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Phoenicia, Phoenicians. I ~ Prof. Scott B. Noegel Chair, Dept. of Near Eastern Languages and Civilization University of Washington "Phoenicia, Phoenicians." First Published in: Bill Arnold and H. G. M. Williamson, eds. Dictionary of the Old Testament: Historical Books Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press (2005), 792-798. ~ v . esramen. HistoricalBooks Editors: Bill T.Arnold H. G.M.Williamson ~ lvp Q.,P) InterVarsity Press Inter-Varsity Press Downers Grove, Illinois Leicester, England ;'00 S 1 Phoenicia, Phoenicians . ~iidf 'liesBCEGerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, PHOENICIA, PHOENICIANS 1998); B.Hesse, "Animal Use at Tel Miqne- The terms Phoeniciaand Phoenicians designate the Ekron in the Bronze Age and Iron Age," BASOR coastal region north of ancient Israel and the --./ 264 (1986) 17-27; S. A. Irvine, Isaiah, Ahaz, and people who inhabited it from the thirteenth celli ~ the Syro-Ephraimite Crisis (SBLDS 123; Atlanta: tury BCEto the first century BCE.The geographic ,. Scholars Press, 1990); G. L. KeIrn and A. Mazar, boundaries of Phoenicia are relatively clean ~ eds., Tzmnah: A Biblical City in the Sorek Valliry(Wi- They extended from Mount *Carmel to the" nona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1995); A. M. Amanus Mountains Gosh 11:8, 19:28; 2 Sam 24:6- Maeir, "Notes and News: Tell e~-$afi/Gath, 7), with the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon ranges 1996-2002," IE] 53 (2003) 237-46; idem, "Philis- marking its eastem flank (Lipinski 2003). LeS$ terkeramik," RLA (forthcoming); A. M. Maeir clear, however, are the cultural and ethnic identi~; j~ '~ " and C. S. Ehrlich, "Excavating Philistine Gath: ties of the peoples who dwelled in Phoenicia's;'~. Have We Found Goliath's Hometown?" BAR most prominent city-states (e.g., Arvad, Byblos, Si- 27.6 (2001) 22-31; D. M. Master, "Trade and Pol- don and Tyre). In the Bible each one appears itics: Ashkelon's Balancing Act in the Seventh with varying degrees of frequency that corre. Century B.C.E.,"BASOR 330 (2003) 47-64;A. Mazar, spond to the level of economic, political, and Excavations at Tell Qasile, Part I: The Philistine theological importance that. each held for an.,!,; Sanctuary; Architecture and Cult Objects (Qedem cient Israel and the Bible'sjudean authors. Thus" 12;jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1980); Arvad and Byblos (Heb gebiil, "Gebal") receive N. Na'aman, "Ekron under the Assyrian and only parenthetical treatments (Gen 10:18; Josh Egyptian Empires," BASOR 332 (2003a) 81-91; 13:5; 1 Kings 5:13-18; Ezek 27:8-9), whereas Sidon idem, "In Search of the Reality behind the Ac- and Tyre appear prominently. Indeed, the char.7 count of the Philistine Assault on Ahaz in the acterizations of Sidon and Tyre, though hardlY~ Book of Chronicles," Transeuphratene 26 (2003b) identical, reflectthe Phoenicians' enormous eCQi- ~ 47-63; idem, "The Pre-Deuteronomistic Story of nomic, political and religious influence on Israel, King Saul and Its Historical Significance," CBQ 1. Phoenician Identity 54 (1992) 638-58; E. Noort, Die Seevolkerin Paliis- 2. The Historical Context of Israelite- tina (PA 8; Kampen: Kok Pharos, 1994);E. D. Phoenician Relations Oren, ed., The Sea Peoplesand Their World: A Re- 3.Judean Portraits of Phoenician City-states',"' assessment(University Museum Monographs 108; 4.Judean Polemic and Phoenician Cults'" !Ii! University Museum Symposium Series II; Phila- delphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of 1. Phoenician Identity. --' Archaeology and Anthropology, 2000); N. K. The cultural and ethnic contours of Phoenician Sandars, The Sea Peoples: Warriors of the Ancient identity are something of an enigma (Rollig);, ~ Mediterranean (rev. ed.; London: Thames & Most scholars see the Phoenicians asdesceIE' '"~,iI Hudson, 1985); C. Schafer-Lichtenberger, "The dants of the *Canaanite populations who lived in"," " Goddess of Ekron and the Religious-Cultural the region before them, but the migrations and f! Background of the Philistines," IE] 50 (2000) 82- intemational trading activities that punctuate the 91; I. Singer, "Towards the Image of Dagon, region's history make this uncertain. Moreover, God of the Philistines," Syria 69 (1992) 431-50; biblical texts apply the term Canaanite to the re--. L. E. Stager, Ashkelon Discovered:From Canaanites gion later known as Phoenicia (Is 23:II; Obad and Philistines to Romans and Moslems (Washing- 20), but also to a number of diverse cultriral ton, DC: Biblical Archaeology Society, 1991); groups in antiquity (Gen 10:15-20;Judg 1:31-32). B. J. Stone, "The Philistines and Acculturation: It is ironic that so little is known about the Culture Change and Ethnic Continuity in the Phoenicians. Already in antiquity they possessed Iron Age," BASOR 298 (1995) 7-35; D. Sweeney enormous fame for their role in transmitting tht; and A. Yasur-Landau, "Following the Path of the alphabetic script to Greek-speaking peoples and .~ Sea Persons: The Women in the Medinet Habu for their ubiquitous maritime, mercantile and Reliefs," TA 26 (1999) II 6-45; S. Wachsmann, colonial activities throughout the MediteJ'l'lli' "1 Seagoing Ships and Seamanship in the Bronze Age nean world. But most of what is known about want (College Station: Texas A&M University them comes from non-Phoenician sources (e.g., Press; London: Chatham, 1998). Assyrian, Babylonian, Egyptian, Greek and Isra- C. S. Ehrlich elite), many of which are tendentious, even p~ ',i~' 792 ! ~ Phoenicia, Phoenicians ~ lemical, in their characterization of them tenn Phoenician implies more of a uniform cul- (f am). Thus we can use them only with cau- tural and ethnic identity than was the reality. :,1 ti~ Indeed, the people of the region never re- Many Phoenician inscriptions have sur- ferred to themselves as Phoenician, but instead vived, as well as a few letters, but they have identified with the city-states in which they lived yielded only limited information on Phoeni- (e.g., Tyrians from Tyre, Sidonians from Sidon), cian identity (seeNon-Israelite Written Sources: much like the Canaanites who lived in the re- Syro-Palestinian). An incommensurately larger gion before them. Assyrian, Babylonian and Is- number of texts must have been composed on raelite texts typically refer to these peoples papyri or leather, but they have not survived. similarly (e.g.,]udg 3:3; 10:11-12; I Kings 5:1-14; The extant inscriptions are written in a Semitic 11:1,5; 2 Kings 23:13; 1 Chron 22:4; Ezra 3:7). language closely related to ancient Hebrew, Even the gods of Phoenicia are distinguished by suggesting some degree of cultural affinity. In locale (e.g., Baal of Tyre, Baal of Sidon), and the fact, there are a great number of parallels be- divine pantheon differs considerably among its tWeen Phoenician inscriptions and Israelite lit- city-states. The consistent references to localized erary texts (Parker; Avishur). Nevertheless, personal and divine identities similarly bespeak phoenician inscriptions also demonstrate di- cultural diversity and complicate the question of versity. Texts from Byblos, for example, are whether Phoenicians are direct descendants of composed in a different dialect and employ a the Canaanites. distinct script. Moreover, the Phoenicians' deal- Phoenician settlements off the mainland ings with the Greek world and Anatolia make it pose similar problems for ascertaining Phoeni- likely that those involved in international trade cian identity (Moscati). Already by the eighth were multilingual. century BCE the Phoenicians had established Etymological research is of limited help in trading and industrial colonies in a number of detennining Phoenician identity. The origin of places throughout the Mediterranean world, in- the term "Phoenicia" is either Egyptian (fnhw) or cluding Carthage, Cyprus, Sardinia, Sicily, Spain Greek (phoinike). The etymology of the Egyptian and Utica (the term Punic is used to describe word is unknown, and that of the Greek word is these Phoenician cultures, especially after the uncertain (Muhly). The Greek term initially des- sixth century BCE).Archaeological excavations ignated a reddish color, perhaps the color ofthe carried out at these settlements reveal them to m'f)enicians' hair or skin or the textile dyes for be of a very different character from one anoth- :h the traders in this region were interna- er and from those in Syria. A good deal of cul- "trohally renowned. Regardless of the term's ety- tural exchange took place at these locations mology, by the first millennium BCE Greek- between Phoenician settlers and the indigenous speaking peoples were applying it generally to populations, but since textual and archaeologi- the inhabitants of the region. cal records are limited, we can only hypothesize The archaeological record sheds some light to what degree and on what levels such ex- on issues of Phoenician identity, but considered change took place. In some cases Phoenician as a totality, it is woefully incomplete. Although settlers maintained their homeland traditions, excavations have confinned the region's activity especially in matters of religion, hence the dis- in the large-scale production of reddish-purple covery of dedicatory inscriptions devoted to the dyes, none of the major Phoenician coastal sites goddess Astarte of Sidon in Spain and Cyprus. has ever been excavated thoroughly below the Elsewhere, such as at Sidonian settlements in Roman layer, because many of the most promis- Zinjirliand Karatepe or at the Tyrian city of ing excavation sites are presently occupied or lie Carthage, Phoenicians appear to have partially under protected monuments from later periods. acculturated. Byblos has yielded information mainly for the The combined textual and archaeological Bronze Age (Markoe, 324). Thus the archaeo- data thus demonstrate that the term Phoenician logical record produces a composite and frag- loosely designates a number of different city- mentary portrait of Phoenician civilization, one state cultures that lived in relative proximity, and that is particularly weak for the period of the that shared a similar language, as well as an in- Iron Age (c. 1200-555 BCE).Even with this in- dustrious determination for locating new mer- complete portrait, however, it is clear that the cantile horizons.
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