1191 Lebanon, Ancient 1192 Lebanon, Ancient Arameans and Neo-Hittites (e.g., Lipiński 2000: 319–46). For millennia, the Beqa Valley (the land I. Archaeology and History II. Hebrew Bible/Old Testament of Amqi of the Amarna Age) was a major north- III. Judaism south route connecting the region of the Hulah Val- IV. Visual Arts ley and Galilee to the northern Levant. 2. Historical Overview of the Phoenician Coast- I. Archaeology and History line. The Lebanese coastline was already a major objective of foreign powers in the 3rd and early 2nd 1. Introduction. In biblical and ancient terminol- millennium BCE. While significant settlements ogy, Lebanon (MT Leba¯ noˆ n) refers to the Lebanese were established in the Early Bronze (e.g., Byblos) and Anti-Lebanese mountain ranges from which and Middle Bronze Ages along the Lebanese coast, the modern country of Lebanon received its name in terms of scholarship, Phoenician history is often (note: the modern country only became independ- treated as a historical “continuity in tradition” from ent in 1945). The Beqa Valley, the large north- the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1550 BCE) until the begin- south valley between the Lebanese and Anti-Leba- ning of the Hellenistic period (ca. 300 BCE). This nese ranges, is also referred to in the book of Joshua timeframe, which also correlates with the biblical as the “Valley of Lebanon” (Josh 11 : 27; 12 : 7) era, constitutes the scope of this current discussion. where it appears as the northernmost boundary of During the Late Bronze Age, the settlements Canaan. In most references, it seems likely that along the coast, like the rest of Canaan, became both the Lebanese and Anti-Lebanese range can be dominated by Egyptian imperial control. Pharaoh related to the Bible’s general geographic term of Thutmose III’s campaigns during the 15th century “the Lebanon.” Although, it is possible to see a dis- BCE would bring these regions under Egyptian he- tinction between the ranges in Josh 13 : 5–6, which gemony, which would continue until the early 12th records the northern boundary of Canaan as fol- century BCE. Most of what is known about Phoeni- lows, “and the land of the Gebalites (i.e., the north- cia during this period comes from Ugarit and el- ern coast around Byblos/Gebal), and all Lebanon, Amarna (Markoe: 12). During the biblical era, the toward the sunrise (i.e., the Anti-Lebanese range), northern coast of Canaan was controlled by a sev- from Baal-gad below Mount Hermon to Lebo-ha- eral large “city-states,” most prominent of which math (i.e., sites related to the eastern range and/or were the harbor cities of Tyre and Sidon. These pol- Beqa Valley), all the inhabitants of the hill country ities were one of the continuations of the flourish- from Lebanon (i.e., the Lebanese range) to Misre- ing pre-Israel, Canaanite governmental structure photh-maim (location unknown, but possibly the that began in the Middle Bronze Age (Gilboa: 49– Littani River), even all the Sidonians (i.e., the hill 50) that were extinguished in the Late Bronze II/ country between the Lebanese range and the coast Iron I with the arrival of the Sea Peoples and Israel of Sidon).” and the formation of nation-states. The Canaanite So, while the Bible and other ancient sources city-states of northern Canaan (i.e., the Phoenicians) often refer to “the Lebanon,” these references do continued along the same trajectory as the Middle not denote the main zones of habitation within the Bronze II–Late Bronze II culture that predated the modern country of Lebanon, namely, the Beqa Val- arrival of the Philistines and Israelites (Ward 1996: ley and the coast from Rosh HaNiqra in the south 184). (Phoenician control at various points in history In the Iron Age, Phoenician trade colonies would have extended as far as Joppa) until Arvad in would be established throughout the Mediterra- the north (i.e., the entrance of the Orontes River nean which would spread Levantine and Phoenician into the Mediterranean). One of the best archaeo- culture (e.g., ivories, ceramics, textiles, jewelry, bur- logical examples of the enduring importance of the ial customs, building techniques, religion, and lan- Lebanese coastline to ancient empires is found at guage/alphabet) to the civilizations that were lo- Nahr al-Kalb (north of Beirut) where invaders often cated at each of these outposts. In the early Iron inscribed their achievements on Nahr al-Kalb’s Age (12th–10th centuries BCE), the Phoenician cit- limestone cliffs (e.g., Ramses II, Esarhaddon, Nebu- ies largely experienced independence from foreign chadnezzar II, Napoleon, British/French World War intervention and domination that had character- I; see e.g., Lipiński 2004: 1–2). ized the Late Bronze Age (Egyptian; cf. the Report In biblical terminology, the inhabitants of the of Wenamon – COS 1 : 90–91). It is in this era, that region west of “the Lebanon” were referred to as the textual links between Israel/Judah and Phoeni- “Sidonians” (e.g., Josh 13 : 4; Judg 18 : 7; 1 Kgs 5 : 6), cia are the most prominent (e.g., 1 Kgs 9 : 11–12; which is analogous to the later Greek term of 16 : 31). Beginning in the 9th century BCE, the “Phoenician” (Rainey/Notley: 27, 31). The settle- Phoenician cities would become vassals of the Neo- ments of the Beqa Valley (e.g., Kamid el-Loz/Ku- Assyrian Empire, and would continue to remain midi, Baalbek, Lebwe/Lebo-hamath) were not di- vassals under the control of the successive empires rectly related to the Lebanese coast, and during the of Neo-Babylonia, Persia (often serving as their na- Iron Age this vicinity was most likely inhabited by val fleet), and the Greeks. Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 15 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2017 Download Date | 1/5/19 7:06 PM 1193 Lebanon, Ancient 1194 One of the most significant historical records Aubet 2001: 22–49 see also Isa 23; Ezek 27). for understanding the makeup of Iron II Phoeni- Archaeological excavations at Tyre already began in cian geo-politics comes from Sennacherib’s famous the 1830s, but primarily dealt with the classical re- “Jerusalem prism” (COS 2.302). During his third mains until the excavations of P. Bikai in 1973– campaign (i.e., 701 BCE), Sennacherib attacked Luli 1974. Bikai’s excavations revealed that Tyre had the king of Tyre for his rebellion and received sup- been inhabited from the Early Bronze–Iron Age port from “Greater Sidon (Saïda), Lower Sidon (per- with a possible occupational gap during the Middle haps a quarter within Sidon), Bit-zitti (Zayta), Sa- Bronze Age (Ward 1997: 5.247; Bikai). More recent riptu (Sarafand), Mahaliba (Khirbet el-Maḥalib), excavation at al-Bass (east of Tyre) have revealed a Ushu (inland settlement of Tyre – Tell Rashidiyeh?), large inland necropolis relating to Tyre with hun- Achzib (ez-Zīb), Acco (Tell el-Fukhkhar)” before in- dreds of tombs of cremation urns that date from stalling Tubalu (king of Sidon) in Lulli’s place throughout the Iron Age (Aubet 2010: 145–58). (COS 2 : 302 – see also Cogan: 112–17). In the early Zarephath (preserved in the nearby town of Sa- 7th century BCE, Esarhaddon would give Tyre farand) is mentioned in 1 Kgs 17 : 8–24 (cf. Luke (king Baal) back this territory after putting down a 4 : 26) as the location where the prophet Elijah fled rebellion led by Abdi-milkutti, king of Sidon (Co- to during the famine in Israel. In Obadiah, Zare- gan: 131–33). These passages indicate the wide phath is envisioned as the northern boundary of Is- sphere of Tyrian control on the Phoenician coast, rael, which would include Tyre in Israelite territory but also the methods of control used by Neo-Assy- (Obad 20). Outside of the biblical text, Zarephath rian monarchs in re-establishing their own control (Serapta) is mentioned in Papyrus Anastasi I (late over their vassal states (e.g., Lipiński 1985). 13th cent. BCE) along with Beirut, Sidon, Usha, and 3. Archaeological Survey of the Principle An- Tyre (ANET 477). “Sariptu” also appears in the an- cient Sites of Lebanon. This section will include a nals of Sennacherib (in 701 BCE; COS 2 : 302) who brief summary of the history and archaeology of the removed it from Luli’s control before it was re- main Phoenician sites in the modern country of turned to Tyrian control under Baalu during the Lebanon. This does not include Phoenician settle- reign of Esarhaddon (RINAP 4.1.3; Leichty: 17). Be- ments in modern Israel (e.g., Achzib, Dor, etc.), sides Tyre, the archaeological remains at Zarephath Phoenician colonies in the Mediterranean (e.g., may be the most known on the Phoenician main- Cadiz, Utica, Kition, Carthage, etc. – see discussion land due to the excavations of Pritchard from in Markoe; Aubet 2001: 185–276). Specifically, this 1969–74 (Markoe: 199). Zarephath was founded in section will summarize the history and archaeology the Late Bronze Age and inhabited continuously of Tyre, Zarephath, Sidon, Beirut, Byblos, and Ar- until the Roman period. During the Iron Age, Zare- vad (cf. Markoe: 192–205; Aubet 2001: 285–95 for phath was built on a new plan with industrial, reli- a discussion of other significant sites in this vicin- gious, and residential quarters. The excavations re- ity), and the major sites of the Beqa Valley. Each of vealed twenty pottery kilns along abundant the Phoenician settlements had at least one harbor. evidence of the production and export of red-pur- They also had extensive post-Hellenistic settle- ple dye (produced from Murex trunculus, cf.