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Dispossession and Ethnic Identity in Expanding State Space of Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh

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Dispossession and Ethnic Identity in Expanding State Space of Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh Dispossession and Ethnic Identity in Expanding State Space of Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh By Mohammad Tareq Hasan A thesis submitted to the Department of Social Anthropology, University of Bergen for the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Anthropology of Development Spring 2014 Dispossession and Ethnic Identity in Expanding State Space of Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I acknowledge the sincere contribution of my supervisor Dr. Anette Fagertun, Department of Social Anthropology, University of Bergen, Norway, for her enthusiasm on this issue and constant supports. I am also very much grateful to the Khyang people who have given their valuable opinion to prepare this thesis. I am thankful to my family and every person who consciously or unconsciously has contributed to the finalization of this project. I express sincere gratitude towards the Department of Social Anthropology, University of Bergen, Norway for this wonderful opportunity to study anthropology. It is mentionable that the project has been funded by Norwegian State Educational Loan Fund and The Meltzer Research Fund. i Dispossession and Ethnic Identity in Expanding State Space of Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh ABBREVIATIONS ADB Asian Development Bank ADAB Australian Development Assistance Bureau BDT Bangladeshi Taka BFD Bangladesh Forest Department CFUG Community Forest User Group CHC Christian Hospital Chandraghona CHT Chittagong Hill Tracts CHTDB Chittagong Hill Tracts Development Board CHTR Chittagong Hill Tracts Regulation DC District Commissioner FD Forest Department HDC Hill District Council JSS Jana Samhati Samiti ILO International Labor Organization IMF International Monetary Fund IWGIA International Work Group for Indigenous affairs NGO Non-governmental Organization NSD Norwegian Social Science Data Services RF Reserved Forests SIDA Swedish International Development Authority UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Program USD United States Dollar USF Unclassed State Forest VCF Village Common Forest VGD Vulnerable Group Development VGF Vulnerable Group Feeding WB World Bank ii Dispossession and Ethnic Identity in Expanding State Space of Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh ABSTRACT In the milieu of the global development and ‘state’ formation of Bangladesh, the Khyang people of the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) are in a situation of economic transition and marginalization. Bangladesh state’s persistence to build Bangalee and Bangladeshi nation and its commitment to develop the country socio-economically (formulated and funded by the international development agencies) has led the state’s encroachment of the CHT which were beyond direct state control for most of its history. During my ethnographic fieldwork in Rangamati and Bandarban of CHT, I found that with the expansion of the state space there has been a mutation of citizenship for the Khyang, where their rights and access to land and forests are being limited (and sometimes denied) through government actions and policies. Based on my ethnographic information I argue that as the state built infrastructure and as planned migration of Bangalee people took place the livelihood options for the Khyang changed from subsistence to market economy and today the Khyang are involved in diverse non-agricultural occupations. Consequently, class distinctions emerged in the social structure and, the gendered division of labor is altered (as men are taking more responsibility in household tasks and women are doing income-generating activities). Further, I have observed changes in indigenous practices of food consumption and dressing. With the changed economic frontiers forced by governmental seizure of access to land and forest the Khyang were required to change from Jhum (shifting cultivation) to plough cultivation, and became integrated in the market economy. New rights, entitlements and opportunities have opened avenues for establishing social networks with people of other ethnic groups; yet, it has also marginalized the Khyang economically and socially. While some Khyangs benefitted from these processes, the Khyang remains as a ‘minority of the minorities’ in CHT as they are denied of minority quotas in jobs and education, which are mostly availed by the larger ethnic groups like the Bangalees and Chakmas. During fieldwork, it became evident that within a shifting socio-political context Khyang identity has diversified. Engagement of the Khyang with diverse social networks has created internal differences regarding the subjective belief in their common descent as a group. I found that the idea of Khyang identity has become fluid, as for many hill populations of Southeast Asia, being subjected to state expansion and people from the valleys. Based on my ethnographic findings I argue that Khyang of different economic, political and educational backgrounds have different thoughts regarding the common history and historical consciousness of Khyang as a group is not reproduced by the younger generations. Thus, the Khyang now act as ‘ethnic amphibians’ in the CHT. iii Dispossession and Ethnic Identity in Expanding State Space of Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................................. i ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................................................................... ii ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. iii CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................... 1 CONTEXTUALIZATION OF CHITTAGONG HILL TRACTS (CHT) AND THE RESEARCH PROLBEM ............................................................................................................. 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES .................................................................................................. 3 THE CHITTAGONG HILL TRACTS (CHT) OF BANGLADESH..................................... 4 KHYANG OF THE CHT ........................................................................................................ 6 FIELD LOCATIONS ............................................................................................................. 8 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ....................................................................................... 10 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................... 18 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ......................................................................................... 21 CHAPTER OVERVIEW ..................................................................................................... 22 CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................ 25 THE CHANGING ECONOMIC FRONTIERS OF THE KHYANG ................................... 25 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 26 ECONOMY OF THE KHYANG: ACTIVITIES AND SEASONALITY ............................ 26 CHANGING OCCUPATIONAL PATTERNS ................................................................... 32 THE NEW FRONTIERS OF INTERACTION ................................................................... 38 IMPACT OF CHANGING ECONOMIC PATTERNS ....................................................... 41 DISCUSSION ...................................................................................................................... 46 CHAPTER CONCLUSION ................................................................................................. 49 CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................... 50 BANGLADESH STATE AND THE GENESIS OF DISPOSSESSION AND MARGINALIZATION IN CHT ............................................................................................... 50 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 51 iv Dispossession and Ethnic Identity in Expanding State Space of Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE RELATION BETWEEN THE CHT AND GOVERNMENT(S) ............................................................................................................. 52 LAND LAWS IN CHT ........................................................................................................ 57 RIGHTS AND ACCESS TO RESOURCES: DISPOSSESSION AND PRODUCTION OF DIFFERENCE ...................................................................................................................... 63 EXPANDING STATE AND MARGINALIZATION OF THE KHYANG ......................... 72 DISCUSSION ...................................................................................................................... 75 CHAPTER CONCLUSION ................................................................................................. 79 CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................................... 81 SOCIAL NETWORKS AND ETHNIC IDENTITY
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