cultural preservation

* Correspondence: [email protected] 1College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China, Beijing 100081, People’s Republic of China 2Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, People’s Republic of China Full list of author information is available at the end of the article

© 2015 Hong et al.; licensee BioMed Central. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly credited. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. Hong et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:42 Page 2 of 21

Background wild plants with microorganisms modifies the environment Fermented food and beverages that preserve diverse, lo- for the microbes by providing nutrition and inhibiting the cally available resources have been consumed for centur- growth of detrimental microbes and ultimately can modify ies worldwide as notable dietary components to support the flavor and health attributes of the final fermented household food security and overall wellbeing [1–10]. product. Traditionally, such products were associated with cultural The use of wild plants as a starter for fermented bever- identity and social aspects of communities and were most ages has a long history in China. The earliest known re- often prepared at the household-scale through the action cording is by Qi Min Yao Shu during the years 533–544. of microorganisms and their enzymes [10,11]. Key charac- With technological development, pure breeding fermenta- teristics of fermented foods and beverages are enhance- tion technologies that were introduced to China in the ments to flavor and/or appearance, preserved quality, 1930s replaced the use of wild plants as a fermentation prolonged shelf-life, reduced cooking time and prebiotic starter in most areas throughout the country. In the and probiotic properties that have benefits for increasing present era, socio-economic and political influences in digestability and bioavailablilty of certain nutrients [12–19]. China’s rural areas are threatening traditional practices of Various cultures around the world prepare and consume preparing fermented foods and beverages along with their fermented products to enhance their basic diet including as associated knowledge base. a side dish, condiment, pickle, confection and beverage. Understanding the ethnobotany of wild plants used as Knowledge on the preparation and attributes of fermented a starter for preparing fermented beverages can serve as foods and beverages has been transferred from generation a basis for future studies and applications regarding to generation and represents traditional ethnobiological fermented products. However, this information has not knowledge. been documented in most communities where this In many minority socio-linguistic groups throughout practice remains prevalent. The present study tries to China, the preparation and consumption of fermented address this knowledge gap through an ethnobotanical alcoholic beverages are important cultural practices that investigation of wild plants used as starters for fermented define many social interactions including rituals during beverages in indigenous Shui communities of southwest courtship, engagements, weddings, hospitality, funerals, China. Specifically, our study aimed to address the ancestor worship and other ceremonies [20]. Various following objectives in Shui communities: (1) characterize socio-linguistic groups have their own characteristics of the plants used as starters to prepare fermented alcoholic preparing and consuming fermented alcoholic beverages beverages, (2) document associated ethnobotanical know- that contribute to cultural identity such as Mongolian ledge, and (3) record the processing of fermented alcoholic koumiss, Yi’s spicy liquor, Tibetan highland barley wine beverages. and Shui’s Jiuqianjiu liquor. The Shui prepare fermented alcoholic beverages known Materials and methods in Chinese as Jiuqianjiu liquor and in Shui as Kaojiuqian Study area and Shui people that is made from water, rice and a special starter made of Surveys were conducted in Sandu Shui Autonomous wild plants known as Xiaoqu. Although the origin is not County located in the south of Guizhou Province of clear, Jiuqianjiu liquor is a traditional fermented beverage China (25°30′-25°10′ N, 107°40′-108°14′ E). It is in that has long been prepared and consumed in Shui Qiannan Prefecture, Guizhou province where the Shui communities as an integral part of daily life as well as for population is most densely settled and where the Shui celebratory reasons including the main Shui holiday that people regard it as their cultural and linguistic center occurs in the lunar calendar during September. The pro- [21]. This area was selected for research because it is duction of Jiuqianjiu liquor involves harvesting wild plants floristically rich with a cultural practice of drawing on and the wild type microbe inoculation of molds, yeasts this biodiversity for preparation of fermented beverages. and bacteria in a rice (or other grain) substrate. The whole Sandu Shui Autonomous County is characterized by process of making this starter from plant collecting to ma- numerous high mountains and large and small rivers. terial mixing, shaping, ripening, drying and storing usually The climate is considered as a subtropical humid mon- takes 3 months. The Xiaoqu starter is often regarded as soon type with long summers and short winters. The the most important ingredient for determining the quality complexity of the terrain, topography and altitude of the of the final beverage. The production of Jiuqianjiu liquor county has resulted in enormous variations of the can be compared to the Japanese process of Koji. Diverse climate. The country has a total area of 2,380 square wild plants are used as a starter for preparing fermented kilometers with a total of 237,588 people living in 270 alcoholic beverages in Shui and other socio-linguistic villages. groups of southwestern China. Indigenous communities With an approximate population of 406,900, the Shui in southwestern China believe that the synergy of different are one of the 55 officially recognized minority nationalities Hong et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:42 Page 3 of 21

in China. Sandu Shui Autonomous County is the only The Shui also have their own calendar that dictates their county in China dominated by Shui people. The Shui ceremonies. people account for 65.93% of the total population of this These Shui villages in mountainous valleys and basins prefecture; the remaining population consists of Han, Buyi, are usually located near rivers and even today display Miao, Yao and nine other minority socio-linguistic the stilted wooden house style. The Shui at the study groups. They are distributed in Guizhou, , sites live in clusters of small-scaled villages. Until some and Provinces. The Shui language belongs to the decades ago there was a custom that a Shui woman Kam-Shui language grouping within the Sino-Tibetan lan- should get married to one of her father’s sister’s son guage family [21, 22]. Due to the long communication (cross-cousin marriage). Some have suggested that with the Han, almost all Shui now know both Shui and cross-cousin bonds reflected an original clan-based so- Chinese Mandarin languages. While the Shui people have cial organization with compact communities and villages their own written language as found in the “Shui Book”, typically of a few hundred related by bloodlines [21, 23]. Chinese has become the written language in their daily life. Historically, they were not allowed to intermarry with

Fig. 1 Sketch map of the study area, Sandu County of Guizhou Hong et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:42 Page 4 of 21

other nationalities. Similar to other indigenous groups in beverages. Key informants included 38 village elders, 10 the area, the Shui follow polytheism and animism with traditional brewers of fermented beverages and 5 man- worship of ancestors and natural objects including agers of local liquor distilleries. In addition, ninety-six mountains, rocks and ancient trees. Traditional lifestyle randomly selected households were surveyed. Permis- is still common in the area and the Shui people are fond sions were provided by all participants in this study, in- of pickles and sour soup in their daily diet. Staple food cluding the Shui people. of the Shuis is rice, together with different local vegeta- During each visit, documented plant species were col- bles and meat as protein source. Traditional practices lected from different habitats around the study sites (Fig. 3). are still common in Shui communities including the In addition, surveys documented vascular names, parts production of fermented alcoholic beverages. used, frequency of use and other values held by informants Field studies were carried out in 20 villages located in during interviews as well as through participant observa- five townships in Sandu County including: Banlong, tion. Scientific name, botanical family name, growth forms, Bangao (Zhouqin town), Shuitiao, Dabian, Layou, Duzhai, plant conservation status and other values, such as medi- Malian, Shuilong, Sanhe, Bamao, Banmiao, Miaoliang, cinal, edible, ornamental, spice, dyeing, herbal tea, fence Zenlei, Shuige, Bangao (Jiuqian town), Shuigen, Shuixi, and timber, were recorded for each plant species in Table 1. Shuimei, Yanpai and Banqi villages. The villages were The collected ethnobotanical data were summarized using randomly selected from all Shui villages in Sandu County descriptive statistical analysis including frequency and their to carry out ethnobotanical investigations (Fig. 1). The values. Frequency was used to determine the relative im- majority of individuals in the villages are Shui. The popu- portance of plant species. Voucher specimens were col- lation varies from 253 to 2,252 in each village. No notable lected, identified and deposited in the Herbarium at the geographical and environmental differences exist in the College of Life and Environmental Sciences of Minzu study area. University of China. Family assignation in this paper followed the and TROPICOS. Field surveys Field surveys were carried out between July 2012 and Results and discussion October 2014 using participatory rural appraisal (PRA) Diversity of plants used as starters for preparing and ethnobotanical methods [24–27] in order to docu- fermented beverages ment the species, habitats and varied uses of plants used A total of 103 wild-harvested plant species were docu- as starters for preparing fermented beverages (Fig. 2). A mented as starters for preparing fermented alcoholic bev- total of 149 informants including 32 males and 117 fe- erages at the study sites. This includes species distributed males were interviewed (seven to ten people per village). in 88 genera and 57 families consisting of 97 species of Informants were between the ages of 23 and 84 years angiosperms, 2 species of gymnosperms, and 4 species of old. Fifty-three key informants were identified who were pteridophytes. The majority of plants belonged to the highly respected in their communities for their rich Asteraceae (12 species), Rosaceae (9), Fabaceae (6), Mela- knowledge of plants used for starters for fermented stomaceae (3), Moraceae (3) and Rutaceae (3). Table 1 lists

Fig. 2 Key informant interview Hong et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:42 Page 5 of 21

Fig. 3 A Shui village investigated the Chinese name, Shui name, scientific name, family majority of plants collected for food, medicine, and other name, habitat, plant parts used, frequency of utilization purposes [27]. In addition, various plant parts are use for and their values. The recorded species occur as various life fermentation with the being the most prevalent forms with the majority being herbaceous species (42 %) plant part used. Previous research in minority socio- and the remaining occurring as shrubs (32 %), trees (17 %), linguistic communities in China has shown similar re- lianas (12 %), and epiphytes (4 %) (Fig. 4). All of the total sults of being the most prevalent part harvested; 103 plant species were wild harvested from montane this might be due to ease of collection and less threat forests, wetlands, shrub lands, and wastelands. Most of the presented to harvested resources as the practice of har- wild plant species had wide distribution in the study sites vesting the whole plant or roots presents greater threats and were easily accessible. to survival [28–30]. In addition, the prevalence of col- The average number of species mentioned per inform- lecting herbaceous plants versus other plant types might ant for use as a starter for the preparation of fermented also be due to socio-cultural beliefs and practices of the alcoholic beverages was 15 while the average number for Shui as well as environmental factors. Communities may key informants was 54 species. The most frequently harvest shrubs, trees, and lianas for their ability to with- mentioned plants by informants include Gerbera pilosel- stand long dry seasons that result in their availability loides (Fig. 5), Lygodium japonicum (Fig. 6), Rosa roxbur- throughout the year as well as increased availability ghii (Fig. 7), foetida, Zanthoxylum bungeanum, during the harvest period that wild plants are generally Plantago depressa and Platycodon grandiflorus. Infor- collected for starters. Seasons when plants bloomed and mants use varied plant parts for preparing the fermented fruited, typically during the summer, are also when it is culture including leaves, roots, barks and fruits (Fig. 8). easiest to identify plants for collection. Furthermore, the The majority of plants are harvested for their leaves summer is the best season for microbial fermentation of (52 species documented) followed by aerial parts (26). food and beverages because of the higher temperature Informants also use whole plants (17), fruits (15) as promotes fermentation activity. Preparation during the well as other parts. summer also fits within the local Shui calendar as this is Documentation of local wild floristic diversity used by after the harvest of rice that rice is used as a raw mater- Shui communities as starters for the preparation of fer- ial input for fermented beverages. mented beverages is important to support conservation and cultural revitalization efforts in the study site com- Multiple uses and economic value of the wild plants munities. All of the 103 plant species documented as In addition to fermentation purposes, informants use starters are wild harvested and reflect the rich biological the documented wild plants for multiple other purposes. diversity in the study area. The greater use of herbaceous Almost all documented wild plants (98.1 %) are locally plants compared to other types of plants such as woody valued for their medicinal, edible, ornamental, spice, dye, plant species might be due to their ease of collection, herbal tea, fence and timber uses with medicinal pur- higher abundance, and high effectiveness in comparison poses for the prevention and treatment of different to other life-forms. Previous ethnobotanical studies have health conditions being the most prevalent use (Table 2). found that weedy and herbaceous plants are often the Specifically, the most common medicinal function of Hong et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:42 Page 6 of 21

Table 1 Plants used for liquor fermentation starter in Sandu County of Guizhou No. Chinese name Shui name Scientific name Family name Life Parts Frequency Other value form used 1 Tuniuxi 土 ma24dian43 Achyranthes Amaranthaceae Herb Leaf *** Clearing away heat and 牛 aspera L. toxic materials; Diuretics; 膝 Cold; Fever; Amygdalitis; Mumps 2 Zhonghua- 中 faŋ43ma24 Actinidia Actinidiaceae Shrub Leaf **** The fruit is edible mihoutao 华 chinensis Planch. 猕 猴 桃 3 Geyemihoutao 革 faŋ43ma24 Actinidia Actinidiaceae Shrub Leaf, *** The fruit is edible 叶 rubricaulis var. Fruit 猕 coriacea (Finet & 猴 Gagnep.) C.F. 桃 Liang 4 Longyacao 龙 ɡa31jun35ɡaŋ42 Agrimonia pilosa Rosaceae Herb Aerial ***** Stopping bleed 芽 Ledeb. part 草 5 Xingxiang- 杏 ʨyŋ35laŋ31thu31nu24luŋ42 Ainsliaea fragrans Asteraceae Herb Aerial ***** Heat-clearing and tu’erfeng 香 Champ. ex part detoxifying effect; 兔 Benth. Clearing away heat and 儿 toxic materials; Diuretics; 风 Hematemesis; Traumatic injury 6 Sanyemutong 三 haŋ31wa24mei33thuŋ55 Akebia trifoliata Lardizabalaceae Liana Leaf *** Diuretics; Promoting 叶 (Thunb.) Koidz. lactation; Loosing bones 木 and muscles; Removing 通 dampness; Arthralgia 7 Ersexiangqing 二 ja55sa43laŋ35ʨhu53 Anaphalis bicolor Asteraceae Shrub Whole ** Removing dampness; 色 (Franch.) Diels plant Relieving summer-heat; 香 Cough 青 8 Jinxiancao 金 niaŋ55ha24ɡaŋ43 Antenoron Polygonaceae Herb Aerial **** Dispelling wind and 线 filiforme (Thunb.) part cold; Removing 草 Roberty & Vautier dampness; Relieving pain; Stopping bleed; Eliminating stasis to stop pain 9 Zijinniu 紫 ʨin24niaŋ24kui42 Ardisia japonica Myrsinaceae Shrub Aerial ***** Phthisis; Hemoptysis; 金 (Thunb.) Bl. part Cough; Tracheitis; 牛 Removing dampness; Leukorrhea; Amenorrhoea; Diuretics 10 Qihao 奇 ȵi35ai35 Artemisia Asteraceae Herb Aerial *** Removing dampness; 蒿 anomala S. part Promoting blood Moore circulations; Eliminating stasis to stop pain; Irregular menstruation; Relieving pain 11 Hualianxixin 花 nu55na55tə35na24 Asarum splendens Aristolochiaceae Herb Whole **** Dispelling wind and 脸 (F. Maekawa) C. plant cold; Relieving pain; 细 Y. Cheng & C. S. Warming lung for 辛 Yang dispelling cold 12 Wulingxixin 五 wə33nu33 tə35na24 Asarum Aristolochiaceae Herb Whole *** Dispelling wind and 岭 wulingense C.F. plant cold; Relieving pain; 细 Liang Warming lung for 辛 dispelling cold 13 Tiejiaojue 铁 ɕie24pau43tə35 Asplenium Aspleniaceae Herb Whole ** Heat-clearing and 角 trichomanes L. plant detoxifying effect; 蕨 Removing dampness; Stopping bleed; Eliminating stasis to Hong et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:42 Page 7 of 21

Table 1 Plants used for liquor fermentation starter in Sandu County of Guizhou (Continued) stop pain; Dysentery; Leukorrhea; Irregular menstruation; Backache 14 Ziwan 紫 ʨie35yue55 Aster ageratoides Asteraceae Herb Aerial **** Cold; Cough; Asthma; 菀 Turcz. part Consumptive disease; Blood vomitting 15 Sanmaiziwan 三 haŋ43mai35 ʨie35jue55 Aster tataricus L. Asteraceae Herb Aerial *** Cold; Cough; Asthma; 脉 f. part Consumptive disease; 紫 Blood vomitting 菀 16 Xianghua 香 laŋ24huaˀ55 Betula insignis Betulaceae Tree Leaf ***** Cough; Asthma; 桦 Franch. Eliminating phlegm 17 Baiji 白 ja43pau43 Bletilla striata Orchidaceae Herb Root ***** Stopping bleed; Anti- 及 (Thunb.) Rchb. f. swelling agent; Promot- ing tissue regeneration 18 Laijiangteng 来 daŋ42kui33jau43 Brandisia hancei Scrophulariaceae Shrub Stem, ***** Clearing away heat and 江 Hook. f. Leaf toxic materials; Bone 藤 fracture; Hepatitis 19 Jinqianbao 金 niaŋ24ɕie33me43 Campanumoea Campanulaceae Liana Aerial *** Warming spleen and 钱 javanica Bl. part stomach for dispelling 豹 cold; Moistening lung to arrest cough; Inducing saliva and slakes thirst; Spleen tonic 20 Yanguantoucao 烟 je31tau24ku33kaŋ43 Carpesium Asteraceae Herb Aerial **** Clearing away heat and 管 cernuum L. part toxic materials; Anti- 头 swelling agent; Anti- 草 inflammation; Relieving pain; Cold; Fever; Tooth- ache; Dysentery; Diuretics 21 Diaodenghua 吊 tiau35phau33nuˀ55 Ceropegia Asclepiadaceae Liana Whole ** Clearing away heat and 灯 trichantha Hemsl. plant toxic materials; Bone 花 fracture; Hepatitis; Ornamental 22 Rougui 肉 nai55kui55 Cinnamomum Lauraceae Tree Bark ***** Relieving pain; Waist 桂 cassia (L.) D. Don and knee pain; Stomachache; Dyspepsia; Amenorrhea; Spice 23 Ganju 柑 kaːŋ55 Citrus reticulata Rutaceae Tree Leaf ***** Regulating qi-flowing 橘 Blanco for eliminating phlegm; Promoting blood circu- lations; Anti-swelling agent; The fruit is edible 24 Dangshen 党 taŋ24ʂen24 Codonopsis Campanulaceae Liana Aerial ***** Invigorating the blood; 参 pilosula (Franch.) part Spleen and stomach Nannf. tonic; Weakness; The root is cooking for edible 25 Fanbaocao 饭 ma33kai43kei33 Commelina Commelinaceae Herb Aerial *** Clearing away heat and 包 bengalensis L. part toxic materials; Diuretics; 草 Anti-swelling agent; The leaves and stems are cooking as vegetables 26 Xianggang- 香 ɕi24ʦau43nuˀ55 Cornus Cornaceae Tree Leaf, ** Ornamental, The fruit is sizhaohua 港 hongkongensis Fruit edible 四 Hemsl. 照 花 27 Shamu 杉 mei35faːi24 Taxodiaceae Tree Young *** Construction 木 leaf Hong et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:42 Page 8 of 21

Table 1 Plants used for liquor fermentation starter in Sandu County of Guizhou (Continued) Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb.) Hook. 28 Qinggang 青 mei35khei24 Cyclobalanopsis Fagaceae Tree Fruits, **** Clearing away heat and 冈 glauca (Thunb.) Barks toxic materials Oerst. 29 Yuyancao 鱼 mei35la31kaŋ43 Dichrocephala Asteraceae Herb Leaf ** Clearing away heat and 眼 integrifolia (L. f.) toxic materials; 草 Kuntze Rremoving dampness 30 Yeshi 野 mei35 Diospyros kaki Ebenaceae Tree Leaf *** The fruit is edible 柿 var. silvestris Makino 31 Hutuizi 胡 nuei35liuˀ55la33 Elaeagnus Elaeagnaceae Shrub Leaf, ***** Dispelling wind and 颓 pungens Thunb. Fruit cold; Removing 子 dampness; Removing blood stasis; Stopping bleed; Traumatic injury 32 Xiangru 香 laŋ35ʐu43 Elsholtzia ciliata Lamiaceae Herb Stem, *** Relieving exterior and 薷 (Thunb.) Hyl. Leaf sweating; Removing dampness; Warming spleen and stomach for dispelling cold; Diuretics; Anti-swelling agent 33 Jianyerong 尖 ɕie43wa24ʐuŋ24 Ficus henryi Moraceae Tree Leaf, **** Cough; Toothache; 叶 Warb. Fruit Removing dampness; 榕 The fruit is edible 34 Bili 薜 ɕue35li43 Ficus pumila L. Moraceae Shrub Leaf ***** Clearing away heat and 荔 toxic materials; Expelling damp; Diuretics; The achene is washed for cooking bean jelly 35 Diguo 地 laŋ43aŋ35 Ficus tikoua Moraceae Herb Stem, *** Heat-clearing and 果 Bureau Leaf, detoxifying effect; Fruit Removing dampness; Promoting blood circulations; Clearing away heat and toxic materials; The fruit is edible 36 Qianjinba 千 ɕie35ʨie43jun33 Flemingia Fabaceae Shrub Leaf **** Dispelling wind and 斤 prostrata Roxb. cold; Removing 拔 dampness; Removing blood stasis; Clearing away heat and toxic materials 37 Zhizi 栀 mei35lə43 Gardenia Shrub Leaf, ***** Heat-clearing and 子 jasminoides J. Fruit detoxifying effect; Ellis Purging intense heat; Herbal tea; Ornamental 38 Weiyebaizhu 尾 hen55wa24pa33lei43 Gaultheria Ericaceae Shrub Lef *** Removing dampness; 叶 griffithiana Wight Ornamental 白 珠 39 Baiguobaizhu 白 pa33lei43 pa33lei43 Gaultheria Ericaceae Shrub Leaf *** Removing dampness; 果 leucocarpa Bl. Ornamental 白 珠 40 Maodadingcao 毛 ȵi55mo33 ie43 Gerbera Asteraceae Herb Whole ***** Clearing internal heat; 大 piloselloides (L.) plant Anti-inflammatory ef- 丁 Cass. fects; Cold; Fever; Post- 草 partum dysphoria Hong et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:42 Page 9 of 21

Table 1 Plants used for liquor fermentation starter in Sandu County of Guizhou (Continued) 41 Dadingcao 大 mo33ɕie43 Gerbera anandria Asteraceae Herb Whole **** Heat-clearing and 丁 (L.) Sch.-Bip. plant detoxifying effect; 草 Removing dampness; Anti-swelling agent; Bleeding 42 Lubianqing 路 ʨia35khun43jy43 Geum aleppicum Rosaceae Herb Aerial ***** Irregular menstruation; 边 Jacq. part Dispelling wind and 青 cold; Removing dampness; Relieving pain 43 Suanpanzi 算 mei24la33li43 Glochidion Euphorbiaceae Shrub Stem, ***** Heat-clearing and 盘 puberum (L.) Leaf, detoxifying effect; 子 Hutch. Fruit Removing dampness; Dispelling wind and cold; Loosing bones and muscles; Leukorrhea; Dysmenorrhea 44 Shanxiaoju 山 nu55tə33ʨiu55 Glycosmis Rutaceae Tree Leaf **** Eliminating stasis to 小 pentaphylla stop pain; Anti-swelling 橘 (Retz.) DC. agent; The fruit is edible 45 Nuomituan 糯 nu55man33kaŋ43 Gonostegia hirta Urticaceae Herb Whole ***** Spleen tonic; Digestion; 米 (Bl. ex Hassk.) plant Heat-clearing and de- 团 Miq. toxifying effect; Remov- ing dampness; Anti- swelling agent 46 Xiao’erxiancao 小 tə33ka33ɕie43kaŋ43 Haloragis Haloragidaceae Herb Whole *** Diuretics; Expelling 二 micrantha Thunb. plant damp; Clearing away 仙 heat and toxic materials; 草 Antidysmenorrhea; Promoting blood circulations 47 Changchunteng 常 ma43lian35man33 Hedera nepalensis Araliaceae Shrub Whole * Dispelling wind and 春 K. Koch plant cold; Removing 藤 dampness; Promoting blood circulations; Anti- swelling agent; Ornamental 48 Ercao 耳 khan43kaŋ43 Hedyotis Rubiaceae Tree Leaf *** Heat-clearing and 草 auricularia L. detoxifying effect; Removing dampness; Anti-swelling agent 49 Zhiju 枳 ɕiu43 Hovenia acerba Rhamnaceae Tree Leaf, **** Promoting blood 椇 Lindl. Fruit circulations; Eliminating stasis to stop pain; Clearing heat and expelling damp; Asthma; Ornamental; Fence 50 Kuanluanye- 宽 sɿ33mi43 Hylodesmum Fabaceae Herb Leaf *** Dispelling wind and changbing- 卵 podocarpum cold; Loosing bones and shanmahuang 叶 subsp. fallax muscles; Clearing away 长 (Schindl.) H. heat and toxic materials; 柄 Ohashi & R.R. Mill Anti-swelling agent; 山 Traumatic injury; Remov- 蚂 ing dampness; Backache 蝗 51 Jianyechangbing- 尖 sɿ33mi43 Hylodesmum Fabaceae Herb Leaf *** Dispelling wind and shanmahuang 叶 podocarpum cold; Loosing bones and 长 subsp. muscles; Clearing away 柄 oxyphyllum (DC.) heat and toxic materials; 山 H. Ohashi & R.R. Anti-swelling agent; 蚂 Mill Traumatic injury; Remov- 蝗 ing dampness Hong et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:42 Page 10 of 21

Table 1 Plants used for liquor fermentation starter in Sandu County of Guizhou (Continued) 52 Tianjihuang 田 khui33wan33tin43 Hypericum Clusiaceae Herb Aerial **** Heat-clearing and 基 japonicum part detoxifying effect; 黄 Thunb. Removing dampness; Promoting blood circulations; Anti- swelling agent 53 Yuanbaocao 元 juan24pin33 kaŋ43 Hypericum Clusiaceae Herb Whole *** Clearing away heat and 宝 sampsonii Hance plant toxic materials; 草 Restoring menstrual flow; Loosing bones and muscles; Stopping bleed; Fever; Dysentery; Irregular menstruation,Leukorrhea 54 Baimao 白 hai33pa43 Imperata Poaceae herb Root, ***** Stopping bleed; Heat- 茅 cylindrica (L.) P. Stem clearing and detoxifying Beauv. effect; Diuretics 55 Jianyemulan 尖 wa24ɕie43mei35ʨhu43 Indigofera Fabaceae Shrub Young *** Clearing away heat and 叶 zollingeriana Miq. stem, toxic materials; 木 Leaf Removing blood stasis; 蓝 Stopping bleed 56 Yang’erju 羊 ma35hai55 Inula cappa Asteraceae Shrub Aerial **** Dispelling wind and 耳 (Buch.-Ham. ex part cold; Anti-swelling 菊 D. Don) DC. agent; Relieving pain 57 Yuanwei 鸢 wa24liu43 Iris tectorum Iridaceae Herb Root, **** Promoting blood 尾 Maxim. Stem circulations; Removing blood stasis; Dispelling wind and cold; Removing dampness; Clearing away heat and toxic materials; Digestion; Ornamental 58 Nanwuweizi 南 nai43wo24wei24la43 Kadsura Schisandraceae Liana Whole **** Astringent; Inducing 五 longipedunculata plant saliva and slakes thirst; 味 Finet & Gagnep. Notifying kidney and 子 spleen; The fruit is edible 59 Huorongcao 火 jy33mau43kaŋ43 Leontopodium Asteraceae Herb Whole *** Clearing away heat and 绒 leontopodioides plant toxic materials 草 (Willd. ) Beauv. 60 Yimucao 益 mai33kaŋ43 Leonurus Lamiaceae Herb Young ***** Promoting blood 母 japonicus Houtt. stem, circulations; Removing 草 Leaf blood stasis; Diuretics; Anti-dysmenorrhea 61 Yebaihe 野 nu33pa43 Lilium brownii F.E. Liliaceae Herb Bulb **** Moistening lung to 百 Brown ex Miell. arrest cough; Heat- 合 clearing and detoxifying effect; Tranquilizing the mind; Diuretics; The bulb is edible 62 Shanjijiao 山 ɕiu43 Litsea cubeba Lauraceae Shrub Leaf ***** Warming spleen and 鸡 (Lour.) Pers. stomach for dispelling 椒 cold; Dispelling wind and cold; Anti-swelling agent; Spice 63 Liuyerendong 柳 ha33tiau33ʨi33tin43kə33 Lonicera Caprifoliaceae Tree Stem, **** None 叶 lanceolata Wall. Leaf, 忍 flower 冬 64 Danzhuye 淡 wa33fan55 Lophatherum Poaceae Herb Whole ***** Reducing pathogenic 竹 gracile Brongn. plant fire; Fever; Diuretics; 叶 Herbal tea Hong et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:42 Page 11 of 21

Table 1 Plants used for liquor fermentation starter in Sandu County of Guizhou (Continued) 65 Haijinsha 海 miau33nu33ka55 Lygodium Lygodiaceae Herb Aerial ***** Clearing away heat and 金 japonicum part toxic materials; 沙 (Thunb.) Sw. Removing dampness; Relieving pain Urinary tract infections; Hepatitis; Nephritis edema; Diarrhea 66 Xiaoguo- 小 laŋ33tə33suŋ33ta33kuŋ33lau24 Mahonia Berberidaceae Shrub Whole ***** Clearing away heat and shidagonglao 果 bodinieri Gagnep. plant toxic materials; Anti- 十 swelling agent; Antidiar- 大 rheic; Dysentery; Hepa- 功 titis; Ornamental 劳 67 Diren 地 lai33ʐ24 Melastoma Melastomaceae Shrub Aerial ***** Removing toxicity; The 菍 dodecandrum part fruit is edible Lour. 68 Shiqizhu 石 tin43ʨi33han24 Mosla scabra Lamiaceae Herb Aerial ***** Cold; Malaria; 荠 (Thunb.) C.Y. Wu part Constipation; Hemafecia; 苎 & H.W. Li Bleeding; Traumatic injury 69 Yangmei 杨 hai24 Myrica rubra Myricaceae Tree Leaf, ***** Inducing saliva and 梅 (Lour.) Sieb. & Fruit slakes thirst; Digestion; Zucc. The fruit is edible 70 Shenjue 肾 ȵi33ʨian43 Nephrolepis Davalliaceae Herb Whole ***** Cold; Fever; Cough; 蕨 biserrata (Sw.) plant Tuberculosis; Dysentery; Schott Enteritis; The tuber is edible 71 Xiaohuaihua 小 nu33mei33suŋ43 Ohwia caudata Fabaceae Shrub Leaf ***** Hepatoprotective 槐 (Thunb.) H. 花 Ohashi 72 Yezhiwei- 野 ȵin24ja33to24 Onychium Pteridaceae Herb Aerial *** Clearing away heat and jinfenjue 雉 japonicum part toxic materials; 尾 (Thunb.) Kze. Removing dampness; 金 Stopping bleed; The 粉 leaves are cooked as 蕨 vegetables 73 Jishiteng 鸡 jau33kai24 Paederia foetida Rubiaceae Liana Aerial ***** Dispelling wind and 矢 L. part cold; Removing 藤 dampness; Digestion; Clearing away heat and toxic materials; Anti- swelling agent; Promot- ing blood circulations; Relieving pain 74 Jinxiangcao 锦 laŋ24kaŋ43 Phyllagathis Melastomaceae Shrub Whole ***** Reducing pathogenic 香 cavaleriei (Levl. et plant fire; Tonic 草 Van.) Guillaum. 75 Changmang- 长 kai24laŋ24kaŋ43 Phyllagathis Melastomaceae Shrub Leaf *** Clearing away heat and jinxiangcao 芒 longiradiosa C. toxic materials 锦 Chen 香 草 76 Shanju 山 man33luŋ24 Piper hancei Piperaceae Liana Aerial ***** Dispelling wind and 蒟 Maxim. part cold; Removing dampness; Activating collaterals 77 Pingcheqian 平 ma43ma35 Plantago Plantaginaceae Herb Aerial ***** Clearing away heat and 车 depressa Willd. part toxic materials; Diuretics; 前 The whole plants is cooked as vegetables 78 Jiegeng 桔 haŋ33tie24 Campanulaceae Herb Root ***** Cough;Eliminating 梗 phlegm; Ornamental Hong et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:42 Page 12 of 21

Table 1 Plants used for liquor fermentation starter in Sandu County of Guizhou (Continued) Platycodon grandiflorus (Jacq.) A. DC. 79 Guazijin 瓜 ha33ɣə33ti33 Polygala japonica Polygalaceae Herb Aerial ***** Promoting blood 子 Houtt. part circulations; Eliminating 金 stasis to stop pain; Eliminating phlegm and relieve cough; Clearing away heat and toxic materials; Relieving pain 80 Laliao 辣 lie24liauˀ55 Polygonum Polygonaceae Herb Aerial ***** Clearing away heat and 蓼 hydropiper L. part toxic materials; Eliminating stasis to stop pain;stopping bleed; Dysentery; Traumatic injury; Spice 81 Machixian 马 ma33jun33ȵie24 Portulaca Portulacaceae Herb Aerial ***** Clearing away heat and 齿 oleracea L. part toxic materials; 苋 Promoting circulation and removing stasis; Anti-swelling agent; The aerial part is cooked as vegetabl 82 Shiganzi 石 tin33kai33la55 Pothos chinensis Araceae Liana Stems, **** Dispelling wind and 柑 (Raf.) Merr. Leaf cold; Removing 子 dampness; Promoting blood circulations; Eliminating stasis to stop pain; Digestion; Cough 83 Ge 葛 pei33hai55 Pueraria montana Fabaceae Liana Leaf ***** Fever; Inducing saliva (Lour.) Merr. and slakes thirst; Inducing saliva and slakes thirst; Antidiarrheic; Kudzu powder is edible 84 Wannianqing 万 ɕin33pe31ʨhiu55 Rohdea japonica Liliaceae Herb Leaf **** Clearing away heat and 年 (Thunb.) Roth toxic materials; 青 Eliminating stasis to stop pain; Relieving pain 85 Cili 刺 nei24 Rosa roxburghii Rosaceae Shrub Fruit ***** Heat-clearing and 梨 Tratt. detoxifying effect; Inducing saliva and slakes thirst; Digestion; The fruit is edible 86 Jinyingzi 金 ȵy33məŋ33ja43 Rosa laevigata Rosaceae Shrub Leaf, ***** Promoting blood 樱 Michx. Fruit circulations; Eliminating 子 stasis to stop pain; Dispelling wind and cold; Removing dampness; Clearing away heat and toxic; The fruit is ediblematerials 87 Cuyexuangouzi 粗 luei31wa24lauˀ55 Rubus Rosaceae Shrub Root, *** Promoting blood 叶 alceaefolius Poir. Leaf circulations; Removing 悬 blood stasis; Heat- 钩 clearing and detoxifying 子 effect; Stopping bleed; The fruit is edible 88 Shanmei 山 tuŋ33kaˀ55 Rubus Rosaceae Shrub Stem, **** Promoting blood 莓 corchorifolius L. f. Leaf, circulations; Stopping Fruit bleed; Dispelling wind and cold; Removing Hong et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:42 Page 13 of 21

Table 1 Plants used for liquor fermentation starter in Sandu County of Guizhou (Continued) dampness; The fruit is edible 89 Tuoyuan- 椭 lun33laŋ24ku33lu33 Rubus ellipticus Rosaceae Shrub Young *** Anti-swelling agent; xuangouzi 圆 Sm. stem, Relieving pain; 悬 Leaf Antidiarrheic; The fruit is 钩 edible 子 90 Huangguo- 黄 lun33laŋ24man33 Rubus Rosaceae Shrub Leaf *** Anti-inflammatory xuangouzi 果 xanthocarpus effects; Relieving pain; 悬 Bureau & Franch. The fruit is edible 钩 子 91 Hongpaociteng 红 jau43lun33han33 Rubus niveus Rosaceae Shrub Leaf, **** Dispelling wind and 泡 Thunb. Fruit cold; Removing 刺 dampness; Clearing 藤 away heat and toxic materials; Dysentery; The fruit is edible 92 Daxueteng 大 ma31len24ʨieˀ55 Sargentodoxa Lardizabalaceae Liana Stem, **** Clearing away heat and 血 cuneata (Oliv.) Leaf toxic materials; 藤 Rehder & E.H. Promoting blood Wilson circulations; Dredging collaterals; Dispelling wind and cold; Convulsive disease 93 Xiaoxueteng 小 ma31jiu43 ʨieˀ55 Schisandra Schisandraceae Liana Aerial **** Clearing away heat and 血 propinqua (Wall.) part toxic materials; Anti- 藤 Baillon swelling agent; Eliminat- ing stasis to stop pain; Stopping bleed 94 Tiegusan 铁 ɕin33nuei33ku33san33 Schisandra Schisandraceae Liana Stem, **** Dispelling wind and 箍 propinqua subsp. Leaf, cold; Promoting blood 散 sinensis (Oliv.) Fruit circulations; Clearing R.M.K. Saunders away heat and toxic materials; Anti-swelling agent; Relieving pain; Ir- regular menstruation 95 Sanmaibaqia 三 fa24mə33en24 Smilax trinervula Liliaceae Shrub Leaf **** None 脉 Miqual 菝 葜 96 Citianqie 刺 suŋ31wən24ʨia24 Solanum Solanaceae Shrub Leaf *** Anti-inflammatory 天 violaceum Ortega effects; Clearing away 茄 heat and toxic materials; Relieving pain 97 Baitan 白 pa33than24 Symplocos Symplocaceae Shrub Leaf ***** Clearing away heat and 檀 paniculata Miq. toxic materials; Removing blood stasis; Dispelling wind and cold 98 Hongdoushan 红 mei24nu33 Taxus wallichiana Taxaceae Tree Young ***** Digestion; Ascariasis; 豆 Zucc. var. leaf Ornamental 杉 chinensis (Pilg.) Florin 99 Qinglichai 青 ʨhiu24li33lin24 Tirpitzia sinensis Linaceae Shrub Stem, *** Anti-swelling agent; 篱 (Hemsl.) Hallier f. leaf Relieving pain; Bone 柴 fracture; Ornamental 100 Xiangchun 香 mei24ȵiu43 Toona sinensis (A. Meliaceae Tree Leaf ***** Cold; Removing 椿 Juss.) M. Roem. dampness; Stomachache; Dysentery; The leaves is cooked as vegetable Hong et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:42 Page 14 of 21

Table 1 Plants used for liquor fermentation starter in Sandu County of Guizhou (Continued) 101 Mabiancao 马 ma24pian33kaŋ43 Verbena officinalis Verbenaceae Herb Aerial ***** Promoting blood 鞭 L. part circulations; Eliminating 草 stasis to stop pain; Malaria; Clearing away heat and toxic materials; Diuretics; Anti-swelling agent 102 Lanshu 蓝 mei24ʨhiu24 Wrightia laevis Apocynaceae Tree Leaf ***** Traumatic injury; 树 Hook. f. Stopping bleed; Dye plant 103 Huajiao 花 ɕiu24 Zanthoxylum Rutaceae Tree Leaf ***** Digestion; Relieving 椒 bungeanum pain; Insecticidal; Anti- Maxim. itch; Spice Frequency: ***** > 75% of respondents; **** > 50% of respondents; *** > 25% of respondents; ** > 12.5% of respondents; * < 12.5% of respondents, but at least 5 respondents (Ranked by scientific names alphabetically, followed by generic and species names) reported plants is to clear heat away followed by detoxi- Wrightia laevis is used to dye the customary clothing of fication. Some plants had a single medicinal function the Shui and results in a dark blue stain that is valued while others had multiple medicinal functions. For ex- for clothing by Shui informants (Fig. 2). ample, Lygodium japonicum is used to treat urinary tract Informants reported that fermented alcoholic bever- infections, hepatitis, nephritis edema, diarrhea, and other ages prepared from wild plants had enhanced taste that health conditions while Melastoma dodecandrum is used is smoother compared to beverages prepared without for removing toxicity. A few documented species are these plants. Most informants reported that using a used for both food and medicine such as Litsea cubeba, greater number of plant species as a starter results in Imperata cylindrica, Kadsura longipedunculata, Cinna- improved quality of the final fermented alcoholic bever- momum cassia, Codonopsis pilosula, Ficus pumila and age. In addition, informants reported that wild species Rosa roxburghii. In addition to food and medicinal pur- are conveniently located near households in the study poses and for making starters, the documented species area and are available free of cost. Nowadays, informants are valued for providing household income, celebrating travel several dozens of kilometers to procure these local festivals and for construction material. For ex- plants as not all plants used are located near their ample, Paederia foetida is used for making festival rice households and because of habitat destruction near their cakes by the Shui and Cunninghamia lanceolata is the households. Compared to cultivated plants, wild plants main timber tree species used for local construction. require less management, are usually not directly im- pacted by agro-chemical pollution, and are a rich source of micronutrients [27]. Interviews and participant obser- vation in local fields [31, 32] found that none of the doc- umented plants were cultivated. In addition, participant observation in local markets [33] found that none of the documented plants were sold for liquor fermentation.

Traditional harvest and preparation of Jiuqianjiu Shui families are able to provide the daily quantity and quality of Jiuqianjiu liquor needed from locally available resources that are relatively cheap as well as with the use of simple equipment. Given the accessibility of needed plant material and affordability of equipment in making fermented alcoholic beverages, Shui women can support the social life of their families with this trad- itional practice. Preparation starts with harvesting wild plants. Harvested plants are usually dried in the sun after collection and are then powdered and stored in a cool dry place for preservation of flavor and health Fig. 4 Life forms of wild plants used for liquor fermentation starter attributes. Hong et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:42 Page 15 of 21

Fig. 5 Gerbera piloselloides

The Shui have developed their traditional production individuals when whole plants are needed. In addition, sequence of liquor-making according to their farming locals prepare enough liquor fermentation starter at one seasons. Wild plants for starters are harvested between time for three years to ensure plenty of time for plant May to September in the study areas. Usually, local growth. Local practices of regulating harvesting of com- households make the beverage starter in summer and mon wild plant resources and making enough liquor brew the liquor during the autumn. The Shui practice of starter at a time for three years to allow time for plant preparing starters in the summer in congruent to growth highlights the sustainability ethos of local com- previous studies that widely supported that micro- munities. It is vital to conserve these wild plants while organisms bred more quickly in summer and thereby protecting their habitats. They must also be managed in shorten the production cycle and provided greater sustainable ways to promote their use in suitable method liquor yield [34, 35]. That is because the temperature [36]. It is suggested recruiting ethnobotanists and ex- in summer is believed to be better due to certain cri- perts to train local communities on the sustainable teria, such as rapid fermentation. utilization of wild plant resources to complement trad- Locals harvest wild plants according to local socially- itional practices [37, 38]. negotiated protocols that prevent overharvesting of Both non-sticky rice and sticky rice are used by infor- common resources including only harvesting mature mants as the primary ingredient of Jiuqianjiu liquor with

Fig. 6 Lygodium japonicum Hong et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:42 Page 16 of 21

Fig. 7 Rosa roxburgii

Xiaoqu being the starter agent during the fermentation to other varieties of rice; these compounds are known for process. Glutinous rice is the favored rice for liquor their medicinal functions in humans including antioxidant brewing by Shui informants because locals perceive it re- activity, reducing cholesterol levels and inhibiting cancer sults in a higher quality product that has better taste. cell proliferation [39–44]. In addition, black glutinous rice There are 15 glutinous rice varieties in Shui communities has a number of nutritional advantages compared to many in Sandu County compared to 7 varieties in other areas of other rice varieties including higher content of protein, Sandu County. However, the lower yield of glutinous rice vitamins and minerals [45]. results in a relatively higher cost than common rice in the Polished rice is used for preparing Jiuqianjiu liquor process of liquor making. These glutinous rice varieties that is thought to remove substances in rice aside from are generally reserved for use in festival foods and desserts the starch that are regarded as undesirable substances as well as serving as the main raw material for liquor mak- for liquor brewing. Following polishing, the rice is ing in the study area. Locals especially value black glutin- washed and immerged using cold spring water at room ous rice. Previous nutrition analysis and phytochemical temperature for 24 h. After steeping, excess water is investigation on black glutinous rice has relatively higher drained off for 4 h before cooking the rice with steam levels of polyphenols and anthocyanin content compared for 1 h in a wood rice steamer. Subsequently, the

Fig. 8 Plant parts used for liquor fermented starter Hong et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:42 Page 17 of 21

Table 2 Types of multiple uses for wild plants in Sandu County incubated at 28-30 °C for 7 days in a room with special of Guizhou climatic conditions. After 7 days of incubation the Value Number Percentage (%) mixture is dried at 45 °C until the humidity is lower beverage starter 103 100.0 than 15 % (w/w). The starter is then stored in a cold and Medicinal 96 93.2 dry place until use for liquor making within the next three years. Edible 30 29.1 The steamed rice is mixed with 1 % (w/w) of the starter Ornamental 11 10.7 mixture that starts the processes of saccharification, acid- Spice 4 3.9 ification, and fermentation of the steamed rice. Then, the Construction 2 1.9 mixture is placed in wooden cask that is placed in a pit Herbal tea 2 1.9 dug in the ground at 40 °C for 2 days. The saccharified Fence 1 1.0 mixture is then mixed with 120 % (w/w) cold spring water to form the thick slurry. Subsequently, the slurry is fer- Dyeing 1 1.0 mented at room temperature for 15 days in a semi-solid state. This slurry is carefully stirred by local liquor makers steamed rice is spread out for cooling in the open air to aerate and maintain an optimal level of oxygen and car- until the temperature falls to nearly 35 °C. bon dioxide in the mixture, as well as to maintain an even Beverage starters usually occur as a dried ball or cake temperature throughout the fermenting process. After fer- of flour cultured with various molds, yeasts and bacteria mentation, the rice wine mash is filtered using a bamboo (Fig. 9). Xiaoqu, which is the dominant starter for Jiuqianjiu basket for the purpose of removing the fermented grains. liquor at the study sites, is prepared by a wild type microbe Then, a part of filtered liquid is evaporated to the dense inoculation of molds, yeasts and bacteria as well as their liquid while the other is used for distilling the liquor. The growth on rice or other grains. The starter is crushed and two parts are then mixed at a certain proportion to added to inoculate the cereal substrate to initiate fermenta- increase the concentration of alcohol in the mash and halt tion into liquor. the fermentation process. Informants reported a general method for mixing ma- The process described above (Fig. 10) leaves a notable terial for starters that includes boiling the plant mixture quantity of unfermented saccharides and chemical com- powder (5 %, w/w) with the spring water (48 %, w/w) for pounds from the plants and rice, thus producing a sweet 3 h and then mixing the rice bran and glutinous rice taste and mouth-feel that is distinct from other forms of flour (45 %, w/w) with the last year’s starter (2 %, w/w). rice wine. Finally, the slightly turbid rice liquor is pumped The grain mix is then pulverized and the plant materials through pottery casks for clarification and storage. Usu- are stirred in. A wild type microbe inoculation method ally, the liquor is aged and stored underground for several is used to promote the growth of molds, yeasts and years at a storage temperature of 13-18 °C. Unlike com- other bacteria. The mixed material is typically milled mon rice wine, Jiuqianjiu liquor is distilled and mixed and pressed into a mould of egg-size by hand. Then, it is with the fermentation concentrate resulting from the

Fig. 9 The liquor fermentation starter, or Xiqoqu starter Hong et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:42 Page 18 of 21

Fig. 10 The processing procedures of Jiuqianjiu liquor in Sandu County of Guizhou starter. During storage, the liquor matures gradually and function. This finding of the role of wild plants after adopts a smoother taste. The various types of Jiuqianjiu birth is consistent with the findings of Yao people in liquor at the study sites vary in color from beige to China, whereas the difference is the mode of administra- yellowish-brown depending on the weight ratio of the tion between Yao people and Shui people. Yao people use distilled liquor versus the fermented concentrate. The medicinal plants for medicine bath whereas the Shui final product is consumed at room temperature or after consume these plants via fermented alcoholic beverages being warmed. Grains spent during fermentation are [38, 46, 47]. usually used as fodder for livestock at the study sites. Gender and knowledge transmission Shui drinking culture and use of Jiuqianjiu Women are the primary harvesters of plants used as Preparation and consumption of Jiuqianjiu liquor is an starters for making Jiuqianjiu liquor as well as the important part of traditional social life and interpersonal makers of these beverages at the study sites. While most relations at the study sites. There is a cultural practice to of the male Shui informants carry out housework such socially consume fermented alcoholic beverages in Shui as cooking, few male informants had knowledge of how communities that is known as zhuan zhuan jiu. This to collect plants for starters and prepare fermented alco- practice proceeds by all participants having a pot filled holic beverages. Knowledge of plants used as starters is with local liquor on the right hand and feeding this orally transferred from mother to daughter. beverage to their neighbor to the right. Informants re- Findings show a significant correlation between in- ported that this practice reflects their respect to guests formant age and plant knowledge. The distribution of and is offered as a gesture of equality between the hosts informants in age, gender and education class is shown and the guests. in Table 3. This study found that most informants who Another use involving Jiuqianjiu liquor is by mothers were known to have substantive knowledge on making after giving birth to improve their postpartum recovery. of Jiuqianjiu liquor and fermented beverages as well as After the third day, mothers can go back to work out- those that were practicing this tradition were primarily doors if they drank Jiuqianjiu liquor after delivery. In older than 50 years old. Female informants represented comparison, mothers are commonly not allowed to work 78.5 % of the total sample group and the majority of until 1 month after birth in China. All the informants key informants interviewed were females above 65 years indicated that traditional Jiuqianjiu liquor can make old that had little to no formal education. Informants women during their puerperium (approximately 6 weeks indicated that an increasing amount of young girls after birth) and their babies healthy and strong. Infor- studied in school and did not learn the traditional prac- mants believe that wild plants play a role in this tice of liquor making. This study further showed that Hong et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:42 Page 19 of 21

Table 3 Demographic profile of informants The final products are dependent on local climatic Indicator Description Frequency (%) conditions and therefore the sensory characteristics and Age 20-29 7(4.7) the quality are variable. The major problem associated 30-39 23(15.4) with the traditional method of producing Jiuqianjiu liquor is that the product can never be uniform nor pre- 40-49 28(18.8) dicted because of the diversity of involved microorganisms 50-59 41(27.5) and difficulties in controlling this population. Upgrading 60-69 27(18.1) of traditional home-scale processes is needed so that it will 70-79 15(10.1) lead to a better standardization and safety of a product ≥80 8(5.4) that is already acceptable to the cultural tastes of local Gender Male 32(21.5) communities. In addition, this standardization process is helpful to continue to maintain and strengthen cultural Female 117(78.5) heritage of Shui communities while providing a product Education None 31(20.8) that can compete successfully with industrial versions. Primary 85(57.0) However, Jiuqianjiu liquor is a homemade activity and un- Secondary 21(14.1) controlled microbial inoculation based on spontaneous Tertiary 12(8.1) fermentation. The ecosystem in Jiuqianjiu liquor repre- sents a source of biodiversity that can be exploited to cre- ate such functional starter cultures. The microbiological female Shui informants who were well educated and details of this highly sophisticated fermentation technology aged between 20 and 35 knew how to brew Jiuqianjiu has remained undocumented. In fact, Jiuqianjiu liquor has liquor but were not able to identify wild plants used as the potential to become an important source of new valu- a beverage starter. Most young females at the study able microbial strains for biotechnology. Future studies are sites no longer learn about these plants and how to needed to evaluate the phytochemical profiles, bioactivity, prepare traditional fermented beverages; rather, they stability and safety of fermented wild plants and their purchase new commercial starters or fermented alco- synergies. holic beverages from the market that are increasingly Wild plants are threatened by various socio-ecological available. Informants reported that this was mostly be- reasons including climate change, land use change, habitat cause of migration out of rural communities for jobs. destruction, overharvesting and etc. [48–52]. The con- Consequently, the traditional Shui ethnobotanical base struction of highways and other infrastructure as well as is failing to be transferred. Knowledge of wild plants deforestation for agricultural purposes is severely threat- should thus be recorded and conveyed in Shui areas for ening wild habitats for plants in Guizhou Province. In their sustainable use and continuation of cultural prac- addition, unsustainable harvest of plant species with mar- tices linked to local biodiversity. ket value also contributes to a decrease of these wild re- sources. Both ex situ and in situ conservation methods are Scale of production needed in the natural or farmed environment to preserve Shui informants prepare fermented beverages for house- the biodiversity of wild plants used for preparing fermen- hold consumption and commercially in small-scale local ted beverages and associated cultural systems. It is neces- distilleries. Small-scale liquor distilleries are distributed sary that local people support and participate in these widely throughout the study sites and surrounding areas conservation initiatives for the most successful results. that provide local people with high-quality and relatively affordable local liquor. Wild plants are collected around Conclusion residences of producers both for when they are prepar- This paper provides documentation of the diversity of wild ing beverages for household use as well as for sale in the plants used as starters to prepare fermented beverages by market. Jiuqianjiu liquor, like most other local alcoholic Shui communities of Sandu County in Southwest China. beverages in minority areas in China, is still produced Findings highlight the rich biodiversity and habitats that with traditional equipment that is not backed by scien- local communities draw upon from their surroundings as tific knowledge of the process and has little regard for part of their cultural life to support interpersonal commu- hygiene. Whereas small-scale manufacture has the ad- nication and celebrate key occasions. Women’sroleasthe vantages of short distribution lines, income generation primary producers involved in making fermented bever- for families, etc., urbanization and increased regional ages reflects gendered knowledge that is related to societal tourism and the resulting growing demand for ready-to- life and relations to kin. While knowledge of plants used consume high-quality foods requires larger-scale con- for liquor making has traditionally been orally transferred trolled industrial production. from mother to daughter, this knowledge is threatened as Hong et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2015) 11:42 Page 20 of 21

the younger generations move away from rural areas in Kunming 650201, People’s Republic of China. 4School of Environment & Life search of jobs and a different lifestyle, a pattern witnessed Science, Kaili University, Guizhou 556011, People’s Republic of China. 5Department of Health & Human Development, Montana State University, in rural communities worldwide. Efforts are needed to Bozeman, MT 59717, USA. 6School of Chemistry and Life Science, Guizhou enhance the transmission of ethnobotancial knowledge in Normal College, Guiyang 550018, People’s Republic of China. 7Guizhou Shui communities towards conservation of biodiversity Institute for Advanced Study in Anthropology & Ethnology, Guizhou Normal College, Guiyang 550018, People’s Republic of China. and associated preservation of cultural systems. 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