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HENRIKKI TIKKANEN 50

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ENSIMMÄINEN PAINOS / 1ST EDITION KUSTANTAJA / PUBLISHER: Nordic Institute of Business & Society Osuuskunta, Helsinki

TOIMITTAJAT / EDITORS: Juho-Petteri Huhtala & Joel Hietanen SUUNNITTELIJA / DESIGNER: Krista Kärki

PAINO / PRINT: Painotalo Trinket Oy

COPYRIGHT © 2020 Nordic Institute of Business & Society Osuuskunta

ISBN 978-952-94-3901-0 ISBN 978-952-94-3902-7

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140 149 KUVAT / IMAGES

SISÄLLYS ↓ 152 155 9 HENRIKISTÄ KERTOVIA LAUSAHDUKSIA – JA FILOSOFIAA NIIDEN TAKANA P. Par v i nen

8 13 TO INNUMERABLE SHADES: 156 161 10 MONIPUOLINEN TIETEELLINEN DIMENSIONS OF PROFESSOR TUOTANTO SYSTEMAATTISENA LEIKKINÄ TIKKANEN AND HENKKA KIRJALLISUUSGENREILLÄ J. Hietanen & J-P. Huhtala J. Luoma

14 17 1 YSTÄVÄN MUOTOKUVA 162 175 11 LIVING PARALLEL LIVES:KARIN, I. Ambrosius & T. Kietäväinen HENRIKKI, ME AND THE OTHERS B. Cova 18 35 2 SPIRITUALITY, MANAGEMENT AND

WISDOM – THE RELEVANCE OF PLATO 176 189 12 PROFESSOR TIKKANEN FLEW T. Peltonen OVER THE CUCKOO’S NEST: SWEDISH FÖRETAGSEKONOMI ON 36 59 3 RESEARCH TRADITIONS IN MARKETING: THE COUCH

THEORETICAL NOTES J. Ostberg K. Möller 190 197 13 TEACHER, SUPERVISOR, MENTOR, 60 81 4 ROUGHING OUT A SOBERING (?) BOSS AND FRIEND – PROFESSOR RESEARCH PARADIGMATIC SCHEMA HENRIKKI TIKKANEN

FOR MARKETING AND OTHER SOCIAL J. Salo PHENOMENA STUDIES

R. Olkkonen & H. Makkonen 198 211 14 THE EMERGING SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT IN BRAND MANAGEMENT 82 91 5 SCHOLARLY VIRTUES AS P. Tuominen PERFORMATIVE ROLES

J-A. Lamberg 212 225 15 WHAT AILS CONTEMPORARY BUSINESS SCHOOLS? 92 117 6 YRITYSTASON STRATEGINEN K. Alajoutsijärvi, K. Juusola & K. Kettunen MARKKINOINTI

LUKUISILLA KILPAILLUILLA 226 227 16 PROJEKTI­MARKKINOINTIA JA YRITYSMARKKINOILLA PROJEKTI­LIIKETOIMINTAA J. Aspara K. Artto

118 135 7 AN INTERPRETED REVIEW OF THE 228 229 JOHTOPÄÄTÖKSET / CONCLUSIONS HISTORY OF FINNISH MARKETING P. Mat t i la RESEARCH J. Frösén & M. Laukkanen

136 137 8 HENRIKKI P. Airaksinen-Aminoff ↑ CONTENT

6 7 HENRIKKI TIKKANEN – 50 TO INNUMERABLE SHADES: DIMENSIONS OF PROFESSOR TIKKANEN AND HENKKA

To Innumerable Shades: Dimensions of Professor Tikkanen and Henk ka

JOEL HIETANEN JUHO-PETTERI HUHTALA

THIS FESTSCHRIFT is a celebratory book schrifts tend to be ‘serious’: straight and something always – if only slightly – beyond leagues has facilitated a wealth of concep- honouring the ongoing life and career of a narrow academic publications with little words, beyond mere description. While tual and empirical developments in various great Professor, Henrikki Tikkanen, on the personality. After all, is not the grandeur of overcoding may indeed be an inherent as- discourses. It is immediately evident that occasion of his 50th year occupying his cur- an academic discourse something that far pect of a profound academic persona, as there is something overwhelming about all rent form of Earthly existence. Contained exceeds a person, even in a work of com- is developed in Lamberg’s and Luoma’s his collaborations. How does one manage so within the following pages is a remarkably memoration? This book is in many regards respective chapters, there is, as Ostberg many? Indeed, Möller notes Professor Tik- rich collection of articles written by many col- remarkably different, almost as if writing to in turn notes, something about Henrikki’s kanen’s extraordinary academic versatility, leagues and friends of Professor Tikkanen Henrikki without deliberating on him as a presence that even radiates all the way to and Olkkonen and Makkonen marvel at his (or less formerly, Henkka, as we all know friend, character, and enigma was an insur- the surfaces and fixtures of entire academic persistent open-mindedness and non-dog- him). For us today, it certainly feels that we mountable task. Made manifest within this organizations. In addition to these examples matic approach to thought and academic have shared a life with Henkka for a small (ostensibly) rather conventional scholar of that have already laid out a challenging con- work. Frösén and Laukkanen discuss his eternity. We have worked together on myri- strategic marketing and business history, ceptual landscape, all the chapters in this national role as well, offering an account of ad projects and studies, travelled the world there is a restless and captivating excess book have risen to the occasion in diverse how Professor Tikkanen’s scholarly prolifica- together, laughed and rejoiced, felt the brush – an affective ‘unbearability’ that saturates fashion. The general theme is one of seri- cy has made an incalculably intensive mark of failure and sadness – a fantastic spectrum every event and moment that is spent in ously quirky awe – one that attempts to find on the Finnish context and the Finnish mar- of intensities – all together. And this is a book Henrikki’s vicinity. An intensity that cannot different ways to always return in wonder keting scene in particular. In his sweeping ac- of intensities, of intense friendships. be measured or accounted for. The chapters to ponder the question of who this Henkka count of the history of branding in marketing If one compares this Festschrift to in this book are a testament to this, and we character really is anyway. and consumer research, Tuominen is the first many others, one is immediately struck by wish to thank all the participants for their Professor Tikkanen is an eminent fig- to note how Henrikki has indeed become a its unorthodox nature. A teeming uneas- wonderful contributions! They come in var- ure in the international academic fields of brand in his own right – something that he is, iness, perhaps even an excited giddiness, ious forms, lengths, and styles, but there is marketing and consumer research – this is but which also semiotically ‘lives’ outside of seems to mark many of its pages. Fest- a common thread of an outside they seek, for sure. His research with his numerous col- what Henrikki as a person might be.

8 9 HENRIKKI TIKKANEN – 50 TO INNUMERABLE SHADES: DIMENSIONS OF PROFESSOR TIKKANEN AND HENKKA

Henkka is always a simulation of a course of action, and it is often hard to keep up! This has nothing to do with consistency; never assume the stability of any structure, all scaffolds are phantasmatic. If one knows Henkka, one might be reminded of the style of some scheming philosophers (e.g., Feyer- abend and Baudrillard), the kind whose writ- ings are only sometimes sincerely entreating you, and more often provocatively express- ing excesses of what they know you need to know. To give the reader an example, we still wonder whether the following is an act of pure trickery. In what might seem sombre moments, nodding towards Herman Hesse’s Notably, Lamberg takes the idea of there be? As Parvinen poignantly points great novel, Henrikki often declares how all the appearance of Henrikki far further. As he out, Henrikki is a rhetorical gunslinger par this (academic work) is nothing more than "Henkka is always notes in his chapter, Henrikki can certainly excellence, creating events and eventifying an irredeemably meaningless game of glass be regarded as a ‘tough guy’ from many di- creation as he simply goes along. It should pearls. There is a nihilism to be sure, but a a simulation of a vergent perspectives. Simultaneously, and be noted that we, without hesitation, agree generative one perhaps? Firstly, if the state- thus strikingly without difference, he is also with all the above – simultaneously. This is ment would express ‘truth’ (which it affective- course of action, a ‘queen mother’, and an ‘academic sensei’ poststructural indeed – this what has to do ly no doubt does), then there would be no and ‘brother’, as related by Lamberg and As- with Henkka – a profoundly ‘contingent his- need to get excited about research, no need and it is often para. Alajoutsijärvi and colleagues chime in tory,’ as Deleuze and Guattari noted about to find new moments of intrigue to work on to add that Henkka is someone with whom to the prevalence of accident in all becoming. with new friends. Such deflation is the oppo- hard to keep up!" get massively excited and swept away with Without a doubt, the aforementioned quali- site of what happens around Henkka, how- in the moment (without help from Gadam- ties have contributed to making Henrikki Tik- ever, so the utterance cannot account for its er). Perhaps most notably, Henrikki is (if not kanen (or HT) both a successful professor content. What is it then? Perhaps (for you) it sometimes in a slightly veiled fashion) a lov- and a head of the Aalto University School of is intended to constitute the very opposite in ing friend, as brought to our attention most Business Department of MarketingTM depart- intensity. Henkka saying this – I reject this, prominently by Airaksinen-Aminoff, Salo and ment. These characteristics have also made and I will fight for this not to be the case! Artto. Beyond Henkka’s apparent, but nec- Henkka (or H) such a close colleague and Perhaps this surrender is indeed Henkka’s essary, matter-of-fact ‘brutishness’ he also friend to so many. For us, however, there are way of bringing about your revolutionary strikingly evokes many shades of the spiritu- even more dimensions to Henkka that might consciousness. This still feels unsatisfacto- al and the mythic. Ambrosius and Kietäväin- be slightly more cryptic, and perhaps in the ry, for there are still more options. Can we en and Peltonen provide vivid accounts of end hopelessly undecipherable. Let us elab- see a thirdness that calls to live, as Camus how the apparition of Henkka should by no orate. would have had it, through embracing a cer- means be approached solely as a worldly Interestingly, Lamberg is not done. tain absurdity of all human intent? Is this an being. This side of Henkka persistently inter- He takes his grand tour of exploring all of instance of nothing that actively nothings? rogates whether there is some firm ground the shades of Henkka even further still by We claim it is all of the above, at the same there to which one might return. Should identifying Henkka as a perennial ‘trickster’. time, and indeed all the time!

10 11 HENRIKKI TIKKANEN – 50 TO INNUMERABLE SHADES: DIMENSIONS OF PROFESSOR TIKKANEN AND HENKKA

"what grounds Henk ka’s aspirations with his friends is always ultimately the intensity of love"

Thus, we wish to cordially add a per- Perhaps it is in this sense that Co- ‘nihilism’ is always a labour of love amongst litically and ideologically charged absurdity, spective to Lamberg here. It would seem to va’s comments on Henrikki’s past become fellow travellers for as long as we may re- is one that absolutely does change the lives us that a ‘trickster’ necessitates an agent per- most remarkable, detailing Henkka’s for- main. Academia may be a ‘job’ to complete of many students who come to listen to us in forming very particular tricks they feel are in ay into postmodernist thought long ago. a trick, but everything else expresses the our lectures. It is our story as well: we went the interest of someone – a trick that directs Similarly, Luoma recognises how Henkka absence of utility. Foucault once noted how to Henkka’s lectures. With all its potential ills attention or resources for a particular cause. has dabbled with poststructuralist French liberating oneself from oppressive structure and blessings, this has never been about a When observing the three directions of one philosophy very recently too, while mostly is increasingly becoming a ‘lifestyle’. Per- ‘job’ or even ‘work’. Andrei Botez once said of these typical statements by Henrikki, it is, continuing to work in, at least apparently, haps Michel was slightly too optimistic here, that it is truly ridiculous to say something is however, impossible to decipher a correct realist keeps. Following the above, we wish but if he had been describing working with ‘too theoretical’, for once the theory changes path or alternative among them. Like a mul- to propose an alternative reading. Henrikki Henrikki, he might have been eerily close to then everything does as well. Think about tifaceted Schrödinger’s cat, they are all true is not one who vacations in postmodernity, the mark. While it is true that we are often real theoretical change such as develop- and all false, all terminal and laudable. There but instead chooses to lounge in realism. He angry and anxious together – such is the lot ments of capitalism and Christianity and is no inside or an outside, an irreducible dis- simply enjoys holidays too greatly! Indeed, in life for perennial explorers – what grounds how indiscriminately they sweep through tance. In this manner, Henrikki is thus not a in a radical conjecture, we would like to note Henkka’s aspirations with his friends is al- the ideological and material fabric of past trickster in the conventional sense, but rather that Henrikki might be postmodernity itself, ways ultimately the intensity of love; we are and future. If only in a humbler fashion, this the trick itself. It is very much in this sense smoothly sailing on the surfaces of theoris- in this together. And while this may very well Festschrift is a testament to an irreversible that Ostberg wonderfully observes how Hen- ing across fields. be a game of glass pearls, it is the game of changing of theory in life and what we then rikki may indeed inspire a reflection on orga- Finally, there is love that needs to a lifetime in all its potential absurdities. Yet, did with that change, together! Let us rejoice nizational sanity itself. In this way, Henrikki is be urgently recognized. Sometimes hard as noted above (and what today often gets for these years and look forward to many no mere description, but his excess always love perhaps. With Henkka, in an always touted as a separate ‘social impact’ in aca- more to come!nd look forward to many more marks an event. exceedingly strong Humboltian sense, this demic assessment), this absurdity, this po- to come!

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YSTÄVYYS on suuria lahjoja ihmisen elä- osoitus siitä, että vaikka Henrikki on liiketa- mässä. Henrikki on meidän kummankin lä- loustieteen ja johtamistieteen professori, hän heisiä ystäviä, skarppi totuuden etsijä, aina näkee johtamisen ja liiketalouden harjoittami- liikkeellä. Olemme myös kolmistaan jaka- sessa kaikkein tärkeimmäksi juuri tieteellis- neet moninaisia kokemuksia, sekä arjen ten ja mekanististen johtamisoppien taakse että juhlan hetkiä. Siksi päätimme kirjoittaa ja alle – tai ylle – katsomisen. Samaa tavan- yhdessä onnittelutekstin Henrikin 50-vuoti- omaisten, itsestäänselvyyksinä pidettyjen sjuhlakirjaan. oppien voimallista kyseenalaistamista Hen- Olemme tehneet Henrikin kanssa rikki teki toisen kirjaprojektimme yhteydessä, monia pidempiä ja lyhyempiä matkoja 20 Johtajuuden seitsemän syntiä (Aspara et al., vuoden aikana. Ympäri maailmaa, 2012). toisinaan purjehtien, toisinaan Suomalainen, Henrikki- rengasmatkaten. Koskaan kään, ei mielellään puhu hen- yhteinen reissumme ei ole kisistä, saati hengellisistä, ollut tylsä tai hengetön. jutuista joka suuntaan ja Fyysisen matkanteon missä sattuu. Moni tä- rinnalla kulttuurinen mänkään juhlakirjan kir- perspektiivi on ollut "...skarppi joittajista ei välttämättä 1 keskeistä matka­ tiedä edes Henrikin koke­muk­sissamme. totuuden henkisestä syvyysu- Historia sekä henki- lottuvuudesta, puhu- nen ja hengellinen etsijä, mattakaan hengel- pohdiskelu kuuluvat lisestä. Dualistisesti Ystävän olennaisesti vanhan- aina teemme usein kieles- sielun approachiin, sämme eron henkisen kuten Henrikin. Hen- liikkeellä." ja hengellisen välillä. muotokuva rikin kaltaisen profes- Henrikille, kuten meille- sorin – ja ennen kaik- kin, nämä kaksi kulkevat kea ihmisen – kanssa kuitenkin käsi kädessä, katsoo maailmaa syvyy- kun puhumme elämän spiri- sulottuvuudesta. Mysteerinä, tuellista perspektiivistä. ihmeenä, lahjana. Vaikka Henrikin kans­sa ei Virkistävillä henkisillä tripeillä siis usein sanoiteta näkymätöntä hen- olemme käyneet paitsi yhteisillä matkoil- gellisellä kielellä, se on kumminkin läsnä lamme, myös muutaman yhteisen kirjan hänelle. Se on läsnä, kun reissussa käym- kirjoittamisen yhteydessä. Itsemmekin yllät- me pysähtymässä ikivanhassa kirkossa; se tänyt saavutus oli Henkinen johtajuus -kirjan on läsnä, kun käymme ihmisyyttä aidosti (Ambrosius et al., 2009) käsikirjoituksen luotaavia keskusteluita teekupin tai viinila- valmistuminen vajaassa viikossa, erään ys- sin äärellä; se on läsnä, kun joskus sattu- tävän majalla Saariselällä. Lopputulokseen malta lähetämme toisillemme tekstiviestin ISÄ AMBROSIUS olemme edelleen tyytyväisiä, vielä yhdentois- samaan aikaan. Tai no, sattumia ei juuri spi- TIMO KIETÄVÄINEN ta vuoden jälkeenkin. Ammatillisesti kirja on rituellissa maailmassa kyllä olekaan.

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Varmaan uniikeimman yhteisen mat- tomuutta sekä transparenssia. Vieraan- LÄHTEET / REFERENCES: kamme teimme 10 vuotta sitten lähes tuhat varaisuuden ytimessä on usein innostava Ambrosius M, Tikkanen H ja Kietäväinen T (2009) Henkinen johtajuus. Helsinki: vuotta vanhoihin Athos-vuoren ortodoksi- keskustelu Henrikin kanssa, elämän mys- Kirjapaja. siin luostareihin Pohjois-Kreikkaan. Reppu teereistä. selässä vaelsimme luostarista toiseen ja Henrikki on oman tiensä kulkija. Kuka- Aspara J, Kietäväinen T, Mattila P, Tikkanen H ja Ambrosius I (2012) Johtajuuden joka aamu klo 4.00 heräsimme kirkkoon. pa meistä ei sitä haluaisi olla. Usein kuitenkin seitsemän syntiä. Helsinki: Aalto University Executive Education. Kolmen tunnin aamupalveluksessa aika ja jämähdämme pikkuporvarilliseen konsen- iankaikkisuus olivat sisäkkäin. Bysantti ja sukseen ja symmetriaan. Henrikin kanssa on muistot siitä olivat yht’äkkiä elävinä mieles- toisin, hän ei ole jämähtänyt eikä jämähdä. sämme. Pyhien ihmisten reliikkien hengelli- Hän ei jämähtänyt edes kärsiessään työyh- nen touchi muistuttaa siitä, miten Jumalan teisönsä mikromanageerauksesta. maailmassa näkyvä ja näkymätön ovat osa Tästäkin perspektiivistä on ymmärret- meitä. Pyhyys on elämän suolaa. tävää, että Henrikki akateemisen ekspertii- Yhteinen matka on kuva mukana ole- sinsä kontekstissa on viime vuonna siirtynyt vien ihmisen elämästä. Paikoillamme emme syvästi myös historian tutkimukseen. Olem- voi olla, kuljemme eteenpäin tai taaksepäin. me käyneet lukemattomia keskusteluita Tämän olemme Henrikin luovassa ja usein johtajuudesta muun muassa Egyptin faa- nonkonformistisessa seurassa aina vah- raoiden ajalla ja Euroopan historian kään- vasti kokeneet. nekohdissa. Aivan kuin itsekin olisimme Kaiken tämän konkreettisen ja henki- olleet niissä osallisia. Luxorissa ja Assua- sen matkailun jälkeen olimme ensin häm- nissa maisemat siksi toisinaan tuntuivatkin mästyneitä, kun Henrikki hankki maalais- varsin tutuilta. Egyptin historian kiinnostuk- talonsa Kuusjoen kirkon vieressä ja alkoi sen lisäksi Henrikin osaaminen Euroopan viihtyä siellä ilmeisen hyvin. Olisimme aluk- sotahistorian taholla on yksityiskohtiaan si olleet valmiit, vaikka lyömään vetoa siitä, myöten sellaista, jollaista harvoin kohtaa. että Henrikki ei yhtä vuottakaan malta asua Yhteenvetona voimme todeta, että peltomaiseman keskellä pikkukyläpahasen vaikka tämä juhlakirja onkin professoriaali- kyljessä. Mutta olimme täysin väärässä. Ky- nen, Henrikki ei ole alistunut yliopiston eikä läpahasesta tulikin kylähyvänen, näemme muiden instituutioiden hedelmättömiin ri- sen nyt itsekin. Jos nyt tässä maailmassa tuaaleihin opettajan tai tutkijan roolissa. Am- voi kokea jotenkin olevansa kotonaan mis- matillisessa toiminnassa kuten myös inhi- sään, kyllä se henkinen koti Henrikillä on millisessä vuorovaikutuksessa on aina tilaa nyt Muistola. erilaisuudelle, oman tien kulkemiselle sekä Entisaikaan Muistolan pihapiirin kal- oikeudelle olla liikkeellä uutta ja ennen näke- liolla on tosin ollut pitäjän hirttopaikka. mätöntä kohti. Näitä Henrikki edustaa loista- Mutta paikan huono karma on rukouksella vasti sekä professorina että ihmisenä. Siksi ollut mahdollista putsata pois. Tuomittujen Henrikin ystävänä on virkistävää olla yhdes- rikollisten ja pyövelien sielut ovat päässeet sä liikkeellä. Kiitos tähänastisesta ja monia, lepoon. Muistolassa onkin paljon henkistä monia armorikkaita vuosia eteenpäin! tilaa. Sen ilmapiiri on avoin ja henkii ajat-

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isdom 2 and W Spirituali t ty, en – t to Managem he Relevance of Pla

TUOMO PELTONEN

HENRIKKI Tikkanen has contributed to a sophical spirituality” mainly based on Plato ous scholarly papers and books, as well as ituality. This stance is often illustrated by number of areas within business adminis- and the associated work of Eric Voegelin. specialist communities, and even a dedicat- the slogan “spiritual but not religious” that tration and beyond, including marketing, I try to keep references at a minimum. To ed journal. The area is now known as Man- Western people use to define their attitude strategy, management, and history. Among consult a more comprehensive body of the agement, Spirituality and Religion (MSR), towards questions of belief. The trend to- Henrikki’s lesser-known publications is a relevant academic bibliography, the reader and it seems to have established a legitimate wards holistic spirituality is reflected in 2009 book “Henkinen johtajuus” (“Spiritual can turn to my recent work on the topic, as niche within the structures of management the increasing interest towards alternative leadership”) that he wrote with Bishop Am- illustrated in the book “Spirituality and Reli- theory and practice. forms of religiosity and the simultaneous brosius and Timo Kietäväinen (Ambrosius et gion in Organizing” (Peltonen, 2017), and as- Spirituality is typically seen as a gen- decline in the active participation in the tra- al., 2009). My understanding is that the book sociated papers (Peltonen, 2019a, 2020). A eralized belief in a higher force, coupled ditional systems of faith. demonstrates Henrikki’s lifelong interest in shorter version of the argument can also be with the associated practices and values. However, it is challenging to delineate spirituality, mysticism and wisdom. It stands found in a recent entry to London Business There are numerous different ways to con- the religious aspects from the new forms out from his strictly academic output but Review (Peltonen, 2019b). ceptualize spirituality, and religion, in the of spirituality. For example, yoga is widely seems to, nevertheless, occupy an import- evolving corpus of management and orga- practiced as a well-being exercise in the ant place in his intellectual and personal life. nizational discourse. One of the main prob- Western world, but originally it was closely In this text, inspired by Henrikki’s inter- THE PROBLEM OF SPIRITUALITY lems is the tendency to separate spirituality connected to Hindu theology and anthropol- est, I want to reflect on the possibilities and VERSUS RELIGION from religious, theological considerations. ogy. Similarly, meditation can be traced to limitations of a broadly spiritual approach to In this sense, the management discourse its embeddedness in Buddhist philosophy the theory and practice of business lead- Spirituality has grown into a notable topic in continues the contemporary way of think- and psychology. Without a reference to the ership and organization. In what follows, I management studies over the years. The in- ing that advocates a non-confessional or underlying beliefs and the associated theo- contemplate on the possibilities of a “philo- terest into spirituality has resulted in numer- non-denominational understanding of spir- logical anthropologies, yoga and meditation

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“Weber saw a process whereby earlier beliefs centered around magic and faith were being replaced by rational deliberations and instrumental logic"

lose their grounding in a broader world- gory includes major theistic religions, but RATIONALIZATION OF BUSINESS service to post-bureaucratic organizations view, and become mere physio-neurologi- also pantheistic life philosophies as well as AND SPIRITUALITY and non-rational forms of creative dynamics, cal therapies. non-theistic movements such as Buddhism. the central thesis regarding the rationaliza- Thus, it is more appropriate to talk Different spiritual orientations understand The modern world of business is, if we be- tion of organizational life has been success- about spirituality and religiousness as a the higher immaterial force in many in- lieve Max Weber (1930, 1964), an outcome fully defended by several authors. George relatively unified category. Naturally, some commensurable ways. Theistic religions, of the rationalization of the spheres of com- Ritzer (1993), for example, had argued that forms of spirituality are less explicit about Christianity, Islam and Judaism, have been mercial exchange and social organization. rationalization tendencies in the late modern their theological and metaphysical commit- dominant in the Western hemisphere and in Weber (1930, 1964) famously argued that in- capitalism are illustrated by the diffusion of ments, but by large, any tradition, practice the development of European and Arabic stitutional innovations such as delayed grati- rationalized forms of consumption and work, or belief system that espouses a view on civilizations. Therefore, they are often taken fication, capitalistic calculation and organiza- or, the McDonaldization of economic life. the primacy of some sort of supernatural as archetypical examples of religious faith. tional bureaucracies were manifestations of His latest writings also argue that the as- reality, can be classified as being broadly However, the broadly pantheistic strands of the more general process of rationalization cent of new forms of business organization, understood religious (James, 1902). Here, folk religions have an enduring influence and secularization that began in the 18th platform and sharing economies, follow the strictly secular or atheist movements are on the available repertoire of spirituality, century and reached maturity in the early general logic of rationalization of activities being excluded from the investigation, since especially among the indigenous popula- 20th century. Weber saw a process where- for efficiency, predictability and calculability they tend to adhere to immanent natural- tions of the globe. Similarly, the non-theistic by earlier beliefs centered around magic and (Ritzer and Jurgenson, 2010). ism, that is, to a commitment to anthropo- traditions of the Eastern religions or philos- faith were being replaced by rational deliber- In a Weberian view, the “iron cage” of centric or materialist philosophies that deny ophies (Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism) ations and instrumental logic. The power of rationalization encompasses also attempts the existence of a specific spiritual, imma- could be seen as equally potent models the church was being taken over by a new to introduce supernatural beliefs and cul- terial realm. for a religious way of life. Globalization has cadre of managers, economic planners and tures into organizational and economic life. Evidently, this type of demarcation brought different religious traditions into impersonal civil servants. The world had be- Spirituality becomes a commodity. This as- still leaves a considerable variety among ever-increasing contact with each other, come disenchanted, as Weber notes. sessment is supported for example by Case the types of spiritual belief systems that contributing partly to the current climate of While the contemporary management and Gosling (2014), who interpret the recent can be classified as religious. The cate- spiritual diversity and hybridization. practice (and theory) pays considerable lip spirituality movement as being predominant-

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ly translated into a pursuit of corporate profits nue to deeper moral truths and salvational ing mental harmony or holistic mind-body and competitive utility. Hyland (2017), in turn, “'Spiritual but eschatologies, New Age spiritualities take well-being, but it is not treated as an alter- depicts how general interest on meditation is the form of consumptive instances that re- native world-view or a distinct philosophical realized as a product to be consumed within not religious' strict the potential of a more broadly under- attitude. conventional market structures. The ethical stood theistic and philosophical spirituality and theological values of spirituality move- is the new for moral and societal transformation. ment that are inherently oppositional to the While Heelas’s and Woodhead’s dis- MANAGEMENT, ORGANIZATION prevailing materialistic principles are con- slogan for tinction into outer churched religion and AND A “PHILOSOPHICAL verted into individualized pursuits of well-be- inner subjective spirituality is not fully sup- SPIRITUALITY” ing, happiness and measurable outcomes. ported by religious theological conceptions The Weberian perspective is a many persons of the role of the divine in the human person What type of understanding of spirituality healthy reminder of the pitfalls inherent in and community, their thesis nevertheless and religion could, then, offer a more thor- advocating spirituality as liberation from the that are drawn describes a well-documented tendency in oughgoing philosophical approach to mak- formal structures of hierarchy and conform- the Western societies towards non-denom- ing sense and transforming management ism. Liberation and the associated virtues into holistic inational spirituality. Church membership is and organization? One option would be to (democracy, inclusion, equality) too easily declining at the same time as people turn delve into Eastern spiritual philosophies become organized into new rationalized spiritualities..." to different forms of alternative spirituality. such as Buddhism to craft novel ontologies, structures like bureaucracy, as Michels “Spiritual but not religious” is the new slo- epistemologies and axiologies of man- (1915) demonstrated in the footsteps of We- gan for many persons that are drawn into aging and leading. After all, the Eastern ber. The assumed duality of structure and holistic spiritualities and the individualized, alternatives to Western “onto-theologies” agency misses the more enduring culture inner exercises that characterize the New have long inspired modern philosophers of rationalization that cuts across domains Age movements and non-theistic tradi- in their quest of finding moral ways of life and ideologies. tions. This phenomenon is reflected in the that avoid other-worldly visions and author- Indeed, one can recognize an emerg- heightened interest towards well-being spir- itarian structures typically associated with ing “spirituality industry” that has commer- ituality in organizations, as well as in the theistic religions of the Occident (most no- cialized a wealth of spiritual traditions and emergence of a nascent spirituality industry tably, Western Christianity). Such pantheis- practices into sellable well-being products. that often combines physiological aspects tic (or panentheistic) avenues are currently This is, in turn, connected to the trend, of well-being at work with the mind-body in vogue also in organizational thinking for where spirituality is increasingly separated techniques of New Age spiritualities such example in the form of process theories and from established religions in the late mod- as mindfulness and yoga. ontologies of immanent forces and disposi- ern landscape. Spirituality becomes a man- In sum, the introduction of spirituali- tifs, and of poststructuralism more broadly. ifestation of the pursuit of individualized ty can be seen from the prism of Weberian I am arguing, however, for a different subjectivity projects, as religious scholars rationalization thesis as a new domain of direction. Classical Greek philosophy and Paul Heelas and Linda Woodhead have social and organizational life that advocates the associated theological philosophy of convincingly argued (Heelas et al., 2005). an inner fulfillment and well-being for per- Christianity offer a European tradition that Yoga, meditation and holistic healing are sonalized life projects. “Packaged” spiritual- assigns the spiritual or the divine a cen- among the practices that denote an exclu- ity is appropriated as an instrument for the tral position in our understanding of reality, sive focus on the inner meaning and spir- continued pursuit of efficiency and compet- while also providing resources to re-frame itual growth at the expense of traditional itiveness of organizations, instead of being and transform conceptions of personhood, transcendental religious metaphysics and approached as a deeper transformation of community and political (managerial) action. church-centered forms of devotional life the priorities and sensitivities of sociality. Classical Greek philosophy of Socrates, Pla- (Heelas, 2008). Instead of providing an ave- Rationalized spirituality may aid in find- to and Aristoteles presented a metaphysical

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picture of the world, where the most viable forms and ideas rather than in the chang- elements of reality were located in the un- ing and deceptive shadows of the empirical changing domain of transcendental forms and material reality. The Forms represent and first principles. Of special interest here in the figures of Truth, Beauty and Justice is Plato’s work, which develops a most ap- that which is fully perfect, self-sufficient and parently spiritual view of reality, with impli- unified. The material and natural objects, cations for good governance. and worldly phenomena are always crude Plato’s philosophy and dialogues are replicas of the paradigmatic perfection of the beginning of a long tradition in the the Forms, including also the human Western world. Later philoso- nature. phy could be rightfully seen At the same time, hu- as a series of footnotes mankind has a special to Plato, as Whitehead place between the divine famously suggested. Forms and the lower But while Plato and material and natural Platonism have a "For Plato, creations. Humans place in the history are both divine and of philosophical and soul is the empirical beings. political thought as As Plato (1993) ar- a variant of ideal- gateway back gued, the human ist striving towards soul is immortal good life and eth- to a union or and flows from the ical maxims, the eternity of tran- spiritual character participation scendental Forms. of Plato’s (and his It is confronted with followers) work has with the divine the desiring and not traditionally been passionate parts of registered as whole- realm." the psyche in the psy- heartedly in the domain cho-physical constitution of social and political of the human individual. studies. Yet as Louth (2007) For Plato, soul is the gateway notes, the mystical and religious back to a union or participation element in Plato’s philosophy is not with the divine realm. This can be at- simply a sideshow in his work, but some- tained primarily through contemplation, or a thing that penetrates and informs his whole practice Greeks called theoria – an ascetic understanding of the world, knowledge and spiritual practice that polishes the soul and truth. The well-known themes from his to see and take part in the extra-sensual philosophy such as the simile of the Cave Forms and their goodness (Nightingale, call for philosopher-kings and the tripartite 2004). Contemplative theoria requires that conception of the human psyche, all rest the soul turns to its natural divine source on the assumption that truth to be found in and shuts down the sensory machinery the divine realm of eternal and immaterial with its superficial understanding of knowl-

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“'Philosophy is love of wisdom, where the intellectual aspects of theoretical-metaphysical exercises meet with a holistic or even erotic union with the Forms."

edge and wisdom. The pathway to the full- higher towards the actual source of wisdom es to climb out of the Cave of sense knowl- a macro-anthropos of the individual subject ness and perfection of the Forms calls for and order, represented by Sun in the Plato’s edge and the disorder of daily hurly-burly, has (cf., Voegelin, 1952), where higher and low- inner and outer meditative discipline, in- story. The rise from the Cave is a holistic elevated himself or herself into a higher level er forces are competing for mastery. For a cluding purification of moral distortions that transformation of being, in which the human of wisdom and perfection. The philosopher community to be governed wisely, it needs impede the opening of the soul to the Good. subject undergoes a rearranging of the pri- has attained a state of spiritually rational vi- leaders who are morally and spiritually ed- Indeed, in order to approach or return orities organizing his or her psychic and sion and can guide his life past the perils of ucated by the union with or participation in to the real source of being, human subjects subjective operations (Nightingale, 2004). destructive desires and passions. the Forms (Louth, 2007). Only philosophers must strive to become perfect in the image For Plato (1993), philosophy is the prac- And yet to establish a good society, can deliver order and harmony to communi- of the divine Forms to which they are seek- tice of theoria in par excellence. The philos- the human community according to Plato ty, whereas others who are mainly directed ing to take part. Plato, and more clearly, his opher’s task is to contemplate and follow a (1993) needs to call the philosopher back by other forces than the wisdom of the soul later followers, the Neoplatonists (Remes, virtuous life path in the pursuit of divinization. from his or her divine retreat, to assume take corresponding positions in the lower 2008), subscribed to a view whereby the Philosophy is love of wisdom, where the in- leadership of immanent practical affairs. As ranks of the social structure. These include enlightenment of the human takes place tellectual aspects of theoretical-metaphysical a philosopher-king (or queen), the divinized the soldiers, who are strong in courage and through divinization, i.e., becoming a di- exercises meet with a holistic or even erotic person must take the helm in the govern- national pride, and workers, who are spe- vine-like person (O’Meara, 2005). The epis- union with the Forms (cf., Hadot, 1995). This ment of social affairs and organizations so cialized into particular tasks and occupa- temological aspects of this quest in Plato’s quest for other-worldly being puts a philoso- that political life can develop towards order, tions and governed primarily by bodily ap- work are illustrated in the metaphor of the pher on a collision course with the everyday justice and harmony (Klosko, 2006). petites and material rewards (Plato, 1993). Cave, whereas the implications for politics concerns of social life. With a dedication to the The jump from the individual to the More generally, the transmission of and governance are articulated in the dis- divine that is beyond the conventional cogni- constitution of the community is justified by order via a union with the divine Forms cussion about the philosopher-king. The tive and material contexts of earthly immedia- the idea of the correspondence between the paves a way for a social organization that ascent from the Cave is the contemplative cy, the philosopher becomes a metaphysical individual soul and the political structure of avoids the pitfalls of both authoritarian total- journey of theoria away from the limitations stranger to the world of action (Remes, 2008). the social organization. Social community itarianism and democratic liberty. As Sax- of our sense data and social opinions, and At the same time, a philosopher who manag- (the polis of the ancient Greece) is seen as onhouse (1998) argues, the “City of God”

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presented as the ideal society in Plato’s Re- rigorous, extended discussion of the impli- Having identified the crisis of mo- public turns against democratic principles cations of Plato and Platonist thought within "...Voegelin dernity as the wrong immanentization of exactly because it sees the ideal of free- the broad scholarship on organization and transcendental truth, Voegelin sets out to dom underpinning the modern democratic management studies. The metaphysical sets out to contemplate how to re-spiritualize the mod- regimes in a way that leads to atomistic and and spiritual aspects of Plato and his later ern age. The delicate project of introducing relativistic forms of social life. The harmoni- Neoplatonist followers’ theory have been openness to the divine truth is accomplished ous community enabled by the primacy of wholeheartedly omitted from the main- contemplate by Voegelin by focusing on the possibili- divine Forms is an antidote to the accelerat- stream and critical reviews of the origins ties of what could be called spiritual con- ed uncertainties and deconstructions of tra- and genealogies of organizational thinking. how to sciousness. He integrates the idea of the ditional identities under a democratic rule. Maybe because it is considered belonging openness and eventual union with the tran- The authoritarian tyranny takes the idea of to antiquity, the relevance of Plato’s thought re-spiritualize scendental with a phenomenological theo- a metaphysical hierarchy too literally and for modern questions of organization and ry of consciousness. The basic orientation tries to enforce an overt regime based on spirituality has been unconsciously reject- the modern of the mind to the objects as treated in the the class distinctions and oppressive rule ed. In this respect, the work of Eric Voegelin phenomenology of Husserl is being given rather than the ultimate goal of divine order would be a welcomed correction in the di- age." spiritual depth by Voegelin in a move that and cosmological harmony. For this, demo- alogues between pre-modern and modern adds a further element into the structure and cratic principles provide a needed counter- conceptions of spirituality and social order. practice of human consciousness. Spiritual weight by guaranteeing a set of liberties for Voegelin (1952) is perhaps best known enlightenment occurs through the active par- its individual subjects. However, for Plato for his critique of modernity and modern ticipation of the experiencing psyche in the (1993), democratic liberalism easily goes social philosophy as an inherently “gnostic” transcendental Beyond. The spiritual expe- too far to the other extreme where the or- undertaking. For him, “gnostic” means the rience as understood by Voegelin is not pri- der-giving nature of divine Forms is pushed prevalence of modern thinking to assume marily about meditative contemplation but a aside in the favor of unlimited egoistic inter- that the transcendental ideals can be re- dynamic process in which the mind becomes ests and life-worlds. The philosopher-king alized in time and space. For Gnostics, aware of the absent presence of the divine and the associated governance in the im- Voegelin argues, the other-worldly ideas omnipotence and goodness as it constructs age of god (Louth, 2007) is a paradigm for about perfect social and political order are to knowledge. order that is less materially immanent than be realized in the immanence of our human The idea of actively participating in is understood in the tyrannical regime and reality and within history. The main contra- divinity through consciousness also gives more constitutive of actual human freedom diction in the gnostic re-constitution of reali- rise to the idea that when practiced system- than the seeming liberties inherent in a ty is that it emulates the spiritual narrative of atically, it can alter the moral and epistemo- de-spiritualized democracy. theist religions, most notably Christianity, but logical configuration of individual and social The claim that the philosopher, the locates the salvation within immanent time subjects. Here Voegelin is clearly following lover of divine wisdom, should be given au- and space. The Christian story of the Fall of in the footsteps of Plato (1993), who suggest- thority to organize the surrounding commu- humankind ends with the passage from the ed in The Republic that philosopher-king are nity in the image of godly Forms, and that worldly existence to a post-immanent state developed through the rigorous education good community is impossible without the that breaks the duality between material and of the youth. This is the domain of theoria, contemplative practice of theoria and the spiritual realms. In the fulfilment of empiri- or the practice of engaging future leaders in associated theosis or divinization (O’Meara, cal history, we move beyond it, whereas in spiritual and intellectual exercises that nur- 2005) of its citizens, has gone mostly un- modern thinking the end of history means ture a habitual sensitivity to the metaphysical noticed within classical and modern or- realization of human evolution that contin- truths. But Voegelin (1952) is not really inter- ganization theory (for an exception, see ues as a complete social order within the ested in articulating a pedagogy of spiritual Case et al., 2012). It is difficult to find any parameters of immanent existence. transformation. This may be due to the fact

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that his understanding of the human subject tiveness, where spirituality is rationalized Perhaps the main contribution of Pla- "...the Form of knowledge and politics was influenced as a programme for well-being and mental to’s spiritual philosophy is a renewed atten- more by the emerging fields of phenomenol- balance – important as they are in their own tion to metaphysical universals in manage- of the Good ogy and pragmatism than the concrete as- right. Spirituality and religion represent a ment thinking. Modern management and pects of political and civic education. radical alternative to the prevailing material- organization theory has tended to empha- manifests itself For Voegelin, the turn to the transcen- ism and instrumentalism of social and orga- size contingency, context and relativity over dent has a political and social dimension: nizational life. Relatedly, spirituality and re- order, truth and essence (cf., Clegg et al., the soul radiating from the participation with ligion are not merely about personal beliefs 2006; Tsoukas and Knudsen, 2003). Even in public and the divine Beyond brings order and harmo- or humanistic values. The idea that spiritu- the recent discussions on wisdom, despite ny to the individual psyche by governing the ality refers to the private beliefs or systems leaning heavily on Aristotle and phronesis, economic action lower forces within human nature. Spiritual of faith is a limited understanding of the full have appropriated the classical Greek lega- consciousness is superior to the powers implications of adapting a spiritual philo- cy as a managerial capability of distinguish- as the idea of of the passionate and appetitive parts of sophical attitude to reality and managing. ing the salient features of particular situa- the human person (Plato, 1993). Reformed Spiritualities involve broader assumptions tions, and to envision local ways to pursuit the Common consciousness has the capacity to distin- about organizational reality, ethics and gov- the desired ends (e.g., Flyvjberg, 2006; guish right order from a flawed one. This, ernance that cannot be equated merely with Shotter and Tsoukas, 2014). Plato’s and Good." in turn, endows the subject with the poten- personal matters of faith. Voegelin’s approach highlight the primacy tial for describing what could approximately Instead, as has been argued, expe- of the unchanging Forms, understood as be the right order for society. For the most riences and practices of spirituality are in- spiritual, moral and aesthetic ideals of orga- part, Voegelin’s political theory follows Pla- terwoven with an understanding of the most nizational life. Divine Forms are, however, to’s articulation of the ideal city in The Re- fundamental aspects of reality. That is, there not merely figments of imagination; rather, public: social order is a “macroanthropos” is always a philosophical or metaphysical they are real – indeed, more real than the of its constituent citizens, and the stronger aspect involved in the pursuit of spirituality empirical realities of our human perception the spiritually rational part of the individual and religion as a facet of social and orga- and cognition. Furthermore, participating psyche of citizens and especially leaders, nizational life. In this essay, I have outlined with these “real ideals” is a critical precon- the more harmonious is the political or eco- one such vision based on the classical phil- dition for producing leaders with character nomic community. osophical project of Plato, together with and virtue. Management education and a modern variant developed by Voegelin. learning needs to revert the attention of the Succinctly put, they suggest a conception future generations of leaders to the clas- SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS of man as positioned between the divine, sical values of Truth, Beauty and Justice. FOR MANAGEMENT (EDUCATION) transcendental domain of unchanging Good managers must turn to the absolute Forms and the secular domain of human Good. It is not possible in this context to extensive- endeavors and immanent realities. Good Another way of expressing the role ly discuss the premises and consequences governance requires a well-formed subjec- of the Forms and the form of the Good in of adopting Plato’s and Voegelin’s position tivity that emerges from the participation particular, is to understand human develop- on spirituality and governance. However, with the divine Forms, described generally ment as a pursuit of perfection. As Forms we can discern certain implications of their as involvement with contemplative, charac- are those objects that are the fullest versions work for management and management ter building and philosophical-educational of values and knowledge, they are to be education, in relation to the issues related exercises. The key figure is that of a philos- pursued in the quest for wisdom and good to spirituality and religion. Firstly, the ap- opher-leader, who is capable of intuiting the deliberation. Managers should pursue spir- pearance of interest towards spirituality is right order in the midst of the contingencies itual, moral and epistemological excellence not to be reduced to an instrument of effec- and passions of daily administrative life. by way of turning to the Forms in their indi-

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vidual and collective self-development. The be aware of the limits of their capabilities. In in societies across the world. In times like divine realm of Forms (and, in the case of practical terms, organizations should avoid this, it becomes blatantly obvious that with- religion, God) is the best aid in strengthen- megalomaniac visions of declaring becom- out a collective effort, basic well-being and ing our intellect, understanding and virtuous ing globally leading companies, the best quality of life can get severely endangered action. Obviously, this goes against calls to employers or creators of super brands. It is in extreme conditions. Coordinating the in- base management education on “facts” or wiser to aim at serving the chosen needs or stitutional and economic response requires “evidence”, along the lines of an empiricist supplying the products sought after in the moderation of partial interests and dramatic or realist approach to knowledge production markets in an efficient manner. In short, or- emotions. In this respect, Organizing for the and education. There is a metaphysical, ganizational management requires realistic Common Good is not possible without lead- transcendental element in management ex- self-knowledge about the role of the organi- ers who have internalized the nature of the cellence that goes beyond the conventional zation in the broader scheme of things, as more general, spiritual Good. This is the tri- ideas related to the scientific method and the well as about the capabilities and limitations al that we now face, and in which philosoph- progress of knowledge. Simultaneously, the of what is possible to achieve. ical spirituality can be of considerable help. issue at hand is not merely the investigation In today’s milieu of corporate extrava- and correction of possible cognitive biases in ganza and leadership by spectacle, temper- Many years, gracious years, many gra- managerial decision-making. Plato’s Forms ing megalomania constitutes perhaps a more cious years! are sources of intelligibility that precede our pressing challenge than excessive modesty. capacity for perception, thinking and deliber- Plato’s and Voegelin’s work suggests that ation. Participating with the (perfect) Forms spirituality offers a counterbalance to the spill- arms us with reason and a sense of the right ages of hubris, desire and greed within the order of things. formation of managerial agency. Spirituality A second major contribution to man- as participation with the classical ideals and agement thinking is in the way organiza- values arouses an actorhood that is at the tions, especially commercial enterprises, same time reasoned and morally sustainable. envision their purpose. Typically, these are It manifests itself for example in wise leader- articulated in mission statements and stra- ship that takes a balanced, long-term view of "Organizing for tegic declarations. Following Plato’s (1993) the viability of the organization or institution, thought in the Republic, a central quality abstaining from over-ambitious careerism or the Common of a good society or polis is its harmony from “milking” the system for short-term profit and balance. Each constituent part has or personal reward (Jackall, 1988). Good is not a distinct role to play in the whole and is Eventually, the Form of the Good man- adequately equipped to fulfil that purpose. ifests itself in public and economic action as possible without For individual organizations, this means the idea of the Common Good. As Aristotle that they are aware of their capabilities, understood it, Common Good refers to a leaders who have resources and identities as they set their state, where human life can flourish across objectives. Each particular organization social and material divides. Accordingly, internalized the should seek to fulfil a type of service or each organization and firm have an ultimate output to the society or the market that the objective of contributing to the making and nature of the more organization is fittingly equipped to provide. sustenance of the Common Good. As I am Organizations should not shy away from writing this, March 19, 2020, the global general, spiritual aspiring to serve higher or more extensive coronavirus pandemic is devastating eco- needs, but, at the same time, they should nomic life and causing states of exception Good."

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LÄHTEET / REFERENCES: O’Meara DJ (2005) Platonopolis: Platonic Political Philosophy in Late Antiquity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ambrosius M, Tikkanen H and Kietäväinen T (2009) Henkinen johtajuus. Helsinki: Kirjapaja. Peltonen T (2017) Spirituality and Religion in Organizing: Beyond Secular Leadership. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Case P, French R and Simpson P (2012) From theoria to theory: Leadership without contemplation. Organization 19(3): 345-361. Peltonen T (2019a) Transcendence, consciousness and order: Towards a philosophical spirituality of organization in the footsteps of Plato and Eric Voegelin. Case P and Gosling J (2010) The spiritual organization: critical reflections on the Philosophy of Management 18(3): 231–247. instrumentality of workplace spirituality. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion 7(4): 257-282. Peltonen T (2019b) The possibilities and limitations of the emerging organisational spirituality movement. LSE Business Review. Available at: https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/ Clegg SR, Hardy C, Lawrence TB and Nord WR (2006) The Sage Handbook of businessreview/2019/03/18/the-possibilities-and-limitations-of-the-emerging- Organization Studies. London: Sage organisational-spirituality-movement/ (accessed 23 September 2020). Flyvbjerg B (2006) Making organization research matter: power, values and phronesis. Peltonen T (2020) The role of religion in cross-cultural management: Three In: Handbook of Organization Studies. London: Sage, pp.370–387. perspectives. In: Szkudlarek B, Romani L, Caprar DV and Osland JS (eds) The SAGE Hadot P (1995) Philosophy as a Way of Life: Spiritual Exercises from Socrates to Handbook of Contemporary Cross-Cultural Management. Los Angeles, CA: Sage, Foucault. London: Blackwell. pp.240–254.

Heelas P (2008) Spiritualities of Life: New Age Romanticism and Consumptive Plato (1993) The Republic. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Capitalism. New York, NY: Wiley. Remes P (2008) Neoplatonism. Stocksfield: Acumen. Heelas P, Woodhead L, Seel B, Szerszynski B and Tusting K (2005) The spiritual Ritzer G (1993) The McDonaldization of Society. London: Sage. revolution: Why religion is giving way to spirituality. Oxford: Blackwell. Ritzer G and Jurgenson N (2010) Production, consumption, prosumption: The nature Hyland T (2017) McDonaldizing spirituality: Mindfulness, education, and consumerism. of capitalism in the age of the digital ‘prosumer’. Journal of Consumer Culture 10(1): Journal of Transformative Education 15(4): 334–356. 13–36. Jackall R (1988) Moral Mazes: The World of Corporate Managers. Oxford: Oxford Saxonhouse AW (1998) Democracy, equality, and eide: A radical view from Book 8 of University Press. Plato's Republic. American Political Science Review 92(02): 273–283. James W (1902) The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Human Nature. Shotter J and Tsoukas H (2014) In search of phronesis: Leadership and the art of New York, NY: Longmans, Green & Co. judgment. Academy of Management Learning & Education 13(2): 224–243. Klosko G (2006) Development of Plato’s Political Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Tsoukas H and Knudsen C (2003) The Oxford Handbook of Organization Theory: Press. Meta-Theoretical Perspectives. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Louth A (2007) The Origins of the Christian Mystical Tradition: From Plato to Denys. Voegelin E (1952) The New Science of Politics: An Introduction. Chicago, IL: University Oxford: Oxford University Press. of Chicago Press. Michels R (2001/1915) Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Weber M (1930) The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. London: George Tendencies of Modern Democracies. Retrieved from: http://socserv2.socsci.mcmaster. Allen & Unwin Ltd. ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/michels/polipart.pdf Weber M (1964/1947) The Theory of Economic and Social Organization. New York, NY: Nightingale A (2004) Spectacles of Truth in Classical Greek Philosophy: Theoria in its The Free Press. Cultural Context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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a keen interest not only in various aspects prospective. That is to say the Festschrift of marketing but also in the philosophy of is a Beruf, a call to further work, effort, and science, organization theory, management energy, a call to the improvement of learn- research, and strategy. He is one of the ing, of a discipline, a science, an artistic 3 very few marketing scholars who has this vision, or an intellectual position” (p. 237). kind of broad cross-disciplinary knowledge Drawing on these notes I dedicate and understanding. Respect! the following “reprint” of my 1992 paper Not all scholars are leaders, and ob- “Research traditions in marketing: theoreti- Research Traditions viously vice versa. Henkka, however, has cal notes” to Professor Henrikki Tikkanen. an impressive track record that covers the I know that Henkka appreciates all kinds mobilization and leading of major research of history, and especially academic history. projects, an excellent talent for spotting I hope that he will lead research on mar- in Marketing: doctoral candidates and their subsequent keting theory and its evolution for years to tutoring, leading academic departments come. and being involved in university-level poli- cy-making. He has mastered major external Theoretical Notes research funding and transformed the Mar- keting Department into the most internation- al in terms of faculty and doctoral students KRISTIAN MÖLLER at Aalto University’s School of Business. These achievements have not been accom- plished through ordinary bureaucracy. On the contrary, Henkka is an ardent enemy of IT IS AN HONOR, a pleasure and a chal- tle of wine on the way to a hotel from an IMP any bureaucratic system and even an ag- → lenge to be invited to contribute to the Fest- conference in 1997 in Lyon, while starting gressive defender of the academic freedom schrift for Professor Henrikki Tikkanen, or to sketch the IMP conference to be hosted of his students, faculty, and department. Henkka to his colleagues and friends. Let in Turku in 1998 (to be chaired by Henkka’s You can count on his loyalty, but you would me briefly reflect on the Festschrift tradition “boss”, Karin Holstius, the first female pro- not want to be on the opposite site. by using – as a lazy emeritus professor – fessor of international business in Finland). Let us return to the paper at hand. Two Wikipedia. Then as an actively publishing colleague interesting views on the subtler functions of The Festschrift, originating from at the University of Oulu and Helsinki Uni- the Festschrift have been shared. Endel Germany, is a book honoring a respected versity of Technology. Finally, from 1996 Tulving (2007), a Canadian neuroscientist, person, especially an academic. It gen- onwards, a professorial colleague at the proposed “a Festschrift frequently enough erally takes the form of an edited volume, Marketing Department of Helsinki School also serves as a convenient place in which containing contributions from the honoree’s of Economics and then the School of Busi- those who are invited to contribute find a colleagues, former pupils, and friends. ness at the new Aalto University. permanent resting place for their otherwise During my long acquaintance with We can all read about Henkka’s sig- unpublishable or at least difficult-to-publish Henkka – we first met at a research seminar nificant academic achievements on Wiki- papers” (p. 39). in the mid 1990s – I have had the oppor- pedia, Publish and Perish (Henkka was the On a more optimistic note, Irving tunity to know him in many roles. First, as first to tip me off about the PP site), and Louis Horowitz (1991) commented, “Fest- a young and ambitious doctoral candidate. Google Scholar. One remarkable feature in schriften persist and multiply. Why? Be- We shared a hilarious coach trip and a bot- his research is his versatility, as he shows cause they are not just retrospective, but

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cation can increase our understanding of search approach is better but to evaluate BEYOND THE SURFACE: META- Reasearch marketing phenomena, but only if we can their cognitive goals, theoretical driving ANALYTICAL DIMENSIONS surmount the barriers posed by the varying forces, underlying assumptions, and the in- traditions in theoretical bases and vocabulary employed. sights they give for the discipline. To make Two closely related approaches are pres- Without metatheoretical understanding the this task feasible, several limitations must ent in the meta-analysis of approaches or marketing: dangers of compartmentalization, including be accepted. traditions. One can try to derive a restricted misinterpretations and misunderstanding, First, I focus only on research adopt- number of highly abstract metatheoretical are imminent. ing the perspective of the firm or its man- dimensions and employ these to develop a Theoretical The diversification of marketing dis- agement. This means not addressing con- typology of relevant approaches. Alternative- cipline coincides with an increased inter- sumer behavior – which can already be ly, one can define a set of descriptive criteria notes est in the epistemological issues in social regarded as a discipline of its own right and evaluate existing approaches according sciences. The debate on the valid “scien- – and the societal aspects of marketing to these criteria. The typology approach is Originally published in “Economics and Mar- tific method” initiated in philosophy and in comprising the macromarketing studies. very powerful but abstract; the profile meth- keting: Essays in honor of Gösta Mickwitz”, sociology of science reached marketing This omission is not meant to represent any od provides a more detailed description but eds., H.C. Blomqvist, C. Grönroos, and mainly through consumer behavior during value judgement, it is a choice made out of not so elegant positioning or discrimination. L-J. Lindqvist, Publications of the Swedish the early 1980’s. One fairly recent outcome resource scarcity. The profile approach is chosen here as School of Economics, No 48, Helsingfors, of the method discourse is the “multipara- Second, to keep the treatment of the many of the research approaches to mar- 1992. digm-perspective” on theory development research approaches manageable, a high keting management are not monolithic but endorsed by Morgan (1986), Gioia and Pitre abstraction level leading to gross simplifi- include constructs and ideas from more than (1990), and Hunt (1991). cations is necessary. This may imply un- school or stream. BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Theoretical pluralism embraces the justified suggestions, but details must be One of the best known schemes for an- FROM MONOLITHIC MARKETING idea that the multiple views created by dif- forsaken for gaining comparative clarity be- alyzing theoretical schools in social scienc- THEORY TO PLURALISM ferent research traditions can be linked or at tween the studied schools of thought. es is provided by Burrell and Morgan (1979) least compared in order to achieve a better Third, the analysis must be regarded who argue that any theory can be effectively After studying marketing for about 20 years, understanding of the substance of a disci- as both personal and exploratory. Other re- described through four sets of assumptions I still find it an elusive phenomenon. Mar- pline. Each tradition provides a particular searchers making different choices would related to (l) the nature of the focal phenom- keting seems to have many meanings for and partial view of its focal phenomena – write another story or paint a different ena (ontology), (2) the nature of knowledge different researchers. As marketing aca- dependent both on its ontological and epis- picture about marketing. Two obvious ex- of those phenomena (epistemology), (3) the demics, we should not mind this, the cur- temological assumptions and the issues it amples are the paradigmatic view on mar- nature of man, and (4) the nature of ways rent flux is an indication of the development has chosen to take to the foreground. From keting suggested by Arndt (1985) and the studying those phenomena (methodology); of the discipline. From a fairly monolithic the vantage point of metatheoretical plane, excellent book about theoretical schools cf., also Gioia and Pitre (1990), and Easton theoretical position in the 1960’s, we have the beholders of different perspectives can within marketing discipline by Sheth et al. (1995). Using these “dimensions” Burrell and traveled to a world of highly differentiated reach a more comprehensive portrayal of (1988). Morgan define two meta-theoretical orienta- and specialized research scene involving the phenomenon as well as evaluate spe- Next, the metatheoretical dimensions tions. The subjectivist orientation combines metatheoretically disparate research tradi- cific benefits and limitations of issues under to be used in describing the research tradi- nominalist ontology with anti-positivist epis- tions. From the functional view of marketing examination. tions are briefly outlined. Then the traditions temology, assumes a voluntarist human “mix” management our focus has extended Need for theoretical consciousness are identified in their historical context, their nature, and embraces ideographic method- to the strategic role of marketing, aspects and pluralism in marketing forms the basic content is depicted and metatheoretical ology. Conversely the objectivist orientation of services marketing, political dimensions tenet of this study. I try to provide a descrip- character portrayed. By comparing the tra- assumes realist ontology with “positivist” of channel management, and interaction in tion of major traditions within marketing ditions, theoretical conclusions are drawn or logical-empiricist epistemology, is deter- industrial networks, to mention just a few during the period 1960–1990. The issue for the development of the marketing dis- minist on human nature and nomothetic on evolving trends. This disciplinary diversifi- is not to make any judgement on which re- cipline. methodology.

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Although I regard the suggested link- wants at a profit, cf., Kotler, 1967) and the ages between the sets of meta-assump- perspective of achieving this goal through tions too narrow and mechanistic, and the management of the “mix” of competitive use of the positivism concept misleading, marketing parameters, the “4 Ps”, crystal- it is obvious that the “objective versus sub- lized into paradigmatic research approach jective” orientations provide a valuable an- which has since dominated the majority of alytical dimension. Arndt (1985) employs it, marketing research. together with the deterministic vs volunta- ristic dimension in his 2x2 classification of marketing paradigms. MARKETING MANAGEMENT Other dimensions adopted in clas- sifying marketing theories include “inter- The marketing management approach can active vs noninteractive” perspective and be characterized as trying to solve the fol- “economic vs noneconomic perspective” lowing problem: how to develop an “optimal” (Sheth et al., 1988), level of analysis (“micro" marketing mix consisting of the Product, vs "macro”) and deterministic orientation vs Place, Price, and Promotion solutions for voluntaristic orientation (Walker et al., 1987), competing for the preferences of a chosen static vs dynamic orientation (Möller and target segment of consumers, households Anttila, 1989). or organizational buyers. This basic issue Evidently, all these dimensions are involves several subproblems: choosing useful descriptors of research approaches. the target market, differentiating and posi- One should, however, emphasize basic on- tioning the product vis-a-vis the competing tological differences as these influence all product alternatives, and estimating the other aspects of research traditions. In ad- market response. Evolving segmentation dition, the cognitive goals of the program, and positioning theories and techniques its typical mode of making inferences, disci- relied on the development of a deeper un- plinary foundations, possible value commit- derstanding or consumer brand choice be- ments, and policy implications are of inter- havior. Kotler’s (1967) classic textbook on est, see Anderson (1986b). marketing management can be used as an exemplar of this school of thought, some- times called simply the 4 Ps or marketing MAJOR RESEARCH TRADITIONS mix approach. For an in-depth discussion IN MARKETING: SIMPLE on “marketing mix” approach, see Van den DESCRIPTIONS Bulte (1991). The dominating disciplinary back- In order to understand the present theo- ground of marketing management is mi- retical situation in marketing one has to croeconomics. The “economic manager” is examine the development in the discipline reflected in marginal utility view underlying since the 1960’s. The 1960’s provide a nat- the derivation of the optimal parameter mix ural starting phase because during that de- emphasizing the allocation nature of mar- cade the marriage between the “marketing keting management (Dorfman and Steiner, concept” (firms exists to satisfy customer 1954; Mickwitz, 1959, 1966). Another aspect

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is the assumption of atomistic customer late 1960’s and 1970’s managerial empha- their shares of total marketing effort). Lar- the firm within the industry, industry structure markets comprised of independent actors sis shifted towards the management of mul- réché and Srinivasan’s (1982) STRATPORT through strategic group construct, and final- and perceived as dominantly passive. That tidivisional corporations and their business portfolio model and Cook's (1985) marketing ly a firm's competitive response through the is, despite the emphasis given to the ex- units. This corporate development is related strategy models represent advanced forms generic strategy concept (Miles and Snow, change phenomenon – as the focal issue to the emergence of strategic management of this approach. 1978; Porter, 1980; Rumelt, 1974). of marketing (Bagozzi, 1979, Houston and as a subdiscipline within business studies. All these marketing responses to the The theory of industry strategy was Gossenheimer, 1988, Hunt, 1983) – the mar- Marketing researchers’ claim to stra- challenge strategic management issues further elaborated by emphasizing the an- keting management tradition presumes pri- tegic management is mainly based on share an economic background and norma- tecedents and determinants of competitive marily a stimulus-response relationship be- the discipline’s position in explaining the tive orientation. They try to provide means for advantage. A close relative to Alderson’s tween the firm and its customers, made up firm-market-customer relationships. Yet, optimal portfolio management and resource (1957) differential advantage, competitive of singular independent transactions. the marketing management tradition did not allocation using quite simplistic assumptions advantage was made the buzzword of the The economic perspective is related have much to offer for the new problems: about the market and late 1980’s by Porter to an objective worldview and espouses how to choose between potential prod- competitive conditions: (1985). His value chain hypothetical-deductive reasoning in theo- uct-market combinations and what kind market growth rate, construct and analysis ry development and nomothetic measure- of strategies to develop and implement in market share etc. As provides one of the first ment. Modeling is explanatory and the nor- various business areas. Two primary re- such, this “market strat- "Strategic systematic proposals mative goals are related to deriving optimal sponses to the “environment-market strat- egy” school is a natural for dealing with the or- solutions for marketing mix, segmentation, egy” challenge were the portfolio models extension of the mar- aspects of ganizational aspects and positioning problems. and strategically oriented market share/per- keting management of developing compet- Though remarkably popular, the formance models. Portfolio models – e.g., tradition. management itive strategies leading marketing management tradition is silent Boston Consulting Group’s “relative market Strategic aspects to advantage. Ruekert of many aspects of marketing-related phe- share and market growth model”, General of management were, were, however, and Walker (1987) also nomena. The disciplinary development in Electric’s “market attractiveness” matrix – however, developing address the interfunc- the field can be, largely, seen as reactions represent a contingency approach trying to rapidly. By mid-1980’s, developing tional issues, and Day to the narrow domain covered by the mar- provide answers to choosing SBUs/product due to the global reces- and Wensley (1988) and keting management school and to its under- groups and to deriving strategies for man- sion companies found Aaker (1989) have em- lying assumptions. aging chosen combinations, (Abel and it extensively difficult to rapidly." phasized the assets, Hammond 1979). compete on widely dif- skills and positions PIMS project is the best-known exam- ferent product-markets. underlying advantage. STRATEGIC SCHOOL IN ple of performance modeling based on the This led to the “back to the basics” move- Obviously, the emerging theory of competi- MARKETING empirical estimation of the relative influence ment – by carrying out major disinvestments, tive strategy encompasses more details than of marketing input factors on the firm or SBU firms focused their activities primarily on their can be given here. I have purposefully cho- One aspect of the marketing management performance. Market performance modeling core industries. Within the management the- sen markets and marketing related aspects. approach is its underlying emphasis on the tries to answer the problem of how to devel- ory the quite simplistic market notions were Taken together this “strategic school brand management of consumer products. op an optimal market or marketing strategy developed into a more detailed theory of in- of marketing” is relying primarily on the no- This is reflected especially in the empirical (Jacobson and Aaker, 1985, 1987; Phillips et dustry competition. Drawing on the econom- tions of industrial economics. The principle research within the tradition. The school is al., 1983; Schoeffler et al., 1974). ic theory of industry organization emerging of marginal utility and the market response relatively silent on the issues of market and The resource allocation aspect of strategic notions, a more intricate theory of functions are especially clear in the earlier industry level competition being more in- marketing strategy is addressed by norma- competitive forces within an industry was “market strategy” notions. The “managerial terested in the functional level questions of tive modeling based essentially on the the- put forward. This addressed such issues as man” underlying the theory is a rational deci- marketing. Related to the strong diversifica- orem of market share determination (market entry and exit conditions, forces influencing sion maker, facing an objective, transparent tion and internalization trends of firms in the shares of competitors are proportional to the competitive position and performance of world dominated by economic facts.

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Despite recent efforts, this world is ships is emphasized. For a good summary as an extension of the marketing manage- tions (Aldrich, 1979; Pfeffer and Salancik , also primarily static; the emphasis is on the for the services approach, see Grönroos ment tradition, which has brought forward 1978; Thompson, 1967). identification of structural relationships, and (1990). very important issues but not developed them The emerging institutional econo- on forces influencing the positions of firms Besides the joint production roles and up to the potential they offer. mies, mainly through the work of Williamson within this economic landscape. Competitive enduring relationships, service researchers It is noteworthy that by combining the (1985), emphasized the need to distinguish forces govern the markets/industries. De- stress the organization aspects in the suc- notion of enduring customer relationships between different forms of transactions, as terminism characterizes the actors whether cessful marketing of services. The whole or- with the data base management and commu- defined through transaction properties, and they are firms or managers. This reliance on ganization should be targeted and culturally nication technology the traditional marketing to match the types of transactions with effi- objective ontology is matched with nomothet- fine-tuned for the serving of target customers. management is accommodating some of the cient governance structures. ic methodology. Because of the complexity So-called “internal marketing” was suggested services marketing ideas under such “buzz The emerging theory of exchange re- of the phenomena dealt with the hypothet- for achieving the organizational awareness word” themes as “direct marketing” and “rela- lationships is obviously not a monolith but ical-deductive reasoning is augmented by and skills, Grönroos (1981). Another strong as- tional marketing”. an intricate web of constructs adopted in more inductively based frameworks. There- pect has been the focus on operationalizing a liberal fashion from multiple theoretical fore, the development of the tradition is driv- and measuring service quality – with the ulti- sources. To make the matters simple I am en by both the underlying theory and more mate goal of a better management of custom- INTERACTION SCHOOL dividing the discussion into (a) “Interaction pragmatic empirical concerns. er satisfaction; cf., the SERVQUAL project, Approach” covering research which pre- based on the GAP model by Parasuraman et Besides the strategic and the services dominantly concentrates on explaining and al. (1985) and Zeithaml et al. (1988). marketing notions, the marketing mix ap- understanding dyadic business relation- SERVICES MARKETING A NEW When contrasted with the Marketing proach has been seen inadequate by many ships, i.e., it has a process focus; and (b) RESEARCH TRADITION OR AN Management tradition services marketing scholars interested in business to business “Channels Research” focusing on the ex- EXTENSION brings into the foreground two principal is- marketing and more generally in interorga- change relationships in the distribution-sys- sues: the interactive and process nature of nizational exchange relationships. During tem context. By the late 1970’s, the marketing manage- customer relationships, and the organiza- 1980’s the views of marketing were becom- The current interaction research was ment tradition was beginning to be ques- tional aspects of marketing. These are both ing more complex; the relevance of under- preceded by the so-called dyadic buy- tioned by researchers interested in services. important areas about which the hard-core standing the dynamics of interorganization- er-seller research, which emerged in the Their main concern was that the marketing marketing mix theory is silent. An obvious al exchange was strongly emphasized. This late 1960’s and early 1970’s. Its key thrust mix approach, and especially the theory de- problem with the services research is its the- attention many sources. It can be traced was the recognition of the reciprocal nature veloped for managing consumer goods and oretical shallowness; most of the proposed back to the behavioral channels research, of marketing exchange. The early dyadic lit- branding did not provide conceptualizations concepts have remained underdeveloped. which emphasizes the understanding and erature generally focused on conceptualiz- for modeling and managing the service pro- This phenomenon is related to the metatheo- management of interorganizational rela- ing exchange between either individual buy- vider – customer relationship. A strong body retical nature of the services school. tionships of channel members. The politi- ers and sales representatives or between of services research and literature developed Primarily empirical issues drive much cal economy framework proposed by Stern buying and selling firms. The dominant rapidly during the 1980’s. of the services marketing research. Inductive and Reve (1980) summarized much of this theoretical orientation was derived from Services researchers argue that con- orientation is especially strong among the tradition and provided a strong impetus for the social psychology of exchange, as well sumers’ quality experiences and subsequent Nordic researchers. However, instead of de- more holistic interorganizational channels as from notions of small group dynamics. satisfaction towards the service are primari- veloping a deep understanding the research research. The emphasis was on understanding the ly an outcome of an interaction relationship seems to aim at broad, normatively oriented The resource dependency theory, basic elements of exchange between buy- between the personnel and the consumer – frameworks. The dominance of pragmatism originating from organizational research, ers and sellers, such as money, products/ augmented by the traditional marketing com- is reflected in the lack of disciplinary back- provided a theoretical rationale for viewing services, information, status, legitimiza- munications, institutional image, and service ground; relationships to organizational theory, exchange relationships as forms of manag- tion; the buyer's focus tended to dominate delivery technology. The importance of de- psychology social psychology, or microeco- ing firm’s resource dependencies with its the analyses (cf., Bonorna and Zaltman, veloping and maintaining enduring relation- nomics are generally weak. I regard services environment constituted by other organiza- 1978; Bonoma et al., 1977). Because of the

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tendency to study exchange as a vendor development of interorganizational relation- choice process the supplier selection was ships as well as their ongoing dynamics. much in focus. Consequently, the early dy- Dwyer et al. (1987) and Wilson and Mum- adic research usually implies a rather static malaneni (1988) have suggested conceptual or at least short-term perspective; it is more developmental models of relationships em- interested in explaining transaction than a phasizing gradual probing and reciprocally relationship. Generally, a competitive mar- increasing deepening of mutual expecta- ket context with many supplier alternatives tions and commitment. Both social and eco- is assumed. nomic rewards are important as reinforcing During the 1980’s the interaction re- elements. Anderson and Narus (1984, 1990) search evolved into more genuine study of have carried out structural equation ex- reciprocal business exchange focusing on aminations on the working relationships of the development of dyadic relationships. manufacturers and industrial distributors. Two quite different groups of studies can Cooperation and communication lead to the be discerned. One formed by the Industrial development of trust, which allows for deep- Marketing and Purchasing Group centered er cooperation, and facilitates a functional work (for IMP, see Ford, 1990; Håkansson, solving of conflicts. The comparison of re- 1982). The “IMP-related studies” rely gen- lationship specific expectations to available erally on the resource interdependency no- alternatives connects the focal dyad into the tion. They tend to focus on managerial is- competitive environment and emphasizes sues and problems in carrying out industrial the relative nature of perceived and expect- and often international exchange relation- ed satisfaction from the relationship. ships. Such issues as realized relationship The two identified interaction ap- strategies, resource deployment, organiza- proaches exhibit some interesting metathe- tional forms, and communication have been oretical differences. The IMP-centered work, addressed. carried out mainly by Europeans subscribes In parallel with this combination of in- to a more subjective worldview and often ductivism and a few key constructs guiding uses idiographic data collection methods. empirical research, important conceptual Managers are presumed to construct their work has carried out in trying to understand views of the corporate environment through long-term bonding, various forms of adapta- perception and enactment. The emphasis tions, and the development of trust and mu- is on the description and understanding of tuality (see e.g., Ford, 1980; Ford et al., 1986; the complexity of interaction phenomena. Hallen et al., 1991; Johansson and Matts- Anderson and Narus’s (1984, 1990) work, son, 1985). Adaptations and investments re- on the other hand, provides an exemplar quired in relationships are central as they on examining complex social-organizational provide an important insight into the change phenomena with a nomothetic methodolo- taking place in a relationship. gy. This is in accordance with the explan- The other group of interaction stud- atory and predictive nature of the applied ies employs constructs from the social ex- social exchange theory. Important in both change theory (Kelley and Thibout, 1978; approaches is the emphasis on processes Thibout and Kelley, 1959), for explaining the constituting the exchange relationship.

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When compared to the marketing by an economic approach concentrating on 1983; Frazier, 1983; Gaski, 1984). Notions of behavior. Although the framework nominal- management tradition, a number of im- deriving the most effective channels solu- the social enactment basis of organization- ly covers channel processes its applications portant differences can be summarized. tions. The economic tradition was then par- al knowledge and beliefs are referred to, but have been dominantly static. The unit of analysis is now the exchange alleled with a behavioral research stream these interpretative aspects are not devel- Together the Interaction approach relationship that is characterized through looking into channel relationships from the oped, and they are generally ignored at the and the current Channels research provide reciprocal interdependence. The emerging perspective of bases of power, modes of in- level of empirical analysis. a strong foundation for the development of theory tries to accommodate the long-term terorganizational influence and conflict. The An essential feature of the politi- the theory of interorganizational marketing exchange perspective. Joint expectations political-economy approach is rooted to a cal-economy approach is the emphasis exchange. The former emphasizes under- and relationship specific adaptations are framework aiming at integrating the eco- given to contextuality. The structure and standing the dynamic processes constitut- characteristic of long-term relationships, nomic and behavioral research traditions behavior of the focal channel dyad is seen ing an exchange relationship as well as fac- which can entail complex interorganization- within distribution research subsuming both to be influenced by the forces of its task en- tors influencing this, while the latter strives al interaction. That is, besides competition economic and socio-political structures and vironment (Achrol et to provide explanatory cooperative forces are needed in explaining processes within the focal channel dyad al., 1983). This speaks and predictive models the initiation, development and ending of and its environment. Its goal is to provide against epistemolog- of efficient relational relationships. a better explanation of the forms of dyadic ical determinism and under specific chan- The organizational context is recog- channel relations, and to explain member underlines the more "An essential nel contexts. nized – creating and managing relation- behavior (Stern and Reve, 1980). The first phenomenological Both of these ships generally presumes multiple level objective is close to the aim of transaction view that issues and feature of the research traditions functional interaction and its management. cost economics (Williamson, 1985), but the events can only be have influenced the Often new organizational forms must be de- latter expands the P-E approach into the understood against political-economy emerging network ap- veloped. In brief, the interaction approach world of dynamic processes. their time and space proach into interfirm envisages a marriage between marketing Due to its background of institutional specific context.approach is the exchange relation- theory and organizational aspects. economics, organizational theory – espe- However, most em- ships. cially resource interdependence perspec- pirical applications of emphasis given tive and political science – the P-E approach the P-E framework CHANNELS TRADITION has a dualistic character. Its ontological have generally been to contextuality." THE NETWORK – POLITICAL-ECONOMY worldview can be described as realistic, but modelled through APPROACH FRAMEWORK both objective and subjective orientations, transaction cost con- as well as deterministic and voluntary as- ceptualizations. The The network ap- Channels or distribution research refers to a pects of human nature are employed at the perspective has been explanatory and proach can be identified with the work of a tradition that examines how actors within a conceptual level. The primary mode of in- measurement nomothetic (e.g., Achroll and loose school of scholars mainly centered on marketing channel behave, as well as how ference is hypothetical-deductive, although Stern, 1988; Dwyer and Oh, 1987; Heide and the IMP Group (cf., Axelsson and Easton, various channel forms evolve. Its normative inductive notions play also a role especially John, 1988). 1992; Ford, 1990). Håkansson, Johansson, applications embrace problems like devel- in a more descriptive analysis of specific The inherent dualism – polity and and Mattsson are the most prominent initial oping efficient distribution channels, man- channel environments. economy – and the contextuality are the developers of this approach within interna- aging a channel, and managing a single The voluntary and subjective orien- dominant features of the political-economy tional industrial marketing. The network ap- actor in an efficient manner. tation is reflected in the conceptual treat- approach. These form also its major con- proach is anchored to the recognition that In this context I can only deal with the ment of such central constructs as bases tributions to forwarding interorganizational industrial markets can be represented as relative recent research related to the polit- and exercise or power, conflicts and conflict exchange theory: complex relationships exchange relationships between multiple ical-economy framework (P-E) proposed by resolution behavior, trust, and satisfaction, cannot he understood out of their context organizations. The intellectual aims of net- Stern and Reve (1980). Until the mid 1960's as well as compatibility, which are general- and without accounting for both economic work approach are primarily descriptive: it channels research was primarily dominated ly treated as perceived phenomen (Arndt, and sociopolitical factors of organizational tries to understand systems of relationships

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from (i) a positional perspective – obtain- been examined from the network perspec- This holistic view obviously fills better the elaborated the role of the customer in the ing a particular focal firm’s viewpoint, and tive (Håkansson and Johansson, 1988; Jo- tasks of management in general than just production and consummation of services from (ii) network perspective – looking into hansson and Mattsson, 1988). focusing on the more narrow marketing leading to the conceptualization of endur- a network from an aggregate, holistic per- The network approach is a very re- function. ing customer relationships. In addition, spective. cent research tradition in its current form. From the organizational perspective, the organizational context of marketing The network approach draws on Pursuing the understanding of complex the network approach emphasizes an inte- is recognized and suggestions provided many theoretical sources, most notably interorganizational structures and relation- grative view of the firm. Managing interorga- for the development or customer-oriented interorganizational resource dependence, ships through description can be regarded nizational relationships demands structures firms. In this sense Service marketing over- systems theory, theory of social structure its primary intellectual goal. An important and procedures that enhance interfunction- comes the functional character underlying and change. Within marketing, research feature is the emphasis on contextuality al cooperation. the marketing management school. These into distribution channels, industrial mar- and time. Singular events or relationships important notions have, however, been left keting and buying, and internationalization cannot be understood without the knowl- theoretically underdeveloped, probably due of the firm has been influential (Easton, edge of their context. This stand poses an CONCLUSIONS: THEORETICAL to the pragmatic character of much of the 1992). Although the network approach is obvious methodological challenge. Various PLURALISM services marketing research. far from monolithic, most of the research forms of case studies have so far been the The Strategic school of marketing fo- seems to share a subjective orientation and most common method, matching the goal The emerging picture of the current research cuses on the product-market posture and voluntary view of organizational behavior. of understanding through “deep” descrip- traditions of marketing management can be choices of the firm, as well as its generic Environment is not transparent to the man- tion. Although the network approach is pri- highlighted by contrasting the fundamental strategies how achieve competitive ad- agers, but its structure and meanings are marily dynamic, a majority of the studies differences between the traditions and by vantage in the industry. In this sense, the perceived and learned through enactment. have focused on structural issues. Iden- indicating their driving forces and cognitive school addresses the rote of marketing on This subjectivist orientation does not nec- tification, tracing and describing complex goals. One way to do this is to look at the the corporate and SBU strategy level. In essarily mean subscribing to constructiv- network processes would benefit from the assumptions concerning the nature of ex- spite of this change in the level of focus, the ism, as Easton (1995) has noted. In addition historical research method. The dualistic change, unit of analysis, and the context of approach is relatively void of organizational to their complex social aspect, networks nature of networks, their “soft” social-orga- managerial action in the traditions. content. This is related to its underlying eco- are also economic and technological in nizational dimension and “hard” economic The Marketing Management tradition nomic character. The industrial context is character, generally the research of these and technological dimensions may also call is distinguished through its assumption of modeled with the help of the industry orga- phenomena tend to adopt a more objectivist for differentiated use or methodology: for a stimulus-response type of marketer-buyer nization school of economics presuming an orientation. detailed discussion on the ontological and carried out in the context of competitive objective and transparent world. Moreover, Network research has focused on methodological aspects of the network ap- markets comprised of multiple independent the firm is seen as a unidirectional monolith both the focal and macro network issues. proach see Easton (1992). buyers and a number of limited competi- governed by rational decision making. The local network has been examined From the macro perspective, the net- tors. Its dominantly economic worldview is The watershed between Marketing from several perspectives including the work approach provides an alternative the- static, and the overriding cognitive goal is to Management and Strategic schools vis-a- development of positional network strate- oretical view on industries compared the develop explanatory and predictive models vis Interaction approach, Political-Economy gies, technological development between strategic school of marketing. Marketing for optimal segmentation and positioning approach, and Networks theory is the re- net actors, and international market entry. management's role in the network approach solutions, and for the subsequent optimal ciprocal interaction view of exchange rela- Much of the macro-oriented research has is correspondingly the establishment, devel- marketing mix. The tradition is silent about tionships espoused by the latter. The goal adopted a technological perspective aiming opment, defense, and maintenance of net- the organizational aspects of the firm. Mar- of Network approach is to understand com- at describing the structure and processes, work positions. This is carried out through keting Management seems to take place in plex multiorganizational structures and rela- which constitute specific industrial domains managing multiple resource relationships a unified, profit-maximizing firm. tionships, to be achieved through idiograph- (Håkansson, 1987, 1989). In addition, the na- all the way from suppliers, through govern- The services marketing theorists ic description, implying a voluntarist view of ture of the internationalization of firms and mental agencies and other institutions, to challenged the view of stimulus-response human nature and subjective orientation. international cooperative relationships have distribution networks and final customers. based transactional customer relations and The network of relationships forms the unit

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of analysis. The Network approach provides governance structures and dyadic channel phenomena. Gioia and Pitre (1990) present embrace the understanding ontology and an alternative conceptualization of markets behavior should be studied in the context of an interesting discussion on the perme- methodology, leading to description through and industries to that of the industrial eco- the channel environment. ability of the “transition zones” between idiographic methods. American scholars, nomics underlying the Strategic marketing It should be kept in mind that the paradigms. Both the P-E and Interaction dominating the Marketing management and school. The managerial perspective of the above analysis of the marketing research approaches represent clearly this kind of Strategic approaches, as well as the Politi- approach is not only interorganizational but traditions does not contain value judge- cross-paradigmatic borrowing efforts. cal economy research subscribe to the ob- also interfunctional. The Network tradition ments. What is essential is the understand- Another pertaining observation is the jectivist orientation, providing propositions espouses a comprehensive resource inter- ing of each tradition based on what kind difficulty to capture processes constituting and models, which are empirically tested dependence view of the organization and research questions it poses and what kind exchange relationships, industry structure through nomothetic measurement and its context emphasizing an integrative view of answers it can produce. This kind or or macro processes in industrial networks, analysis. As each of these metatheoretical for managing both the internal resources perception can only be achieved by recog- or change at the firm level. The issue dy- strategies provides only a partial view of and the external relationships. nizing the ontological and epistemological namism calls forth more methodological at- marketing phenomena being both tolerant Interaction tradition aims at under- assumptions underlying the research tradi- tention and development within marketing. and “multilingual” would help us to achieve standing processes constituting dyadic ex- tions. In the processual domain, the descriptive a better understanding of our research do- change relationships. As such, it constitutes A metatheoretical perspective can and understanding approach has an edge main. a dynamically oriented approach for analyz- also raise questions and provide insights, over the explanatory and deterministic ori- ing marketing relationships under the con- which can be used for theory development. entation, which seem unable to capture the text of either networks or the Political-Econo- The “from above” perspective into research complexity of more long-term change. In my framework. The Interaction approach is, approaches gives us a better understand- addition to dynamism, the lack of interface however, not monolithic. A European school ing of their relative benefits and weakness- between the majority of marketing theoriz- aiming at understanding the interaction pro- es in respect of the issues of specific sub- ing und and organizational theory is strik- cesses and implying a subjective voluntarist stantive domains in marketing. It is easier to ing. The traditional Marketing management view and idiographic methodology can be recognize tradeoffs between approaches. seems to be carried out in a neoclassical discerned. Another grouping is formed by For example, what the Interaction approach firm, and even the Strategic school has a primarily North American researchers draw- has gained in understanding the reciprocal very restricted view of an organization. The ing on the social exchange theory and doing process character in industrial marketing it Interaction and Network approaches – by explanatory research presuming objective has lost in predictive capability compared espousing the functional resource interde- orientation and nomothetic measurement. to the Marketing management approach or pendence and interorganizational interde- The managerial view espoused by the Eu- transaction cost-oriented channel research. pendence notions – have more complex ropean school is similar to that discussed in Similarly, by not embracing determinism view of the organization as one of the key relation to the Network approach. and nomothetic methodology the Network contexts where marketing and marketing The metatheoretical position of The approach has been able to provide a highly related decisions and activities take place. Political-economy approach is also some- appealing description of industrial markets Nonetheless, one can claim that integrating what dualistic. Its dominant goal is expla- compared to the Strategic school. more developed organizational aspects into nation and it subscribes to an objective ori- Noteworthy, the P-E framework, In- marketing theory has a high priority in order entation and determinism. This is evident in teraction approach and partly the Strategic to make marketing theory more relevant. the empirical research related to P-E, which school suggest that we must tolerate meta- In looking into the different research often employs propositions from the trans- theotetically somewhat “fuzzy” theorization approaches, one can discern an interest- action costs economy. In the theoretical if we to develop approaches which include ing difference between the European and conceptualizations, a voluntary perspective benefits from several ontologically different North American research cultures. Europe- can also be recognized. Conceptually the disciplines. This might be the only way to an researchers, prominent in Network and approach emphasizes contextuality; dyadic try to achieve an understanding of complex partly Interaction and Services approaches

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LÄHTEET / REFERENCES (INTRO SUBSECTION): Bonoma TV and Johnston WJ (1978) The social psychology of industrial buying and selling. Industrial Marketing Management 7(4): 213–224. Horowitz IL (1991) Communicating Ideas: The Politics of Scholarly Publishing. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. Bonoma TV, Zaltman G and Johnston WJ (1977) Industrial Buying Behavior. Cambridge, MA: Marketing Science Institute. Tulving E (2007) Are there 256 different kinds of memory?. In: Nairne JS (ed) The Foundations of Remembering: Essays in Honor of Henry L. Roediger III. New York, NY: Burrell G and Morgan G (1979) Sociological Paradigms and Organisational Analysis: Psychology Press, pp. 39-52. Elements of the Sociology of Corporate Life. London: Heinemann. Cook VJ Jr. (1983) Marketing strategy and differential advantage. Journal of Marketing 47(2): 67–75. LÄHTEET / REFERENCES (RESEARCH PAPER): Cook VJ Jr. (1985) The net present value of market share. Journal of Marketing 49(3): Aaker DA (1989) Managing assets and skills: Key to sustainable competitive 49–63. advantage. California Management Review 31(2): 91–106. Day GS and WensIey R (1988) Assessing advantage: A framework for diagnosing Abel DF and Hammond IS (1979) Strategic Marketing Planning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: competitive superiority. Journal of Marketing 52(2): 1–20. Prentice-Hall. Dorfman R and Steiner PO (1954) Optimal advertising and optimal quality. The Achrol RS, Reve T and Stern LW (1983) The environment of marketing channel dyads: American Economic Review 44(5): 826–836. A framework for comparative analysis. Journal of Marketing 47(4): 55–67. Dwyer FR and Oh S (1987) Output sector munificence effects on the internal political Achrol RS and Stern LW (1988) Environmental determinants of decision-making economy of marketing channels. Journal of Marketing Research 24(4): 347–358. uncertainty in marketing channels. Journal of Marketing Research 25(1): 36–50. Dwyer FR, Schurr PH and Oh S (1987) Developing buyer-seller relationships. Journal of Alderson W (1957) Marketing Behavior and Executive Action: A Functionalist Approach Marketing 51(2): 11–27. to Marketing Theory. Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin. Easton G (1992) Industrial networks: A review. In: Axelsson B and Easton G (eds) Aldrich HF (1979) Organizations and Environments. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Industrial Networks: A New View of Reality. London: Routledge. Anderson JC and Narus LA (1990) A model of distribution firm and manufacturer firm Easton G (1995) Methodology and Industrial Networks. In: Möller KE and Wilson DT working relationships. Journal of Marketing 54(1): 42–58. (eds) Business Marketing: An Interaction and Network Approach. Boston, MA: Kluwer. Anderson JC and Narus LA (1984) A model of the distributor's perspective of Ford D (1990) Understanding Business Markets: Interaction, Relationships and distributor-manufacturer working relationships. Journal of Marketing 48(4): 62–74. Networks. London: Academic Press. Anderson PF (1986) On method in consumer research: A critical relativist perspective. Ford D (1980) Development of buyer-seller relations in industrial markets. European Journal of Consumer Research 13(2): 155-173. Journal of Marketing 14(5–6): 339–353. Arndt J (1985) On making marketing science more scientific: Role of orientations, Ford D, Håkansson H and Johansson J (1986) How do companies interact. Industrial paradigms, metaphors, and puzzle-solving. Journal of Marketing 49(3): 11–23. Marketing & Purchasing 1(1): 26–41. Arndt J (1983) The political economy paradigm: Foundations for theory building in Frazier GL (1983) Interorganizational behavior in marketing channels: A broadened marketing. Journal of Marketing 47(4): 44–54. perspective. Journal of Marketing 47(4): 68–78. Axelsson B and Easton G (1992) Industrial networks – A new view of reality. London: Gaski JF (1984) The theory of power and conflict in channels of distribution. Journal of Routledge. Marketing 48(3): 9–29. Bagozzi RP (1975) Marketing as exchange. Journal of Marketing 39(4): 32–39.

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Gioia DA and Pitre E (1990) Multiparadigm perspectives on theory building. Academy Larréché J-C and Srinivasan V (1982) Stratport: A model for the formulation of of Management Review 15(4): 584–602. business portfolio strategies. Management Science 28(9): 979-1001.

Grönroos C (1981) Internal Marketing - An Integral Part of Marketing Theory. In Mattsson L-G (1985) An application of network approach to marketing: Defending and Donnelly JH and George WR (eds) Marketing of Services. Chicago, IL: American changing market positions. In: Dholakia N and Arndt J (eds) The Course of Marketing: Marketing Association. Alternative Paradigms for Widening Marketing Theory. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, pp.263- 288. Grönroos C (1990) Service Management and Marketing. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books. Mickwitz G (1959) Marketing and Competition. Helsingfors, Finland; Centraltryckeriet.

Hallen L, Johanson J and Seyed-Mohamed N (1991) Interfirm adaptations in business Mickwitz G (1966) The Copenhagen School and Scandinavian Theory of Competition relationships. Journal of Marketing 55(2): 29–37. and Marketing. In: Kjaer-Hansen M (eds) Readings in Danish Theory of Marketing. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing, pp.24–32. Heide JB and John G (1988) The role of dependence balancing in safeguarding transaction-specific assets in conventional channels. Journal of Marketing 52(1): 20–35. Miles RE and Snow SC (1978) Organizational Strategy, Structure and Process. New York:, NY McGraw-Hill. Houston FS and Gassenheimer JB (1987) Marketing and exchange. Journal of Marketing 51(4): 3–18. Morgan G (1986) Images of Organization. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Hunt SD (1991) Modern Marketing Theory: Critical Issues the philosophy of Marketing Möller KE and Anttila M (1989) Changing perspectives into marketing theory. Helsinki Science. Cincinnati, OH: South-Western Publishing Company. School of Economics Working Papers, F-213.

Håkansson H (1989) Corporate Technological Behavior – Cooperation and Networks. Parasuraman A, Zeithaml VA and Berry LL (1985) A conceptual model of service London: Routledge. quality and its implications for future research. Journal of Marketing 49(4): 41-50.

Håkansson H (1987) Industrial Technological Development: A Network Approach. Pfeffer J and Salancik GR (1978) External Control of Organizations: A Resource London: Croom Helm. Dependence Perspective. New York, NY: Harper and Row.

Håkansson H (1982) International Marketing and Purchasing of Industrial Goods: An Porter ME (1980) Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Interaction Approach. New York, NY: Wiley. Competitors. New York, NY: The Free Press.

Håkansson H and Johansson J (1988) Formal and informal cooperation in international Porter ME (1985) Competitive Advantage. New York, NY: The Free Press. industrial networks. In: Contractor FJ and Lorange P (eds) Cooperative Strategies in Ruekert RW and Walker OC (1987) Marketing’s interaction with other functional units: International Business. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, pp.369–379. A conceptual framework and analysis. Journal of Marketing 51(1): 1–19. Johansson J and Mattsson LG (1988) Internalization in industrial systems – A network Rumelt R (1974) Strategy, Structure and Economic Performance. Cambridge, MA: approach. In: Hood N and Vahlne J (eds) Strategies in Global Competition. New York, NY: Harvard University Pres. Croom Helm, pp.287–314. Schoeffler SR, Buzzell D, and Heaney DE (1974) Impact of strategic planning on profit Johansson J and Mattsson LG (1985) Marketing investments and market investments in performance. Harvard Business Review 52(March-April): 137–145. industrial networks. International Journal of Research in Marketing 2(3): 185–195. Sheth JN, Gardner DM and Garrett DE (1988) Marketing Theory: Evolution and Kelley HH and Thibaut JW (1978) Interpersonal Relations: A Theory of Evaluation. New York, NY: Wiley and Sons. Interdependence. New York, NY: Wiley. Stern LW and Reve T (1980) Distribution channels as political economies: A framework Kotler P (1967) Marketing Management: Analysis, Planning and Control. Englewood for comparative analysis. Journal of Marketing 44(3): 52–64. Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

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Thibaut JW and Kelley HH (1959) The Social Psychology of Groups. New York, NY: Wiley.

Thompson JD (1967) Organizations in Action – Social Science Basis of Administrative Theory. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

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Walker OC Jr., Ruekert RW and Roering KJ (1987) Picking proper paradigms: Alternative perspectives on organizational behavior and their implications for marketing management research. In: Houston MJ (ed) Review of Marketing. Chicago, IL: American Marketing Association, pp.3–36.

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HENRIKKI is (among other things) a phil- To develop into a paradigmatic all- osophically-oriented person. Already in around player requires knowledge of the his early theses, there was a robust phil- paradigmatic assumptions. This further osophical clang (Tikkanen, 1996, 1997). requires extensive reading and the ability The licentiate’s thesis (“The Network Ap- to grasp highly abstract, complicated, and proach in Industrial Marketing Research”) contradictory philosophical discourses that and, particularly, his doctoral dissertation may be oppressive and anything but clear. (“A Network Approach to Industrial Busi- As a well-educated, intelligent, and experi- ness Processes: a Theoretical and Empir- enced person with decent judgment, Henrik- 4 ical Analysis”) contain ordinary empirical ki undoubtedly plays paradigm games rath- analyses of business marketing cases. er effortlessly. His scientific disposition has However, it seemed to be foremost the lately been developed from usual business paradigmatic positions and the philosoph- research methodologies towards applying Roughing out ical orientations in which Henrikki was pri- historical perspective and methods to busi- marily interested. Philosophy of science ness and strategy studies. This level of talent issues played an influential role in his stud- is not the case for everyone. Many novices a Sobering (?) ies, revealing somewhat clearly Henrikki’s and even more experienced researchers be- strong relativist-constructivist stances at come agonized in trying to grasp divergent the time. paradigmatic discussions, which at times Research Paradigmatic Later, Henrikki’s ongoing research are more likely to confuse and mystify than indicated that he was no longer a mere illuminate. To salute Henrikki’s multi-par- relativist/constructivist in his scientific ori- adigmatic disposition, this paper attempts Schema for Marketing entations. Studies with “constructivist,” “re- to produce a down-to-earth classification alist,” even “positivist” spirits regularly ap- of scientific research paradigms and show pear in his record of publications. Henrikki that “positivist,” “interpretive/constructivist,” and other Social is evidently a multifaceted, open-minded, and “critical” paradigms can live in peaceful, non-dogmatic researcher who, instead of commensurable, coexistence and be inter- Phenomena Studies letting paradigms in some way, for ideolog- woven in some aspects. We will concentrate ical or some other reasons, restrict his re- primarily on theory of knowledge, i.e. episte- search endeavors, likes to operate flexibly mological issues. But transitory notifications across paradigmatic fields and can disre- about metaphysics/ontology and methodolo- gard the silliest paradigmatic assumptions. gy cannot be avoided. He considers the paradigm to be a practi- cable instrument or tool rather than deeply rooted personal weltanschauung or ideo- RESEARCH PARADIGM logical value judgment. As a researcher, he CLASSIFICATIONS IN MARKETING seems to escape paradigmatic categoriza- AND SOCIAL SCIENCES tions like “positivist,” “interpretivist,” or “crit- icist”. He is more of a paradigmatic instru- The paradigm concept has many different mentalist or pragmatist, always prepared to meanings. Sometimes, it is just a casual RAMI OLKKONEN play the type of paradigm game called for alternative to theory, theoretical approach, HANNU MAKKONEN by each research or literary project. discipline, school of thought, or method

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(Hassard, 1993). Most commonly, however, cussions about research paradigms, their paradigm refers to a particular established relationships, and their superiority have way of understanding the nature of science also been extensive, largely following re- and scientific research in various philo- lated studies in other social sciences and sophical orientations. Paradigms are based philosophy. Maclaran et al. (2009), for ex- on rational assumptions about the broad ample, bring forward among others “falli- subjective-objective continuum of ontology bilistic realism” (Hunt, 1984, 2002, 2003), (the nature of reality, or idealist/nominalist “critical realism,” (Easton, 2002), “critical vs. materialist/realist), human nature (like pluralism,” (Siegel, 1988), “critical relativ- voluntarism vs. determinism), epistemol- ism,” (Anderson, 1983), “critical theoretical ogy (grounds and types of knowledge like paradigm,” (Bradshaw and Firat, 2007; Mc- post-positivism vs. positivism), and meth- Donagh, 2002; Murray and Ozanne, 1991, odology (the way of investigating and ob- 1997), “feminist paradigm,” (Bristor and taining the experience, like idiographic vs. Fischer, 1993, 1995; Maclaran and Catter- nomothetic) (e.g., Burrell and Morgan, 1979). all, 2000), “humanist paradigm,” (Monieson, Each broad set of assumptions is largely in- 1988), “posthumanist paradigm,” (Camp- terconnected, meaning that taking a certain bell et al., 2006), “postmodern paradigm,” position on one level could automatically (Brown, 1995, 1998; Sherry, 1991) and “post- lead to particular positions on other levels: colonialist paradigm” (Jack , 2008). Different “…connectedness according to different research paradigmatic approaches are now ontologies, epistemologies, and models commonly categorized, much in the spirit of of human nature are likely to incline social Burrell and Morgan, into broad and internal- scientists towards different methodologies.” ly heterogeneous clusters labeled as “pos- (Burrell and Morgan, 1979: xiii) In addition itivist paradigm,” “interpretivist/constructiv- to philosophical assumptions, research ist paradigm,” and “critical paradigm” (e.g., paradigms rest on assumptions about the Maclaran et al., 2009; Murray and Ozanne, nature of society/organization (such as 1991). stability/regulation/status quo vs. social Since the days of lively philosophical change/liberation/emancipation). Burrell paradigm debates (“paradigm wars”) about and Morgan’s (1979) classical sociological three-four decades ago (during and after paradigm grouping relies on the dimen- the rise of the so-called “interpretive/linguis- sions of subjective-objective (which rests tic/postmodern turn”), a tranquil philosoph- on assumptions on ontology, epistemology, ical pluralism seems to have prevailed in human nature, and methodology) and sta- current marketing and other social science bility-change (based on assumptions about discourses. Frustration and an ad nauseam the nature of society/organization) labeled type of mood reigns among the majority of as “radical humanist,” “radical structuralist,” business researchers about the philosophy “interpretive,” and “functionalist.” of science. However, despite the absence Different paradigmatic “-isms” and of ostentatious debates and great schisms, paradigmatic labels have drastically in- many long-established controversies and creased since the 1960's and 1970's (see, confusions about the nature and interrelat- e.g., Kavanagh, 1994). In marketing, dis- edness of scientific research paradigms are

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still around. Paradigms and sub-paradigms terpretive/constructivist” paradigms, are still views on denying the free will and stressing without people or researchers constructing it. are so heterogeneous and numerous, and contradictory and poorly defined, not only in the materialistic and deterministic nature Or, concrete and abstract things do not exist descriptions of them in the vast literature early phase Ph.D. research plans but also of the world. In contrast, the interpretative/ apart from the individual’s experience and corpus are so messy that it is no wonder in the relatively recent journal articles and constructivist assumptions that deny the knowledge of those things; reality is an exten- many scientists do not consider them sig- books on methodology. Paradigms are still cause-effect type of thinking would echo the sion of the observer’s/interpreter’s subjective nificant or meaningful. However, relatively (at least implicitly) set against each other idealism, free will, and subjectivist-volunta- ego (cf., Ahonen, 1996). Similarly, eliminative, institutionalized and taken-for-granted par- and considered as mutually exclusive lines rist nature of the world and human beings. reductionist materialism/physicalism (often adigmatic divisions and related unques- of research, representing almost entirely However, causal-type assumptions do not connected to the positivist research para- tioned dogmas may surprisingly and nega- different, separate worlds. Studies of para- necessarily presuppose determinism any digm) contends that, ontologically, human tively affect the endeavor of social sciences digms are various and produce many types more than interpretative approaches reflect action is ultimately based on material things by capturing people’s thinking into the “par- of knowledge/answers to a variety of re- voluntarism. There are many discussions (physics and biology), i.e. on neurophysiolog- adigmatic prisons.” Therefore, we think it is search questions. But, now and then, quite and declarations about these issues in the ical processes and can be also ultimately re- important not to sweep misleading paradig- commonly, the division between paradigms literature, but no sound arguments as to duced back to them without losing any infor- matic assumptions under the carpet. We is justified in vague and restricted ontolog- why the idea of free will makes causal think- mation/knowledge/understanding (cf., some believe the current, still fairly entrenched ical/metaphysical terms and assumptions. ing impossible in the socio-cultural sphere physicists’ idea of megalomaniac “theory and unclear paradigmatic classifications Paradigms (e.g., positivist/realist and post- of reality. Furthermore, unconvincing ar- of everything,” see Niiniluoto, 2002). could be primarily developed by positivist/interpretative/constructivist para- guments have been presented contending The mixing of metaphysical/ontolog- digms) are claimed somehow to represent that endless interpretivism/constructivism ical disputes about human nature and the » adopting reasonable scientific- profoundly different worldviews and ideas expels the goblins of determinism. As Max nature of reality with epistemological issues humanist thinking that leans on about human nature. It is no wonder that Weber stated, free will, determinism, and – that are primarily relevant in the research non-reductive/non-eliminative inter-paradigm discourses may quickly turn voluntarism are “meta-scientific, transcen- paradigm discussion – causes confusion emergent materialism and multi-level ambiguous and frustrating, leading to logi- dental, speculations,” or ontological doc- and unnecessary confrontations among re- understanding of reality, cal and conceptual deadlocks. trines/faiths that have nothing to do with the searchers. Similarly, endless metaphysical » dropping the misleading research The origins of confusion probably analytical and interpretative practices of the encounters are regularly present, e.g., be- paradigm labels and renaming, connect to the longstanding, polarized on- social sciences (Ringer, 1997; Töttö, 2004). tween religion and evolutionary biology, be- defining, and grouping them tological division of reality into the materi- In summary, the confusion between tween body and soul, and between nature according to general scientific alistic, deterministic “nature” and the ideal- research paradigms is likely to originate and nurture. In the spirit of proper enlight- (marketing) research practices, istic “culture” formed by free-willed human from molding the epistemological and on- enment, the scientific discourse on the re- » and removing the simplifying and beings. Quite astonishingly, the division still tological matters (e.g., Kavanagh, 1994), search paradigms (since causalities, expla- strangling claims/suggestions seems to haunt contemporary research par- that is, the ontological and epistemological nations, interpretations, and understandings that sets of ontological and adigm classifications. The dualistic views of issues are not kept separate in research par- predominantly belong to the epistemology) epistemological assumptions have science date back to the 19th century when adigm-related considerations (noticeable could simply abandon or narrow the meta- direct, compelling implications for research was divided into the materialistic in, e.g., Schwandt, 1998). When reality and physical speculations and associated dog- methodological choices. natural science type (law-based causal ex- observations/knowledge of reality are mixed mas related to human nature, free will, and planations, nomothetic) and the idealistic constantly together, peculiar viewpoints may determinism. They are, at least in the light of human science type (meaning-based un- occur, even in the solemn scientific research intellectual history and current human knowl- ONTOLOGY-ORIGINATED derstanding of special/unique human life, literature. For example, extreme subjective edge, largely unresolvable, endless disputes CONFUSION IN THE RESEARCH idiographic) (Dilthey, 1883, see also Mak- idealism (which is often connected to the in- that do not advance research paradigmatic PARADIGM DISCOURSE kreel & Rodi, 1989; Windelband, 1894/1911). terpretive/constructivist research paradigm) understanding in any meaningful direction. Assumptions of causality in the socio-cul- sees the human mind as ontologically pri- If one still desires to discuss the on- It is more or less astounding how research tural (therefore, also business-/market- mary and assumes that the material world tological/fundamental nature of reality, the paradigms, especially “positivistic” and “in- ing-related) world have been connected to and the socio-cultural world do not exist most sensible and plausible way is probably

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to sweep away reductionist (both eliminative levels (thoughts, experiences, feelings, materialism and eliminative idealism) and pains, perceptions, images, memories, etc.). strictly dualistic views (nature/matter vs. cul- Level three consists of all those (shared/col- ture/mind) and build on the somewhat plau- lective) things are created and formed as a sible idea of emergent materialism. Accord- result of human action and social interaction. ing to our present-day knowledge, that is In a broad sense, level three contains all the probably the most conceivable starting point socio-cultural aspects around us (societies, in ontological questions. Emergent material- cultural norms and habits, artifacts, languag- ism adopts a scientific view of reality under es, concepts, money, religions, science, so- which human beings are products of long cial institutions, utility articles, and artworks historical development, belong to the order that comprise “culture”). of primates, and still (very slowly) develop as Popper (1972) did not want to priori- a result of biological and cultural evolution. tize any worlds/levels as such or keep them Despite being an animal among other ani- strictly separated but represented emergent mals, human beings are different and unique materialism in which world/level one forms, in the sense that they are capable of linguis- in a historical sense, the necessary level of tic, symbolic, abstract thinking that enables reality from which world/level two (human the creation of art, science, and cultural insti- mind), and world/level three (society and cul- tutions. Self-conscious, rational minds also ture) have evolved as a result of biological empower human beings to be conscious of and cultural evolution. According to emer- the moral/ethical responsibilities for their ac- gent materialism, levels two and three can- tions (Niiniluoto, 2015). not exist without level one. However, level Karl Popper’s (1972) three-world/ two, although having feedback loops to the level ontology offers a reasonably conve- lower level, cannot be sufficiently reduced nient principle for pondering the “Spinozist” back to level one (subjective self-conscious- emergent materialist ontology in marketing ness does not reduce itself to neurophysi- (and hence, social sciences as the whole). ological concepts). And level three cannot In this view, level one includes material, be cut back to world/level one or world/level physical objects, events, and processes two. The upper levels have developed their (atoms, energy fields, stones, trees, stars, own unique, “emergent” features that cannot galaxies, and electrochemical processes be made understandable by conceptualiza- that comprise “nature”). Level two embraces tions of the lower-level worlds. Therefore, the subjective human mind, including both society and culture exist, not only in an in- (2a) the biological/evolutionary-psycholog- dividual’s subjective mind, but they have ex- ical, mainly unconscious or subconscious ternal, shared intersubjective elements (e.g., “nature-linked” mind (instincts, drives, and the concepts of “social fact,” “collective emotions), and (2b) the learned/socially-de- consciousness,” and “social construction”, veloped self-conscious memory (rational see Giddens, 1972; Hacking, 2000). Thus, thinking, self-reflecting, internalized norms). the saying: “From nature via human mind to The human mind consists of individual states culture, but not back” (Panula, 1997: 17). and incidences of perception that originate According to three-level ontological from both the unconscious and conscious thinking, humans are multi-dimensional,

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material, conscious, living, thinking, feel- cal paradigm” (e.g., Maclaran et al., 2009 ; approaches reflects the prevalent obscurity paradigm”. It commonly connects closely ing, partly free-willed, partly deterministic Murray and Ozanne, 1991). However, due in the field. In marketing, on the other hand, with the “interpretive paradigm” and discon- beings that regularly interact with nature, to long-lasting disputes, misapprehensions, the primary difference between positivist nects from the “positivist paradigm.” It is also material things, and other people. The hu- and vague, simplified, or even strangling and interpretive research paradigms is often semantically ambiguous, although there is no man being is a cultural animal, the nature connections between ontological, epistemo- simplistically reduced to a division between great danger of severe misunderstandings. of which would remain excessively narrow logical (and onwards methodological) levels quantitative and qualitative research. This However, scientific research, representing if the perspectives are limited to reduction- and the constant reproduction of these mis- also does not hold up under closer examina- the “positivist paradigm,” is always inherently ist materialism, eliminative idealism, phys- conceptions in seminars and publications, tion. It is typical for the interpretivist/construc- critical because critical thinking is the gener- ics, psychology, sociology, existentialism, we suggest slight improvements to the cur- tivist paradigm to emphasize the dualistic on- al virtue of all scientific research, no matter postmodernism, relativism, humanism, or rent paradigm classification. The prevailing tological ethos. It tends to divide reality into what the represented paradigm. Scientific any other “ism” or “ology” (see Niiniluoto, classification is not entirely flawed but still two strictly separate worlds: nature (in which methods and theoretical constructs are ex- 2015). The thoughts above briefly present- contains so many sloppy assumptions, sim- causal relationships and laws are prevalent) amples of critical thinking, mostly striving for ed the idea of emergent materialism as a plified definitions, and a heavy ideological/ and culture (in which no causal relationships such intellectual ends: clarity, precision, ac- moderate, non-reductionist approach that polemic burden of the past that sketching a and laws prevail). Wilhelm Dilthey (1883; curacy, relevance, depth, breadth, and logic. leans on contemporary scientific views new one might be in order. Töttö, 2004) postures that the main task of (cf., Lynch, 2003). of reality and human nature. And, despite Vagueness and almost hopeless con- the natural sciences is to arrive at law-based However, the term “critical paradigm,” realism as an adopted ontological starting fusion are reflected in the ”loaded” and sim- causal explanations. In contrast, the core used in the general social science research point, a strategy that offers high degrees of plified treatment of paradigmatic labels. For task of the human sciences is to achieve a paradigm classification, does not refer to criti- freedom when it comes to theoretical per- example, “positivism” is still a very misunder- meaning-based, interpretive understanding calness as a mere cognitive-logical endeavor. spectives, levels and units of analysis, and stood, simplified, and internally fragmented of human life. These divisional views still hold Instead, it refers to a group of research prac- combinations thereof. This ontological pos- paradigmatic stamp. As commonly known, a fairly strong position in discussion about tices using a set of moral values, attitudes, ture does not assume limits to the options there is not just one positivism, but different the social scientific paradigms. and orientations as (normative/prescriptive) for epistemological research paradigms (let conceptions with various amounts of empir- However, restricting the interpretation starting points/analytical orientations of a sci- alone the various research methodologies). icist and realist content (such as Comte’s and meaning-giving to the interpretivist/con- entific study(e.g., Galtung, 1977). Maybe the Instead, it allows the epistemological/theo- classical positivism, Vienna Circle’s logical structivist research paradigm is deceptive. It term “value-critical” or “moral-critical” would retical relationism/perspectivism according positivism/neopositivism/logical empiricism, is a simplified misapprehension to think that be a correct heading for the studies belong- to which “what is” is different from “what can and Popper’s falsificationism). Even scientif- in “positivist/realist” studies, knowledge is ing to the “critical paradigm”. So, it would be- be known about it.” ic/critical realism is sometimes included un- just a superficial, direct impression of the re- long to the theoretic-empirical, meaning-an- der the positivism heading (see Töttö, 2000). ality/sense data in the researcher’s mind and alytic/semiotic-oriented studies that examine According to Niiniluoto (1980), based on vari- consciousness. All types of research inevi- the hidden dimensions of ideological power STANDARD CLASSIFICATION ous positivist views, it is possible to produce tably include interpretivist/constructivist fea- in various ‘empirical’ texts/expressions and/ OF RESEARCH PARADIGMS 64 philosophical research combinations with tures. That is, in high-quality social science or conceptual approaches. These kind of IN MARKETING AND SOCIAL positivist contents. “Positivist paradigm,” in its studies, a serene coexistence of causal-type “value-critical” studies are essential (and al- SCIENCES: SOME PROBLEMATIC contemporary ambiguity, is, therefore, more reasoning and interpretivist/constructivist ready fairly common) research orientations ISSUES likely to add confusion than clarification to the (hermeneutic, meaning-analytic) flair usually in the field of marketing and social sciences. field of research paradigms. prevails. Therefore, the label “meaning-ana- A variety of (epistemological) research If the term “positivism” is vague, the lytic/semiotic approach to texts” would proba- paradigms and classifications are present same applies to “interpretive/constructivist.” bly better describe the many studies belong- RESEARCH PARADIGMATIC in the literature. Standard categorization It is challenging to state what these terms ing to the current “interpretive/constructivist” SCHEMA: A PRELIMINARY SKETCH divides those paradigms into three broad eventually mean (see e.g., Hacking, 2000; paradigm (cf., also Töttö, 2004). classes: “positivist paradigm,” ‘interpre- Schwandt, 1998). Schwandt’s (1998) presen- The third member of the standard re- Without sinking into an elaborate discus- tivist/constructivist paradigm,” and “criti- tation of numerous interpretive/constructive search paradigm classification is “the critical sion of the numerous research paradigms

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and linked philosophies, sub-philosophies, ciples in the social and historical sciences. and secondarily in a text/language (A) Positive-oriented (‘value-neutral’) and their variants (see e.g., Hunt, 2003; Intuitions/interpretations of meaning can interpretation/semiotic sense (what theoretical-empirical studies on social phe- Niiniluoto, 1980), we want to employ a par- be transformed into valid knowledge only if is/was said/spoken, how is/was said/ nomena are primarily based on a caus- simonious yet sufficiently encompassing di- incorporated into theoretical structures that spoken, how much is/was said/ al-type of reasoning and secondarily, on se- vision of research paradigms that applies to aim at causal-type reasoning (see Coser, spoken). miotic meaning analysis (i.e., interpretive/ the research on social phenomena (includ- 1977). Wilhelm Dilthey’s (Dilthey, 1883, see » Theoretical-empirical studies focused constructivist/hermeneutic flair). ing marketing). As a starting point, we as- also Makkreel & Rodi, 1989) classical dis- on real-life events primarily in a text/ (B) Moral-normatively-oriented (‘val- sumed a non-reductionist, non-divided Pop- tinction between natural sciences (arriving language interpretation/semiotic ue-critical’), theoretical-empirical studies per’s moderate ontological realism/emergent at causal explanation) and human sciences sense (what is/was said/spoken, how on social phenomena are based primarily materialism, under which reality and human (arriving at meaning-based understanding) is/was said/spoken, how much is/was on causal-type reasoning and secondarily, beings form a multileveled, interconnected, are in a way combined in Weber’s view, said/spoken). on semiotic meaning analysis (i.e., interpre- complex, and (in a qualitative sense) rich which includes both meaning-based under- » Theoretical studies on the concepts/ tive/constructivist/hermeneutic flair). and multifaceted whole. Features of nature, standing (meaning analysis/semiotic anal- constructs/discourses/literature of (C) Positive-oriented (‘value-neutral’) individual subjective consciousness, as well ysis of text/expression) and causal-type logical/philosophical and meaning- theoretical-empirical semiotic (interpretiv- as collective inter-subjective consciousness, reasoning (analysis of event reality). On the analytic (semiotic) sense. ist/constructivist/hermeneutic) studies on are considered to be non-reductively interre- other hand, Dilthey’s idea of lingual- and social phenomena based primarily on the lated. To clarify the classification of research symbol-based understanding is essential in Furthermore, by adding the positive/ analysis of texts/expressions of the studied paradigms in marketing as a scientific inqui- meaning-analytic/semiotic studies that fo- descriptive–normative/prescriptive dimen- phenomena. ry, the labels linked to the prevailing stan- cus on analyzing the world primarily through sion¹ and loosely combining interrelated (D) Moral-normatively-oriented (‘val- dard classification of “positivist,” “interpretiv- texts (expressions, pictures, symbols, signs, and complementary ideas from Galtung ue-critical’), theoretic-empirical semiotic ist,” and “critical paradigm” will need to be etc.) and aiming to identify and interpret their (1977, 1981), Arndt (1985), Buchdahl (1993), (interpretivist/constructivist/hermeneutic) abandoned, redefined, and communicated meanings and cultural categorizations. Hirschman (1985), Panula (2000), and Töttö studies on social phenomena based pri- differently than the current classification. Following the line of argument above, (2004), we ended up with a division accord- marily on the analysis of texts/expressions According to Max Weber, a proper scientific the basic research paradigms/orientations ing to what type of marketing (and other of the studied phenomena. statement in the social sciences consists of in this paper are divided into three broad social sciences) is associated with each of (E) Purely theoretical studies con- two adequacies: adequacy on the level of categories: the six accompanying research paradigms/ centrated on the positive-oriented (value- meaning, and the causal adequacy. Weber’s paradigms/orientations A–F (see Figure 1). neutral) logical, systematic conceptual/ view is that understanding (or “Verstehen”/ » Theoretical-empirical studies focused meaning analysis of theoretical constructs/ meaning interpretation) and causal expla- on real-life events, primarily in a The six research paradigms in the data-the- discourses/literature. nation/causal-type reasoning are correlative causal-type reasoning sense (what ory-value triangle (Galtung, 1977) include (F) Purely theoretical studies concen- and intertwined rather than opposite prin- happens, happened, how, why), the following: trated on the moral-normatively-oriented

1 In our outline of basic research orientations/paradigms in marketing and social sciences, (cf., of statistical techniques. This does not have to mean, however, that value-neutral facts have no role Galtung, 1977) values have been brought – in addition to data and theory sentences – into the in marketing, or that marketing science should be dominated by some ideology or dogma. In his discussion (see also Arndt, 1985). Adding value sentences to the research orientation context seems classical essay “Objectivity in Social Science and Social Policy,” Weber (see Shils and Finch, 1949) to be reasonable since the pure value neutrality in marketing/business science – as with any other sought to give value-free facts their role without refuting that social science is inspired by value- social science – is more or less a utopic ideal. To ignore values entirely can result in what C. Wright relevant interests, e.g., values can themselves be studied, or a researcher’s or financier’s values may Mills (1959) terms “abstracted empiricism,” i.e., concentrating just on listing the trivial facts, common- influence the research topic choice, but the research process itself should nevertheless be kept as sense, self-explanatory familiarities of marketing as a result of, e.g., overemphasizing the fine details objective as possible.

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(value-critical), systematic conceptual anal- between reality and theory, or the degree of

“Observed/experienced ysis of theoretical constructs/discourses/ confirmation, and not whether the method marketing reality” literature. proceeds inductively or deductively. In this Rich and diverse The six research orientations/para- orientation, data sentences are more dura- marketing reality with different kinds of agents, digms are briefly described below. ble than theory sentences; reality is stron- agencies, structures ger than theory². The conclusion for the the- DATA SENTENCES (A) Theoretic-empirical, positive/”value- ory sentences is expressed in terms of true neutral,” causal-semiotic-oriented studies or false (Galtung, 1977), truthlikeness (veri- similitude), or falselikeness (incertitude) In research orientation (A), data sentences (Niiniluoto, 2002). Studies representing this are compared with theory sentences, and orientation incorporate interpretations of

Theoretical-empirical research Theoretical-empirical research paradigms, the latter adjusted to the former (Galtung, meaning to theoretical structures focused paradigms, mainly value-critical/moral normative mainly value-neutral/instrumental 1977). Data sentences contain information on causal reasoning and causal-types of (B) Approaches that are aiming to define the empirical (observed) descriptions/outlines (cf., Coser, 1977). (A) Approaches that are primarily object-/event-type primarily object-/event-type (“causal-reasoning-type”), world. Theory sentences (hypotheses, Research orientation (A) is a “val- (“causal-reasoning-type”), secondarily meaning-analysis-type secondarily text/expression meaning- (“semiotic-type”) propositions, frameworks, or assumptions ue-neutral-oriented” approach that excludes analysis-type (“semiotic-type”) (D) Approaches that are primarily forming the underlying theory) aim to ex- moral-normative considerations. However, (C) Approaches that are primarily text/expression meaning-analysis-type text/expression meaning-analysis-type (“semiotic-type”) plain, understand, and to some extent, in real life, the procedures for reaching val- (“semiotic-type”) predict the foreseen world. In this scientific ue-objectivity in scientific research are of- orientation, what comes first chronological- ten not straightforward and simple. There- ly is of secondary importance. It could be fore, some “value-critical” aspects become Bend: Bend: Reflection to Reflection a data sentence, which is subsequently ex- mixed with this neutrally toned orientation. moral theory/ on ‘neutral’ intrinsic value theory plained by the theory sentence (induction/ As shown by the dotted line in Figure 1, this sentences sentences empiricism), or a theory sentence, which research orientation may trend toward val- may occur may occur then foresees the content of the data sen- ue sentences. Bend: tence (deduction/rationalism). Practically, There is no clear cut, compelling con- Reflection on the empirical both modes of reasoning co-exist in differ- nection between research orientation (A) reality behind theoretical ent variations in scientific research process- and the research method types. Research texts may occur es (the abductive mode of reasoning). Of orientation (A) may contain studies with primary significance is the correspondence theoretical/conceptual + quantitative, theo- THEORY SENTENCES Theoretical research paradigms VALUE/MORAL (value-neutral or value critical) SENTENCES Marketing theories/ disciplines expressing (E) Primarily ‘value-neutral’ logical, Ethical theories/ primarily instrumental systematic conceptual/meaning analysis disciplines expressing values (systematic of theoretical construct/discourses/ moral/intrinsic values descriptions and expla- literatures nations of marketing “Preferred marketing phenomena) (F) Primarly ‘value-critical, systematic reality” conceptual/meaning analysis of “Foreseen theoretical constructs/discourses/ 2 It should be noted that in practice, theory sentences that are considered highly valid a priori are not marketing literatures reality” necessarily directly given up or rejected if they do not receive support from the data. Instead, one may look for low validity/reliability in the data sentences/look for new data producing correspondence in a justifiably way that in a sense may resemble value-criticist studies (that employ, e.g., generally accepted, highly institutionalized, a priori fairness principles as a starting point in research, see Galtung, 1977). Figure 1. Classification of research paradigms/oriantetions in marketing (cf., Galtung, 1977)

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retical/conceptual + qualitative, and theo- a priori preferences (e.g., ethical principles, periences are organized culturally and offer jects? How does/did individual or group S retical /conceptual + qualitative & quantita- fair marketing codes, and consumer pro- various frames of meaning. Memories, pic- experience perceive or understand “K”? (cf., tive (“mixed”) methods. This is based on the tection laws), the researcher assesses the tures, dreams, fantasies, and myths stored in Töttö, 2004). assumption that the type of applied research validity of the data and derives conclusions memory and consciousness are assumed to methodology is a matter of research purpose, in the form of normative statements/recom- have complex effects on the significant parts (D) Theoretical-empirical, normative/ research questions and their interrogative mendations advancing the ethical good in of human motivations and actions (see e.g., value-critical studies focused on real-life form, and not the philosophical or paradig- the studied reality. Panula, 2000). conditions primarily through empirical matic stance per se. Research orientation (B) is a ‘val- In the meaning-analytic/semiotic ap- meaning-analytic/semiotic sense ue-critical’ approach emphasizing the im- proach, theory and data sentences are con- (B) Theoretic-empirical, normative/value- portance of moral-normative considerations. sidered almost equal. The interchangeability In orientation (D), value sentences are critical, causal-semiotic-oriented studies However, in real life, scientific research is between theory and data sentences increas- matched with data sentences in a mean- seldom entirely (from top to bottom and from es the flexibility of the orientation(see Gal- ing-analytic sense. The general idea is In this research paradigm, data sentenc- left to right) moral-critical. Therefore, it is tung, 1977). Semiotic orientation maintains similar to orientation (C); this orientation es are evaluated against value sentences likely that some “value-neutral” aspects be- its focus on language and does not (directly) also emphasizes empirical meaning anal- or ethical principles/theories (see Galtung, come parts of the value-critical orientation. meddle empirically with event reality behind ysis/semiotic analysis of the world through 1977). Unlike research paradigm (A), value/ Thus, as shown by the dotted line in Figure texts/language. Not at least in the sense of texts (pictures, symbols, expressions etc.). moral theoretical sentences are considered 1, this research orientation may trend toward empiricist/realistic analyses aiming to reach Instead of “value-neutral” theories, this ori- more robust than data sentences. This orien- value-neutral theory sentences. Otherwise, correspondence in terms of truthlikeness, entation employs “value-normative”/moral tation puts aside the “pure intellectual curios- the assumptions linked to orientation (B) but more like consensus and/or coherence theories/premises as starting points. The ity” that is the prime mover of orientation (A) about intertwined nature between causal ad- between lingual expressions. According to observed texts/expressions relative to the and instead favors “critical awareness” or val- equacy and adequacy of meaning, as well Hirschman and Holbrook (1992, see also world will be reflected in the preferred world ue-laden premises, which at some point are as availability of various empirical methods Holbrook , 1995), this approach builds primar- through a meaning analysis/semiotic analy- based on a comparison of data with values. are similar to those of orientation (A). ily on the researcher's personal introspection sis of language to expose ideological deep In this paradigm, something observed and subjective judgment and finds its primary structures and meanings that guide human (or projected from the observed) is reject- (C) Theoretic-empirical, positive/”value- supporting evidence in the body of the text perception. In addition, value-theory and ed or considered unacceptable. Converse- neutral” studies focused on real-life itself rather than in any sort of empirical ver- data sentences are considered almost equal; ly, something unobserved is deemed to be conditions primarily in the empirical meaning- ification. the interchangeability between value-theory preferred and desired. In other words, in this analytic/semiotic sense Although it is primarily value-neutral and data sentences offers plasticity to the orientation, values (“preferred”) are seen as and emphasizes positive intellectual curios- analysis. In cases of inadequacy/incoher- superior to “neutral” theories (“foreseen”) In research orientation (C), data sentences ity as a starting point, research orientation ence, the preferred (value sentences) can be in directing scientific activity. And because are matched with theory sentences, but in (C) may adopt value-critical tones and trend adjusted to the foreseen (data sentences), or value sentences are stronger than data sen- a meaning-analytic manner. Reality, or the toward a value-critical orientation. This is in- the other way around (see Galtung, 1977). Al- tences, reality should be changed; some world, is described primarily through texts dicated with the dotted line in Figure 1. As though research orientation (D) is primarily unethical existing structures of reality (some (pictures, symbols, expressions, etc.), and the language, meanings, and cultural starting value-critical, emphasizing the desired mo- prevailing unethical marketing practices) some features of reality (‘deep structures’) points/positions of the actors/narrators are ralities as starting points of its studies, it may must become emancipated. Examples in may be primarily revealed by empirical mean- emphasized in this highly flexible orientation, also trend toward a value-neutral orientation the field of research would be a critical study ing/semiotic analysis of ways of speaking or the linked research questions and methods (shown by the dotted line in Figure 1). In a about real-life consumption and linked mar- expression. Language, in its broadest form, represent primarily the theoretical/conceptual methodological sense, orientation (D) leans keting practices in which the consumers’ and is assumed to reflect the culture’s general + qualitative type (concentrating on studying primarily to the theoretical/conceptual + marketers’ actions and thoughts provide the way of structuring and understanding reality. subjects’ linguistic meaning. What does/did qualitative type. data sentences, and the researcher ana- For example, consumers’ speech and sto- individual or group “S” mean by signs, acts, lyzes and interprets the data. So, in light of ries about their consumption habits or ex- practices, events, phenomena, or other ob- →

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(E) Positive/”value-neutral” theoretical the ideological nature of metaphors and seeks to base the research orientation/par- studies and (F) and normative/”value- expressions used in theoretical discourses adigm classification on concrete/illustrative critical” theoretical studies are the central focus of “value-critical” the- labels that reflect both research “in action” oretical studies (E). and research “in principio.” This refers to The third group of research paradigms/ both the generally applied practices and to orientations consists of studies in which the commonly acknowledged principles of the role of theories, concepts, and theo- CONCLUSION striving for knowledge in marketing and so- retical discourses is exclusive. Theoretical cial sciences. studies, as the name expresses, keep the In this paper, we sought to produce a gen- Technically, various research meth- analyses within the theoretical language eral, concrete/down-to-earth classification odologies seem to be relatively “para- and existing literature and do not directly of marketing/social-scientific research par- digm-independent” tools that can be utilized intervene empirically in observed reality; adigms/orientations. Admittedly, our classi- flexibly in many research contexts and for theoretical studies may, however, indirectly fication is nothing more than a preliminary, diverse purposes. Achieving the goals of trend toward empirical reality, as indicated simplified, narrow sketch – a mere work-in- scientific knowledge can mean applying nu- by the dotted line in Figure 1. Theoretical progress with many inadequacies and pos- merous means (methodologies, theoretical studies consist of positive/“value-neutral” sibly faulty reasoning. On the other hand, research orientations) in a flexible manner. (E) and normative/“value-critical” (F) orien- all science is preliminary most of the time. It is senseless to lock oneself into a single tations. The focus of this paper is to argue for the paradigm and restrict one’s research poten- Positive-oriented theoretical studies necessity of unraveling the ambiguous, tial. Instead, eclectic thinking, i.e. multi-par- (E) refer to logical/philosophical, system- speculative, simplifying, and agonizing con- adigmatic, complementary, epistemological atic analyses and reviews of theoretical ceptual connections between ontological, relationism/perspectivism and sociological constructs and discourses/literatures. The epistemological, and methodological levels imagination (Mills, 1959) are desirable as- conceptual or theoretical analysis aims to in marketing and social sciences. pirations. Starting points for all scientific systematically describe and clarify con- So, although undoubtedly having endeavors should fairly elastically aim to cepts or theoretical perspectives to pro- many potentially useful features, research construct and solve new and interesting duce knowledge regarding their amounts, paradigm classifications also include research questions/problems, not at pro- manifestations, dimensions, levels, pat- numerous unclear, opaque philosophi- ducing and reproducing inflexible, sealed terns, and forms of change. Although cal assumptions and diverse conceptual limits between various research paradigms. “value-neutral” theoretical studies typical- meanings on the one hand, and so many As Nietzsche emphasized, “We can better ly concentrate on theoretical sentences, simplifications on the other hand that they understand by allowing more eyes to see, some relation to the value sentences may easily turn into stuffy “prison-houses of more perspectives and voices to speak” occur in the sense of adjusting/develop- language” (cf., Jameson, 1972) restricting (Spencer, 2016: 34). We believe that, by con- ing the theories/concepts in an ethically open-minded, pluralistic thinking among sistently transgressing the senseless para- more preferred direction (Galtung, 1977). researchers if taken too seriously. We are digmatic borders, Henrikki has given us an In value-critical theoretical studies (F), the aware that one more classification system example. starting point lies in moral/ethical theories on the top of others does not necessarily or viewpoints. The primary focus is the generate many benefits. We have neverthe- meaning-analysis/semiotic analysis of the less tried to shake those mindsets including rhetoric and style of conceptualization of simplifying connections between ontology, theoretical approaches and discourses (cf., epistemology, and methodology as well as Fischer and Bristor, 1994; Panula, 2000). avoid using current customary paradigm la- Studying, illuminating, and deconstructing bels and ambiguous “isms”. Our approach

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Schwandt TA (1998) Constructivist, interpretivist approaches to human inquiry. In: Denzin NK and Lincoln YS (eds) The Landscape of Qualitative Research: Theories and Issues. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp.221–259.

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Siegel H (1988) Relativism for consumer research (Comments on Anderson). Journal of Consumer Research 15(1): 129–132.

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5 Scholarly Virtues as Performative Roles

JUHA-ANTTI LAMBERG

A SPECIFIC stream of the historical study genetic mechanisms. Scholarly virtues are of humanities focuses on a good research- not history independent: each era empha- er’s personal traits – scholarly virtues, in sizes and values different virtues. However, other words. This discussion originates at the fundamental tone in the literature is that least in the 19th-century German historiog- a person is a comprehensive whole – not raphy and has actively continued since then. unchangeable but of some kind at a specific The basic idea is that a good researcher moment. This small graphical essay argues has not only intellectual and demographic that virtues may also be performative and abilities (e.g., an education from a proper layered: the same person may perform dif- university) but also such moral and ethical ferent roles as an excellent scholar to the characteristics that make her/him a ‘schol- extent that it is impossible or useless to arly personae’. Some of these traits can be attribute any specific templates to an indi- Artisan = Someone who deals skilled work learned, others are linked to immersive and vidual. with their hands. (Cambridge dictionary)

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INTRODUCTION

IT IS HARD to imagine a scholar who would ideal type. In the context of scholarship and purposefully claim herself as an amateur scholarly virtues, Hegele and Kieser’s (2001) or lacking ‘scholarly virtues’ (Paul, 2008). vision of legend creation is undoubtedly Instead, most, if not all of us, have an un- true. Biographies, Wikipedia pages, social derstanding of how professional scholarly media stories – produced by both individual personae should be. Herman Paul (2014), researchers and their universities – pres- for example, sees that a history-specific ent pictures of the ‘superstar’ scholar who constellation of personal virtues and talents makes world-changing inventions and col- combined with institutional pressures to be lects colleagues and the public audience’s a certain kind results in archetypes of schol- admiration. This obviously is problematic. arly personae: Not all researchers cannot be superstars (while most think of it). Media attention “Scholarly personae come into being catches only a minor part of researchers not merely because scholars volun- working at universities. It seems clear that tarily decide to commit themselves the traditional epistemic virtues (Brady and to certain constellations of goods, Pritchard, 2003) based on high morals and but also because their (institutional) hard work do not suffice to explain the unbal- contexts encourage them, sometimes anced levels of visibility among researchers. against their best judgment, to con- Also, not all scholars follow incredibly strict form to new models of scholarly self- moral standards. Tabloid headlines tell about hood.” (p. 369) professors who falsify their results to qualify

The changing nature of scholarly vir- tues is also apparent in the biographies of famous scientists. According to this literary genre, a good scholar should be creative, hard-working, sometimes lucky, visionary, be in the right places at the right time, have an influential network of colleagues, a good home, good education, and a loving wife/ man/partner. To some extent, these narra- tives of successful researchers resemble medieval legends on heroes and saints. As Hegele and Kieser (2001) write in their anal- ysis of Jack Welch’s efforts to build a his- torical legacy, “legends are narratives that focus on saints or heroes and the miracles they brought about” (p. 299). While legends Trickster = A person who deceives Wise man = A person of unusual learning, present only some episodes on a legend’s people and/or is not what or who they judgement, or insight (or verser in esoteric lore). life, they are also imitable and represent an claim to be. (Cambridge dictionary) (Merriam Webster)

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in publishing in AMJ, harass students, not to mention lesser vices. This should not be surprising thinking about any researcher’s psychological complexity (or individual in general). Hegele and Kieser’s (2001) study also elucidates the purposeful actions an indi- vidual may take to build a celebrity status: Jack Welch not only was Jack Welch but also performed Jack Welch. This performa- tive aspect (Butler, 1988) is mostly missing from the literature on scholarly personae. Paul (2014) acknowledges that any scholar may obtain multiple dimensions and epis- temic virtues, yet a vision of a scholar who makes performative acts of being a scholar is not relevant in the literature focused on scholarly personae. This is odd as we have other literature works that start from assum- Provocateur = A person who ing that all behaviors are performative acts deliberately behaves controversially (Boje et al., 2004; Gond et al., 2016). Why in order to provoke argument or other not academic behaviors? strong reactions. (Collins dictionary) The performative aspect is apparent in the most extreme cases – Jessica Krug pretending to be black or Ulrich Lichtenthal- er a good scientist. Krug’s case is especial- ly interesting as she apparently is also an outstanding scholar (Lichtenthaler perhaps less so), and the performative act was tar- geted to legitimize her as a researcher of minorities. The argument in this essay is that maybe all scholarly acts are performa- tive? Instead of aiming to outline a general theory of performativity as a part (perhaps the most critical part) of scholarly personae, I will next offer a reading of the many roles of a particular scholar: Henrikki. Henrikki is a fruitful case to study performativity in aca- Judge = A person who has the knowledge demia because he intentionally engages in to give an opinion about something or is performative acts and looks down on col- able to decide if someone or something leagues who pretend to be (too) ‘objective’ is good or bad. (Cambridge dictionary) (i.e., dishonestly authentic).

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In the following, I use analogical rea- The main argument in this whole exercise soning (Ketokivi et al., 2017; Oswick (a performative act) is that perhaps it would et al., 2002) b presenting different roles of be a psychological relief to think academic Henrikki as being a film character. The anal- life more as a series of performative acts, ogies operate in several dimensions, as and less as competition or religion. they may be looked upon as static pictures, memories of films, as having links to myths and narratives, or as signs of Henrikki’s CONCLUSIONS performances over the years. The collec- tion of roles is not exhaustive – it could not To think this essay as a joke would be a be even if we would study Henrikki’s per- mistake. I argue that the performative ele- formative acts even more meticulously, and ment in scholarly activities is prevalent for it would also not make sense to increase all of us and elemental for Henrikki’s career the number of analogies (although Henrikki and personae. Thank you for the last de- as a car enthusiast would fit the collection). cades!

Dead man = A dead body that walks around because of magic. Mother Queen = A person who treats others with great kindness and love and try to (Cambridge dictionary) protect them from anything dangerous or difficult. (Wikipedia)

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LÄHTEET / REFERENCES: Provocateur: Harvey Keitel in Bad Lieutenant (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad_Lieutenant) edited by Abel Ferrara. Boje DM, Rosile GA, Durant RA and Luhman JT (2004) Enron spectacles: A critical Watch https://youtu.be/4dBvcnwjD00. dramaturgical analysis. Organization Studies 25(5): 751–774. Judge: The portrait of dead from Ingmar Bergman’s movie Det sjunde inseglet Brady MS and Pritchard D (2003) Moral and epistemic virtues. Metaphilosophy 34(1/2): (https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Det_sjunde_inseglet). 1–11. Watch https://youtu.be/kJEanBlr2D4. Butler J (1988) Performative acts and gender constitution: An essay in phenomenology Mother-queen: Judi Dench as Queen Elizabeth I in the movie Shakespeare in Love and feminist theory. Theatre Journal 40(4): 519–531. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare_in_Love). Gond JP, Cabantous L, Harding N and Learmonth M (2016) What do we mean by Watch https://youtu.be/kgtRCiypTyo. performativity in organizational and management theory? The uses and abuses of Dead man: Johnny Depp as William Blake in the movie Dead Man by Jim Jarmusch. performativity. International Journal of Management Reviews 18(4): 440–463. Watch https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=duyjUML0U1E. Hegele C. and Kieser A (2001) Control the construction of your legend or someone else will: An analysis of texts on Jack Welch. Journal of Management Inquiry 10(4): 298–309.

Ketokivi M, Mantere S and Cornelissen J (2017) Reasoning by analogy and the progress of theory. Academy of Management Review 42(4): 637–528.

Oswick C, Keenoy T and Grant D (2002) Note: Metaphor and analogical reasoning in organization theory: Beyond orthodoxy. Academy of Management Review 27(2): 294–303.

Paul H (2008) The epistemic virtues of historical scholarship; or, the moral dimensions of a scholarly character. Soundings: An Interdisciplinary Journal 91(3/4): 371–387.

Paul H (2014) What is a scholarly persona? Ten theses on virtues, skills, and desires. History and Theory 53(3): 348–371.

KIITOKSET / CREDITS:

Artisan: The portrait is from the movie Andrei Rublev (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrei_Rublev_(film)), edited by Andrei Tarkovsky. Watch https://youtu.be/OsEnNDr6YfA.

Wise-man: The portrait (Laila’s father) is from the movie Sensuela (https://yle.fi/aihe/artikkeli/2017/04/26/sensuela-uskomattoman-camp-pornon- leikkaamaton-versio-ensi-kerran-tvssa), edited by Teuvo Tulio. Watch https://areena.yle.fi/1-4126220.

Trickster: American Psycho (https://youtu.be/RJfurfb5_kw) edited by Mary Harron. Watch https://play.google.com/store/movies/details/American_Psycho?id= XSTfXHwf194&hl=en.

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jasta ikään kuin puoliveli. Näin on siksi, että mialoja ja kaikkia toimialan kilpailevia yrityk- tukevasta ja sparraavasta yhteydestämme siä tarkastelevaa tutkimusta on vain vähän, on viime vuosina tullut kaksisuuntaisempi, sekä johtamisen että markkinoinnin aloilla. minkä myötä minäkin olen toivottavasti pys- Tai näin siis oli ainakin ennen Henrikkiä ja tynyt yhä enemmän tarjoamaan tukeani – hänen julkaisujaan aiheesta (esim. Aspara henkistä ja konkreettista – Henrikille päin. et al., 2018; Lamberg et al., 2009; Lamberg Henrikki voikin nykyisellään luottaa minuun ja Tikkanen, 2006). 6 asiassa kuin asiassa yhtä 110-prosentti- Toimialoilla ja markkinoilla tapahtuvan sesti kuin minä häneen. kilpailun dynamiikka – ja filosofisemmin (3) Yritys- ja organisaatiotason (1) mark- jopa koko kilpailun luonne – on kolmas aihe, kinoinnin problematiikka on aina ollut Hen- johon tämä kirjoitus myös fokusoi. Markki- Yritystason strateginen rikille itse oikeutettu ja ensisijainen amma- nointi-termin kantasanana on luonnollisesti tillinen kiinnostuksen kohde – esimerkiksi markkina, mutta perinteinen markkinoinnin yksittäisen tuotteen, palvelun tai brändin tutkimus on nähnyt markkinan jokseenkin mark kinointi sijaan. Jo Henrikin ensimmäinen tutkimuk- kapeasti vain niinä tuotemarkkinoina, joilla sen fokusalue, projektimarkkinointi, erosi yritys tai sen brändi toimii. Henrikin edellä perinteisestä amerikkalaisesta tuotteisiin kuvattu kiinnostus yritystason markkinointiin lukuisilla kilpailluilla ja brändeihin keskittyvästä markkinoinnin ja johtamiseen tarkoittaa kuitenkin myös sitä, tutkimuksesta keskittymällä monimutkai- että hänen kiinnostuksensa kohteena ovat sia projekteja (tai nykykielellä ”ratkaisuja”, olleet myös muut ja muunlaiset markkinat, yritysmark kinoilla engl. solutions) myyviin ja toimittaviin yrityk- joilla yrityksen on yrityksenä operoitava – tai siin (esim. Skaates et al., 2002). harjoitettava markkinointia. Itsestään selvin Sittemmin Henrikin kiinnostuksen muu markkina on rahoitus- tai sijoittajamark- valtasi tuo toinen aihealue (2), sekin yritys- kina, johon liittyvään markkinointiin olemme JAAKKO ASPARA tai organisaatiotasolla – ja tämä oli myös julkaisseet useamman tutkimuksenkin (esim. aihealue, jonka piiriin Henrikki alun perin Aspara ja Tikkanen, 2011a). Paitsi sijoittaja- rekrytoi allekirjoittaneen. Henrikki nimittäin, markkinoita käyn tässä artikkelissa läpi lukui- ensin ohjattuaan diplomityöni viimeisenä san joukon muitakin markkinoita, joilla yritys tehtävänään Teknillisen korkeakoulun Tuo- joutuu tyypillisesti harrastamaan yritystason 1. JOHDANTO mona”, kuten Henrikki itse ehkä sanoisi). tantotalouden laitoksen professorina (v. strategista markkinointia – corporate strate- Nämä kolme aihetta myös yhdistävät taval- 2004), palkkasi minut väitöskirjatutkijaksi tut- gic marketing (CSM). Tämä markkinalistaus TÄMÄ ARTIKKELI käsittelee (1) yritys- tai la tai toisella itseäni Henrikkiin kollegana ja kimusprojektiin, jossa yhdessä strategisen syntyi alun perin itseni ja Henrikin sekä Hen- organisaatiotason markkinointia ja johta- ystävänä. johtamisen tutkijoiden kanssa (ml. Juha-Ant- rikin toisen väitöskirjaoppilaan Petri Parvisen mista, (2) kokonaisten toimialojen kilpailu- Itsellenihän Henrikki oli alun perin se ti Lamberg) paneuduimme (2) yritysten toimesta 2000-luvun puolivälin ja lopun tie- dynamiikan hallitsemista sekä etenkin (3) yksi ja ainoa akateeminen ohjaaja, mentori väliseen kilpailudynamiikkaan kokonaisia noilla, ja yritimme julkaistakin tätä koskevan yrityksen moninaisilla areenoilla tai taiste- ja oppi-isä. Sittemmin hänestä tuli minulle toimialoja ja toimialojen kaikkia merkittäviä artikkelin mm. European Journal of Marketin- lukentillä kohtaaman kilpailun luonnetta. akateemisen mentoriuden lisäksi isoveljen kilpailijayrityksiä organisaatiotasolla tarkas- g:issa. Mutta kuten niin usein tieteenalallam- Kirjoitan erityisesti näistä aiheista tähän kaltainen tukihenkilö, jonka peruskallio- ja tellen. Tässäkin Henrikki oli oman tiensä me, ei-empiiriset, käsitteelliset paperit eivät Henrikkiä hänen 50-vuotispäivänään juhlis- karhuemomaiseen taustatukeen pystyin kulkija: amerikkalainen ja eurooppalainenkin herätä suurta innostusta journaaleissamme. tavaan teokseen, koska nähdäkseni nämä aina luottamaan asiassa kuin asiassa. Tänä liiketaloustieteen tutkimus fokusoi yleensä Niinpä tuonkin artikkelin sisältö jäi silloin jul- kolme aihetta kuvaavat erityisen hyvin Hen- päivänä Henrikistä taas on muotoutunut mi- yksittäisiin yrityksiin ja korkeintaan verkos- kaisematta ”pöytälaatikkoartikkeliksi” – tähän rikkiä akateemisena persoonana (tai ”hah- nulle pikkuhiljaa yhä enemmän isoveljen si- toihin niiden ympärillä, mutta kokonaisia toi- päivään ja tähän juhlakirjaan asti.

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2. YRITYSMARKKINOIDEN JA suuresti Henrikkiä markkinaliberaalina sekä taistelukenttien tai -areenoiden välisen koor- keskeisin ydinajatus, ei vain kursorinen tai YRITYSTASON STRATEGISEN saksankielisen kielialueen entusiastina. Myös dinoinnin ajatus strategian ydinajatuksena on geneerinen sivuhuomautus. MARKKINOINNIN MÄÄRITELMÄ Max Weber ([1922] (1978, siteerattu Cal- jokseenkin unohtunut. Mutta näimme tämän lon, 1998) jo sata vuotta sitten korosti samaa: kilpailuareenoiden välisen koordinoinnin aja- 2.3. Yritystason strateginen markkinointi ”markkinan voi sanoa olevan olemassa mis- tuksen soveltuvan oivasti yritystason strate- CSM 2.1. Markkinat sä tahansa, missä on kilpailua, vaikka vain gisen markkinoinnin CSM:n osaksi – etenkin, yksisuuntaista, vaihdantamahdollisuuksista kun tarkoituksenamme oli nimenomaisesti Yllä olevat ”yritysmarkkinoiden” ja ”stra- Henrikin ja allekirjoittaneen käsitteellistys moninaisten osapuolien välillä”. tunnistaa ”yritysmarkkinoina” tyypillisiä taiste- tegisuuden” käsitteellistykset tarkoittavat, yritystason strategisesta markkinoinnista Edellä kuvatun pohjalta käsitteellis- luareenoita, joissa yritys joutuu kilpailemaan. että yrityksillä on monia ja monituisia yritys- CSM:stä perustuu löyhästi Callonin (1998) timme “yritysmarkkinan” yritystason mark- Huomaa, että emme tähän sotastra- markkinoita, joissa sen on syytä harjoittaa sosiologis-antropologis-filosofiseen mää- kinointikäsitettä CSM:ä varten seuraavasti: tegian ajatukseen nojautuessamme halun- markkinointia edistääkseen intressejään ja ritelmään markkinoista. Callonin (1998) ”yritysmarkkina on mikä tahansa sellainen neet sen enempää “sota-intoilla”, tai antaa mielellään pysyvän kilpailuedun hankkimis- mukaan markkinat ovat ensinnäkin “kum- kilpailuareena, jolla on merkitystä yrityksen olettaa, että CSM:ssä olisi kyse vain jonkin- ta. Oletamme siis lisäksi, että yritysmark- mallinen antropologia”, joissa toimii oletet- intressien edistämiselle sen sosiaalisissa ja laisesta markkinointisodankäynnistä (vrt. kinat ovat erillisiä mutta toisistaan keski- tavasti ”kalkulatiivisia” toimijoita. Toiseksi, taloudellisissa verkostoissa”. Huomaa, että Kotler ja Singh, 1981). Kuten edellä viitat- näisriippuvia, jolloin yritystason strategisen markkinat ovat organisaatioita, mutta tuon tämä markkinan määritelmä on hyvin väljä, tiin, jo Weber näki markkinat ihmisten rau- markkinoinnin keskeiseksi tehtäväksi tulee organisaation muoto voi olla mikä vain. eikä oleta, että yritys välttämättä esimerkik- hanomaisten konfliktien/taisteluiden areena koordinointi ko. yritysmarkkinoiden välillä. Tämä on relevanttia tässä artikkelissa, sillä si myisi jotakin kaikilla markkinoilla, joilla se (Weber [1922] (1978): 72). Strategisen koordi- Tätä taustaa vasten määrittelimme CSM:n tunnistamamme markkinat ovat hyvin erilai- toimii. Yhtenä esimerkkinä alla kuvatuista yri- noinnin korostuminen CSM:ssä taas jatkaa seuraavasti “yrityksen intressien edistämi- sia organisoitumisensa tason ja muodon ja tysmarkkinoista, mediatarinoiden yritysmark- pidempää linjaa strategisen markkinoinnin nen sen sosiaalisissa ja taloudellisissa ver- kilpailtavien objektien suhteen. Kolmanneksi kinalla, yritys kilpailee median (positiivisesta) kirjallisuudessa, jossa koordinointi on nähty kostoissa markkinoimalla yritystä tai siihen markkinat ovat pohjimmiltaan prosesseja, huomiosta, mutta media tai muut toimijat ei- tärkeänä elementtinä (ks. esim. Balmer ja liittyviä asioita monituisilla yritysmarkkinoil- joissa kalkulatiiviset toimijat asettuvat toi- vät luonnollisestikaan maksa tuosta huomios- Greyser, 2006; Kohli ja Jaworski, 1990; Mc- la optimaalisella ja koordinoidulla tavalla.” siaan vastaan päästäkseen kompromissirat- ta mitään. Gee ja Spiro, 1988; Narver ja Slater, 1990). Siten CSM:n tavoitteena on menes- kaisuihin (esim. sopimus tai hinta) turvautu- Esimerkiksi markkinaorientaation kuuluisas- tyä yritysmarkkinoiden välillä strategioiden: matta fyysiseen konfrontaatioon. 2.2. Strategisuus sa konseptissahan organisatorinen, funkti- tunnistamalla relevantteja yritysmarkki- Callonin (1998) mukaan erityisesti oidenvälinen koordinointi on ollut keskeinen noita, analysoimalla, miten suoriutuminen markkinoiden prosessiaspektiin ei useimmi- Yritystason strategisen markkinoinnin CSM:n ajatus (Kohli ja Jaworski, 1990; Narver ja Sla- yhdellä markkinalla vaikuttaa suoriutumi- ten kiinnitetä tarpeeksi huomiota, silloin kun strategisuuskomponenttia hahmotellessam- ter, 1990). Tosin funktioidenvälisessä koordi- seen muilla markkinoilla ja koordinoimalla markkinat nähdään perinteisellä tavalla vain me nojauduimme – luonnollisesti ja luonte- noinnissa ajatus on pääsääntöisesti ollut yri- markkinointitoimenpiteitä eri markkinoiden kaupankäynti- ja transaktiosysteeminä. Tä- vasti – Henrikin sotahistorian ja -strategian tyksen sisäisten osastojen välisen toiminnan välillä. Tässä mielessä suoriutuminen yk- män sijasta markkinat pitäisi nähdä prosessi- kiinnostukseen ja tuntemukseen. Strategia- koordinoiminen yhtenäisesti asiakasmarkki- sittäisilläkin yritysmarkkinoilla on tärkeää, na, jossa toimijat ryhtyvät kilpailuun toistensa han on nähty sotastrategian klassikoista läh- nan suuntaan, siinä missä CSM:ssä kyse on mutta pääasiassa sikäli kuin se kontribuoi kanssa ottaakseen haltuun tietyn kysynnän, tien optimaalisena joukkojen ja resurssien koordinoimisesta eri markkina-areenoiden yleiseen suoriutumiseen yli markkinoiden. jonka he itse auttava määrittelemään – tai allokoimisena ja koordinoimisena yli erillisten välillä. Samoin muissakin “yritystason mark- Mitä taas tulee ”yrityksen intressien edis- yksinkertaisesti “rauhanomaisena areenana, (joskin keskinäisriippuvaisten) taistelukent- kinoinnin” (corporate marketing) näkemyk- tämiseen” CSM:n määritelmässä, tämä on jossa toimijat kilpailevat toistensa kanssa” (p. tien – tavoitteena voittaa koko sota (siinä sissä (Balmer ja Greyser, 2006) viitataan tarkoituksella jätetty väljästi ilmaistuksi, sillä 43). Tämä prosessinäkemys on myös linjassa missä ”taktiikka” liittyy yksittäisten taistelui- usein kursorisesti koordinointiin esimerkiksi haluamme määritelmän soveltuvan erilaisiin mm. itävaltalaisen taloustieteen koulukunnan den voittamiseen) (Sun Tzu [n. 500 BC], 1963; yrityksen eri sidosryhmien välillä. Tämä on organisaatioihin, joiden lopulliset tavoitteet näkemysten kanssa (esim. Menger, von Mi- von Clausewitz, [1832] 1976). Nykyaikaisessa melko lähellä meidän näkemystämme CS- (tai olemassaolon tarkoitukset) voivat olla ses, von Hayek). Tämän koulukunnan aja- markkinoinnin kirjallisuudessa, ja jopa stra- M:stä, joskin CSM:ssä koordinointi eri kilpai- hyvin erilaisia. Toki esimerkiksi useimmil- tukset ovat muuten muutenkin kiinnostaneet tegisen johtamisen kirjallisuudessa, tämä luareenoiden tai yritysmarkkinoiden välillä la pörssilistatuilla yrityksillä tuo “intressien

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edistäminen” tarkoittaa pääsääntöisesti jotka ovat relevantteja suurelle osalle suu- 3. GENEERISET Alkuperäisessä hahmotelmassam- kannattavan kasvun luomista ja omista- rempia yrityksiä ainakin. Käyn tämän hah- YRITYSMARKKINAT me Henrikin kanssa luonnostelimme myös ja-arvon (osakekurssin) kasvattamista. motelman läpi seuraavaksi. Sitä ennen listattujen yritysmarkkinoiden välisiä vuo- Vaikka yksi CSM:n ydintehtävistä on, Taulukko 1 summeeraa, miten CSM-pers- Listaan tässä osiossa ne geneeriset yritys- rovaikutussuhteita, so. miten suoriutumi- kuten yllä mainittu, tunnistaa omalle yrityk- pektiivimme eroaa markkinoinnin kirjallisuu- markkinat, jotka tunnistimme Henrikin kans- nen markkinoinnissa yhdellä markkinalla selle relevantit yritysmarkkinat, hahmottelim- dessa yleisestä yritysbrändi- ja -identiteet- sa relevanteiksi suurimmalle osalle yrityksiä, vaikuttaa suoriutumiseen toisilla. Mutta me Henrikin kanssa jo tuolloin 2000-luvun tiperspektiivistä yritystason markkinointiin CSM:n harjoittamiseksi. Alkuperäinen(kään) kun osoittautui, että jokainen markkina lopulla listan ”geneerisiä” yritysmarkkinoita, (vrt. Balmer ja Greyser, 2006). tarkoituksemme Henrikin kanssa ei ollut käytännössä vaikuttaa jokaiseen toiseen, tuottaa tyhjentävää listaa yritysmarkkinois- kyseisten vuorovaikutussuhteiden selostus ta. Sen sijaan halusimme ensisijaisesti de- paisui hallitsemattoman pitkäksi ja moni- monstroida ylipäänsä sitä, että yritykset mutkaiseksi. Kuten Henrikki usein kiusoit- kohtaavat kilpailua monituisilla keskinäisriip- telee, minun insinöörimäiselle luonteelleni puvilla areenoilla, mille taas on merkitystä tällaiset monimutkaiset selostukset tai maa- CORPORATE STRATEGIC YRITYSBRÄNDI- JA yritysten kokonaisintressien edistämiselle. ilmanselitykset ovat luontaisia – Henrikin MARKETING (CSM) -IDENTITEETTIPERSPEKTIIVI -PERSPEKTIIVI Ankkuroimme jo alun perinkin listaa- keksimä ilmaus ”asparaatio”kin viittaa tä- mamme yritysmarkkinat kymmeneen yritys- hän. Mutta kun on nyt Henrikin juhlakirjasta Pääasiallinen filosofia brändi- Mielikuvien homogeenisuuden/ Eri areenoilla tarvittavien imagon suhteen konsistenssin luominen erilaisten mielikuvien luominen ja tason johtamisen intressiin. Riippuen yrityk- kyse, niin jätän tämän asparaatiotekstin ja Homogeenisten/konsistenttien koordinoiminen sestä ja kontekstista tietyt näistä intresseistä -kuvion pois tästä, ja keskityn vain yksittäis- mielikuvien luominen yritystä Heterogeenisten/ relevanttien voivat olla relevantimpia kuin toiset – ja sitä ten yritysmarkkinoiden läpikäyntiin. En siis koskien, eri sidosryhmien välillä mielikuvien koordinoiminen moninaisten kilpailullisten myöden myös ko. intressien alla tunnistetut käsittele epäsuoria vuorovaikutussuhteita areenoiden (yritysmarkkinoiden) yritysmarkkinat voivat muodostua enemmän (esim. osakemarkkinoiden kilpailussa pär- välillä. tai vähemmän relevantimmiksi yrityksestä ja jääminen vaikuttaa pääoman saantiin ja sitä Linkit perinteisiin yritystason Implisiittiset Eksplisiittiset kontekstista riippuen: kautta tuotekehitykseen käytettävissä ole- strategisiin intresseihin viin resursseihin ja sitä kautta pärjäämiseen Yrityksen kohtaamien Implisiittisesti Eksplisiittisesti » Kysynnän luominen yrityksen tuotteille tuotemarkkinoilla), vaan korkeintaan enem- kilpailullisten areenoiden tunnistaminen ja palveluille män tai vähemmän suoria vuorovaikutuk- » Oman pääoman hankkiminen ja sia eri markkinoiden ja edellä mainittujen Fokus sidosryhmien välisessä Eksplisiittinen Implisiittinen koordinoinnissa arvostuksen nostaminen yritystason intressien välillä. Keskityn myös » Sääntelytuen saaminen enimmäkseen viiteen ensimmäiseen yritys- Fokus kilpailullisten areenoiden Implisiittinen Eksplisiittinen performanssin välisessä » Ympäristö- ja sosiaalisen vastuun tason intressiin liittyvien yritysmarkkinoiden koordinoinnissa edistäminen kuvaamiseen, ja jätän viisi jälkimmäistä vä- Orientaatio Sidosryhmät ja niiden edustajat Kilpailullinen maisema » Inhimillisen pääoman ja hemmälle huomiolle ja lyhyemmälle tekstil- Yrityksen nykyisten ja tulevien Yrityksen eri areenoilla kyvykkyyksien kehittäminen le. Valitsin nämä viisi yritystason intressiä sidosryhmien tarpeiden ja kohtaaman nykyisen ja tulevan » Edullisen vieraan pääoman sen pohjalta, että tiedän niiden olleen Hen- käyttäytymisen ymmärtäminen. kilpailullisen vuorovaikutuksen ymmärtäminen hankkiminen rikille kiinnostavimpia intressejä yli ajan. » Yritysostojen ja -fuusioiden Huomaa, että osassa yritysmarkki- Organisatorinen tuki Koordinoidut organisaation Koordinoidut organisaation toiminnot toiminnot toteuttaminen noita yritys markkinoi itseään jonakin (esim. Suoritetaan em. Suoritetaan yrityksen kilpai­ » Kumppanuuksien ja allianssien houkuttelevana osakesijoituskohteena), sidosryhmäorientaation lullisen menestyksen aikaan­ luominen houkutellen vastapuolta omaksumaan tie- aikaansaamiseksi saamiseksi eri areenoiden yli » Kansainvälistymisen toteuttaminen tyn imagon itse yrityksestä. Osassa yritys- » Uusien tuotteiden/palveluiden/ markkinoita yritys taas markkinoi joitakin Taulukko 1. Miten CSM täydentää yritysbrändi- ja -identiteettiperspektiiviä yritystason markkinointiin? bisnesten kehittäminen aineellisia tai aineettomia asioita, houkutel-

96 97 HENRIKKI TIKKANEN – 50 6 – Yritystason strateginen markkinointi lukuisilla kilpailluilla yritysmarkkinoilla

len vastapuolta ottamaan vastaan (joissain ensimmäistä versiota vuonna 2006–2007, nän merkitystä kuluttajien asenteille oli jo tapauksessa ostamaan) näitä asioita (esim. "...olihan hän, ei esimerkiksi ekosysteemien pioneeria valotettu muutamissa tutkimuksissa (Godes tuotteita/palveluita, yritysvastuun määritel- iPhonea App Storeineen ollut vielä lan- ja Mayzlin, 2004; Hennig-Thurau ja Walsh, miä). kuten edellä seerattu eikä alustatalouden pioneereista 2003; Phelps et al., 2005). Sittemmin mark- Tunnistamamme geneeriset yritys- (mm. Uber, AirBnB) ollut vielä tietoakaan. kinoijien perustyöpalupakissa paikkansa markkinat, jotka käyn alla läpi, on myös mainittu, edellä­ Henrikillä huomio kiinnittyi kuitenkin luon- ovat ottaneet ”sisältömarkkinointi” ja ”na- tiivistetty Taulukossa 2 kirjoituksen loppu- taisesti tällaisiin ekosysteemitason asioihin, tiivimainonta”, joilla pyritään luomaan pö- puolella. kävijä yritys- ja olihan hän, kuten edellä mainittu, edellä- hinää stimuloivia ”sponsoroituja sisältöjä” kävijä yritys- ja verkostotason strategisten ja advertoriaaleja. Näiden osalta olemme 3.1 Kysynnän luominen ja kaappaaminen verkostotason viitekehysten pohtijana. Joka tapauksessa Henrikin kanssa alusta asti korostaneet kil- tuotteille/palveluille yrityksen on siis oleellista harjoittaa markki- pailun kovaa luonnetta tuollakin markkinalla strategisten nointia kaikilla näillä kolmella yritysmarkki- – eli sitä, että sisältömarkkinointi ei ole vält- Mitä tulee kysynnän luomiseen ja kaappaa- nalla: (a) tuotteitaan ja palveluitaan houkut- tämättä mitenkään helpompi tai halvempi miseen tuotteille ja palveluille, on itseoikeu- viitekehysten televiksi (b) tuote- ja palvelukategorioitaan tapa promovoida yrityksen tuotteita, palve- tetusti mainittava tuote- ja palvelumarkkinat tarpeellisiksi ja (c) tuote- ja palveluekosys- luita tai brändejä kuin perinteinen mainon- ensisijaisen relevantteina yritysmarkkinoina pohtijana." teemeitään kokonaisvaltaisen asiakasar- ta. Kiinnostavien ja huomiota herättävien – ovathan tuote- ja palvelumarkkinat juu- von lähteiksi. sisältöjen luominen maksuttomillekin alus- ri markkinoinnin disipliinin perinteisessä Enemmän tai vähemmän suoranai- toille on näet suuri haaste, kun kuluttajien ytimessä, esimerkiksi työmarkkinoiden ja sesti kilpailuun edellä mainituilla markkinoil- huomiosta ja mielenkiinnosta kilpailevat sa- finanssimarkkinoiden sijaan. Mutta yksit- la vaikuttaa myös kilpailu muutamilla muilla moilla markkinoilla kaikki muutkin yritykset, täisten, ja yksinkertaisten, tuote- ja palve- yritysmarkkinoilla. Ensinnäkin osa kilpai- sekä suuret että pienet. lumarkkinoiden lisäksi on relevanttia pohtia lusta edellä mainitulla markkinoilla on itse Edelleen tuotteita ja palveluita kos- myös yritysmarkkinoita kokonaisille tuote- asiassa kilpailua (d) tuotteisiin liittyvien kes- keviin markkinoihin vaikuttaa oleellisesti ja palvelukategorioille. Kuten markkinoinnin kustelunaiheiden ja suositusten välillä ih- kilpailu (f) yleisen medianäkyvyyden ja tutkimus ja käytäntö enenevästi 2000-luvun misten välisessä kanssakäymisessä. Näillä -juttujen yritysmarkkinalla. Tähän pätee alusta alkaen huomioivat, kilpailu kuluttajien suusta-suuhun-viestinnän (word-of-mouth) sama kuin edellä mainittuun nettipöhinän ja organisatoristen asiakkaiden kysynnästä markkinoilla yrityksen on relevanttia mark- markkinaan: kilpailu medianäkyvyyden ja ei nimittäin tapahdu ainoastaan tuotekate- kinoida tuotteitaan, palveluitaan, tuote- ja -sisällön portinvartijoiden – journalistien ja gorioiden sisällä kilpailevien brändien vä- palvelukategorioitaan ja ekosysteemeitään toimittajien – huomiosta ja mielenkiinnosta lillä, vaan myös kategorioiden välillä (esim. keskustelun ja suositusten arvoisiksi. Suus- on kovaa. Mediatila ja median kyky ja halu Paulssen ja Bagozzi, 2006; Shocker et al., ta-suuhun-viestinnän kun on osoitettu ole- käsitellä yrityksiä ja niiden tuotteita ja pal- 2004) – tai jopa kokonaisten bisnesekosys- van yksi merkittävimmistä mekanismeista, veluita on erittäin rajallista. Kaikki yritykset teemien (Cooper, 2000; Moore, 1996) tai joka vaikuttaa kuluttajien asenteisiin yrityk- eivät yksinkertaisesti ikinä tule pääsemään arvoverkostojen välillä (Christensen, 1997). siä ja niiden tuotteita ja palveluita kohtaan haluamallaan tavalla esille, ainakaan ilman Huomattakoon, että tänä päivänä (Gremler et al., 2001; Money, 2004). Suus- merkittäviä investointeja mediasuhteisiin ja tämä tuote- ja palvelukategorioiden sekä ta-suuhun-viestintäaiheiden markkinaan pr-toimintaan. Mutta silti, kilpailun kovuu- bisnesekosysteemien välinen kilpailu (yk- liitännäisenä – mutta silti erillisenä – yritys- desta huolimatta niin suurempien kuin pie- sittäisten tuotteiden/palveluiden/brändien markkinana tunnistimme jo vuonna 2006– nempienkin yritysten on syytä ainakin yrit- välisen kilpailun ohella) on jo melko itses- 2007 myös yritysmarkkinan (e) internetin tää markkinoida tuotteitaan, palveluitaan, tään selvää suurimmalle osalle markkinoin- ja sosiaalisen median ”pöhinälle” (buzz). tuote- ja palvelukategorioitaan ja ekosys- nin tutkijoita ja harjoittajia. Mutta kun kirjoi- Vaikka esimerkiksi Facebook ei ollut vielä teemeitään mediajuttujen arvoisin – jopa timme tästä artikkelista ja viitekehyksestä 2006 laajentunut maailmalle, internetpöhi- dramaattistenkin sellaisten (positiivisessa

98 99 HENRIKKI TIKKANEN – 50 6 – Yritystason strateginen markkinointi lukuisilla kilpailluilla yritysmarkkinoilla

"Selvyyden vuoksi todettakoon tässä, että Henrikki ei ole koskaan pitänyt osakemark­ kinamark­ kinointia, saati sijoittajien oik kujen palvelemista itseisarvoisen­ tärkeänä."

mielessä). Jotkut yritykset aina myös on- tiivisuuden suhteen (ks. esim. O’Donohoe (Fournier, 1998). Massiivisessa review-ar- kinoida itseään myös hyväksi ystäväksi tai nistuvatkin tässä: joistakin yrityksistä me- 1994), eivätkä ole ainoastaan passiivisia tikkelissamme (Aspara et al., 2008), jossa heimojäseneksi tietylle valikoidulle (asia- dian ylitsevuotavainen huomio ja kiinnostus mainosten sisältämien viestien vastaanot- keksimme käsitehirviön ”affektiivinen it- kas)kohderyhmälle. saattaa tehdä jopa ihailtuja ”yritysjulkkiksia” tajia (saati uhreja). Silläkin uhalla, että tä- se-affiniteetti” (affective self-affinity, ASA), (Rindova et al., 2006). män markkinan nostaminen esille omana käsittelimme osin samaa asiaa: mitä kulut- 3.2 Oman pääoman hankkiminen ja Vaikka tuotteiden ja palveluiden yri- markkinanaan saattaa antaa mainostoimis- tajan omaan identiteettiin niveltyvä suhde, arvostuksen nostaminen tysmarkkinoilla pärjäämiselle ylivoimaisesti toväelle lisäperusteen järjestää taas yhden tai affiniteetti, yritystä kohtaan oikeastaan tärkein tekijä on Henrikin mukaan tuote- ja uuden, kissanhäntää nostavan mainoskil- pitää sisällään, ja mitä seurauksia sillä voi Melko itsestään selvästi se yritysmarkkina, palvelukehitys, innovointi ja design¹, perin- pailun, listasimme siten yhdeksi yritysmark- olla (ks. myös Bhattacharya ja Sen, 2003). jolla pärjääminen eniten vaikuttaa oman teinen mainonta on toki myös tärkeä keino kinaksi (g) markkinan luoville ja innovatiivi- Samaa asiaa sivuten tässäkin kirjassa kir- pääoman hankkimiseen ja sen arvostuk- vaikuttaa tuohon pärjäämiseen. Siksi – siis sille mainostajille ja viestijöille. joittava, Henrikin vanha yhteistyökumppa- sen nostamiseen, on (i) osakemarkkina, tai paitsi, että näemme mainonnan yhdeksi Viimeisenä jokseenkin suoraan tuo- ni projektimarkkinointialueella, professori markkina osakesijoituskohteille. Henrikille keinoksi tuote- ja palvelumarkkinan kilpai- te- ja palvelumarkkinoilla pärjäämiseen vai- Bernard Cova on jo 1990-luvulta alkaen finanssimarkkinamarkkinoinnin keskeinen lussa menestymiseen – halusimme lisätä kuttavana markkinana tunnistimme markki- kirjoittanut heimotyyppisten siteiden luomi- rooli yritystason markkinoinnissa ja liike- alkuperäiseen viitekehykseemme yhden nan (h) “yritysystäville” ja “heimojäsenille”. sesta yritysten ja asiakkaiden välille (Cova toimintamallissa (Tikkanen et al., 2005) oli mainontaan itsessään liittyvän yritysmarkki- Tämän taustana oli kuluttajatutkimuksen 1997; Cova ja Cova, 2002) – kuten tietysti selvää jo vuosituhannen vaihteessa, kun nankin. Tämä perustuu siihen faktaan, että tekemä yleinen havainto, että ihmiset usein myös kollegamme John Schouten ”brän- hän kiinnostui yritysten ja yhteiskunnankin kuluttajat arvioivat tietyssä määrin aktiivi- muodostavat tiettyihin brändeihin ja yri- diyhteisön” käsitteen alla (McAlexander et ”finansialisoitumisesta” tehdessään yh- sesti mainoksia niiden luovuuden ja innova- tyksiin ihmissuhteita muistuttavia suhteita al., 2002). Henrikin kiinnostuksesta tähän- teistyötä laskentatoimen (mm. Juha-Pekka kin aiheeseen olikin hyvänä osoituksena Kallunki) ja johtamisen (mm. Risto Tainio) se, että Henrikki onnistui pitkälti omalla per- kollegoiden kanssa (ks. myös Aspara et soonallisuudellaan houkuttelemaan Johnin al., 2014). Saipa Henrikki kutsuttua aiheen muuttamaan Suomeen Aalto-yliopiston maailmanlaajuisesti kenties suurimman gu- leipiin 2010-luvun alkupuolella. Huolimatta runkin, tasapainotetun tuloskortin keksijän, 1 Henrikki korosti tuotedesignin merkitystä markkinoinnin strategisena kilpailukeinona muistaakseni siitä, mitä tarkkaa käsitettä käytetään, tässä Harvard Business Schoolin professorin Ro- jo ennen kuin kirjoitin diplomityöni hänelle International Design Business Management -ohjelmassa yritysmarkkinassa on siis kyse siitä, että yri- bert Kaplanin, esiintymään Suomeen olles- TKK:n tuotantotalouden laitoksella tykselle saattaa usein olla relevanttia mark- saan TKK:n MBA-ohjelman johtajana vuo-

100 101 HENRIKKI TIKKANEN – 50 6 – Yritystason strateginen markkinointi lukuisilla kilpailluilla yritysmarkkinoilla

situhannen alussa. Esiintymisen hintalappu olennaiseksi tarvittavien pääomien hankin- lisäksi yrityskin voi organisaationa ja vies- liamme kehaisevan viestin meille. Näiden lähenteli sataa tuhatta dollaria – vieläpä nalle yrityksen tuote- ja palvelukehitystä ja tinnällään pyrkiä tukemaan sitä mielikuvaa, markkinoiden lisäksi osakemarkkinoihin aikana, jolloin dollari oli poikkeuksellisesti muita strategisia aloitteita varten. Samalla että sen johto on kompetenttia, dynaamista vaikuttavat myös em. markkinat (d) suusta kalliimpi kuin euro. Tässäkin mielessä Hen- Henrikki on joka tapauksessa aina ko- ja sujuvasti esiintyvää porukkaa. Esimer- suuhun -keskustelunaiheille ja suosituk- rikki oli aikaansa edellä, ja tavallaan edellä rostanut liiketoiminnan nykyisiä ja tulevia kiksi Sampo-konserni on varmasti hyötynyt sille, (e) internetin ja sosiaalisen median myös noin kymmenen vuotta myöhemmin nettokassavirtoja tärkeimpänä yritystason osakemarkkinoilla siitä, että se ei ole ikinä pöhinälle ja (f) yleiselle medianäkyvyydelle alkanutta Nordic Business Forumia. Myös markkinoinnin tulosmittarina – esimerkiksi pitänyt Henrikin lähellä Salossa kartanoaan ja -jutuille. Pohtiessamme Henrikin kanssa omassa väitöskirjatutkimuksessani yksi osakekurssin kulloisenkin valuaation sijaan. pitävää (ja Henrikin hallituskumppanina Li- alun perin yritysmarkkinoita vuoden 2006 keskeinen havainto oli ainakin osittain Hen- Tähän liittyen, edelleen varsin dis- bera-ajatushautomossa toiminutta) Björn tienoilla näiden vaikutus osakemarkkinoihin rikiltä lähtöisin: suomalaisten metsäteolli- kursiivisessa ulottuvuudessa (ks. Leitch ja Wahlroosia vakan alla – sen enempää toi- ei vielä ollut yhtään niin itsestään selvä kuin suusyritysten yritysbrändäykseen kohdistu- Richardson, 2003), osa yritysten välises- mitusjohtaja- kuin hallituksen puheenjohta- nykyään: Steve Jobs ei vielä ollut pitänyt neen innostuksen taustalla vuosituhanteen tä kilpailusta sekä osakesijoituskohteina javuosinakaan. legendaarista iPhone-esittelytilaisuuttaan, vaihteessa oli yhtenä tärkeänä tekijänä halu yleisesti ja investointiretoriikkojen suhteen Lopulta osakemarkkinakilpailuun vai- ja Tesla ei vielä ollut pörssilistautunut eikä parantaa yritysten mielikuvaa osakemarkki- erityisesti käydään kilpailuna (l) yritysten kuttavat myös jo edellä esitellyistä mark- Elon Musk toilaillut Twitterissä – itse Twit- noihin ja -sijoittajiin päin. integriteettiä ja läpinäkyvyyttä koskevalla kinoista ainakin markkinat (a) tuotteille/ terkin oli vasta perustettu Kilpailuun ja suoriutumiseen osake- retorisella markkinalla. Tällä markkinalla palveluille, (b) tuote-/palvelukategorioille ja Alla vielä tarkemmin esiteltävistä yritys- markkinoilla sinänsä vaikuttaa taas enem- yritykselle on relevanttia markkinoida va- (c) tuote-/palveluekosysteemeille. Oman markkinoista mainittakoon lisäksi muutama, män tai vähemmän suoraan muutama kuuttavasti argumentteja omasta rehellisyy- väitöskirjani jälkeen ehdotin Henrikille pos- joilla on merkittävä vaikutus yrityksen osake- muukin markkina. Ensinnäkin osakemark- destään ja transparenssistaan. Jo 2000-lu- tdoc-projektiksi erityisesti sen tutkimista, mi- markkinasuoritumiseen. Erityisesti markkina kinakilpailussa on itse asiassa pitkälti kyse vun alussa Enronin tapauksen jälkeen – ja ten yrityksen tuote- ja palvelumarkkinabrändi (p) retoriikoille ympäristö- ja sosiaalisen vas- kilpailusta (j) yritysten strategiamuotoilui- viimeistään 2010-luvulla Suomessakin Tal- vaikuttaa osakemarkkinoihin – ja Henrikki ta- tuun määritelmien ja mittarien osalta, sekä den ja -retoriikkojen välillä, kun yritykset vivaaran kaatumisen jälkeen – on selvää, pansa mukaan innostui tästä(kin) aiheesta, markkina (q) vastuullisuusteoille, vaikuttavat yrittävät herättää kiinnostusta ja luottamus- että sijoittajat ovat erittäin vastahakoisia si- etenkin kun käyttäytymistieteellinen rahoi- suoraan yrityksen suoriutumiseen osake- ta sijoittajissa yrityksen ”oman pääoman ta- joittamaan yrityksiin, joiden raportoinnissa tustutkimus (behavioral finance) oli vahvalla markkinakohteiden markkinalla. Tämäkin rinaa” (equity story) kohtaan. Osin päällek- on mitään kyseenalaistettavaa integriteetin nousu-uralla juuri tuolloin. Seurauksena oli- on nykypäivänä jo pitkälti itsestään selvää, käinen, osin erillinen markkina muodostuu ja avoimuuden suhteen (vrt. Marcus, 2005). kin se, että julkaisimme seuraavina vuosina kun lähes kaikki pörssiyritykset tuottavat myös (k) kilpailusta investointiretoriikkojen Edelleen osakemarkkinakilpailussa tuon alan journaaleissa poikkitieteellisesti vastuullisuusraportteja vuosikertomusten välille. Tällä markkinalla yrityksen täytyy suoriutumiseen vaikuttavia markkinoita ovat useamman artikkelin, mitä tulee tuoteb- yhteyteen, ja lähes kaikki sijoittajat vaativat markkinoida vakuuttavasti ennusteitaan myös (m) ylimmän johdon persoonallisuuk- rändin sekä kognitiivisiin että affektiivisiin tietoa ESG (Environmental. Social, Gover- pääomaa vaativien investointiensa ja nii- sien, sekä (n) hallitusjäsenten persoonalli- vaikutuksiin sijoittajien käyttäytymiseen nance) -tekijöistä sijoituspäätöstensä tueksi. den ansiosta odotettavien kassavirtojen suuksien, markkina. Näillä markkinoilla yri- (Aspara ja Tikkanen, 2008, 2010, 2011b). 2000-luvun puolivälissä aiheesta oli vielä suhteesta. Tähän sisältyy myös perustelu- tysten välinen kilpailu on siis osaltaan niiden Tuote- ja palvelukategorioiden sekä tuote- paljon vähemmän tutkimusta ja ymmärrystä jen markkinoiminen sille, tuleeko pääomaa johtajapersoonallisuuksien henkilöprofiilien ja palveluekosysteemien vaikutusta osake- (vrt. Schueth, 2003; Sparkes, 2001). ylipäänsä käyttää lisäinvestointeihin vai tai -brändien välistä kilpailua. On kautta markkinoihin taas sivusimme em. finansia- palauttaa omistajille osinkoina, pääoman- aikojen ollut luonnollista ja selvää, että si- lisoitumista ja sijoittajien lyhytjänteisyyttä 3.3. Sääntelytuen saaminen palautuksina tai omien osakkeiden ostoina. joittajat suosivat niitä yrityksiä, joiden toimi- käsittelevässä artikkelissamme (Aspara et Selvyyden vuoksi todettakoon tässä, että van johdon (Baker ja Haslem, 1974; Lester al., 2014). Tämän artikkelin yhtenä (blind) Yritystason intressi sääntelytuen saami- Henrikki ei ole koskaan pitänyt osakemark- et al., 2006; Marcus, 2005; Mizruchi 1996) reviewerinä oli yksi alan ehdottomista kärki- seen lainsäätäjiltä sekä viranomaisilta voi- kinamarkkinointia, saati sijoittajien oikkujen ja hallitusten (Certo, 2003; Marcus, 2005) nimistä, MIT Sloan School of Managemen- daan ankkuroida (o) yritysmarkkinoihin, palvelemista itseisarvoisen tärkeänä. Sen ne katsovat olevan henkilöinä erityisen tin nykyinen varadekaani Ezra Zuckerman joilla yritykset kilpailevat yrityskansalaisi- sijaan Henrikki on kylläkin nähnyt osa- päteviä ja/tai prestiisiltään korkeatasoisia. – mikä paljastui meille reviewprosessin na. Yritykset, jotka onnistuvat markkinoi- kemarkkinoilla tapahtuvan markkinoinnin Persoonallisuuksien voimaan luottamisen jälkeen Zuckermanin lähettäessä artikke- maan itsensä suhteellisen merkittävästi

102 103 HENRIKKI TIKKANEN – 50 6 – Yritystason strateginen markkinointi lukuisilla kilpailluilla yritysmarkkinoilla

yhteiskunnan hyvinvointiin kontribuoiviksi Suoriutumiseen yrityskansalaisten Strateginen intressi luoda ja vahvistaa yri- suoriutuminen markkinalla (l) yritysten inte- yrityskansalaisina (esim. veronmaksu- tai markkinalla vaikuttaa edellä esitellyistä tyksen ympäristö- ja sosiaalisen vastuun griteettiä ja läpinäkyvyyttä koskevien väit- työllistämismielessä), voivat saada toimi- markkinoista vähintään epäsuorasti me- mainetta niveltyy kahteen toisiinsa kietou- teiden ja retoriikkojen suhteen. Jos yritys ei alueidensa maiden hallituksilta ja lainsää- nestyminen tuote- ja palvelumarkkinoilla. tuneeseen yritysmarkkinaan, jotka ilmene- pysty vakuuttamaan yleisöä sekä mediaa täjiltä merkittävää tukea suosiollisen vero- Maiden hallitukset ja lainsäätäjät tapaavat vät taas kerran pitkälti diskursiivisessa ja raporttiensa ja väitteidensä rehellisyydestä tus-, koulutus- tai kaupankäyntipolitiikan pitää yrityksiä, joilla on houkuttelevat tuot- retorisessa ulottuvuudessa. Ensimmäinen ja läpinäkyvyydestä, sen on käytännössä muodossa. Myös suoranainen rahallinen teet ja palvelut, myös merkittävinä kontri- näistä markkinoista on markkina vaih- mahdotonta vakuuttaa yleisöä myöskään tuki on usein mahdollista, esimerkiksi tutki- buiojina yhteiskunnan hyvinvointiin – joko toehtoisille määritelmille sen suhteen, ympäristö- ja sosiaalisen vastuun määritel- mus- ja kehitysinvestointeihin tai kiinteiden itse kuluttajille hyötyjä tuovien tuotteiden ja mitä ympäristö- ja sosiaalinen vastuu itse mistään tai -performanssistaan. investointien tekemiseen (esim. tehtaanra- palveluiden vuoksi sinänsä, taikka niiden asiassa on, sekä määritelmiin liittyville re- Henrikki on aina ollut voimakas yri- kennus). Kun alun perin tällaisesta säänte- markkinamenestyksen tuomien verotulojen toriikoille. Tällä markkinalla yritykset siis tysten ympäristö- ja sosiaalisen vastuun lytuesta Henrikin kanssa kirjoitimme, tässä ja työllistämisen kannalta. Alempana esitel- kilpailevat vaihtoehtoisten määritelmien ja puolestapuhuja. Joskus meidän asiasta kohtaa oli esimerkki silloin menestyksensä tävistä yritysmarkkinoista suoriutumiseen liitännäisten retoriikkojen kanssa. Toinen yhdessä kirjoittamistamme kolumneista tai huipulla olevasta Nokiasta, joka oli koko yrityskansalaisten markkinoilla vaikuttavat markkinoista on puolestaan markkina, mielipidekirjoituksista on tehty se tulkinta, 1990- ja 2000-luvun menestynyt erityisen etenkin taas (p) markkinat retoriikoille ym- jolla kilpaillaan niiden retoriikkojen suh- että katsoisimme miltonfriedmanilaisesti, hyvin markkinoidessaan itseään yrityskan- päristö- ja sosiaalisen vastuun määritelmien teen, miten yritykset performoivat tiettyjen että yritysten vastuulla on ainoastaan mak- salaisena. Itse asiassa Nokia oli onnistunut ja mittarien suhteen sekä (q) vastuullisuus- ympäristö- ja sosiaalisen vastuun määri- simoida tuottojaan tai että vähintäänkin tällä yritysmarkkinalla kenties paremmin tekojen suhteen. Yritykset, jotka onnistuvat telmien – itsensä tai muiden ehdottamien haluaisimme vapauttaa yritysten vastuun ja pitkäkestoisemmin kuin millään toisella retorisesti edistämään omia ympäristö- ja – suhteen. Edellisellä markkinalla yrityk- ympäristöstä yksinomaan kuluttajille. Esi- yritysmarkkinalla; esimerkiksi osakesijoi- sosiaalisen vastuun määritelmiään, sekä sen on olennaista markkinoida uskottavia merkiksi kirjoitettuamme asiasta mielipi- tuskohteiden markkinalla menestys oli kyl- argumentoimaan tekojensa ja määritelmien ja vakuuttavia perusteluita valitsemilleen teen Helsingin Sanomiin (Aspara ja Tikka- läkin ollut suurta mutta kovin lyhytaikaista yhteensopivuudesta, nähdään useimmiten ympäristö- ja sosiaalisen vastuun määritel- nen, 2007), silloinen kollegamme prof. Liisa 2000-luvun vaihteessa, ja tuote- ja palve- myös yhteiskunnan hyvinvointiin kontribuoi- mille ja mittareille, jotta nämä määritelmät Uusitalo läksytti meitä laitoksen kahvitau- lumarkkinoilla sekä tuote- ja palvelukate- viksi yrityskansalaisiksi. Joskus määritelmät nähtäisiin markkinoilla ‘oikeina’. Jälkimmäi- olla intensiiviseen tyyliinsä tehtyään juuri gorioiden ja -ekosysteemien markkinoilla ja argumentit voivat koskea myös markki- sellä markkinalla taas on tärkeää pystyä tällaisen tulkinnan. Henrikille kuten myös lakipiste oli juuri saavutettu 2000-luvun noinnin ja kuluttajakäyttäytymisen tieteen- markkinoimaan vakuuttavia argumentteja itselleni on kuitenkin aina ollut selvää, että puolivälin tienoilla. Huomattakoon, että No- alan tutkimustuloksia. Esimerkiksi onko pa- sen suhteen, miten hyvin oman yrityksen vastuuta asiasta pitää ottaa sekä kulut- kia ei menestynyt yrityskansalaisten mark- nimoyritykselle vastuullista lanseerata uusi, performanssi täyttää valikoidut, hyväksy- tajien että yritysten – ja että sääntelyäkin kinalla ainoastaan Suomessa, jossa toki vähempialkoholipitoinen lonkero; juovatko tyt vastuullisuuden määritelmät. Huomat- tarvitaan, joskaan sillä asiaa ei voida täy- monia lakeja ja asetuksiakin (ml. tietosuo- kuluttajat sitä kautta alkoholia vähemmän ko- takoon, että vaihtoehtoisia määritelmiä ja sin ratkaista. Joka tapauksessa Henrikki ja-, verotus-, tk-toiminnan tuki) muutettiin konaismääränä, vai ostavatko he yhden pul- retoriikkoja näille markkinoille eivät esi- erityisesti suhtautuu ympäristön (ml. eläin- eksplisiittisesti Nokialle suosiollisiksi, mutta lon sijaan kaksi, päätyen juomaan suurem- tä ainoastaan kilpailevat yritykset, vaan ten) suojelemiseen Henrikki suhtautuu myös monissa muissa sen toimintamaissa pia kokonaismääriä. Tähän etäisesti liittyen myös kolmannen sektorin organisaatiot jopa penttilinkolamaisella antaumuksella; (ml. Intia, Kiina, EU). Tätä kirjoitettaessa, olemme todenneet – ja valitelleet – Henrikin (non-governmental organisations NGOs, mutta yhdistää tähän jokseenkin epäpent- toukokuussa 2020, on puolestaan selvää, kanssa, että markkinoinnin tieteenalan tutki- non-profits), maiden hallitukset ja tutkijat ja tilinkolamaisesti vahvan humaanin huolen että esimerkiksi ravintola-alan ja muiden mustulokset ja -argumentit eivät kylläkään tiedeyhteisön toimijat – sekä jopa kriteerei- sosiaalisen vastuun edistämisestä. Tämän mikrokuluttajapalvelualojen yritykset eivät usein ole kovin tehokkaita muokkaamaan tä työkseen formuloivat organisaatiot (cri- humaanin perspektiivin ja touchin rooli ole juurikaan onnistuneet markkinoimaan poliittisten päätöstentekijöiden asenteita ja teria-formulating organizations, CFOs; korostuu sekä silloin, kun Henrikki teoreti- itseään yrityskansalaisina – sillä suurin osa näkemyksiä (Aspara ja Tikkanen, 2016). Ingenbleek et al., 2007). soi yritysten strategiaa ja johtajuutta, että valtion koronaepidemian vuoksi jakamista Edellä kuvatuista markkinoista näihin silloin, kun hän toimii henkilökohtaisesti yritystuista päätyi muiden alojen (kuten tek- 3.4 Ympäristö- ja sosiaalisen vastuun kahteen ympäristö- ja sosiaalisen vastuun esimiehenä, taikka mentorina ja ystävänä nologia- ja yrityspalvelualojen) yrityksille. maineen luominen yritysmarkkinaan vaikuttaa ennen kaikkea muille ihmisille.

104 105 HENRIKKI TIKKANEN – 50 6 – Yritystason strateginen markkinointi lukuisilla kilpailluilla yritysmarkkinoilla

3.5 Inhimillisen pääoman ja kyvykkyyksien tyksen tai organisaation brändille uusia työn- median paljolti negatiivinen kirjoittelu yri- kehittäminen " Kyvyk käät , tekijöitä rekrytoitaessa ja vanhoja sitoutetta- tyksestä 2000-luvun lopulta alkaen pahensi essa. Samalla Henrikki on suunnattomasti väistämättä noidankehää, heikentäen työn- Kyvykkäät, sitoutuneet ja motivoituneet sitoutuneet ja pettynyt siihen, että hänen tietyt omat työn- tekijöiden työnantajaansa kohden tuntemaa työntekijät ovat keskeisiä yrityksen strate- antajaorganisaationsa ovat käytännössä ja mielialaa ja ylpeyttä. Aikoinaan 2000-luvun gisten kyvykkyyksien ja inhimillisen pää- motivoituneet teoissaan viis veisanneet työyhteisön hen- lopulla tunnistimme Henrikin kanssa posi- oman (human capital) kehittämiselle. Yritys gestä – vaikka paperilla ja puheissa asiaa tiivisenkin esimerkin tähän, suomalaises- voi tietysti itse pyrkiä kehittämään nykyisten työntekijät ovat aina teennäisesti korostetaankin. ta metsäteollisuudesta. Nimittäin yleensä työntekijöidensä kykyjä, motivaatiota ja si- Jo edellä kuvattujen markkinoiden joukossa melko epäkiinnostavista metsäyrityksistä toutumista mm. koulutusohjelmilla ja insen- keskeisiä yrityksen yritysmarkkinaan työnantajille vaikuttaa en- Metsä-Botnia onnistui yhtenä vuotena nou- tiiveillä. Mutta yrityksen on myös pystyttävä sinnäkin markkina (a) tuotteille ja palveluille. semaan Suomen houkuttelevimpien työn- hankkimaan lähtökohtaisesti hyvää kyky- ja strategisten Työnantajaimagoa vahvistaa merkittävästi antajien listalla kärkikymmenikköön: taus- motivaatiopotentiaalia omaavia työntekijöitä se, että yrityksen tuotteet ja palvelut koetaan talla oli yrityksen saama laaja mediahuomio työmarkkinoilta, sekä säilyttämään tällaiset kyvyk kyyksien houkutteleviksi markkinoilla, mm. laadun ja Uruguayn tehdashankkeeseen liittyen. Ja työntekijät riveissään markkinoiden houku- innovatiivisuuden suhteen (Lievens et al., vaikka kaikki mediahuomio ei ollut suinkaan tellessa heitä toisaalle. Siten tämän yritysta- ja inhimillisen 2007). Tämän on saanut kokea sekä hyvässä positiivista, silti yrityksen kiinnostavuus ja son intressin voi ankkuroida yksinkertaisesti että pahassa mm. Nokia: 1990-luvun lopulla houkuttelevuus työnantajamarkkinalla mo- yritysmarkkinaan hyvähenkisille työnantajil- pääoman ja 2000-luvun alussa tuo maailman 10 vah- ninkertaistui lyhyessä ajassa. le. Tällä markkinalla yrityksen pitäisi siis pys- vimman brändin joukossa ollut tuotemerkki Muista yritysmarkkinoista työnantaja- tyä markkinoimaan houkuttelevaksi – kuten (human capital) (Interbrand-konsulttifirman 100 brändin lis- markkinalla suoriutumiseen vaikuttavat vie- yritysbrändikirjallisuus toteaa yleisellä tasol- talla) onnistui houkuttelemaan superosaajia lä, taas kerran, (p) markkinat retoriikoille ym- la (Balmer ja Gray, 2003; Einwiller ja Will, kehittämiselle." ja saamaan organisaatiostaan irti ”super- päristö- ja sosiaalisen vastuun määritelmien 2002; Hatch ja Schultz, 2003) ja työnanta- tuottavuutta” – entisen johtoryhmän jäsenen ja mittarien suhteen sekä (q) vastuullisuus- jabrändikirjallisuus neuvoo yksityiskohtai- J.T. Bergqvistin termein). Mutta kun tuote- performanssin suhteen. Näillä markkinoilla semmin (Collins ja Stevens, 2002; Ewing et markkinabrändi lähti sukeltamaan 2000-lu- suoriutumisen johdosta syntyvä vastuulli- al., 2002; Lievens et al., 2007). Houkuttele- vun loppupuolella, Nokian työntekijät alkoi- suusimago on vaikuttanut 2000-luvulla yhä vaksi tai hyvähenkiseksi itsensä markkinoi- vat jossain määrin hävetä työnantajaansa, enemmän myös yrityksen työnantajaimagon minen – taikka inspiroivaksi, mukavaksi ja demotivoitumaan ja myös alisuoriutumaan. houkuttelevuuteen (Aguilera et al., 2007; luotettavaksi – on edelleen oleellista paitsi Vaikka emme ole kyseistä problematiikkaa Greening ja Turban, 2000). Lisäksi markki- uusien työntekijöiden rekrytoimisessa, myös varsinaisesti tutkineet Nokian historiaa kä- nat (j) strategiaretoriikoille, kuten myös (m) nykyisten työntekijöiden motivaation, sitoutu- sitelleissä tutkimuksissamme (Aspara et ylimmän johdon persoonallisuuksille, kont- misen ja suoriutumisen parantamisessa (ks. al., 2013, 2011; Lamberg et al., 2019), olemme ribuioivat työnantajamarkkinalla suoriutumi- Berthon et al., 2005; Chun ja Davies, 2006; Henrikin kanssa nähneet tämän noidanke- seen. Jo varhainen yritysbrändikirjallisuus Lievens et al., 2007). Lisäksi jälkimmäisen hän yhdeksi keskeiseksi syyksi Nokian ku- huomioi (Hatch ja Schultz, 2001, 2003), että rooli korostuu paitsi yksittäisten työntekijöi- luttajatuotebrändin ja -liiketoiminnan romah- yrityksen strategisen vision vakuuttavuus den suoriutumisen parantamisessa (esim. tamiselle. vaikuttaa työntekijöiden mielikuviin yrityk- Chun ja Davies, 2006), myös työilmapiirin ja Yritysmarkkinaan työnantajille vaikut- sestä, sekä prospektiivisten että nykyisten organisaatiokulttuurin kehittämisessä työyh- tavat myös markkinat (f) mediahuomiolle työnantajien joukossa. Näihin mielikuviin teisötasolla (Hatch ja Schultz, 2003). Hen- ja -jutuille, (d) suusta-suuhun-keskustelun- vaikuttaa myös mielikuva yrityksen ylimmäs- rikille tämä työyhteisön positiivisen hengen aiheille ja suosituksille ja (e) netti- ja so- tä johdosta, ja heidän esiintymisestään me- tärkeys on aina ollut itsestään selvää, kuten siaalisen median pöhinälle. Em. Nokia-esi- diassa (Aaker, 2004; Dowling, 2004; Hatch myös se, että se on kenties tärkein tekijä yri- merkissä kansainvälisen sekä kotimaisen ja Schultz 2003; Stone, 2005).

106 107 HENRIKKI TIKKANEN – 50 6 – Yritystason strateginen markkinointi lukuisilla kilpailluilla yritysmarkkinoilla

ENSISIJAINEN YRITYSTASON GENEERINEN ENSISIJAINEN YRITYSTASON GENEERINEN HARJOITETTAVA MARKKINOINTI HARJOITETTAVA MARKKINOINTI JOHTAMISEN INTRESSI YRITYSMARKKINA JOHTAMISEN INTRESSI YRITYSMARKKINA

Kysynnän luominen yrityksen a) Markkina tuotteille ja Yrityksen tuotteiden/palveluiden Ympäristö- ja sosiaalisen p) Markkina retoriikoille Yrityksen ympäristö- ja sosi­ tuotteille ja palveluille palveluille markkinoiminen houkutteleviksi vastuun edistäminen ympäristö- ja sosiaalisen aalisen vastuun määritelmiä ja vastuun määritelmistä ja mittareita koskevien perus­te­luiden Kysynnän luominen yrityksen b) Markkina tuote- ja Yrityksen tuote-/palvelu­kategorioiden mittareista ja argumenttien markki­noiminen tuotteille ja palveluille palvelukategorioille markkinoiminen tarpeellisiksi vakuuttaviksi ja ‘oikeiksi’

Kysynnän luominen yrityksen c) Markkina tuote- ja Yrityksen tuote-/palvelu­ekosysteemien Ympäristö- ja sosiaalisen q) Markkina retoriikoille Yrityksen tekemisten ympäristö- ja tuotteille ja palveluille palveluekosysteemeille markkinoiminen kokonaisvaltaisen vastuun edistäminen yritysten ympäristö- ja sosiaalista vastuuta koskevien asiakasarvon lähteiksi sosiaalisen vastuun argumenttien markkinoiminen performanssista ja teoista vakuuttaviksi Kysynnän luominen yrityksen d) Markkina suusta suuhun Yrityksen tuotteiden/palveluiden, tuotteille ja palveluille -keskustelunaiheille ja -kategorioiden ja -ekosysteemien Inhimillisen pääoman ja r) Markkina työnantajille Yrityksen markkinoiminen inspiroivaksi, suosituksille markkinoiminen keskustelun- ja kyvykkyyksien kehittäminen mukavaksi ja luotettavaksi suositustenarvoisiksi. työnantajaksi

Kysynnän luominen yrityksen e) Markkina internet- ja Yrityksen tuotteiden/palveluiden, Edullisen vieraan pääoman s) Markkina lainanottajille Yrityksen markkinoiminen luotettavaksi tuotteille ja palveluille sosiaalisen median -kategorioiden ja -ekosysteemien hankkiminen velalliseksi markkinoiminen netin ja sosi­aalisen median pöhinän arvoisiksi. Yritysostojen ja -fuusioiden t) Markkina yritysostojen ja Yrityksen markkinoiminen toteuttaminen -fuusioiden kohteille houkuttelevaksi yritysosto- ja Kysynnän luominen yrityksen f) Markkina mediahuomiolle Yrityksen ja sen tuotteiden/palveluiden, fuusiopartneriksi tuotteille ja palveluille ja -jutuille -kategorioiden ja -ekosysteemien markkinoiminen positiivisen Yritysostojen ja -fuusioiden u) Markkina yritysostojen ja Yrityksen markkinoiminen dramaattisten media­juttujen aiheiksi toteuttaminen -fuusioiden ehdottajille houkuttelevaksi yritysostojen ja -fuusioiden aloitteentekijäksi Kysynnän luominen yrityksen g) Markkina innovatiivisille Yrityksen ja sen brändien tuotteille ja palveluille viestijöille ja mainostajille markkinoiminen innovatiivisiksi Kumppanuuksien ja allianssien v) Markkina partnereille ja Yrityksen markkinoiminen viestijöiksi ja mainostajiksi luominen liittolaisille houkuttelevaksi kumppaniksi

Kysynnän luominen yrityksen h) Markkina yritysystäville Yrityksen markkinoiminen hyväksi Kumppanuuksien ja allianssien w) Markkina retoriikoille Yrityksen sitoutumista ja tuotteille ja palveluille ja heimojäsenille ystäväksi ja lojaaliksi heimojäseneksi luominen yrityksen sitoutumisesta ja luotettavuutta koskevien argumenttien luotettavuudesta partnerina markkinoiminen vakuuttaviksi Oman pääoman hankkiminen ja i) Markkina Yrityksen markkinoiminen ja liittolaisena arvostuksen nostaminen osakesijoituskohteille houkuttelevaksi osakesijoituskohteeksi Kansainvälistymisen x) Markkina Yrityksen markkinoiminen Oman pääoman hankkiminen ja j) Markkina Yrityksen strategiamuotoilujen toteuttaminen yritysimmigranteille merkittäväksi kontribuoijaksi kotimaan arvostuksen nostaminen strategiaretoriikoille markkinoiminen vakuuttaviksi, ulkopuolisen yhteiskunnan hyvinvointiin lupaaviksi ja innovatiivisiksi Uusien tuotteiden/palveluiden/ y) Markkina informaation ja Yrityksen markkinoiminen luotettavaksi Oman pääoman hankkiminen ja k) Markkina Yrityksen investointien ja kassa­virtojen bisnesten kehittäminen tiedon kerääjille kumppaniksi, jolle voi jakaa arvostuksen nostaminen investointiretoriikoille suhdetta koskevien ennus­teiden (luottamuksellistakin) tietoa markkinoiminen vakuuttaviksi Uusien tuotteiden/palveluiden/ z) Markkina muodikkuuden/ Yrityksen muodikkuuden/trendik­ Oman pääoman hankkiminen ja l) Markkina retoriikoille Yrityksen tekemisten avoimuutta ja bisnesten kehittäminen trendikkyyden/hyvän kyyden/hyvän designin perusteluiden arvostuksen nostaminen yritysten integriteetistä, läpinäkyvyyttä koskevien argumenttien designin määritelmille ja argumenttien markkinoiminen avoimuudesta ja markkinoiminen vakuuttaviksi vakuuttaviksi ja ‘oikeiksi’ transparenssista Uusien tuotteiden/palveluiden/ å) Markkina muodikkaille/ Yrityksen tuotteiden ja palveluiden Oman pääoman hankkiminen ja m) Markkina ylimmän Yrityksen toimivan johdon markki­ bisnesten kehittäminen trendikkäille/hyvän designin markkinoiminen ajankohtaisia arvostuksen nostaminen johdon persoonallisuuksille noiminen kompetenteiksi, dynaamisiksi omaaville tuotteille muodikkuuden/trendikkyyden/hyvän ja sujuviksi esiintyjiksi designin määritelmiä vastaaviksi

Oman pääoman hankkiminen ja n) Markkina hallitusjäsenten Yrityksen hallitusjäsenten markki­ Uusien tuotteiden/palveluiden/ ä) Markkina tuote- ja Yrityksen tuote- ja arvostuksen nostaminen persoonallisuuksille noiminen kompetenteiksi, dynaamisiksi bisnesten kehittäminen teknologiastandardeille teknologiastandardeja koskevien ja sujuviksi esiintyjiksi ehdotusten markkinoiminen ‘oikeiksi’

Sääntelytuen hankkiminen o) Markkina Yrityksen markkinoiminen merkit­ yrityskansalaisille täväksi kontribuoijaksi yhteiskunnan Taulukko 2. Geneeriset yritysmarkkinat, niillä harjoitettava markkinointi ja niiden linkit yritystason hyvinvointiin johtamisintresseihin

108 109 HENRIKKI TIKKANEN – 50 6 – Yritystason strateginen markkinointi lukuisilla kilpailluilla yritysmarkkinoilla

Tunnista relevantit Tunnista yritys­ Analysoi kilpailutilanne Tunnista ja analysoi Muotoile ja suunnittele toimen­­piteet yritysmarkkinat markkinoiden väliset ja yrityksen positio eri markkina­mahdollisuuksia markkinamahdollisuuksiin tarttu­ suorat ja epäsuorat markkinoilla (ja -uhkia) eri markki­ miseksi ja uhkien elimi­noimiseksi vuorovaikututkset noiden sisällä ja välillä Toteuta, seuraa ja kontrolloi

4. JOHTOPÄÄTÖKSET yritystason strategista markkinointia (cor- yritystason strategisen johtamisen intressit, porate strategic marketing CSM). Taulukko jotka ovat olleet lähimpänä Henrikin hen- Kuten Henrikkikin toisinaan itseironises- myös indikoi, minkälaisena tai minkälaiseksi kilökohtaisia intressejä ja sydäntä, tulivat ti toteaa: “kirjoitin pitkästi, kun en osannut yrityksen pitää itseään noilla yritysmarkkin- reflektoiduiksi. Erityisesti ehdin – ja halu- kirjoittaa lyhyesti”. Ja siltikin ehdin käydä oilla markkinoida. Kuvio 1 taas näyttää alun sin – käydä yksityiskohtaisemmin läpi ne läpi ainoastaan viisi alussa listaamastani perin hahmottelemamme manageriaalisen intressit ja yritysmarkkinat, joissa humaani kymmenestä yritystason strategisesta in- prosessin CSM:lle. Kuviossa korostamisen ja jopa henkinen ulottuvuus on enemmän tressistä, ja ne 18 yritysmarkkinaa 28:sta arvoista on se, että vaikka tunnistamiamme läsnä, mahdollisesti kovan ulkopinnan alla (ks. Taulukko 2 edellä), jotka suorimmin vai- yksittäisiä geneerisiä yritysmarkkinoita on (esim. markkina suusta-suuhun-keskus- kuttavat noiden intressien edistämiseen. Ne jopa 28 – kirjaimesta a) kirjaimeen ä)² – niin telunaiheille, markkina yritysystäville ja yritystason strategiset intressit, jotka jäivät CSM-ajattelun ytimessä on ennen kaik- heimojäsenille, markkina retoriikoille inte- käsittelemättä (edullisen vieraan pääoman kea yritysmarkkinoiden yli ja poikki tehtävä griteetistä, markkina ylimmän johdon per- hankkiminen; yritysostojen ja -fuusioiden koordinointi: kullekin yritykselle relevanttien soonallisuuksille, markkina hyvähenkisille toteuttaminen; kumppanuuksien ja allians- yritysmarkkinoiden tunnistaminen, eri yritys- työnantajille). Tämähän on juuri se, mikä sien luominen; kansainvälistymisen toteut- markkinoiden välisten suorien ja epäsuorien parhaiten Henrikkiä kuvaa henkilönä, kol- taminen; uusien tuotteiden/palveluiden/ vuorovaikutusten analysointi sekä mahdolli- legana, esimiehenä, alaisena, mentorina, bisnesten kehittäminen), sekä näihin eniten suuksien ja uhkien tunnistaminen yrityksen mentoroitavana, ystävänä ja varaveljenä: vaikuttavat 10 yritysmarkkinaa, ovat kuiten- kokonaisintressien palvelemiselle markki- hieman kovalta ulospäin näyttävän pinnan kin nekin listattuina Taulukossa 1. Taulukko noiden sisällä ja poikki tehtävien toimenpit- alla sykkivänä äärimmäisen lämpimänä ja siis tiivistää käsitellyt (ja käsittelemättömät) eiden kautta. muille ihmisille aina hyvää tahtovana sydä- geneeriset yritysmarkkinat, joilla suurimmal- Vaikka osa yritysmarkkinoista jäi siis menä ja henkenä. le osalle yrityksiä on relevanttia harjoittaa käsittelemättä tässä, väitän kuitenkin, että ne

2 Se, että emme väkisin tunnistaneet yritysmarkkinaa ö), viestii ehkä siitä, että vierastamme kummatkin perinteisen markkinoinnin tieteenalan tapaa keksiä viitekehyksiä, joissa on jokin tasaluku elementtejä, tai samalla alkukirjaimella alkavia elementtejä, kuten 4P:tä tai 30R:ää (vrt. Gummesson 1995).

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IN THIS ESSAY, we aim to merge Hen- in Finland,” and “Marketing from Finland”. rikki’s passions for history and marketing These phases are partly overlapping, but a research with his personal push for more rough chronology can be found. top-tier publications by Finnish marketing scholars. This essay is based on a subjec- tive selection of academic articles discuss- MARKETING AND FINLAND ing marketing in Finland over the years. It does not, by any means, represent a com- The first phase, where the earliest articles prehensive account of such studies, but from the 1960s and 1970s are featured, we 7 simply aims to highlight some of the most refer to as “Marketing and Finland.” This influential works and topics, to create a nar- phase encompasses studies that focus on rative of the development of interests in the informing an international audience about Finnish marketing research. the development of Finland, its economy, An Interpreted In terms of marketing practice, we consumers, and companies through the Finns have traditionally looked up to our lens of marketing. neighboring Swedes with their brands like Already in the earliest academic ar- IKEA, H&M, or Volvo, belittling the Finnish ticles on marketing, Finland was often Review of the History marketing culture and know-how. Finnish highlighted as a point of comparison to success stories like Nokia or KONE have US practices (e.g., Drury, 1937). This prac- been often explained away by pointing to tice was further highlighted during the Cold of Finnish Marketing engineering know-how, rather than capabil- War era, when a number of American Pro- ities in marketing. However, the exceptional fessors strengthened their ties with Finnish development of the Finnish industry (see universities (e.g., Alton, 1963; Cundiff, 1965; e.g., Ojala et al., 2006) has set the stage Darling, 1981; Sood, 1975). Finland was per- Research for a unique history of marketing in Finland. ceived as an intriguing market at the inter- Henrikki, together with colleagues, recounts section of Western and Soviet influence the history of Finnish marketing in the Strat- which, however, appeared to follow a rather Mark books (Tikkanen and Frösén, 2011 ; Americanized approach to marketing (e.g., How do national goals of producing locally relevant research Tikkanen and Vassinen, 2009). In fact, mar- Alton, 1963). A.J. Alton provides a first-hand intersect with the international academic publishing competition? keting in Finland has historically attracted account of the state of marketing in Finland How does the Finnish business environment serve as a context for global interest among marketing research- in the early 60’s after working as a visiting ers. Alas, in 1963 the Journal of Marketing, lecturer at the Helsinki School of Econom- research in top-tier international publications? the leading journal in the field, went as far ics and Business Administration and the as to publish an article titled “Marketing in Swedish School of Economics and Busi- Finland.” In what follows, we will revisit the ness Administration (today known as Aalto foundations of this interest towards market- University School of Business and Hanken ing in Finland and briefly outline the shifting School of Economics, respectively). The focus of studies on Finnish marketing over author, a US-based professor, was clearly time. The narrative that forms centers on writing to an audience of his peers, compar- three phases of development in the Finnish ing and contrasting Finnish retail, market- JOHANNA FRÖSÉN history of marketing research, here denot- ing, and advertising with the situation in the MIKKO LAUKKANEN ed as “Marketing and Finland,” “Marketing US. The article can be summarized through

118 119 HENRIKKI TIKKANEN – 50 7 – An interpreted review of the history of Finnish marketing research

this quote: “America’s marketing past is to a In the area of advertising, the author In the 1970s, many articles on Finn- research is less than in the United States great extent Finland’s present, and Amer- focuses on the dominant medium of news- ish marketing followed the footsteps of due to the private nature of the Finns. An ica’s present is seen evolving as Finland’s papers and the background explanations Alton (1963), however with one important extensive use of surveys would be most future” (p. 51). Despite the author’s view for this: “The ratio of circulation of daily development. In addition to comparing difficult in this cultural environment” (p. 94). that Finnish marketing was a less-mature newspapers to population is one of the and contrasting Finnish and US marketing It also seemed that some sales and mar- version of American marketing, he strikes a highest in the world. Illiteracy is practically practice and research, the articles further keting tactics popular in the US may not be rather positive tone, noting that “[although] unknown.” (p. 50). A new product innova- proceed to analyze the attractiveness of transferable to Finland, for example, the the Scandinavian country of Finland shares tion, frozen food, was seen as having lim- Finland as an entry-point to the (from an “acceptance and use of personal selling 700 miles of common frontier with the So- ited short-term potential as, “the small size American perspective) mysterious and diffi- has lagged behind, perhaps due to the pri- viet Union, marketing may best be charac- of home refrigerators limits the market” and cult to navigate markets of the Soviet Union. vate nature of the Finns and their relative terized as defiantly ‘Western’” (p. 47). As “the general lack of storage space in apart- An early article in Management Review by lack of confidence in business and social with many of these articles by American ment living fosters the continuance of the Larry Neal (1973) and two articles by James situations” (p. 99). Despite the challenges professors from this era, Alton’s article also traditional daily food shopping, and encour- H. Sood in Columbia Journal of World Busi- stemming from the distinct Finnish char- has a strong undercurrent of a Cold War ages the Finnish homemakers to purchase ness (1975) and Journal of the Academy of acter, Sood encouraged American industry discourse, where the Soviet Union adjacent the less expensive canned or fresh foods” Marketing Science (1977) exemplify this cat- to both enter the Finnish market as well to Finland was being coaxed into the capitalist (p. 50). Similarly, the author saw only limited egory. Again, the Cold War undertones are consider using Finnish firms as partners for West. potential for installment selling, popular in heavy throughout the texts. A few highlights expansion into the Soviet Union. It is interesting to focus on some of the US, as “saving and not being in debt, from these deserve to be mentioned. In his Management Review (1973) arti- the unique characteristics of Finnish mar- except for home financing, is still a Finnish James H. Sood, who similarly to A.J. cle titled “Trade with the USSR: The Finnish keting and the Finnish economy that the virtue” (p. 50). Alton had been a Visiting Professor at the Connection”, L. Neal also made the case author chooses to share with his, presum- Professor Alton ends with a call for Helsinki School of Economics and Business that Finnish companies were uniquely po- ably, American readers. Related to retailing rapid improvement in one area and hopeful Administration, made a number of interest- sitioned to help US industry succeed in the in Finland, the author highlights the rapid note about the future of marketing in Fin- ing observations about Finnish consum- Soviet Union due to three factors. Firstly, urbanization that had taken place in the land. “Greater progress,” he wrote, “needs ers, executives, and businesses. Before the physical location made for quicker trav- 1950’s and the resulting shift from small to be made in marketing research. Although explaining the unique attributes of Finnish el of managers and technicians to Moscow rural stores to planned shopping centers there are scattered examples of excellent business, Sood (1975) reviews some core by air and easy transportation of goods by in Helsinki and retail-chains throughout research in many of the functional areas of Finnish attitudes that “pervade every busi- land and sea. Secondly, Finnish exports to the country. Consumer cooperatives also marketing, overall developments have not ness or social situation” (p. 93). He wrote, the Soviet Union were in an exclusive cat- get plenty of attention, drawing attention to been noteworthy” (p. 51). As for the future with heavy colonial vibes, “the Finnish peo- egory as “the controlled trade with Russia their comparatively large share in Finnish prospects for marketing in Finland, he not- ple have been characterized as honest, de- does not cover products with limited Finnish retailing. One rival to these cooperatives ed “an increasing awareness of the impor- termined, quiet, and reserved, with a certain value-added content” (p. 42). Lastly, Finnish was named and praised: “An effective rival tance of marketing, with emphasis given to lack confidence. They attempt to overcome companies had developed competencies of the consumer cooperative chains is a na- it as a subject in advanced management this latter trait by perseverance and deter- around marketing research and advertis- tionwide group of independent retailers of a institutes and seminars” (p. 51). A key role mination” (p. 93). Continuing, “when these ing in Russia. The author interviewed two number of merchandise lines known by the in this was to be played by the “four inde- personality traits are carried to the extreme Finnish executives of Witraktor, a subsidi- trade name Kesko. […] The success of this pendent collegiate schools of business, they can develop into tactlessness, dogma- ary of Wihuri Yhtymä Oy, a distributor in venture can be attributed to the fact that the two of which have celebrated a half-cen- tism, and extreme sensitivity” (p. 94). These Russia for American manufacturers such problems of competing effectively with the tury of training young people for business national characteristics relate to marketing, as Catepillar Tractor Co., Gardner Denver, cooperative chains met in other than just careers,” where marketing was “recognized for example, thusly: “A few of the larger and Goodyear. On market research, sales the buying function. Emphasis upon mar- by Finnish colleges of business as an im- beer and coffee companies conduct rather director Hugo Malmiranta noted: “The Rus- keting research and attention to all the func- portant part of Finland’s business scene” sophisticated consumer research projects, sians set priorities on where to spend. So tional marketing areas is exemplary” (p. 49). (p. 51). but, generally, the amount of marketing you must have market research to see what

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"...specificities of the Finnish retail industry, especially its powerful consumer cooperatives, became a point of international interest"

products to promote” (p .44), and on ad- and internationally. For instance, MARKETING IN FINLAND vertising general manager Olli Tapanainen specificities of the Finnish retail in- pointed out that it is completely different than dustry, especially its powerful consumer The second phase, which we title “Market- in the West as advertising had to be purely cooperatives, became a point of interna- ing in Finland,” aims to explain and contrib- factual and technical. These comments are tional interest (Alton, 1963; Cundiff, 1965; ute to the development of Finnish business- emblematic of the larger discourse around Sood, 1975; see also Lamberg et al., 2009). es and the success of Finnish companies Finnish marketing in the earliest scholarly Advertising to the Finnish consumers through means of academic research. In articles, where the focus was on highlighting also attracted interest already among related studies, the choice of theories, con- the uniqueness of Finnish marketing, which early scholars (e.g., Holstius, 1983; cepts, and discussions is at least partly dic- stemmed from the peculiarities of the Finnish Keown et al., 1989; Kujala and tated by developments in the economy and economy and its geopolitical standing, and Lehtinen, 1989). time-bound interests of businesses, and the potential benefits that Finnish marketing In the most recent the relevance of research for practitioners knowhow may have had for Western firms. In academic literature, studies is (potentially) very high. This phase char- all of these early marketing articles, Finnish describing global marketing acterizes most of the published marketing marketing was described as an area under phenomena in the Finnish research originating from Finland. development playing catch-up with more context (Frösén and Tik- C. Grönroos from Hanken School developed marketing practices of Western kanen, 2016) and using Fin- of Economics was a forerunner in actively countries. land as a point of comparison for shaping the international discourse of mar- Many of the topics raised by Alton other European markets in comparative keting by building on his experiences from (1963) and colleagues proved to appeal to a studies (Jaakkola et al., 2010; Mehta, 2001; the Finnish market environment. His central wider audience of academics both in Finland Nagy et al., 2017) continue to evolve. tenet was that the prevailing marketing mod- →

122 123 HENRIKKI TIKKANEN – 50 7 – An interpreted review of the history of Finnish marketing research

els in 1970s, which mostly centered around Strandvik , 1997; Skålén et al., 2015), both ones (e.g., Darling, 1981; see also Huttunen the marketing mix and the 4 Ps, were not "...service should be building on the unique characteristics and and Autio, 2010; Sood, 1975), also requiring well suited to service firms. Instead, service viewed as a process development of the Finnish industry. a local approach to marketing communi- should be viewed as a process and focus Also outside the context of service, cations. Interestingly, advertising perfor- placed on the interaction and relationship and focus placed on the field of industrial marketing and pur- mance and its measurement (particularly between the customer and the service pro- the interaction and chasing (IMP) was central to the devel- in terms of its contribution to sales) and vider, rather than simple physical elements opment of the early Finnish marketing marketing analytics representing current of the transaction. In his article from 1978, relationship between discourse. K. Möller from Aalto University hot topics in marketing were, in their ear- Grönroos outlines a new paradigm of ser- (formerly Helsinki School of Economics), ly forms, addressed by Finnish scholars vices marketing, particularly well applicable the customer and the another influential figure building on his ob- already in the 1990s (e.g., Holstius, 1990; to the context of industrial services central service provider servations of the Finnish business-to-busi- Sääksjärvi and Talvinen, 1993). to the Finnish economy (Grönroos, 1979). ness focused trade, focused on business Later in the 1990s, the scope of This work culminated in a general model networks among small and medium sized topics and scale of output among Finnish of service quality and its marketing impli- – rather than simple firms. His early work further addressed the marketing scholars soared, while following cations, published in the European Journal need to adapt the marketing models pre- closely the developments of Finnish in- of Marketing in 1984. To date, this article physical elements of dominantly originating in the American dis- dustry. One of the emerging streams from remains among the most cited articles in course of large enterprises and consumer this era is around marketing by high-tech the journal. the transaction." goods markets to the Finnish and Scandi- companies (Bell, 1995; Möller and Halinen, At the beginning of the 1990s, Grön- navian markets characterized by a domi- 1999); Möller, 1995; Rajala, 1995. This is per- roos proceeded with a further aiming ob- nance of small actors primarily catering for haps unsurprising given the rapid growth of jective of redefining the entire concept of business-to-business markets (e.g., Möller Nokia and the IT sector taking place at the marketing, to better incorporate the ser- and Anttila, 1987, Möller and Svahn, 2003). time. Also, the transforming banking sector vice aspect (Grönroos, 1990, 1994). Here, His work expanded the scholarly attention in Finland attracted attention of research- his central claim was that the prevailing further to business-to-business relation- ers (Hellman, 1995; Holstius, 1995; Storbac- American conception of marketing did not ships (e.g., Alajoutsijärvi et al., 2000; Möller ka, 1997), as did the rapidly changing con- fit directly the Finnish and/or broader Scan- and Halinen, 1999; Möller and Rajala, 2007; sumption habits of the Finnish consumer dinavian context, an observation made by Olkkonen et al., 2000) and project business (Laaksonen et al., 1998; Pantzar, 2003). The several Nordic scholars (see also Nilsson, (Cova and Holstius, 1993; Skaates and Tik- expanding tourism sector also gave topic to 1977). Instead, these markets that largely kanen, 2003). several studies, both in terms of marketing focused on industrial production and where K. Holstius, the first female Professor exotic destinations to Finns (e.g., Laulajain- related services were mostly provided by in International Business and Marketing in en, 1981) and in terms of marketing Finland small businesses (see also Möller and Pe- Finland, who also served as the supervisor as a destination (e.g., Björk , 2000; Haahti sonen, 1981; Möller and Anttila, 1987) would of Henrikki’s Doctoral dissertation, was the and Yavas, 1983). require an approach to marketing focused first Finnish scholar to focus on problemat- Another recurring theme, already on building and managing long-term busi- ics of advertising in Finland (e.g., Holstius, originating from the early publications, was ness relationships. The Nordic School of 1983). In her early work, Holstius highlights that of export marketing, from both per- marketing was born. This approach later the pivotal role that the creative minds of spectives of Finnish enterprises moving gave rise to the paradigms of relationship an advertising agency play in shaping the to compete in the international markets marketing (e.g., Holmlund and Törnroos, messages between the marketer and their and developing their international 1997; Storbacka et al., 1994; Ravald and intended audiences. The Finnish mindset operations (e.g., Cadogan et al., Grönroos, 1996) and service marketing and approach to consumption were seen 2001, 2005; Diamantopoulos (e.g., Heinonen et al., 2010; Liljander and as differing significantly from the American et al., 1990; Ghauri and

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Holstius, 1996; Holmlund and Kock , 1998; approach remained a dominant topic, all be choice of theories and concepts for these Smythe, 2004), following the shift of at- Korhonen et al., 1996; Sood, 1977), and of it through new angles such as the impact of studies is driven purely by the research- tention towards it originating from the US consumer perceptions of foreign firms ex- business cycles (Alajoutsijärvi et al., 2001). ers’ interests and global research trends, academic market. There is still ample re- porting to Finland (Darling and Arnold, This era also saw the introduction of a new and Finland could be replaced with anoth- search focusing on phenomena character- 1988; Darling and Taylor, 1993; Darling and approach to project marketing, heralded by er setting. The link to Finnish business and istic to the Finnish business environment: Wood, 1990). These studies coincided with H. Tikkanen (Skaates and Tikkanen, 2003). society may be even quite limited, and the for instance, peculiarities of legislation (e.g., the general opening of the Finnish econ- As online services became ever more pop- studies are clearly written to the interna- Aspara and Tikkanen, 2017; Hietanen et omy that culminated with Finland joining ular with consumers, another discourse was tional academic community and less to the al., 2016), the strong gaming industry (Tik- the European Union in 1995. Previously, formed around digitalization of marketing, Finnish business practitioners. Finland’s kanen et al., 2009), and local subcultures Finland as a relatively closed market had including topics ranging from email- and relatively small size and ample access (Hietanen and Rokka, 2015). However, provided a neutral platform for testing the mobile marketing (Martin et al., 2003; Mer- to top management, however, make it an these studies do not aim to produce under- global appeal of marketing concepts origi- isavo and Raulas, 2004; Merisavo et al., attractive context for also studies with a standings of the Finnish business context nated in diverse markets (Darling and Ar- 2007) and online trade environments (Salo non-Finland specific focus. in particular but rather build on phenomena nold, 1988; Darling and Wood, 1990; Liukko and Karjaluoto, 2007), such as online bank- Some industries in Finland – like the well exemplified by the Finnish context to et al., 1997). The change of currency to Euro ing (Kuisma et al., 2007; Pikkarainen et al., grocery retail industry with a very limited draw globally applicable insights. in 2002 inspired further research on 2004), to consumers’ online behavior (Sorsa number of market players – provide an al- Overtime, in line with this develop- consumer adoption (e.g., Antti- and Holmlund-Rytkönen, 2003), social me- most laboratory-like setting for conducting ment, the scopes of individual studies have la, 2004). dia (Heinonen, 2011), and even virtual reali- studies (see e.g., Lamberg et al., 2009). The narrowed, as researchers have started As the new millennium ties (Tikkanen et al., 2009). An emergence unique access that researchers have to targeting the global discourse and top-ti- dawned, Finnish market- of social and ethical issues in the public dis- both archival data and top management of er academic journals. Research articles ing research continued to course and, thereby, in the Finnish market- Finnish organizations offers opportunities aiming for shifting entire paradigms (Grön- progress along some of the ing research started around the same time for data collection that would be unlikely in roos, 1984, 1994, 1997; Möller and Halinen, old trajectories, while (Meriläinen et al., 2000; Luukkanen, 2003). many other countries (e.g., del Rio Olivares 1999) have become scarcer, and the na- also new ones Following an increased focus on high-quali- et al., 2018; Salonen et al., 2020; Skippari ture of contributions more focused, to fit emerged. ty pedagogy at Finnish universities, studies et al., 2017; see also Woodside et al., 1999). the demands of the leading journals (e.g., Busi- on marketing education started to emerge This unique access has given grounds for, Frösén et al., 2016; Grönroos and Voima, ness-to-busi- (e.g., Karjaluoto et al., 2004; Laukkanen et for instance, a plethora of studies around 2013; Skålen et al., 2015). This has brought ness relation- al., 2013). The splintering of Finnish market- the rise and fall of Nokia (e.g., Aspara et Finnish marketing research closer to the ships and ing research into more and more streams al., 2011, 2013; Tikkanen et al., 2005; Vuori research conducted elsewhere in Europe the net- continued throughout the early 2000s and and Huy, 2016). Education and academ- and the USA. work into the new 2010s, along with exponential ic research are also valued highly among As a conclusion, studies character- growth in the number of publications. Finnish business executives, which makes istic to the three distinct phases all serve them eager to contribute to academic re- different purposes and cater to different au- search. This has allowed for collecting diences. The “Marketing and Finland”-type MARKETING FROM FINLAND unique national-level data sets, attract- of studies may have broad appeal across ing interest even in leading journals (e.g., scholarly and practitioner audiences, while The third phase we call “Marketing Frösén et al., 2016). they make little effort to advance theory – at from Finland,” where Finland merely Emerging streams of marketing re- best providing additional empirical valida- provides a context for studies that search following this approach included tion through a new context. “Marketing in are aiming to contribute to the studies targeting, for instance, the mar- Finland” studies have a strong link to con- development of global keting finance interface(e.g., Aspara and temporary business context, and often pro- marketing theory. The Tikkanen, 2008, 2011; Korkeamäki and vide directly actionable guidance tailored to

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134 135 HENRIKKI TIKKANEN – 50 8 – Henrikki

HENRIKKI Olet suurisydäminen akateemikko, Kävelyllä tai baarissa, alati sinulta opin, intohimoinen perehtyjä, behavioristisesta lähestymistavasta palautetta antaessas et salli johtajuudessa nappaisinko kopin? itses erehtyä. Sinulta myös opin, että väitös on Keskustelut kanssasi ovat aina herättäviä akateemisen maailman ajokortti, ja sangen rikkaita, kiitos sinulle, on avautunut minulle sen vaan jos en ajatuksellisesti yletykään jälkeen niin moni uusi portti. samaan, jo tarjoat avuksi tikkaita. 8 Sinun tinkimätön osaamisesi on Epäoikeudenmukaisuudesta kiivastut Henrikki vertaansa vailla, ja sanansäilä pauhaa, kiitos, että olen saanut kokea sitä myös johtaminen tai markkinointi, Muistolan mailla. Henrik ki ei keskustelussa näy lauhaa. Olet myös tunnettu sitä, ettei tyylitajus Omastasi olet muille aina valmis jakaa, koskaan petä, paperit ei pöydälläsi koskaan kauaa makaa; tosin särö siihen tuli, kun kaupasta tuli ulos Bemari-setä. sillä vastaamisen nopeudessa ei sua kukaan päihittää edes koita, Eiköhän sekin saada korjattua, sillä onhan sata sivua luettu jo ennen kuin meillä muilla vielä toiset 50 vuotta aikaa, on aamiaisleivällä voita. toivon juhlapäivänäsi ennen kaikkea rak- kautta, sillä vain se tuo eloomme taikaa. Harva myöskään tietää, että teet empiirisen ihmiskokeen tuomalla Pipsan neuvotteluihin mukaan, Pipsaa kun ei voi huijata teeskentelyllä kukaan. Pake

PAULIINA AIRAKSINEN-AMINOFF

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Henrikki Tikkanen – Lukuisten väitöskirjatöiden ohjaaja ja kustos. Kuvassa prof. Russell W. Belk (vas.), prof. Jeff B. Murray, prof. Henrikki Tikkanen sekä väittelijä, nykyisin assoc. prof. Joel Hietanen. Helsinki (2012). Kuvaaja: Hanna-Maija Lahtinen.

Markkinoinnin laitoksen pitkäaikainen johtaja Pekka Mattilan syntymäpäiväjuhlilla. Umbria, Italia (2013). Kuvaaja: Jaakko Veijola.

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Elämä on pelkkää akateemista juhlaa? Kuvassa Henrikki Tikkasen lisäksi joukko DBA Monipuolista tulkintaa, myös laulaen. Kuvassa lehtori Antti Sihvonen (vas.), prof. Jari Salo, prof. Henrikki Tikkanen Pauliina Asikainen-Aminoffin kutsuvieraita. Helsinki (2018). Kuvaaja: Juho-Petteri Huhtala. sekä prof. Johanna Frösén. Tokio, Japani (2010). Kuvaaja: Joel Hietanen.

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(Pikku)joulun taikaa. Kuvassa prof. Henrikki Tikkanen sekä tutkijatohtori Turun vahvistukset filosofisen ajattelun lähteellä. Kuvassa prof. Rami Olkkonen Juho-Petteri Huhtala. Malmi, Vantaa (2018). Kuvaaja: Sari Haavisto. sekä prof. Henrikki Tikkanen. Oxford, Lontoo (2016). Kuvaaja: Alex Aalto.

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(8)

(7)

Tohtorointikone Henrikki Tikkanen DBA-koulutuksesta väittelevän Pauliina Airaksinen-Aminoffin väitöstilaisuuden jälkipyykillä. Kuvassa prof. Henrikki Tikkanen (vas.), Pauliina Airaksinen-Aminoff, prof. Joel Hietanen sekä tutkija- tohtori Kerttu Kettunen. Helsinki (2018). Kuvaaja: Lotte Estman.

Hetki tuomiokirkolla. Turku (2003). Kuvaaja: Eija Olk konen.

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Solemn moments before yet another defence. Helsinki (2012). Mies ja omena. Helsinki (2019). Kuvaaja: Otto Virtanen. Kuvaaja: Hanna-Maija Lahtinen.

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150 151 HENRIKKI TIKKANEN – 50 9 – Henrikistä kertovia lausahduksia – ja filosofiaa niiden takana

9 Henrikistä kertovia ”TÄMÄ EI TERVEYSMATKA, ”SATTEN’KEPPI” EIKÄ SÄÄSTÖMATKA.” lausahduksia Mies voi lähteä Salosta, mutta lähteekö Henrikki Tikkanen (myöhemmin HT) on Salo koskaan miehestä? Varsinaissuoma- aina ollut, vähintään mieleltään, globaali. lainen murre kuuluu miehen niin halutessa – ja filosofiaa niiden Hänen kiinnostuksensa kansainväliseen puheenparresta loistavasti ja itse asiassa historiaan ja etenkin sotahistoriaan on aina Salo onkin Turun murteeksi mielletyn kie- ollut leimallista. Kansainvälisen markkinoin- len nykyisiä vahvoja linnakkeita. Kotiseutu- takana nin opiskeleminen, ulkomailla työskentele- rakkaudeksi tulkittava investointi maalais- minen, ulkomaalaisten tutkijavieraiden kut- kartanoon on palauttanut mahdollisuudet suminen Suomeen, kauppakorkeakoulun toteuttaa Turun murteella leikkimistä sen markkinoinnin laitoksen kansainvälistämi- aidoimmassa ympäristössä maaseudulla. nen, asunnon ostaminen ulkomailta ja eks- Hyväntuulisuus on paistanut HT:stä ensim- tensiivinen konferenssimatkailu ovat saman mäisestä päivästä lähtien, kun kartanopro- kansainvälisen sydämen kaipuun ilmene- jektin toteutuminen varmistui ja mieli näyt- mismuotoja. Monikielisyys on täydellinen tää todella lepäävän kotiseudulla. HT:n fakta, vaikka mies itse kielitaitoaan vähät- viljelemistä murresanoista yksi mieleenpai- teleekin. Konferenssimatkoilla maailman nuvimmista on sattenkeppi – ja Salon seu- mannuilla on menty eikä meinattu, nyt va- dulla sellaista kaivataankin, koska vuosit- litettavasti näköpiirissä ei valitettavasti ole taiset sademäärät ovat tilastollisesti ainakin enää sellaista nykyisyyttä tai tulevaisuutta, Naantalia korkeammat. jossa samankaltainen elämyksellisyys tois- PETRI PARVINEN tuisi tuleville tutkijasukupolville.

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”EI PAL’ MITTÄÄ, PATSASTELLAA.” ”HUONOON KUNTOON.” ”WHAT’S YOUR NAME AGAIN?” ”ALAIN MIKLIT PÄÄHÄN – JA EIKUN KONSULTOIMAAN.” Varsinaissuomalaisuuteen kuuluu myös Puheiden pitäminen on aina ollut HT:lle tär- Valitsemassaan työssä HT kohtaa vuosit- aina tietty terve ylpeys itsestään, osaami- keä tapa pitää yhteyttä kanssaihmisiinsä – ja tain kymmeniä ja satoja uusia ihmisiä. Ih- HT:n suhde tutkimuksen ja konsultoinnin ra- sestaan, ympärillä olevista ihmisistään ja professorin tehtävässähän tulee myös mah- misen nimimuisti on siitä käsittämätön asia, japinnassa on aina ollut kaksijakoinen. Toi- omasta kehostaan. Atletisismista on tullut dollisuuksia pitää niitä. Kaksinkeskeisessä että se voi olla erittäin valikoiva! Jos ana- saalta hän on aina halunnut korostaa itseään merkittävä osa HT:n henkilökuvaa ja liikun- dialogissa usein kärsimätön tai agendallinen lysoidaan puhtaasti intohimoisen kiinnos- päivänpolttavien liiketoiminta-asioiden ylä- nallinen hyvinvointi on aina ollut hänelle mies sukeutuu aina välittävämmäksi, reflek- tuksen perusteella – ja miten se projisoituu puolelle nousevana älykkönä, mutta toisaalta tärkeää. Väitöskirjoja on ohjattu menes- tiivisemmäksi ja visionäärisemmäksi, kun nimimuistiin – HT voisi aivan mainiosti olla hänellä on ollut kuitenkin vastustamatonta tyksekkäästi, yksityiskohtaisesti ja erittäin tulee juhlapuheen aika. Puheet ovat voineet historian, tarkemmin sanottuna sotahisto- mielenkiintoa yritysten menestyksen, ja sitä syvällisen reflektoivasti kuntosalilla. Innos- olla pitkiä ja niissä on joskus sanottu kars- rian, professori. Nimimuisti vuosisatojen kautta rahan tekemisen, ymmärtämiseen ja tuminen salitreenistä 2000-luvun alussa kejakin asioita, mutta kun muut istuvat ja HT taakse (vai takaa?) on käsittämätön. Tuo- selittämiseen. Upeat brändit ja niiden taka- oli omiaan kasvattamaan merkittävästi li- seisoo, tyypillisesti hieman kumarassa asen- reemmat tuttavuudet, joita esimerkiksi uu- na asuvat eksentriset ihmiset ovat myös aina hasmassaa (erään naispuolisen läheisen nossa kädet esim. väitöskaronkkapöydän det opiskelijat edustavat, putoavat useam- kiehtoneet häntä eikä muotikaan kierrä mies- sanoin: ”Sä oles puntannu ittes tommoseks tuolin selkänojaa vasten, pää keinahtelee min valikoivan muistin kategoriaan ”se uusi tä kaukaa. HT:n pidempään tunteneet muis- apinaks”) ja habitus 90-luvusta on miehek- puolelta toiselle ja ajoittain katse pakenee opiskelija” ja HT varmasti käyttäisi useam- tavat hänen toistasataa yksikköänsä vahvan käämpi ja ikääntyminen on sujunut sikälikin kattoon. Äänen paino on puheen pitämiselle min Devil Wears Pradasta tuttua lausah- merkkikravattikokoelmansa männävuosilta! vaivihkaa. Maksimipainoilla nitkuttaminen eri kuin arkipuheelle – pakotettu, mutta liikut- dusta, jos kehtaisi. Konsulttihommat ovat kiinnostaneet hyvin on sittemmin muuttunut monipuolisemmak- tava. Kun viiltävä älykkyys, elämänkokemus, vaihtelevasti vuosien varrella, mutta aina kun si ja viisaammaksi treeniksi ja meitä kaikki suorapuheisuus ja hyvä tahto kohtaavat juh- niitä on haluttu tehdä, aina ne ovat kaupaksi ajoittain kohtaavien fysiikkahaasteiden kun- lapuheessa, elämänohjeet ovat parhaimmil- käyneet ja tulosta on tullut. touttamisen edellytyksiksi. laan sellaisia, joita kannattaisi välittömästi noudattaa. ”HERRA ON HERRA ”KYYKKYYN JA YLÖS.” HELVETISSÄKIN.” ”NÄIN SE ON (THAT’S THAT).” Matkan varrelle on sattunut monia kom- Kravattikokoelman lisäksi HT on vahvasti melluksia, eikä suhde varsinkaan yliopis- Temperamentti? Kärsimättömyys? Halu kiinnostunut ylläpitämään tiettyä moraa- tohallinnon suuntaan ole aina ollut helpoin päästä asiasta eroon? Vahva näkemys? likoodistoa. Yleiskäytökseltään erittäin mahdollinen. HT:lla on erinomainen kyky Varmaan kaikkia näistä. Johtopäätöksien liberaalilla ja sallivalla, ja sitä kautta ää- olla masentumatta ja nousta uusiin aloittei- nopeus ja ehdottomuus, kussakin ajan rimmäisen monipuolisella tuttavapiirillä, siin ja haasteisiin varsinkin silloin, kun jotain hetkessä, on leimallinen piirre HT:n kans- varustetulla HT:llä on muutama periaate, isompaa ikävää on sattunut. HT olisi aivan sa keskusteltaessa. Jahkailu, päättämättö- joiden mukaan eletään. Tietty tyyli pitää mainiosti voinut olla yrittäjä tai keksijä, niin myys, munattomuus. Niistä ei todellakaan säilyttää, ambitiotason pitää olla korkea ja paljon intoa ja energiaa uuden tilanteen ja ole kyse. Kun on vasara kädessä, asiat al- alisuoriutumista ei katsota hyvällä. Juhlati- haasteen kohdalla hän kokee. Kyykkyyn ja kavat näyttää nauloilta. Varsinais-Suomen laisuudet pyhitetään ja etiketistä pidetään ylös kannattaa muuten mennä muutenkin, yksi arvokkaimpia uusiutuvia luonnonvaroja kiinni. Mahtava yhdistelmä uusiutumista ja ihan edellä mainituista syistä. on perusteeton itseluottamus. perinteikkyyttä.

154 155 HENRIKKI TIKKANEN – 50 10 – Monipuolinen tieteellinen tuotanto systemaattisena leikkinä kirjallisuusgenreillä

TÄSSÄ KIRJOITUKSESSA pyrkimyksenäni on kuvata Henrikki Tikkasen tieteellisen tuotannon moninaisuutta ja pohtia sen fi- losofisia, teoreettisia ja käytännöllisiä ulottuvuuksia. Monipuolisesti oppineet ja "Tikkasen julkaisevat tukijat ovat tärkeä voimavara yli- opistoille, koska he pystyvät luomaan uusia tuotantoa yhteyksiä tutkimusperinteiden välille tut- kimuksensa, opetuksensa ja verkostojensa ei ole helppo avulla. Monipuolisuutta tieteellisessä työssä ymmärretään kuitenkin huonosti. Kuvaan lokeroida monipuolista tieteellistä tuotantoa syste- maattisena leikkinä eri kirjallisuusgenreillä. Pyrin tällä ajattelutavalla tekemään ymmär- myöskään 10 rettäväksi miten jopa keskenään yhteen so- pimattomat tutkimusparadigmat voivat elää tieteen- sulassa, riitasointuisessa sovussa tutkijan Monipuolinen julkaisuluettelossa. filosofisesti." Henrikki Tikkasen tieteellinen tuo- tanto on poikkeuksellisen monipuolista. tieteellinen tuotanto Tikkasen menetelmälliseen repertuaariin lukeutuu kyselyt (Frösén et al., 2016), his- tella edustavan tieteellistä realismia, jonka toriallinen tutkimus (Lamberg ja Tikkanen, mukaan tieteen tehtävä on tuottaa maail- systemaattisena leik kinä 2006), laskennallinen mallintaminen (Luo- maa ainakin likimäärin kuvaavia väittämiä ma et al., 2017) sekä kokeellinen tutkimus (Chakravartty, 2017). Esimerkiksi Tikkasen (Luoma et al., 2018). Tikkanen on kirjoittanut ja kumppaneiden (Lamberg et al., 2019) No- kirjallisuusgenreillä esimerkiksi liiketoimintamalleista (Tik kanen kia-tutkimus pyrkii ”kunnioittamaan histo- et al., 2005), kilpailudynamiikasta (Lamberg riallista todellisuutta” (s. 1) sekä tuottamaan et al., 2009), projektiliiketoiminnasta (Tik- ”tasapainoisen ja kausaalisesti uskottavan kanen et al., 2007) markkinoinnin tuloksel- selityksen” (s. 4) tapahtumille, jotka johtivat lisuuden mittaamisesta (Frösén et al., 2013), siihen, että Nokia menetti markkinajohta- Iso-Britannian laivastosta (Tikkanen, 2017) jan aseman matkapuhelinliiketoiminnassa. sekä lukusutuotteiden väärennöksistä (Hie- Toisaalta Tikkanen ammentaa myös Jean tanen et al., 2020). Hän on ammentanut Baudrillardin simulaatioteoriasta (Hietanen kognitiotieteestä (Aspara et al., 2013), evo- et al., 2020), .jonka mukaan todellisuuden lutionaarisesta taloustieteestä (Lamberg et kuvaukset luovat todellisuutta, mutta eivät al., 2009), affektien tutkimuksesta(Aspara ole missään yksiselitteisessä viittaussuh- ja Tikkanen, 2010) sekä persoonallisuusp- teessa siihen (Gustafsson, 2007). sykologiasta (Tikkanen, 2017). Lokerointi on kenties vielä vaikeam- Tikkasen tuotantoa ei ole helppo lo- paa, kun katsotaan Tikkasen tohtoriopis- keroida myöskään tieteenfilosofisesti. Val- kelijoiden näkökulmien kirjoa. Osa väitös- JUKKA LUOMA taosa Tikkasen tutkimuksesta voidaan aja- kirjoista voidaan luokitella realismin eri

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lajien alle (esim. Jaakkola, 2012), mutta moni tutkijan elämään ja persoonaan. Tutkija tekee kaunokirjallisuus, tiede antaa meille välineitä Leikkivä lapsi on hyvin tietoinen siitä, että lei- Tikkasen oppilaista on ottanut merkittäviä ir- uransa aikana lukuisia tuotantoonsa vaikut- ymmärtää paremmin itseämme, toisiamme ja kin säännöt ja oletukset eivät ole tosia, mutta tiottoja valtavirtaisesta realismista, erityisesti tavia valintoja psykologisten, sosiaalisten ja toimia – niin epämääräiseltä kuin se väistä- se ei estä häntä uppoutumasta leikkiin. Lap- sosiaalisen konstruktionismin ja jälkistruktu- institutionaalisten voimien ristipaineessa. Ei mättä kuulostaakin – ‘paremmin’ yhdessä. si kykenee samaan aikaan uskomaan leikin ralistisen tutkimusperinteen suuntaan (esim. ole olemassa mitään metafyysisiä tai teoreet- Jos – kuten mielestäni oikein on – luo- sääntöihin ja oletuksiin, kuitenkin ymmär- Hietanen, 2012; Rokka, 2012). tisia takeita siitä, että nämä voimat vetävät vumme ajatuksesta, että tutkimus tuottaa täen, että ne eivät ole ‘oikeasti totta’. Juuri Mikä selittää tämän moninaisuuden? tutkijaa samaan suuntaan – edes yksittäisellä meistä riippumattoman todellisuuden kuvia, uppoutuminen, leikin sääntöjen ja oletusten Onko mahdollista tunnistaa jokin yhteinen ajanhetkellä – ja siten tuottavat ehyen tutki- herää kysymys, eikö ole epärehellistä no- ottaminen tosissaan, on se mikä tekee lei- nimittäjä, joka tekee kokonaisuudesta joh- musohjelman tai loogisesti etenevän älyllisen jautua positivistiseen tai realistiseen reto- kistä lapselle mielekästä sekä tukee lapsen donmukaisen ja loogisesti ehyen? Miten kasvutarinan. Ehyet tarinat lähinnä ylläpitävät riikkaan, joka dominoi tutkimusalueita kuten kognitiivista, emotionaalista ja sosiaalista tuotannon moniäänisyys voidaan tehdä ym- myyttiä tutkijasta rationaalisena toimijana markkinointi, strategia ja liiketoimintahistoria. kehitystä. märrettäväksi? sekä tieteestä ennustettavana ja hallittavana Eikö olisi selkeämpää keskittyä tutkimukses- Voimme ajatella, että juuri näin toimii Haastan valtavirtaista näkemystä, jon- prosessina. Tällaiset myytit eivät kestä ko- sa kuvaamaan niitä sosiaalisia ja poliittisia myös tutkija, joka operoi laajassa paradig- ka mukaan johdonmukaisuus ja looginen vin hyvin lähempää historiallista tarkastelua reunaehtoja, joiden puitteissa uskomukset ma-avaruudessa. Tutkija omaksuu näkökul- yhteneväisyys ovat tärkeitä tutkimustyön (esim. Feyerabend, 1993; Kuhn, 1996). objektiivisesta totuudesta syntyvät sekä sitä, man, ottaa sen reunaehdot tosissaan ja kat- hyveitä (esim. Mantere ja Ketokivi, 2013).¹ Voimme ajatella, että yhteen sovitta- miten poliittinen muuttuu vaivihkaa tiedolli- soo mihin se johdattaa hänet. Seuraavana Jos olet baudrillardilainen simulaatioteo- mattomat tutkimusparadigmat ja lähesty- seksi? päivänä hän omaksuu toisen näkökulman reetikko, et voi olla kokeellinen psykologi! mistavat ovat kirjallisuusgenrejä, jotka ovat Itse lähestyn kysymystä kirjallisuusgen- ottaa sen reunaehdot tosissaan, ja antaa Tutkijan on uskottava johonkin, ja toimittava ristiriidassa keskenään samalla tavalla kuin reajattelun kautta. Realistiset, konstruktiviset ajatustensa ajautua uusille urille. Voimme uskomustensa pohjalta johdonmukaisesti dekkarit ovat ristiriidassa maagisen realismin ja kriittiset kirjallisuusgenret voivat elää rinta ajatella, että monipuolisen tieteellisen tuo- – luotti tutkija sitten tieteellisen metodin ob- kanssa. Lyhyesti sanottuna ratkaisevaa risti- rinnan, ärsyttäen ja kietoutuen toisiinsa, kos- tannon taustalla onkin ajatus tutkimuksesta jektiivisuuteen tai totuuden väistämättömään riitaa ei ole. Osa kaunokirjallisuuden ystävistä kaan sulautumatta (Kieser ja Leiner, 2009). systematisoituna leikkinä kirjallisuusgenreil- kulttuurisidonnaisuuteen. Uskomusten päi- ahmii sukukronikoita, toinen makustelee gen- Vaikka emme metafyysisessä mielessä us- lä (ks. myös Weick , 1989). vittäminen on hyväksyttävää, mutta sen pi- rejä ja kyllästyy nopeasti. Analogisesti: osa koisi tieteelliseen realismiin, voimme tuottaa On selvää, että toisilleen alun perin tää tapahtua hallitusti hyvien perustelujen ja tutkijoista omistautuu hyvin tarkasti rajattuihin kiinnostavia, liikuttavia ja kenties hyödyllisiä vieraiden ajatusten yhdistely voi tuottaa vakuuttavan havaintoaineiston pohjalta. tutkimusongelmiin tietyn tutkimusparadigman ’realistisia tarinoita’ (Van Maanen, 2011) koke- uusia oivalluksia. Laaja-alaisesti operoi- En kiistä johdonmukaisuuden ja loo- sisällä, osa hyppii tutkimusongelmasta ja pa- muksistamme ja havainnoistamme. vat tutkijat voivat toimia linkkihenkilöinä gisen eheyden arvoa tietyissä kommuni- radigmasta toiseen. Ajattelen, että haasteet Yksittäisen tutkijan tasolla kysymys on eri ajatusmaailmoiden välillä. Olen tässä kaatiotilanteissa, esimerkiksi yksittäisten paradigman vaihtamisessa ovat kognitiivisia, mielestäni käytännöllinen. Tutkijan sitoutumi- kirjoituksessa esittänyt, että monipuolista tutkimusartikkelien tasolla. Samaan aikaan ei niinkään filosofisia. nen tutkimusparadigmoihin on valinta, joka tieteellistä tuotantoa on mielekästä ajatella ajattelen, että yksittäisen tutkijan tuotan- Tieteen auktoriteetti ei nojaa sen ky- vaikuttaa kirjallisen tuotannon määrään ja leikin metaforan ja kirjallisuusgenreajatte- toa ei ole mielekästä yrittää ymmärtää jon- kyyn esittää todellisuutta vaan antaa välineitä laatuun. Esimerkiksi Leahey ym. (2017) ovat lun kautta. Sen sijaan, että yritämme löy- kinlaisen systemaattisen tieteenfilosofisen ymmärtää omaa paikkaamme ja toimintaam- osoittaneet, että poikkitieteellistä tutkimus- tää jonkin systemaattisen viitekehyksen tai viitekehyksen ilmentymänä vaan ikkunana me maailmassa (esim. Rorty, 1990). Kuten ta tekevät tutkijat ovat vähemmän tuottavia, juonen, joka ‘selittäisi’ julkaisuluettelossa mutta heidän julkaisunsa keräävät enemmän havaittavan vaihtelun, voimme juhlia moni- viittauksia. Voimme myös otaksua, että laa- puolista tieteellistä tuotantoa taidokkaana ja-alaisesti orientoitunut kollega on erilainen performanssina. En väitä, että esittämäni keskustelukumppani, opettaja ja ohjaaja ajattelutapa kuvaa niitä syitä, jotka ovat to- 1 Tämä näkemys juontuu ajattelusta, jossa tutkimuksen tehtävänä lähestyä totuutta, vaikkakin kuin tietyille tutkimusperinteille omistautunut dellisuudessa johtaneet Henrikki Tikkasen epävarmoin, haparoivin askelin. Objektiivisen totuuden mahdollisuus on toki haastettu jo kauan tutkija. valintoihin tutkijoina. Kirjoituksen tarkoitus sitten, mutta useimmiten tutkijat kuitenkin olettavat, että tutkijasubjekti on ehyt kokonaisuus, jolla on Leikki on hyödyllinen metafora moni- on tarjota lukijalle mahdollisuus leikitellä verrattain stabiili ja yksiselitteinen identiteetti. puolisen tutkimusprofiilin ymmärtämiseen. ajatuksella.

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LÄHTEET / REFERENCES: Lamberg JA ja Tikkanen H (2006) Changing sources of competitive advantage: cognition and path dependence in the Finnish retail industry 1945-1995. Industrial and Aspara J, Lamberg JA, Laukia A ja Tikkanen H (2013) Corporate business model Corporate Change 15(5): 811–846. transformation and inter-organizational cognition: The case of Nokia. Long range planning 46(6): 459–474. Lamberg JA, Tikkanen H, Nokelainen T ja Suur-Inkeroinen H (2009) Competitive dynamics, strategic consistency, and organizational survival. Strategic Management Aspara J ja Tikkanen H (2010) The role of company affect in stock investments: Journal 30(1): 45–60. towards blind, undemanding, noncomparative and committed love. Journal of Behavioral Finance 11(2): 103–113. Leahey E, Beckman CM ja Stanko TL (2017) Prominent but less productive: The impact of interdisciplinarity on scientists’ research. Administrative Science Quarterly 62(1): Chakravartty A (2013) Scientific realism. In: Zalta EN (ed) The Stanford Encyclopedia 105–139. of Philosophy. Stanford University: Stanford, CA. Available at: http://plato.stanford.edu/ archives/sum2013/entries/scientific-realism (accessed 5 March 2015) Luoma J, Ruutu S, King AW ja Tikkanen H (2017) Time delays, competitive interdependence, and firm performance. Strategic Management Journal 38(3): 506–525. Feyerabend P (1993) Against Method. London: Verso. Luoma J, Falk T, Totzek D, Tikkanen H ja Mrozek A (2018) Big splash, no waves? Frösén J, Luoma J, Jaakkola M, Tikkanen H ja Aspara, J (2016) What counts versus Cognitive mechanisms driving incumbent firms’ responses to low-price market entry what can be counted: The complex interplay of market orientation and marketing strategies. Strategic Management Journal 39(5): 1388–1410. performance measurement. Journal of Marketing 80(3): 60–78. Mantere S ja Ketokivi M (2013) Reasoning in organization science. Academy of Frösén J, Tikkanen H, Jaakkola M ja Vassinen A (2013) Marketing performance Management Review 38(1): 70–89. assessment systems and the business context. European Journal of Marketing 47(5/6): 715–737. Rokka J (2010) Exploring the cultural logic of translocal marketplace cultures: Essays on new methods and empirical insights. PhD thesis, Aalto University School of Business, Gustafsson JV (2007) Jean Baudrillardin simulaatioteoriasta. Paatos. Available at: Finland. http://www.paatos.fi/vanha/arkisto/2007-1/paatos10707.html (accessed 9 July 2020). Rorty R (1990) Objectivity, relativism, and truth: Philosophical papers, vol. 1. Hietanen J (2012) Videography in consumer culture theory: An account of essence(s) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. and production. PhD thesis, Aalto University School of Business, Finland. Tikkanen H (2017) Leader personality, managerial attention, and disruptive Hietanen J, Murray JB, Sihvonen A ja Tikkanen H (2020) Seduced by “fakes”: Producing technologies: the adoption of the battlecruiser concept in the Royal Navy, 1904-1918. the excessive interplay of authentic/counterfeit from a Baudrillardian perspective. Management & Organizational History 12(1): 47–75. Marketing Theory 20(1): 23–43. Tikkanen H, Kujala J ja Artto K (2007) The marketing strategy of a project-based firm: Jaakkola M (2012) Strategic orientations, Market-based capabilities and business The Four Portfolios Framework. Industrial Marketing Management 36(2): 194–205. performance: The moderating effect of business context. PhD thesis, Aalto University School of Business, Finland. Tikkanen H, Lamberg JA, Parvinen P ja Kallunki JP (2005) Managerial cognition, action and the business model of the firm. Management Decision 43(6): 789–809. Kieser A and Leiner L (2009) Why the rigour-relevance gap in management research is unbridgeable. Journal of Management Studies 46(3): 516–533. Van Maanen J (2011) Tales of the field: On writing Eehnography. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Kuhn TS (1996) The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Weick KE (1989) Theory construction as disciplined imagination. Academy of Management Review 14(4): 516–531. Lamberg JA, Lubinaite S, Ojala J ja Tikkanen H (2019) The curse of agility: The Nokia Corporation and the loss of market dominance in mobile phones, 2003-2013. Business History. Epub ahead of print 6 June 2019. DOI: 10.1080/00076791.2019.1593964.

160 161 HENRIKKI TIKKANEN – 50 11 – Living parallel lives: Karin, Henrikki, me and the others 11 Living Parallel Lives: Karin, Henrikki, Me and the Others

This is not a research paper inspired by keting and purchasing of capital equipment. Henrikki’s interest. This is, first, the story I was there to present the results of my PhD of a great lady and a towering figure, Kar- thesis I would defend one year later (Cova, in Holstius, and of two men she inspired, 1988). Next to me, Karin Holstius detailed her Henrikki and me, plus of related others who research on what she has labelled ‘project came next such as Antti and Joel. This is marketing’ (Holstius, 1989). In her research, also the story – and the future – of Henrikki “a project is defined as a discrete package of seen from my personal perspective. investments, services and others actions de- signed to create – within a designated period of time – capital assets that produce bene- B2B WORLD: KARIN AND PROJECT fits for the buyer over an extended period of MARKETING time” (Holstius, 1989: 8). At that time, she was in Lappeenranta but she quickly moved to The story begins in Manchester, September Turku to become the supervisor of a young 1988, during the 4th IMP conference in which promising researcher in international market- BERNARD COVA a parallel session was dedicated to the mar- ing named Henrikki Tikkanen.

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Karin was the missing link between produce a model of international marketing professional service and project-related relationship’ periods where concrete proj- my PhD on competitive bidding strategies project that would serve as a roadmap for internationalization of Danish architectural ects are not expected (Skaates et al., 2002). of companies selling projects-to-order, and academics and managers alike. service firms” – and a couple of Scandina- As already argued by Karin Holstius (1989), the broader field of project marketing that I assume that Karin introduced the vian colleagues, he communicated in sev- what is critical for project marketing, is the we jointly developed in the 90’s. We united young Henrikki to the world of project mar- eral conferences and published three arti- unlimited period of time (often too long!) be- our forces and our research and issued a keting and gave him the will to make a con- cles that allowed the academic world to get tween the end of one project and the begin- joint paper that stands as the building block tribution to it as we will see next. However, to know about project marketing (Skaates ning of the next one for the same customer; of project marketing theory (Cova and Hol- the first time I met Henrikki was not related and Tikkanen, 2003; Skaates et al., 2002; a time frame that is known in project mar- stius, 1993) and of the network of European to project marketing but to postmodernism. Skaates et al., 2003). I am very thankful for keting approach as the independent of any researchers we set up at that time – The Together with my French colleagues Robert that. The book I published in 2002 with Per- project phase (Cova et al., 2002). This calls International Network for Project Marketing Salle and Florence Crespin-Mazet we or- vez Ghauri and Robert Salle owed part of for looking at multiple projects and not to a (INPM) – as a research community loose- ganized the 13th IMP Conference in Lyon, its success to this effort of promotion of the project in isolation as usually done by proj- ly affiliated with the IMP Group (Industrial September 1997. Then, I was developing INPM. ect management. “The INPM argument for Marketing and Purchasing Group). In our another area of expertise in B2C marketing We shared some major ideas. In proj- studying project marketing rests on the as- view, project marketing logic goes beyond connected with ‘French theorists’ (Baudril- ect business, there is a very high degree of sertion that it is not enough to regard a proj- approaches responding to invitations to ten- lard, Lyotard, Maffesoli, etc.) and the post- uncertainty related to transactions (Skaates ect delivered by one firm/a group of firms to der for a project, e.g., it enables suppliers to modern turn. I even tried to corrupt the field of and Tikkanen, 2003). Suppliers find them- another organization/group of organizations position themselves favorably both in rela- B2B marketing with these ideas (Cova, 1994, selves in the situation of a high degree of as a set of managerial actions taken by the tion to customers and also in front of com- 1999) with limited success. However, I almost uncertainty in relation to the scope of the supplier(s), i.e. mere project management petitors in the market in order to gain the got one follower, one who was enough cou- project game (who? what?) and in relation … From an INPM perspective, project mar- contract. In fact, the existence of a purchas- rageous to discuss about constructionism to the rules of the project game (when? keting is the broader term; it always implic- ing procedure by invitation to tender places at an IMP conference (Tikkanen, 1997). That how?). In an attempt to reduce uncertainty itly includes project management but not the supplier in an unfavorable reactive posi- was my first contact with Henrikki which was they developed marketing practices which (necessarily) vice versa” (Skaates and Tik- tion – it reacts to stimuli sent by the custom- followed the subsequent year with more in- consist in positioning themselves and/or kanen, 2003: 506). er by invitation to tender – and in a position teractions during the 14th IMP Annual Con- taking intense action upstream from proj- The discussion bridging project mar- of submission – it is submitted to the rules ference chaired by Karin in Turku, Septem- ects to: keting and project management continued of the terms and conditions stipulated in ber 3-5, 1998. However, before that, Henrikki during the IRNOP VI Project Research Con- the invitation to tender. Consequently, the had invited me to contribute to the Essays » anticipate the scope and the rules of ference, held in Turku, August 25-27 2004. supplier in project business sells projects in Honour of Professor Karin Holstius on her the game – deterministic approach, At this occasion, Henrikki drove me back to upon demand and at the customer’s re- 65th Birthday, he edited under the title “Mar- » participate in the construction of Helsinki with a stop at Karin’s house to have quest. This structural and historical aspect keting and International Business” at the the scope and rules of the game – the chance of meeting her husband, Pent- of project sales is challenged by marketing Turku School of Economics and Business constructivistic approach. ti Malaska who was a visionary forerunner events and notably by marketing strategies Administration (see photo 1). I have been (Pouru et al., 2017). of project suppliers. These suppliers tried very proud of that. By combining and balancing these two ap- Last time I met Karin was on Novem- to regain room to maneuver by being at During the late 1990’s and early proaches (Skaates and Tikkanen, 2003), ber 15th 2006 when Henrikki gently invited the same time less reactive – and there- 2000’s, Henrikki became instrumental in suppliers try as much as possible to avoid me to deliver a speech in a What’s New fore more anticipative – and less submis- the promotion of our network, the INPM. finding themselves in a submissive position Seminar at Helsinki School of Economics. sive – and therefore more in control of their With his American-Danish colleague, Maria in relation to the rules of the game – i.e. the The topic of my speech was “Consumption offers and their way of entering the project Anne Skaates who wrote her PhD at Co- directives of the invitation to tender. in a Postmodern Society”, something rather pyramid. With Karin, we have combined the penhagen Business School – “Danish ar- Henrikki’s work has also emphasized far from project marketing but that will allow phases of her project marketing cycle with chitecture sales to Germany in the 1990s: the importance of constantly nurturing proj- Henrikki and myself to find a common re- the steps of my project buying process, to An IMP/INPM approach to examining the ect business relationships, also in ‘sleeping search ground in the future.

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The year after saw the last major con- tribution of Henrikki to the field of project marketing (Tikkanen et al., 2007). With his colleagues Jaakko Kujala, and Karlos Art- to, he contributed to the special issue of In- dustrial Marketing Management I co-edited with Robert Salle and that was dedicated to ‘Project marketing and the marketing of solutions’ (Cova and Salle, 2007). In their article, they address the simultaneous management of multiple business relation- ships and multiple projects in the market- ing strategy of the project-based firm. They elaborate a conceptual framework including two portfolios of relationships (customer relationship portfolio and network relation- ship portfolio) and two portfolios of projects (sales and delivery project portfolio and of- fering development portfolio). Henrikki and Photo 2. From right to left, Henrikki, Karin and Bernard at HSE, Nov. 15, 2006 colleagues show how to allocate limited Photo 1. Essays in Honour of Professor Karin resources between the four interdependent Holstius on her 65th Birthday, 1998 portfolios in order to maximize the value of cles on market orientation and other relat- rapprochement of our research interests. these portfolios, to balance risks and op- ed topics in such journals as Long Range Joel Hietanen, a fan of French theorists and portunities and to integrate them into the Planning, Strategic Management Journal an expert of videography (see ‘‘Brothers in overall business strategy. and the Journal of Marketing. Gradually Paint’ - A Practice-Oriented Inquiry into a During these years, Henrikki took his research went out of my radar but we Tribal Marketplace Culture’ at https://vimeo. major responsibilities at Helsinki School of remained in touch. For example, we partic- com/36543163), and Antti Sihvonen, a prac- Economics – that became Aalto University ipated together to the defense of the Habil- tice theory wizard, brought recently Henrik- School of Business in 2010 – as Head of itation to Direct Research in Management ki to study CCT related topics (Hietanen et the Department of Marketing and Manage- (HDR / Habilitation à Diriger des Recherch- al., 2018; Hietanen et al., 2019). Together ment. es en Sciences de Gestion) of Laurence they have written a counter-intuitive piece Karin Holstius passed away last year Lecoeuvre at Lille University in March 2009. about counterfeits (Hietanen et al., 2018). (2019) in the age of 85 years. For my part, while continuing my B2B Whereas, in the framework of luxury mar- research, I progressively invested much keting, counterfeits have been constructed more in the anthropology of consumption as a constant threat – an irritating presence B2C WORLD: THE OTHERS AND and contributed to develop what is known and a hostile intruder, they propose a view COUNTERFEITING now in B2C as CCT – Consumer Culture of counterfeits as potentially non-threaten- Theory – by focusing on tribal consumption ing or even beneficial for luxury brands. To Following Karin’s retirement and after hav- and brand communities. So, we went our understand the communicative potential of ing authored his 2007’s project marketing separate ways. counterfeits, they construct their argument article, Henrikki turned towards the field A young generation of promising around Veblen’s foundational notion of how of strategy and published impactful arti- Finnish researchers made possible a new the conspicuous consumption of luxury re-

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volves around the creation of new styles by/ (Hietanen et al., 2018: 758). In fact, coun- to them based solely on their own personal for the elite consumers and the efforts of the terfeits can generate herding effect as they feelings. Instead, their appraisals tend to be masses to emulate them. In doing so, they signal to consumers which goods are desir- intersubjective, with each individual judg- differentiate the effects based on whether able and appreciated or ‘trendy’ at a certain ment being influenced by other participants’ they contribute to the emergence of new point in time. By rehabilitating counterfeiting opinions. And this appraisal is highly posi- luxury goods targeted to elite consumers or and making them unobtrusive or even ben- tive. On the whole, participants were happy the diffusion of luxury to the masses. The eficial to luxury companies, Henrikki and his with the experience, viewing it as something emergence of luxury stems from the de- colleagues came close to the conclusions I truly extraordinary despite being based on sire of elite consumers to distinguish them- get from investigating the phenomenon of a copycat as exemplified in the following selves from the masses through conspicu- lookalikes and other knockoffs in the realm quotes (Cova and Cova, 2019: 725): ous consumption. Counterfeits contribute to of experiential marketing and branding. this phenomenon by accelerating the snob Indeed, in the meantime, in the wake “My first Québec Compostela from effect as counterfeits destroy snob premi- of my research on consumption experienc- Beauvoir to Beaupré was wonderful!” um of goods and drives elite consumers to es, I developed with my wife Veronique a (Lisette) seek new ways to distinguish themselves. deep interest in what we labeled ‘experi- Counterfeits also acceler- ence copycats’ (Cova and “I loved this walk, in part because of ate the fashion cycle that Cova, 2019). Despite being the festival of colors we were privi- luxury companies depend a growing problem for or- leged to enjoy along the way. The re- on. They do so by induced ganizations selling extraor- gion, once called the food basket of obsolescence that destroys dinary experiences, expe- Québec, offers a permanent pastoral the status value of product rience copycatting remains symphony.” (Mireille) designs when they are cop- a largely under-researched ied and by anchoring trends field of study. By analyzing “Above all, there are all the things to design features that ac- consumers’ sense of the binding the 18 people joined on this celerate their diffusion and extraordinary brand expe- exhausting yet somehow comforting subsequent replacement. rience copycats in which voyage. Fun, talking, sharing... which Another key compo- they have participated, may seem like outdated concepts but nent of conspicuous consumption relates to it becomes possible to detect the mean- are a lot more important than is often the diffusion of luxury to the greater public. ings they ascribe to imitations of experi- realized.” (Olivier) Therein counterfeits can generate aspira- ential features as opposed to experiential tion effect when non-elite consumers imitate themes. Our paper is based on the ethno- “I came back with tons of souvenirs elite consumers by consuming counterfeits graphic study of a group of individuals who and pages full of notes in my trav- and in so doing generate brand awareness spent twelve days on a Québec copycat el diary where I made sure to write and exposure among other non-elite con- of the original Way to Compostela, named about all the flowers and smells, all sumers at early stages of diffusion. “In the the ‘Compostelle Québecois’ (https://sites. my impressions and emotions, etc diffusion of luxury, doppelgänger brand im- google.com/site/lecompostelleQuébe- etc. There is no such thing as per- ages, especially in the form of counterfeits, cois/). Our methods include participant ob- fection, of course, for instance I had increase mainstream consumers’ aware- servation, photos, non-directive interviews, a few health issues … But it was a ness of luxuries in the initial stages and lat- semi-directive interviews and introspection. fantastic walk with loads of wonderful er on contribute to bandwagon and herding The paper’s main contribution is to demon- discussions as well as time for con- effects that direct mainstream consumers strate that participants in extraordinary ex- templation, solitude, sunshine, etc.” to buy and consume certain luxury brands” perience copycats do not ascribe meanings (Hélène)

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"The previous parallel lives of Henrikki and me lead to the possibility to think about the potential future."

The battle against experience copy- and can even benefit luxury companies by tinue to accrue ambiguity in late capitalist the post-postmodern turn to go beyond the cats does not, on the face of things, seem contributing to the emergence and cyclical markets of signs. From our part (Cova and postmodern lessons of the French theorists. very useful insofar as consumers attribute diffusion of luxury. Cova, 2019), we discuss how experience Indeed, postmodern is dead! The demise of copycats a meaning that complements the Beyond the rapprochement of conclu- copycats epitomize what Baudrillard has postmodernity has been acknowledged by way in which they view original brands. Con- sions, it is worth noting the similar use of a depicted as postmodern simulacra: Not a marketing theorists “as reflecting a shift in sumers tend to neither conflate nor contrast key French theorist, Jean Baudrillard. Hi- counterfeit of the real, not a duplication of zeitgeist that renders postmodernism anach- the copycat and the original experience but etanen et al. (2020) argue that “the sign of reality but a representation that precedes ronistic” (Cova et al., 2013: 214). The postmod- instead consider them complementary. The the counterfeit haunts the authentic” (p. 36). and determines the real. There is no longer ern zeitgeist was dominant during the last end result is that original brands should They focus on the uneasy relationship be- any distinction between reality and its rep- decades of the twentieth century. It is said to seek more to cohabit with these copycats tween authentic and counterfeit in branded resentation; there is only the simulacrum. have slowly evaporated and been replaced than to treat them aggressively. In addi- luxury markets as an inextricable system of Compostela copycats are murderers of their by a post-postmodern zeitgeist that has yet tion, our study (Cova and Cova, 2019) also signs. In contrast to a reified distinction be- own model – the Way to Compostela – as to be understood and explained. A zeitgeist shows that copycats often serve as the first tween authentic and counterfeit offerings, the Byzantine icons could murder the divine is made up of a multiplicity of little things, and steps towards (or as training for) the origi- their Baudrillardian interpretation would see identity according to Baudrillard. it is how they come together that generates nal experience if full enjoyment of the latter the authentic/counterfeit interplay in luxury the social ambiance characterizing a specific requires competencies that consumers fear markets as a grand display of seduction and age. These little things occur in social institu- they lack. Thus, original brands should re- ambivalence in late capitalism. Following WHAT’S NEXT? tions (school, social and political parties and spond to these copycats by viewing them Baudrillard, instead of operating as fixed no- POSTPOSTMODERNISM movements, communities and other forms of as potential partners for innovation and ex- tions, the semiotic interplay between authen- social aggregations) and through cultural in- pansion, rather than as future adversaries tic and counterfeit products could be rather The previous parallel lives of Henrikki and me termediaries (TV, cinema, music, etc.). Thus, for costly litigation. Our findings are thus read as a relationship of an ever-increasing lead to the possibility to think about the poten- the post-postmodern zeitgeist becomes ap- in line with Hietanen et al.’s (2018) study intensification of how the signs of authentic tial future. Backed by his rejuvenating team parent in some places where it is located which shows that copycats are unobtrusive and counterfeit feed on each other and con- of young colleagues, Henrikki could embrace without being evident to all. The first signs of

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the post-postmodern zeitgeist are to be found or praise of insincerity – resonates well with brand-inspired goods, overruns, defective in popular culture – especially in novels such the postmodern condition and its textual ex- goods, etc. Immaterial surfeits emerge from as ‘The Nix’ written by Nathan Hill and in mu- pressions. This postmodern ironic stance engagement with the brand in the form of re- sic with Taylor Swift’s songs – and in the ways has not been without effect on consumers significations, parodies, hijacks, etc. In linking they are consumed. who are supposed to possess a ‘marketing ‘counterfeits’ with novel and often unpredict- According to post-postmodernist sensi- reflex’, an inbuilt early warning system that able social meanings that emerge through bility, postmodernist irony should be shunned detects incoming commercial messages and moments of brand consumption, Nakassis because of the way it makes it impossible to assesses their potential inauthenticity. For (2013) argues that “the brand is troubled by engage in a meaningful, sincere way with example, consumers often wonder if a smile, the surfeit of social meaning that is constantly reality or to express emotion – or anything a gesture of friendship of a service employ- produced by idiosyncratic and contextualized else – in a sincere, unambiguous manner, ee, is the expression of a spontaneous, sin- experiences of consumer engagement with devoid of duplicity. A second salient char- cere friendship, or the product of company brand forms (authorized or otherwise)” (p. acteristic of the zeitgeist of our times is the training. However, I argue that according 123). The phenomenon of brand surfeiting post-postmodern re-constructive stance that to a post-postmodernist sensibility (Cova is particularly at play when a brand commu- goes hand in hand with a renewed feeling et al., 2013), postmodernist irony should be nity of enthusiasts is prepared to generate of hope. In a move away from deconstruc- shunned for the way in which it makes it brand surfeits that transgress the marketer’s tive practices, post-postmodernism emerges impossible to engage in a meaningful, sin- brand definition. Consumers gathered within in relation to moral and ethical impulses of cere way with reality or express emotion in a community of brand enthusiasts sincerely reconstruction and faith in optimistic formu- a sincere way. Indeed, three decades after augment the brand by creating brand surfeits. lations of the world. This optimism does not the first performance of ‘Sincerity is scary’ These surfeits thus lie betwixt and between deny decay but nonetheless manages to find by The 1975, post-postmodernism appears counterfeit and authentic. dignified order and beauty in it, thus generat- to function as a shorthand for what is under- ing a paradoxical sense of hope and, at the stood as a turn away from postmodernism same time, future failure. A third character- through the suspension of irony. By ques- AFTERWORD istic of the post-postmodern zeitgeist is the tioning the constant state of flux between ability to imagine and engage with mundane sincerity and irony – sincerity challenging iro- The afterword allows an author an opportunity marvels that ordinary life offers without the ny and irony challenging sincerity – it opens to reflect on the work or acknowledge others need for extraordinary experiences. new perspectives to the understanding of whose support was important in the writing of Reinvestigating the debate between the tensions between counterfeiting and au- the work. This is not the case here. I just want counterfeit and authentic (Hietanen et al., thentic. Counterfeits could be sincerely fake to use this space to list and remember all the 2020) through the lenses of postpostmod- and seducing for consumers. members of the INPM who collaborated con- ernism could appear fruitful. Let’s go back to A concept that could prove helpful tinuously or occasionally with Henrikki and music. ‘Sincerity is scary’ is the title of a song here is the one of ‘surfeit’ introduced by the me on the development of project market- performed in 1989 by the English band The anthropologist Constantine Nakassis (2013). ing theory during the 1990’s and the 2000’s: 1975. In the song’s lyrics, the singer reflects According to his work, ‘surfeits’ are generat- Luis Araujo, Andrea Bonaccorsi, Florence on communication in society and how it sadly ed around the brand by social media practic- Crespin-Mazet, Torben Damgaard, Geoff tends to place irony before “important thing” es such as discussion forums, blogs, social Easton, Pervez Ghauri, Bernd Günter, Amjad such as candidness and sincerity. “Irony is platforms and video, photo and news-sharing Hadjikhani, Jean Paul Lemaire, Tibor Mand- okay, I suppose”, he begins before singing sites. Brand surfeits are material forms and jak, Lars Gunnar Mattsson, Richard Owusu, that “you try and mask your pain in the most immaterial social meanings that exceed and Robert Salle, Chantal Scoubeau, Maria Anne postmodern way”. His emphasis on a sense transgress a brand’s authority and intelligibil- Skaates, Jean Claude Usunier, Zoltan Veres, of ironic detachment and fear of sincerity – ity. Material surfeits can be knockoffs, fakes, and overall, Karin Holstius.

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LÄHTEET / REFERENCES: Skaates MA, Tikkanen H and Alajoutsijärvi K (2003) The international marketing of professional service projects: To what extent does territoriality matter? Journal of Cova B (1988) Marketing myopia in competitive bidding strategies. Proceedings of the Services Marketing 17(1): 83–97. 4th IMP Conference, Manchester, UK. Skaates MA, Tikkanen H and Lindblom J (2002) Relationships and project marketing Cova B (1994) Industrial marketing in a postmodern era. Proceedings of the 10th IMP success. Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing 17(5): 389–406. Conference, Groningen, Netherlands. Tikkanen H (1997) The social construction of industrial networks: Berger and Cova B (1999) Industrial marketing in a postmodern era. In: Ghauri PN (ed) Advances Luckmann’s constructionism as an ideological basis for network studies. Proceedings in International Marketing: Industrial Marketing and Purchasing. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, of the 13th IMP Conference, Lyon, France. pp.109–129. Tikkanen H, Kujala J and Artto K (2007) The marketing strategy of a project-based Cova V and Cova B (2019) Experience copycats: The Compostela case. Journal of firm: The Four Portfolios Framework. Industrial Marketing Management 36(2): 194–205. Product & Brand Management 28(6): 720–732.

Cova B, Ghauri PN and Salle R (2002) Project Marketing: Beyond Competitive Bidding. Chichester: John Wiley.

Cova B and Holstius K (1993) How to create competitive advantage in project business. Journal of Marketing Management 9(2): 105–121.

Cova B, Maclaran P and Bradshaw A (2013) Rethinking consumer culture theory from the postmodern to the communist horizon. Marketing Theory 13(2): 213–225.

Cova B and Salle R (2007) Introduction to the IMM special issue on ‘Project marketing and the marketing of solutions’ – A comprehensive approach to project marketing and the marketing of solutions. Industrial Marketing Management 36(2): 138–146.

Hietanen J, Mattila P, Sihvonen A and Tikkanen H (2018) Paradox and market renewal: Knockoffs and counterfeits as doppelgänger brand images of luxury. Marketing Intelligence and Planning 36(7): 750–763.

Hietanen J, Murray JB, Sihvonen A and Tikkanen H (2020) Seduced by “fakes”: Producing the excessive interplay of authentic/counterfeit from a Baudrillardian perspective. Marketing Theory 20(1): 23–43.

Holstius K (1989) Project business as a strategic choice: A theoretical and empirical study of project marketing. Research Papers 12. Lappeenranta: Lappeenranta University of Technology.

Nakassis CV (2013) Brands and their surfeits. Cultural Anthropology 28(1): 111–126.

Pouru L, Wilenius M, Holstius K and Heinonen S. (2017) Pentti Malaska. A Visionary Forerunner. Turku: Finnish Society for Futures Studies.

Skaates MA and Tikkanen H (2003) International project marketing: An introduction to the INPM approach. International Journal of Project Management 21(7): 503–510.

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(Together) We will love the beach (Together) We will learn and teach 12 (Together) Change our pace of life (Together) We will work and strive

Professor Tikkanen Flew (Go West) Life is peaceful there (Go West) In the open air Over the Cuckoo’s Nest: (Go West) Where the skies are blue Swedish Företagsekonomi (Go West) This is what we’re gonna do (PET SHOP BOYS, “GO WEST” on the couch FROM THE ALBUM VERY, 1993)

“FUCK, FUCK, fuck, fuck, fucketi-fuck- Stockholm Business School. Although some eti-fucketi-fuck… this is not an office, this of the local candidates who had competed bloody room is appropriate only for one for the position felt robbed of the opportuni- thing: a padded cell at a mental institu- ty, the general sentiment was that this was tion!” Although the walls of the buildings at one hell of a recruitment: a chair from one the Kräftriket campus – where Stockholm of the most prestigious business schools in Business School is appropriately located, the Nordic countries! This would no doubt hanging mid-air between the university mark a new era of fame and fortune for the campus where real intellectual work takes relatively unassuming marketing section at place and Stockholm city where real busi- Stockholm Business School. ness is conducted – are thick and sturdy, Before the arrival of the professor I could hear Professor Tikkanen’s mutterings himself, rumors of his hot temper had circu- clearly through the ventilation shaft. We had lated. “He can be the most supportive and waited long for Professor Tikkanen to arrive constructive colleague ever, but if you end JACOB OSTBERG and take on the role of Chair of Marketing at up on his shit-list you’re doomed for eter-

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dabble with university politics. Due to his were several colleagues that he had mean- long tenure as the head of the marketing ingful interactions with on a one-to-one ba- department at Aalto University as well as sis, the collaborative ethos of hard work was his academic interest in issues of market- largely missing and he felt that the collective ing / branding / positioning in the university was illusive in the sense that it was difficult to world (Aspara et al., 2014), he quite simply have any kind of meaningful interaction with “Sorry, can’t be could not avoid identifying and diagnosing the department. He expressed that it was a number of sever inconsistencies at Stock- virtually impossible to get through. Several holm Business School. Issues that should times he had discussed a potential change – done, it is not in have been quite easy to resolve, should such as expanding the Executive MBA to ca- Stockholm Business have been willing to ter to the local business environment – with accordance with our change just a little bit. All his suggestions several different colleagues to anchor a po- for change, of gently tweaking the focus tential decision before a meeting. Individual- of Stockholm Business School to perhaps ly they would all be positive and supportive, understanding of make better use of the current resources in but when the issue was brought up at the order to find a slightly more prominent place subsequent meeting they would all be qui- Företagsekonomi” in the positioning chart of business school et, look down at the table, shake their heads were met with variations of “sorry, can’t be and mutter “it can’t be done.” On more than done, it is not in accordance with our under- one occasion, typically after having con- standing of Företagsekonomi”. sumed several bottles of Pegasus – Henrik- Henrikki’s years at Stockholm Busi- ki really made an effort to engage with his ness School were therefore characterized by new country and therefore exclusively drank an escalating frustration. We frequently talk- wines produced locally, something that nity…” While SBS did not have an official before he opened the door calmly, clearly ed about this and he confided in me that his might have contributed to his despair (Pega- plan to keep Professor Tikkanen happy, we making sure to give a good impression and motivations to take the position in Stockholm sus, for example, is a wine produced locally all independently vowed to put our best ef- attempting to start things of on the right foot could largely be summarized by the lyrics to in Kristianstad, Skåne, retailing for 225 SEK fort into making him feel welcome. A vase of with his new colleagues. We had fläskkarré Pet Shop Boys megahit “Go West” from the at Systembolaget, reference no. 31141) – he flowers miraculously appeared on his desk for lunch. And a nice conversation. During 1993 album Very. As a Finn he was slightly would burst out screaming “What the hell is prior to his arrival, someone made sure his time at Stockholm Business School we embarrassed to nurture such romantic imag- wrong with you!!??” that door hinges were sufficiently greased gradually became friends and I replaced the es of the western neighbor and old colonizer, While this might indeed have been a in order not to squeak, and someone else demonic picture that had preceded him with but nevertheless dreamt of “makin’ it in the rhetorical question, I decided to attempt to made sure that the little window in the of- my own image of Henrikki as a balanced West” where he imagined he would be re- answer the question in a slightly more sys- fice, a window facing east so that Profes- colleague with a keen eye for spotting prob- born as a new type of intellectual, free from tematic way. Primarily because I had long sor Tikkanen could gaze longingly towards lematic issues and understanding power all the constraints of having been entangled nurtured a suspicion that the subject of Före- Finland, had been cleaned. All this in vain, dynamics. As our conversations unfolded in Finnish academia for so long. Going back tagsekonomi, not least the rather orthodox apparently, as the utterances I heard from over the following years I could follow his to “Go West”, it was especially the part “(To- version proselytized at Stockholm Business the ventilation shaft clearly indicated that struggles. In hindsight I have quite a bit of gether) we will learn and teach, (together) School, is suffering from a severe case of this was going anything but well. sympathy for his disappointment over his change our pace of life, (together) we will personality disorder that effectively prevents I decided to grab the bull by the horn Swedish adventure not coming to fruition. work and strive” that Henrikki had repeated it from functioning normally in relationship and knocked on the door to ask Profes- After more than a decade in leadership to himself as a mantra when mentally pre- with others, both other disciplines in Sweden sor Tikkanen to join me for lunch. I could roles at Aalto university, he was hoping to paring for his move to Sweden. Still he was and similar disciplines and sub-disciplines hear him taking a couple of deep breaths focus on research rather than having to disappointed and lamented that while there across the world.

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“What the hell is wrong with you!!??”

MEET THE PATIENT of “[furthering] the development of teaching come too strong. Therefore, it has become applying the American Psychiatric Associa- and research in the subject of business ad- one of the main tasks of the leadership of tion's (2014) Diagnostic and Statistical Man- Before engaging with the diagnosis, howev- ministration in Sweden” (http://www.fekis. the department to make sure that none of ual of Mental Disorders (DSM) in order to er, I will just give a very brief introduction se), is even more notorious in this regard the different disciplines outshines the oth- assess the mental condition of Företagse- to the Stockholm Business School version and collects hundreds of people every year ers, as that would alter the fragile balance. konomi. My hope is that I thereby will be of “Företagsekonomi”. The setup is per- to do nothing but trying to convince them- The Swedish concept of “lagom” thus lies able to give a somewhat more comprehen- haps not very unique, neither from an in- selves that the concept of Företagsekonomi like a wet blanket over the entire depart- sible answer to Henrikki’s question “What ternational nor from a local perspective, but is still relevant. ment: Under the tyranny of mediocrity we the hell is wrong with you!!??” the stubbornness to give up on the sacred At Stockholm Business School are all equal! It should be noted here that many of idea of “one subject to rule them all” is quite (which is not a business school, by the way, the personality characteristics described in unique. This way of organizing the subject but a department of business administra- the following sections are not necessarily area has ties to a Nordic tradition of “busi- tion cunningly branded in order to attract DO WE HAVE A PROBLEM? unique to the Stockholm Business School ness administration”, as suggested by the more international students) the subject of or even the Swedish version of Företagse- Nordic Academy of Management (Nordisk business administration follows the typical So, is there something wrong with Före- konomi. Many of the tendencies are of a Företagskonomisk Förening / NFF) with the Swedish model where a business adminis- tagsekonomi? Many of the terms used to more general character and can be found purpose to “advance research, education tration department collects some variation discuss personality disorder – such as wherever business scholarship across the and practice in the field of business admin- of the subdisciplines Accounting, Finance, paranoia, narcissism, and borderline – are world is conducted. The tendency in many istration in the Nordic countries” (https:// Management, and Marketing. The idea is suitcase words, to use Marvin Minsky’s other places, however, is to move towards nordicacademy.hi.is/). The bi-annual NFF that this organizational form should be able (2006) term, implying that they are words a more accepted scholarly standard as conference is a case in point, where numer- to deliver a complete science of the condi- into which people attribute multiple mean- that seems beneficial for both the aca- ous sessions are always held with the goal tions of companies and other organizations ings. These terms are thrown around in ev- demic subject proper and for the students of defining “Företagsekonomi” in a global in society. There is relatively little benefit eryday talk without too much care whether enrolling in courses and programs. These landscape where such an umbrella term is for these different subdisciplines, from a they are correctly used. While not in any tendencies are virtually non-existent at increasingly seen as redundant. The local scientific perspective, to co-exist under way claiming to have any relevant compe- Stockholm Business School where the spir- Swedish organization FEKIS (Föreningen one umbrella and therefore there is always tence to do so, I will nevertheless attempt to it of Företagsekonomi seemingly should be företagsekonomi i Sverige), with the goal a potential conflict should one of them be- take a slightly more systematic approach by protected at all costs.

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GENERAL DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA: to be appropriate by the patient regardless should not attribute overly noble motivations market. This study can of course be read YES, WE HAVE A PROBLEM! of the reactions of others. In plain words, behind this. The quest for insights might in- by various market actors as, for example, a others will judge the behavior by saying deed be self-centered, such as looking for a guide of how to procure these illegal prod- The first step in determining the diagnosis “what the fuck?”, but the subject will think promotion, hoping to be the talk of the town ucts for kids wanting to score drugs, or of of personality disorder is to examine wheth- “this is the fuckin’ way!” Anyone who has at the next conference, etcetera. The gen- how to penetrate the market by reaching er the general diagnostic criteria exist. Per- attended meetings at the University level eral sentiment, however, is that the driving new customers and/or getting existing cus- sonality disorders are characterized by an where other disciplines get a glimpse of force is to increase the understanding of the tomers to buy more. The point is that this enduring collection of behavioral patterns the whereabouts of Företagsekonomi will social world. In Företagsekonomi, instead, is not the main motivation of such research often associated with considerable person- instantly recognize this… the gut reaction to such stimuli seems to be and the first question during a research al, social, and occupational disruption. Per- There are thus indications that there “Wow, this can be of interest to the busi- seminar would, most likely, not be: sonality disorders, thus, have consequenc- is something wrong and one wonders ness community, this will help companies es. They are an obstacle to the functioning whether this has always been the case. become more profitable!”. This, one can ar- OK, that’s interesting, but wouldn’t it of the patient, leaving the patient lonely, For these type of conditions, the problem- gue, is not particularly unique to Företagse- be more straightforward and relevant frustrated, angry and unable to function atic behavior patterns that might eventually konomi, but a more general characteristic if you were able to give us an assess- properly in a professional environment. The become diagnosed as personality disorders of business studies globally. The tendency ment of how the use of different cut- assessment on whether the patient suffers are typically recognized in adolescence, the of business-oriented journal to insist on ting agents – baking soda, boric acid, from a personality disorder is thus depen- beginning of adulthood or sometimes even having a “managerial implications” section caffeine, creatine, laundry detergent, dent on the amount of disruptions it cre- childhood and often have a pervasive nega- has, for example, been discussed (Marion, laxatives, or local anesthetic – affects ates, whether it poses an obstacle to func- tive impact on the quality of life. Compared 2012). What sets Företagsekonomi apart in the profit margin of cocaine sales tioning in the socio-cultural environment to many of the other subjects taught at a this regard is the steadfast belief that mana- in this neighborhood. That way little in which the patient exists. Let us, for the university – philosophy, mathematics, histo- gerial relevance should be the one and only Billy Bob here could get much more sake of clarity, say that the socio-cultural ry or medicine, to mention but a few – Före- criteria by which research should be judged. steadfast advice on how to run his environment in which the subject of Före- tagsekonomi is still in its youth (Tufvesson, Scholars within the Företagsekonomi dis- operation so that he could maximize tagsekonomi exists is the Faculty of Social 2005). Given that the behavioral tendencies cipline who are driven by more theoretical profit despite the fact that he is cut- Sciences, albeit initiatives are sometimes described have not been recently devel- motivations of advancing our understanding ting the coke to such degrees that the taken whereby Företagsekonomi wants to oped, but have rather always been part and of the world are met with skepticism: “No poor rich kids barely get a kick out of cut the ties to this context so that they can parcel of the subject, it is fair to say that the one will benefit from this research, only it anymore? nurture their irregularities without having to patient has always been ill. you and your likeminded colleagues in aca- take other opinions into consideration. Up One important aspect to consider in demia will think it is interesting”. There is, of Despite the fact that this way of react- until now, however, such attempts to allow assessing whether the general diagnostic course, nothing inherently wrong with con- ing to stimuli – how can companies bene- the department of Business Administration, criteria exist is impulse control, consid- ducting research that might help companies fit!? – has rendered Företagsekonomi iso- rebranded as Stockholm Business School, ered as the way in which one responds and other organizations reach their goals. lated from our surroundings and deprived of to form its own faculty and thus cut the um- to stimuli in one’s surroundings. In social The problem arises when this becomes the the type of essential nutrients needed for a bilical cord to the Faculty of Social Sciences science research, scholars are constantly main motivation for the research. healthy life, such as large research grants have been voted down. Furthermore, in or- looking for stimuli – although it is typically Research in many adjacent areas in from prestigious funding agencies, the sub- der for something to qualify as a personality conceptualized as empirical or theoretical the social sciences similarly has potential ject seems unable to change. There is clear- disorder it must be inflexible and pervasive material – that will help them deepen their practical relevance. Let us, as an example, ly a lack of impulse control. The only reaction across many situations. This is due to the understanding of the social world. The gen- take a sociological study of the provisioning that gets through is the imperative to pro- fact that such behavior may be ego-synton- eral response in the social sciences when of drugs amongst adolescents in a subur- duce managerially relevant research. One ic, which means that the patterns are con- encountering such stimuli is to think, in ban neighborhood, looking at the networks clear instance where this can be observed sistent with the ego integrity of the patient, one version or the other, “This will increase of more or less privileged kids who come is when the department invites researchers and the behaviors are therefore perceived our understanding of the social world”. We to serve as buyers and sellers in such a from other disciplines that seemingly are

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interested in similar phenomena. There are Acting on “well documented indications” that help us much and we must therefore move the emeriti professors singing the praise countless tales floating around at Stockholm the staff were drug addicts they therefore forward in order to be more specific in our of glorious Företagsekonomi days passed University of how such researchers from initiated a series of random drug busts. Or diagnosis. by. Instead, the sub-disciplines seem to e.g., sociology, anthropology, ethnology and maybe these busts only occurred at Docent exist essentially in hermetically sealed have been literally chased out of the Kräf- Hietanen’s office. The official records of worlds where they communicate only to a triket Campus by a mob of Företagsekonomi these initiatives were never released. At any SPECIFIC DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA: small extent with others. Even within the scholars screaming “Who will benefit from rate, no drugs were found and it turned out THIS IS THE PROBLEM! sub-disciplines the members do not show this? Give us some useful implications of this that the suspicion was fueled by the fact that any signs of paying an interest in those that research? Why are you only contributing to Docent Hietanen was reading “complicated Looking at the diagnostic criteria in Amer- have the least deviant interests: “Sorry, I the scholarly world, you self-centered prick!” books not directly related to bizniz”, some- ican Psychiatric Association's (2014) Di- cannot comment on your paper because I In order for someone to be diagnosed thing that had never before been spotted at agnostic and Statistical Manual of Men- do interpretive work, not cultural work like with a personality disorder it is imperative the Kräftriket campus. tal Disorders (DSM) it appears that while you do”. To the extent that relations exist, that the divergent behavioral pattern does No drug abuse, apparently, which Företagsekonomi does not necessarily they appear to be only to the very closest. not depend on leaves us with check all the boxes of all mental disorders, The few interactions that do occur are char- the direct phys- the last possi- the patient no doubt suffers from multiple acterized by a paranoid distrust of others iological effects bility of somatic different conditions. This is a sever case and suspiciousness of their motives. “What of a substance illness or injury. indeed. In continuing the diagnosis work I nerve do you have, asking me about my – such as drug A potential expla- will mostly draw analogies with personality sample criteria? Are you going to copy my abuse and/or "So perhaps nation for the er- disorders in Cluster A – “the odd, eccen- research strategy or do you just want to ap- medication – or ratic behavior on tric cluster” – that include paranoid, schiz- pear smart!” a somatic illness Företagsekonomi behalf of Före- oid and schizotypal personality disorders. A further criterion for diagnosis ac- or injury. It would tagsekonomi Common features of these personality dis- cording to cluster A, especially schizotyp- certainly have is not ill but would be that orders are social awkwardness and social al personality disorders, is that the patient been comforting the financial cut- withdrawal. The disorders are dominated consistently avoids intimate relationships, to be able to write merely high?" downs imposed by “distorted thinking”. A first sign of disor- especially of a sexual nature. Here it is the personality by the state as ders in cluster A is that the patient neither striking to see the extent to which scholars disorders off on well as the uni- wishes nor appreciates close relationships, from Företagsekonomi seem content with these grounds. versity have led not even within their own family. playing with themselves in a masturbatory There are certain to such a pro- Both the self-understanding and the manner without any consideration of bring- indications that the intoxicating effect of reap- longed choking of the academic climate that official story told to anyone who would lis- ing the pleasure to anyone else. They are ing the monetary rewards of success in the a condition that can be equated with somatic ten is that Företagsekonomi is one happy far too anxious, it seems, to dare bringing consulting industry can be equated with an damage has occurred. Unfortunately, this family joined in the common pursuit of de- anyone else into the situation for fear of addictive drug, especially for state servants explanation also falls short, since many of livering a complete science of the condi- losing control. Swedish marketing scholars with a self-understanding of being under- the other subjects at the Faculty of Social tions of companies and other organizations focusing on brands, to take one example, paid. So perhaps Företagsekonomi is not ill Science have been subjected to much lon- in society. While the official stance thus is have showed a remarkable stubbornness but merely high? Unfortunately, the fact that ger and more aggressive suffocation without one of commonality, it is clear that while the to give up on the term “varumärken” (e.g., even those scholars that have never scored exhibiting the same type of damage. family members pretend to have something Uggla, 2013, 2015) despite the fact that this any consulting gigs seem equally ill, speaks It thus seems like the general diag- in common, they are indeed radically disin- local term is a confused mix of what the rest against this. If Företagsekonomi is high, the nostic criteria holds true. Företagsekonomi terested in the other sub-disciplines. Signs of the academic world distinguishes as two source must be something else, Apparently, suffers from a personality disorder. Henrik- of this is the scarce attendance of research separate entities: brands and trademarks. this is something that the HR department at ki was right, there is something wrong with seminars catering to the entire department. As long as the Swedish företagsekonomi Stockholm Business School also suspected. us. Merely stating this, however, does not These are attended by few others than scholars play with themselves behind

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closed doors this is perhaps fine, but the thrown around at the Kräftriket campus is American Psychiatric Association’s (2014) talking about how much they enjoy using moment they invite others in to view them cross-fertilization, suggesting a give and Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental their theories and how great it is that we fondling themselves, the whole situation take relationship with other disciplines Disorders (DSM) lists the following diagnos- have all these mutual interests. becomes very awkward. What is produced that would render some sort of outcome, tic criteria for this condition. We could easily have continued here during these solo sessions could perhaps perhaps even a lovechild. Scrutinizing the with the diagnosis of Företagsekonomi, be used for in vitro fertilization in the busi- alleged reciprocity of these relationships I » Over a period of at least 6 months, ticking the boxes of various personality ness world, but it is unlikely that it will ever would have to conclude that it is not a mat- the individual has recurrent and disorders in cluster B, the emotional and bring any joy to colleagues from any neigh- ter of give-and-take but rather a question of intense sexual arousal from touching impulsive, of cluster C, the anxious. The boring disciplines at the university. take-and-take. In fact, the inspiration that or rubbing against a nonconsenting question, however, is if that would have These masturbatory tendencies, it Företagsekonomi derives from other disci- person, as manifested by fantasies, made us much wiser, or whether that would should be noted, are not unique to Före- plines is more akin to reading pornography urges, or behaviors. have opened up possibilities for treatment? tagsekonomi but exist to various degrees than having an intimate relationship. This is » The individual has acted on these across the area of business research more most evident in the fetish-like relationship sexual urges with a nonconsenting generally. In a rightfully ignored publication, that Företagsekonomi has to Science – with person, or the sexual urges or THE SUCCESSFUL ESCAPE OF Hartmann and Ostberg (2018) draws paral- a capital S. Oblivious of e.g., the art-sci- fantasies cause clinically significant PROFESSOR TIKKANEN lels between rock ‘n’ roll guitar heroes, who ence debate in marketing (Brown, 1996) and distress or impairment in social, are routinely accused of masturbating in accusations of physics envy (Tapp, 2007) occupational, or other important This application of some of the diagnos- front of their audience, and the superstar they think that cross-fertilizing with science areas of functioning. tic criteria in American Psychiatric Asso- scholars from the field of Consumer Culture will further the understanding of conditions ciation’s (2014) Diagnostic and Statistical Theory (CCT): of companies and other organizations in The relationship that Företagse- Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) clearly The guitar hero is thus a reflection of society. But this is hardly any cross-fertiliza- konomi has with other disciplines is aptly suggest that Företagsekomi is suffering the conference ritual of having verbally tion, as the methods, concepts, and ways of captured by this description. Företagse- from multiple types of rather sever per- agile characters like Stephen Brown, thinking that are borrowed from science are konomi scholars are like perverts sneaking sonality disorders. Henrikki thus appears Eileen Fischer, Linda Price, or Craig decontextualized and used only as inspira- into crowded subway cars during rush hour, to have been correct in his assertion that Thompson, to name but a few, showing tion in the Företagskonomi scholars’ own placing themselves close to a person they something was wrong with the department. off their maddening skills to a mesmer- masturbatory exercises. Scientific concepts find attractive and then rubbing up against, I lament the fact that he did not choose to ized audience. In the Heavy Rock and and methods are taken out of their original touching, and grabbing this person as if stay around to try to cure us but fully under- Metal spheres, some of the heroes, like context and the focus is on individual parts by accident. Or perhaps even more like a stand that this was not at all what his ambi- Slash of Guns ‘n’ Roses, might be rec- that are selected and objectified, much like horny dog, seemingly fired up on Viagra, tion to “Go West” and “Change [his] pace of ognized outside the field, whereas oth- pornography does not engage with com- dry humping furiously against the leg of life” had entailed. The assessment that this ers, like Yngwie Malmsteen, are held in plete human beings but reduces them to someone in a public setting. That person particular patient had just gone too far to high regard by the insiders but loathed decontextualized parts. might feel really embarrassed about the sit- ever find a way back to a normal life seems and laughed at by anyone from the In the minds of the Företagsekonomi uation, looking at other people and trying quite correct. outside. We suggest that a parallel dis- scholars, it is quite possible that the rela- to express that they have done nothing to Had Henrikki decided to stay around, cussion can be held about the phallic tionships with other disciplines are in fact spark off this situation, that they are inno- thinking that he would be able to hover over heroes of the CCT field riding the hero seen as meaningful relationships character- cent as far as encouraging the action, that the rest of Företagsekonomi department archetype myth. (p. 209) ized by genuine interactions. The question, they cannot be responsible for the arousal without being entangled in the madness, however, is whether the other disciplines going on around their legs. That same look there is a risk that he would have ended up It is clear that the Företagekonomi even realize that they are engaged in an of “WTF, can this just go away!” is given by like McMurphy in One Flew Over the Cuck- proponents themselves think that they are interaction. I would suggest, instead, that e.g. faculty from sociology or anthropology oo’s Nest. Perhaps he could have used his engaging in meaningful intimate encoun- a better way to describe these interactions when Företagsekonomi scholars show up outside perspective for a while, getting the ters with others. A term that is many times as characteristic of frotteuristic disorder. at their seminars, get aroused and start poor Företagsekonomi scholars to work for

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his benefit, but eventually there is a risk that LÄHTEET / REFERENCES: he would have been broken down by a head American Psychiatric Association (2014) Mini-D 5: Diagnostiska Kriterier Enligt DSM-5. of the department who channeled Miss Mil- Stockholm: Pilgrim Press. dred Ratched, the tyrannical head nurse in in One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest, and Aspara J, Aula H-M, Tienari J and Tikkanen H (2014) Struggles in organizational gave him a lobotomy in order to make him attempts to adopt new branding logics: The case of a marketizing university. as docile as the rest of us. Consumption Markets & Culture 17(6): 522–552. For someone interested in naval his- Brown S (1996) Art or science?: Fifty years of marketing debate. Journal of Marketing tory it is perhaps not strange that Henrikki Management 12(4): 243–267. adhered to the wisdom from Samuel But- ler’s Hudibras, “In all the trade of war, no Hartmann BJ and Ostberg J (2018) Academic liner notes: A re-inquiry of Chris feat is nobler than a brave retreat”. While Hackley’s (2012) CCT Blues. Consumption Markets & Culture 21(3): 205–214. the Hudibras poem might indeed have been Marion G (2012) Customer-driven or driving the customer? Exploitation versus intended as a joke, the state of Företagse- exploration. In: Maclaran P, Saren, M, Goulding C, Elliott R and Catterall M (eds) Critical konomi is nothing to laugh at. But since Marketing: Defining the Field. London: Routledge, pp.117–130. personality disorders are defined in rela- tionship to the socio-cultural environment in Minsky M (2007) The Emotion Machine: Commonsense Thinking, Artificial which one lives, the solution to the problem Intelligence, and the Future of the Human Mind. London: Simon & Schuster. might be rather close at hand. If Företagse- Tapp A (2007) Physics envy. Marketing Intelligence & Planning 25(3): 229–231. konomi would only stop fantasizing about being an academic discipline and instead Tufvesson I (2005) Hundra år av marknadsföring. Lund: Studentlitteratur. accepted its destiny as a vocational school, Uggla H (2013) Varumärkesstrategi i verkligheten. Lund: Studentlitteratur. most of the dysfunctions would be inconse- quential or seize to exist… Uggla H (2015) Organisation av varumärken: för kapitalisering och affärsutveckling. Lund: Studentlitteratur.

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I HAVE been academically fascinated by were. As for the second class, Professor marketing for over two decades now, and Tikkanen pointed at one of the students in started focusing on it even earlier, when I front of the class and asked, “What is your was selling men’s clothing. Basically, I was take on this?” At that point, we all realized fascinated by how my grandfather knew that we actually do have to read all the arti- all his clients and interacted with each of cles and even more. We were afraid of the them slightly differently when he was sell- idea to discuss and provide our opinions ing clothing. In a nutshell, some customers on the articles. As the course continued, wanted to talk, while others were quieter weeks by week, we learned to read quickly and just wanted the item they were looking and synthesize the essence of each article. for. This lead me thinking about different As you might have guessed, this has helped sales strategies and how salespeople inter- me a lot later in my academic career. After act with customers in different styles. Thus, a while, thanks to the encouragement of 13 I ended up doing my first degree in 1999 Henrikki, we realized that we could criticize (Vocational Qualification in Business Ad- the articles, too. This was a relief for us stu- ministration). After that, I started my studies dents as we, or some of us, realized that Teacher, Supervisor, at the University of Oulu. even the professors writing these great and not so great academic masterpieces are not perfect. Mentor, Boss and Friend FIRST ACQUAINTANCE – FROM What is interesting is that this course TEACHER TO SUPERVISOR was actually being taught in a similar man- ner when I was a doctoral student at the – Professor Henrikki My journey with Professor Henrikki Tik- Oulu Business School marketing depart- kanen started when I met him for the first ment in 2004. What’s more, I was teaching time in the University of Oulu, where I was the same course in a pretty similar manner Tik kanen a student from 1999 to 2002, and then a later on, and it was one of the only courses doctoral student from 2002 to 2006. Profes- students were publicly and privately prais- sor Tikkanen was teaching a Master’s level ing – the main comment being that they Strategic Marketing Management course, if were forced to read the articles but learnt a I recall correctly. It was an intensive read- lot through that. JARI SALO ing seminar course where the articles to After finishing my first course taught read were given to students in advance. by Henrikki, I realized that the same Profes- We read 4–5 articles for each lecture, re- sor (at that time associate professor, if I re- flected on them afterward in class, and then call correctly) Tikkanen is also supervising wrote an essay on the topic. On the first Bachelor’s thesis which I had not done yet introductory lecture, Professor Tikkanen – despite having taken some of the Master’s said that essays could be written in Finnish, level courses, which was forbidden at the English, German, Swedish or French. The time. That crime is in the past, so hopefully latter three are languages not used at all in it is alright that I mention it here. Oulu Business School, and most, if not all, I enrolled to the Bachelor’s seminar students realized how limited our percep- with 12 other students, and we had sever- tion of languages present at the university al lectures and seminars on different topics

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led by Henrikki. Students also presented had a research project called Wood Wis- students. This helped me to streamline my their writings and parts of their thesis. I still dom with doctoral student (now Principal previously tedious supervision process so remember the final seminar. It was orga- lecturer) Heikki Holma, which was ending "Henrik ki as to make it more outcome-orientated, and nized unconventionally in the local Letkun- in 2001. On a side note, I have to mention now when I have about 10 Master’s level puisto pub (perhaps Sarkka pub?) area in that I found the end report of the project on introduced me students to supervise, I actually appreciate the city of Oulu. Most people who have vis- a bookshelf at my current workplace, the it rather than being annoyed like some of ited Oulu or are from Oulu know the area. University of Helsinki, Faculty of Agriculture to Dean Eero my colleagues. Administrative tasks were As some of the female students presenting and Forestry, so it is a classic. After having new to me when I arrived to HSE. I had their Bachelor’s thesis (draft) in the seminar a meeting with Kimmo and Heikki, I ended Kasanen by saying, been part of different types of committees, were afraid of Henrikki and perhaps even up doing my Master’s thesis on the closely but when HSE was transforming into Aal- more afraid of his comments, they encour- related topic of buyer-seller relationships in 'Here is the next to, I had the chance to join Professor Satu aged themselves a bit too much by drinking. the sawmill industry. When I was finishing Teerikangas on a project to form a joint Regardless, presentations and comments my thesis, I asked Kimmo if I could start a FT40 publication Master’s programme in Strategy. I was a followed as usual. I was advised to study doctoral thesis. He replied, “Finish the Mas- bit afraid of the big role to be taken as the the doctoral dissertation by Zettinig from ter’s thesis first, before moving on to a doc- machine'. His deputy head of the program, but thanks to the University of Turku, if I recall correctly. toral thesis”. warm guidance by Henrikki, I realized that statement is not this is an opportunity to grow as an aca- demic and learn a lot. Indeed, without this MY EXTRACURRICULAR HSE – AALTO – MENTOR AND very incorrect, if opportunity to lead a program, I would not ACTIVITIES AND MASTER’S BOSS have been able to lead a department of THESIS you take out the marketing with 40 academics at the Oulu I finished my doctoral studies in October Business School. While studying at the Oulu Business School 2006 and was asked to apply to join Univer- FT40 part." I still remember one of the little Christ- and even earlier, I was also busy working sity of Lapland for a brief research profes- mas parties (pikkujoulut) in HSE/Aalto: I in the Alko Inc. from 1997 to 2001. During sor visit regarding services marketing and had been feeling a bit sad for some days that time I had the possibility to observe management. During that time, I realized which soon changed into Aalto University due to my research – that is, many rejection the buying behavior of Professor Tikkanen that I needed more challenges. I returned School of Business. Henrikki was now my letters – when Henrikki introduced me to and his colleague Professor Kimmo Ala- to Oulu Business School and soon noticed boss, but also mentoring me in a new work- Dean Eero Kasanen by saying, “Here is the joutsijärvi (my doctoral thesis supervisor), that Helsinki School of Economics (HSE) ing environment with a very different culture next FT40 publication machine”. His state- who were also leading the Head consulting was looking for a senior lecturer (yliassis- of pushing marketing science forward. My ment is not very incorrect, if you take out company. I still remember that their chosen tentti). I also noticed that Henrikki was the teaching evaluations were not the best at the FT40 part. poison was a pocket flask of whisky and/or point of contact. After emailing Henrikki, first and I discussed those with both Hen- cognac. Those times were quite busy in the and receiving his encouraging reply, I de- rikki and Joel. Perhaps, these discussions city of Oulu business life. Professor Kimmo cided to apply to HSE. I now realize how and my ambition to quickly improve helped SOCIAL ACTIVITIES, HENRIKKI Alajoutsijärvi was teaching business rela- important some of the emails were, and to increase the teaching evaluations from AND A BIT OF MARKETING tionships, which was an inspiration for my even today I remind myself to write polite around 3 to 4.5/5. Bachelor’s thesis on inter-organizational and encouraging emails when possible. Af- Teaching and student supervision Of course, we also had quite an intensive exchange forms. ter sending my application, I had a semi- are key tasks for any academic in Fin- social life during the HSE and Aalto years, After completing my Bachelor’s thesis official interview with Joel Hietanen (now land. Besides teaching, Henrikki also gave and some might say that we still have. We our paths with Henrikki crossed again brief- Associate Professor at the University of me opportunities to learn and improve my were quite often based in the restaurant ly, as I noticed that Professor Kimmo Ala- Helsinki) in 2008 or early 2009. After that, I Master’s thesis supervision. At one point, Nolla or certain other ones and we warmly joutsijärvi (and Henrikki, if I recall correctly) ended up in Helsinki School of Economics, I had three intakes a year and close to 50 cherish those memories. Henrikki is famous

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for stating obvious facts directly, but also for his one-liners. That’s why we had the idea to collect those as Tweets. Joel might still have the Professor Madballs (if I recall correctly) one-liner tweets. Besides Nol- la ‘seminars’, Henrikki and Joel organized the so-called ‘Apukoulu’ seminar series as well, where mostly doctoral students, along with some hand-picked master level stu- dents, presented their research proposals and projects. Most of these seminars were held in Sofia (former OP education cen- ter), which enabled easy accommodation as well. For me, these events and different types of social gatherings have taught that academia is also and mainly about people. Most research ideas have stemmed from these events and gatherings. On a personal level, I also had the pleasure of sharing a room and a suite with Henrikki in the Hong Kong Peninsula hotel, a modest hotel in HK, and later in Bali. Some of my friends have said that I am organized and tidy, but so is Henrikki. Perhaps that is why Henrikki was so easy a roommate, or perhaps it was the fact that I had some difficulties finding the right ho- tel and arrived late and Henrikki helped me pack up my suitcase for our next flight to Bali where we shared a small mansion with Aalto colleagues. In Bali for the first time, I witnessed the so-called ‘angry’ Henrik- ki when he had some phone negotiations with Aalto administration, if I recall correctly. Luckily for us who were in the mansion, this episode lasted only for some minutes. We Photo 1. Dr. Antti Vassinen on the right, Professor Henrikki Tikkanen in the center and to the left is all have our bad moments. Professor Salo. Picture was taken in New-Zealand 2010 by Aalto colleagues. As some of you might have noticed, Henrikki is also active in social media. From a marketing professor, one would expect marketing-related posts, but this is not the case at all. As a former professor of digi-

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tal business and digital marketing, I could Sora, if I recall the names correctly. Both The key point seems to be letting go and have done longitudinal content analysis and "...idea of Gadamer are family companies, but their turnover is trusting the people you work with. And, in- most likely would have found that the most (Truth and Method) relatively small, even when combined. Of terestingly, now the circle has been closed: common topics of the posts are politics and course, there are other companies, but the Professor Henrikki Tikkanen currently is a history. Some posts focus on his dog and has kept me focused truth is that moving north limited the options doctoral student in the discipline of histo- cat, but luckily he gives the warning of “Kis- a lot. ry, which is no surprise to people close to sankuvienjakosivusto” when he posts those. while teaching A fun fact that you might know about him. We have always said, and witnessed Two of the stories have been told both Henrikki is that he collects, to some extent, in practice, that Henrikki knows his history, by Kimmo and Henrikki. Original source is students and art, antiques and sets of dishes, and some even better than Australian, U.S. or English not the most important here, but I recall that managers alike." of those are displayed in his Muistola man- professors whose country of origin would Kimmo said they were planning their con- sion. Muistola is great place to discuss life, give them some edge over historical debate sulting kick-off with a customer, and perhaps business and music. What happens and is pertaining to the peculiarities of each coun- Henrikki was proposing some of his more ab- discussed in Muistola will stay in Muistola, try. I am not going to point out the exact top- stract ideas on for example the Red Queen or it will be left for others to write on those ic of his second doctoral thesis, since most effect, and Kimmo replied that “Ei tässä Ga- fond memories. of us writing these book chapters, and per- damerit auta”, pointing to the fact that more On a more academic note, I have to haps even someone who reads this book, practical guidance might be needed. This recall a particular one here for the read- know at least the empirical context. might sound silly to an outsider, but this idea ers. After publishing in highly glorified and As a teacher, supervisor, mentor, of Gadamer (Truth and Method) has kept me well-respected journals such as Journal of boss and friend, Henrikki has always sup- focused while teaching students and manag- Marketing and Strategic Journal of Market- ported some of my ideas, criticized many of ers alike. For managers, to be specific and ing, Henrikki said to me that there is more the other ones and thus helped in so many practical. For students, too, sometimes, I of- to life than the FT50 publication game. I different ways. To Henrikki, I would like to fer bits and pieces of Gadamer and the like. thank you for this advice along with much conclude by noting that I have also tried to At some point of my academic life I other advice that you have given me, even be true to you in our discussions on different returned to Oulu Business School as the if I have forgotten some of it. situations and decision outcomes whenever Aalto tenure track committee members Lately, Henrikki has been busy with possible. I have learned a lot from you in all were not treating me nicely, and I asked for NIBS, Muistola and his second doctoral our different roles and I am forever grateful advice from Henrikki. He said that up north dissertation. At the same time I have been to you. And, most importantly, I look forward you will have two types of companies you learning from Henrikki how to manage an to learning from you and with you for many can help: Junnikkala sawmill and Kiviharjun externally funded project, namely Growcery. years to come.

LÄHTEET / REFERENCES:

Wood wisdom - https://www.aka.fi/fi/tiedepoliittinen-toiminta/akatemiaohjelmat/ paattyneet-tutkimusohjelmat/woodwisdom/

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PROLOGUE ern New Zealand and the legendary IMP conferences in Dublin, Ireland and Bath, I HAVE THE HONOUR to recognise and re- United Kingdom. For our absolutely fabu- call the origins of the respectable Henrikki lous conference journey in New Zealand I 14 brand already from the late last century in acquired my very first Nokia mobile phone. Turku. More than 25 years ago I was able It followed me closely almost twenty years. to witness the appearance of exceptionally During the unforgettable conference dinner talented, energetic and goal-minded young in Dublin we could enjoy Irish folk music The Emerging student Henrikki at the Turku School of Eco- with Riverdance and the poems of James nomics and Business Administration. In a Joyce. surprisingly short time Henrikki completed I am grateful and delighted that our Schools of Thought in all his three academic degrees in interna- colleagueship and friendship has lasted al- tional marketing. Henrikki defended his ready almost 30 years. It has always been doctoral dissertation as early as 1997 no- inspiring and stimulating to meet Henrikki. I Brand Management ticeably under the age of 30 years. am always looking forward to encountering Henrikki left Turku School of Econom- him in his esteemed Kuusjoki premises. I ics and Business Administration very soon hereby want to express my sincere appreci- after his dissertation. First, he moved to ation and warmest congratulations for Hen- Kuopio university and then to Oulu universi- rikki on his 50th anniversary. ty before his main career in Helsinki. Henrik- ki is docent in Turku, Lappeenranta and Ro- vaniemi. Henrikki has also had international 1 INTRODUCTION positions for example in Paris, Bangkok and Stockholm. Consequently, Henrikki is truly Marketing literature on personal branding an international and respected scholar with and brand icons is increasing. Persons can a massive and highly qualified production be regarded as brands and brand icons PEKKA TUOMINEN record in leading international journals and with diverse characters (Beverland, 2018; other publication outlets. Brown, 2016; Holt, 2004; Rosenbaum-El- As a fascinating reminiscence it oc- liot et al., 2018). This is definitely true in the THE PURPOSE of this study is to describe, era. The diverse approaches to brand man- curs to me that Henrikki could not arrive case of Henrikki. Henrikki is truly a strong analyse, and understand the emerging agement comprise the economic approach, from Kuopio to Turku for the Ceremonial brand icon in marketing science both na- schools of thought in brand management. the identity approach, the consumer-based Conferment of Doctoral Degrees. Unfortu- tionally and internationally. The first aim is to discuss various branding approach, the personality approach, the re- nately, he was simultaneously in a hospital Our contemporary research com- eras and approaches to brand management. lational approach, the community approach, in Kuopio for a regrettable small accident. munity in marketing science is highly frag- The second aim is to outline four distinctive and the cultural approach. The established Consequently, he was awarded doctoral mented. Marketing discipline has sever- metaphors for the established branding par- paradigms in brand management include the hat, sword and diploma in absentia. al sub-disciplines. Researchers in these adigms. Finally, the third aim is to highlight product, projective, adaptive, and relational We have shared many conferences, sub-disciplines can be regarded to create some evolving paradigms in brand manage- paradigms. Silence, monologue, listening, seminars, tutorials and meetings both in brand communities. In fact, these commu- ment. The slightly overlapping branding eras and dialogue are the corresponding brand- Finland and abroad. I have exceptionally nities represent also online brand communi- include the individual goods-focused era, ing metaphors. The evolving paradigms in warm memories from our ANZMAC confer- ties. In the past you had to mail your manu- the valuefocused era, the relationship-fo- brand management include the community ence in Dunedin, Southern New Zealand, scripts to journals and conferences by post. cused era, and the stakeholder-focused and cultural paradigms. our RELMA colloquium in Auckland, North- Now everything is carried out rapidly online

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also in these respects. Social media in its third construct is a sense of moral respon- INDIVIDUAL VALUE RELATIONSHIP STAKEHOLDER many modern forms is widely utilised in sibility, which is felt as a sense of duty or GOODS -FOCUSED -FOCUSED -FOCUSED -FOCUSED BRAND ERA BRAND ERA BRAND ERA these online research brand communities. obligation to the community. In times of BRAND ERA The concepts of brand community threat to the community, this sense of mor- and online brand community create a fas- al responsibility produces collective action cinating research topic. Research in the (Muñiz and O’Guinn, 2001). Customer-firm -focused areas of both brand community and online The purpose of this study is to de- brand community has increased steadily scribe, analyse, and understand the Functional value over the course of years. Online communi- emerging schools of thought in brand -focused ties have become the status quo, the way management. The first aim is to discuss Goods Customer-brand Stakeholder that our society simply works (Kozinets, various branding eras and approaches to -focused -focused -focused 2015). brand management. The second aim is to Symbolic value The understanding of brand commu- outline four distinctive metaphors for the -focused nity as a concept has progressed signifi- established branding paradigms. Finally, Firm-brand cantly (Baldus et al., 2015; Quinton, 2013). the third aim is to highlight some evolving -focused A brand community can be formed by any paradigms in brand management. group of people with a common interest in Figure 1. The four branding eras and their sub-eras (Merz et al., 2009: 332). a specific brand, and it can create a paral- lel social universe rich with its own myths, 2 THE FOUR BRANDING ERAS IN values, rituals, vocabulary, and hierarchy BRAND MANAGEMENT (Muñiz and O’Guinn, 2001). Active and dynamic brand communities become eas- Based on an intensive literature review, ily more than a place. They can create a Merz et al. (2009) have identified four dif- During the value-focused era, brands seen between the firm, its customers, and common understanding of a shared identity ferent branding eras. They differ from are considered by their images. These im- the brand. In general, customer-firm, cus- that can be found in both face-to-face and each other in terms of how brands are ages are seen as perceptions that firms cre- tomer-brand, and firm-brand relationships cyberspace encounters (McAlexander et viewed and what the primary focus of the ate to enhance their competitive advantage. are considered. This means that custom- al., 2002; Muñiz and O’Guinn, 2001). brand’s value is. The four slightly overlap- Communicating a clearly defined brand ers are active co-creators of brand value; Muñiz and O’Guinn (2001) use ping branding eras are: (1) the individual image is believed to enable customers to brands have personalities, and custom- three constructs to classify the distinctive goods-focused era, (2) the value-focused differentiate the brand from its competitors. ers form dyadic relationships with them. features of brand communities. The first era, (3) the relationship-focused era, and The creation of the brand image is the fo- Furthermore, both internal and external is consciousness of kind, a sense of in- (4) the stakeholder-focused era. These four cus of brand value creation. During this era, customers are highlighted as brand value group belonging that members feel through branding eras and their sub-eras are illus- brands are considered to have both func- co-creators (Merz et al., 2009). patronizing the same brand. It creates a trated in Figure 1. tional and symbolic benefit associations for During the stakeholder-focused era, shared connection among members and a During the individual goods-focused consumer choice. The focus of brand value the general focus of branding concentrates collective sense of difference from others era, brands are characterised as identifiers. creation is seen in the creation of a func- on the collective and dynamic processes who are not members of the community. Firms use brands to show ownership. This tional and a symbolic brand image (Merz et that underlie brand consumption within so- The second construct is the presence of in turn helps customers to identify the firm’s al., 2009). ciety. The stakeholder perspective of brand- shared rituals and traditions that surround goods on sight. The focus of brand value During the relationship-focused era, ing means that (1) the brand value is co-cre- the brand. Rituals and traditions perpetu- is seen as being embedded in the physical the general focus of branding concentrates ated within stakeholder-based ecosystems, ate the community’s shared history, cul- goods and as being created predominantly on the customer as a significant actor in the (2) stakeholders form networks rather than ture, and consciousness. Traditions include when the goods are sold through a discrete brand valuecreation process. A more inter- only dyadic relationships with brands, and certain behavioural norms and values. The transaction (Merz et al., 2009). active and relational co-creation process is (3) brand value is dynamically constructed

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RELATIONSHIP STAKEHOLDER ditional marketing mix; (2) the identity ap- 2001). Many stateowned energy companies -FOCUSED BRAND ERA -FOCUSED BRAND ERA proach with the brand linked to corporate are examples of the silence metaphor, be- identity; (3) the consumer-based approach cause brand management is often focused Firm Brand Customers Firm Brand Stakeholders with the brand linked to consumer associa- on the product as the main element of the tions; (4) the personality approach with the marketing mix. brand as a human-like character; (5) the relational approach with the brand as a via- 4.2 The Monologue Metaphor for The ble relationship partner; (6) the community Projective Paradigm approach with the brand as the pivotal point of social interaction; and (7) the cultural ap- The projective paradigm complements the proach with the brand as part of the broader product paradigm by highlighting the stra- cultural fabric (Heding et al., 2016). tegic importance of branding. The brand is not a product: it is the product’s source, its meaning and direction, and it defines its 4 THE METAPHORS FOR THE identity in time and space. Too often brands ESTABLISHED BRANDING are examined through their component = individual = employee = different = brand parts: the brand name, logo, design, pack- customer stakeholders community PARADIGMS aging, advertising, or name recognition. Louro and Cunha (2001) have identified four Real brand management, however, begins Figure 2. The relationship-focused brand era versus the stakeholder-focused brand era established branding paradigms in brand much earlier with a strategy and a consis- (Merz et al., 2009: 337). management: (1) product, (2) projective, (3) tent integrated vision. Its central concept is adaptive, and (4) relational. These estab- brand identity (Aaker, 2012; Kapferer, 2013). lished branding paradigms can be analysed Brand management is focused on along two dimensions. The first is brand reinforcing and developing brand position- centrality and the second is customer cen- ing through the creation, development, and through social interactions among different 3 THE SEVEN APPROACHES TO trality (Louro and Cunha, 2001). communication of a coherent brand identi- stakeholders. Figure 2 illustrates the main BRAND MANAGEMENT ty. Such an identity is defined by the firm, differences between the relationship-focused 4.1 The Silence Metaphor for The Product and the aim is to specify the meaning of the brand era and the stakeholder-focused brand Heding et al. (2016) have identified seven Paradigm brand. Before projecting an identity to the era with regard to the relationship between approaches to brand management. These public, the firm must know exactly what it the firm, the brand, and the customers. approaches represent fundamentally differ- The product paradigm reflects a tactical wants to project (Kapferer, 2013). Within the In the stakeholder-focused era, the ent perceptions of the brand. The identifica- and unilateral orientation to brand man- projective paradigm, brand management is brand is viewed as a continuous social pro- tion of the seven approaches is based on agement with the product as its focus. focused on the brand logic with the brand cess whereby brand value is co-created an extensive analysis of the most influential Brands are constructed as logos and le- identity occurring as its core element. through stakeholder-based negotiations. brand research articles from the Journal gal instruments that perform firm-centred The monologue metaphor captures Thus, brand value is not only co-created of Marketing, the Journal of Marketing Re- brand roles. Firms use brands to designate the emphasis of branding in the projective through isolated, dyadic relationships be- search, the Journal of Consumer Research, legal ownership and protect against imita- paradigm (Louro and Cunha, 2001). Ap- tween firms and individual customers. Rath- Harvard Business Review, and the Europe- tion (de Chernatony, 2012; de Chernatony parel and fragrance brands like Hugo Boss er, it is also co-created through network an Journal of Marketing. et al., 2011). Within the product paradigm, and Calvin Klein illustrate the monologue relationships and social interactions in the The seven approaches to brand man- brand management is focused on the mar- metaphor, because brand management ecosystem of all relevant stakeholders (Merz agement identifies are (1) the economic keting mix. The silence metaphor captures is focused on projecting a relevant brand et al., 2009). approach with the brand as part of the tra- the product paradigm (Louro and Cunha, identity to the firm’s target groups.

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4.3 The Listening Metaphor for The ation of brand meaning. This paradigm con- CUSTOMER CENTRALITY Adaptive Paradigm ceptualises brand management as an ongo- ing dynamic process whereby brand value Tactical orientation The adaptive paradigm complements the and meaning are created together through projective paradigm by stressing the role of the behaviours and collaboration of firms, consumers as central constructors of brand customers and other stakeholders. Brands meaning. Customer-based brand equity, develop as active symbolic partners that co- Silence metaphor Listening metaphor brand awareness, and brands as images define the relational space. In this paradigm, BRAND Unilateral Multilateral receive major attention in this paradigm firm-consumer relationships are brandmedi- CENTRALITY (Keller, 2013). ated, and brand management is a dialectical Customerbased brand equity oc- process that recognises the active role of Monologue metaphor Dialogue metaphor curs when the customer has a high level of consumers in co-creating and co-developing awareness of the brand and holds strong, brand meaning (Louro and Cunha, 2001). favourable, and unique brand associations. In accordance with the relational par- Brand orientation Brand awareness includes both brand rec- adigm, a dialogue can develop between the ognition and brand recall. Brand awareness service provider and customer. This ongo- can be characterised in terms of depth and ing dialogue can lead to the development of Figure 3. Metaphors for the established paradigms in brand management (modified from Louro and breadth (Keller, 2013). The adaptive paradigm a common knowledge base. Dialogue can Cunha, 2001: 855). acknowledges consumers as cocreators of be understood as an interactive process brand meaning in the form of brand image, of reasoning together in which there is a which is constructed in the minds of custom- willingness on the part of both partners to ers (Kapferer, 2013). Brand image can be listen and communicate in achieving a com- defined as the customers’ perceptions of a mon goal (Christopher et al., 2008). In a aphor in the product paradigm of brand brand value through rather close and inten- brand as reflected by the brand associations dialogue there are no senders or receivers; management. By creating dialogue, as the sive firm-customer interaction. held in the customers’ minds. Brand associ- rather, there are participants in a dialogic relational paradigm indicates, communi- ations can be classified into attributes and process (Grönroos, 2004, 2016). cation principles have gradually replaced benefits (Boush and Jones, 2006; Keller, 2013). Brand management is focused on short-term exchange notions in branding 5 THE EVOLVING PARADIGMS IN The listening metaphor reflects the the relational discourse with the brand rela- (Grönroos, 2016). BRAND MANAGEMENT implicit orientation underlying the adaptive tionship occurring as its core element. The Figure 3 illustrates the four branding paradigm with brand image as its core ele- dialogue metaphor describes the nature of metaphors to complete the discussion on the ment (Louro and Cunha, 2001). Internation- relationship-based brand management (Lou- established branding paradigms and meta- 5.1 The Community Paradigm al hotel chains and soft drinks companies ro and Cunha, 2001). Harley Davidson is an phors created by Louro and Cunha (2001). like Pepsi and Fanta demonstrate the adap- example to illustrate the dialogue metaphor, Tactical orientation in brand centrality The digital era has resulted in changes in tive metaphor, because brand management because the brand management is focused is emphasised in the silence and listening how consumers interact both with brands is focused on creating a positive image on creating an active dialogue and participa- metaphors. Brand orientation has a more and with each other. Brands increasingly among current and potential customers. tion among the owners of the brand’s bikes. vital role in the monologue and dialogue inhabit the digital environment. Now brand metaphors. Unilateral orientation in cus- management encompasses all activities 4.4. The Dialogue Metaphor for the 4.5. The Branding Metaphors: A Recap tomer centrality concentrates mainly on the which are digitally enabled, including for Relational Paradigm firm-based marketing activities of the com- example mobile communication, interactive Traditionally, the branding of physical goods pany. In the multilateral orientation, custom- online gaming, video creation, podcasts and The relational paradigm takes into account has been viewed from the marketer’s per- ers are regarded more as relevant sources social media with blogs, forums and other the active role of customers in the co-cre- spective, as indicated in the silence met- of competence and active co-creators of the social network platforms (Quinton, 2013).

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The contemporary view of brand formation, as well as by personal narratives authenticity deals with the authenticity of entirely valid. The evolving paradigms in management as a linear, relational, ex- based on personal or impersonal experienc- market offerings, (2) brand authenticity is brand management include the community change-based partnership is no longer es of the brand (Muñiz and O’Guinn, 2001). based on the evaluation of individuals and and cultural paradigms. entirely valid. The community paradigm The most highly committed brand commu- (3) brand authenticity corresponds to a va- encapsulates together both brand manage- nities become the strongest advocates for riety of attributes since there is no unique EPILOGUE ment and those other parties who might be and believers in the brand (Merz et al., 2009; definition of brand authenticity. There is no doubt that Henrikki has during involved with the brand. In addition, it en- Schau et al., 2009). the past decades become an influential courages brand management to look their According to Quinton (2013) the com- 5.2. The Cultural Paradigm scholar and contributor in marketing science customers in a broader sense both geo- munity paradigm incorporates the concepts with a huge amount of national and interna- graphically as the digital era is truly global of brand heritage (Beverland, 2005; Rose In the cultural paradigm, the brand is seen tional students and colleagues. He is also (Quinton, 2013). et al., 2016) and brand authenticity (Alexan- as a cultural artefact, and a cultural brand very active actor in business fields. The metaphor for the community der, 2009; Beverland, 2009; Fritz et al., 2017; perspective is introduced in brand manage- Henrikki can be considered analog- paradigm is debate. According to Quin- Schallehn et al., 2014). Brand heritage con- ment. The cultural paradigm borrows from ically from the perspectives of the four es- ton (2013), debate between organisations siders not only the longevity of a brand and the scientific tradition of cultural studies. tablished paradigms in brand management. and consumers and between consumers its origin, but also its trueness to the original Attention is shifted from the transaction be- If we approach Henrikki from the product should be encouraged. Active and open ethos of the brand concept and brand story tween the marketer and consumer to the paradigm, we can find out that Henrikki is discussion about brands, whether positive and its ability to move with the times (Bal- macro perspective. The cultural paradigm a tough guy. If we deem Henrikki from the or negative, should be welcomed in order to lantyne et al., 2006; Urde at al., 2007; Wied- explains how embedding the brand in cul- projective paradigm, we can realise that he develop mutual insight. Consequently, the mann et al., 2011). tural forces can be used strategically to has a durable identity. If we judge Henrikki consumer has moved from contributing to a Brand authenticity in the community build an iconic brand (Cayla and Arnould, from the adaptive paradigm, we can discov- brand’s value to the partial management of paradigm acknowledges and respects the 2008; Heding et al., 2016; Holt, 2002, 2004). er that he has a captivating image. Finally, if a brand’s value with the associated shift in digitally enabled consumers. There is no we consider Henrikki from the relational par- power from being a sole passive participant consensus on a general definition of brand adigm, we can notice that he has distinctive to the partial and active co-creator (Quin- authenticity as well as no agreement regard- 6 SUMMARY solutions to relational issues. ton, 2013). ing its dimensional structure in branding liter- It will be the reader’s demanding The community paradigm is based on ature. Originally, the concept of authenticity The slightly overlapping branding eras in- task to make the ultimate judgement which anthropological studies of brand communi- is derived from the Latin word authenticus clude the individual goods-focused era, the branding paradigm is most suitable for our ties (McAlexander et al., 2002; Muñiz and and the Greek word authentikos (Beverland value-focused era, the relationship-focused distinguished and honoured Henrikki. It will O’Guinn, 2001). Brand value is created in and Farrelly, 2010; Bruhn et al., 2012). era, and the stakeholderfocused era. The also be the reader’s challenging opportunity these brand communities, where the brand Authenticity is commonly used to re- different approaches to brand manage- to come to a final decision whether the si- serves as the pivotal point of social inter- fer to genuineness. It has also been defined ment comprise the economic approach, the lence, monologue, listening or dialogue met- action among consumers (Heding et al., in terms of sincerity, nostalgia, innocence, identity approach, the consumer-based ap- aphor is most appropriate in the case of our 2016). The motivations for joining a brand craftsmanship, uniqueness, originality and proach, the personality approach, the rela- esteemed Henrikki. In addition, it is evident community include for example the need related to concepts such as being natural tional approach, the community approach, that also the evolving community and cultur- to get information about a product, to ex- and honest (Ballantyne et al., 2006; Na- and the cultural approach. The established al paradigms provide more colourful insights press commitment to a certain brand, and poli et al., 2014). Authenticity is linked with paradigms in brand management include to our appealing brand icon of Henrikki. to consume something together with others self-identity and the notion that consumers the product, projective, adaptive, and rela- (Närvänen, 2013). desire authenticity in products in order to tional paradigms. Silence, monologue, lis- Research on brand communities add value to their self-identity (Bruhn et al., tening, and dialogue are the corresponding demonstrates that brand value is co-cre- 2012; Edwards, 2010). branding metaphors. The dominant view of ated by communitybased negotiations and Based on a literature review, Bruhn brand management as a linear, relational, symbolic interpretations of brandrelated in- et al. (2012) have concluded that (1) brand exchange-based partnership is no longer

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LÄHTEET / REFERENCES:

Aaker D (2012) Building Strong Brands. London: Simon and Schuster. Fritz K, Schoenmueller V and Bruhn M (2017) Authenticity in branding. Exploring the antecedents and consequences of brand authenticity. European Journal of Marketing Alexander N (2009) Brand authentication. Creating and managing brand auras. 51(2): 324–348. European Journal of Marketing 43(3–4): 551–562. Grönroos C (2004) The relationship marketing process. Communication, interaction, Baldus B, Voorhees C and Calantone R (2015) Online brand community engagement. dialogue, value. Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing 18(2): 99–113. Scale development and validation. Journal of Business Research 68(5): 978–985. Grönroos C (2016) Service Management and Marketing. Managing the Service Profit Ballantyne R, Warren A and Nobbs K (2006) The evolution of brand choice. Journal of Logic. Chichester: Wiley. Brand Management 13(4–5): 339–352. Heding T, Knudtzen C and Bjerre M (2016) Brand Management. Research, Theory Beverland M (2005) Brand management and the challenge of authenticity. Journal of and Practice. London: Routledge. Product and Brand Management 14(7): 460–462. Holt D (2002) Why do brands cause trouble? A dialectical theory of consumer culture Beverland M (2009) Building Brand Authenticity. Chippenham: Palgrave Macmillan. and branding. Journal of Consumer Research 29(1): 70–90. Beverland M (2018) Brand Management. Co-Creating Meaningful Brands. London: Holt D (2004) How Brands Become Icons? The Principles of Cultural Branding. Sage. Boston: MA: Harvard Business School Press. Beverland M and Farrelly F (2010) The quest for authenticity in consumption. Kapferer J (2013) The New Strategic Brand Management. Advanced Insights and Consumers’ purposive choice of authentic cues to shape experienced outcomes. Strategic Thinking. London: Kogan Page. Journal of Consumer Research 36(5): 838–856. Keller K (2013) Strategic Brand Management. Building, Measuring, and Managing Boush D and Jones S (2006) A strategy-based framework for extending brand image Brand Equity. Boston, MA: Pearson. research. In: Kahle L and Kim C-H (eds) Creating Images and the Psychology of Marketing Communications. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp.3–29. Kozinets R (2015) Netnography: Redefined. Sage: London.

Brown S (2016) Brands and Branding. London: Sage. Louro M and Cunha P (2001) Brand management paradigms. Journal of Marketing Management 17(7-8): 849–875. Bruhn M, Schoenmueller V, Schäfer D and Heinrich D (2012) Brand authenticity. Towards a deeper understanding of its conceptualization and measurement. McAlexander J, Schoulten J and Koenig H (2002) Building brand community. Journal of Advances in Consumer Research 40(1): 567–576. Marketing 66(1): 38–54.

Cayla J and Arnould E (2008) A cultural approach to branding in the global Merz M, He Y and Vargo S (2009) The evolving brand logic. A service-dominant logic marketplace. Journal of International Marketing 16(4): 86–112. perspective. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 37(3): 328–344.

Christopher M, Payne A and Ballantyne D (2008) Relationship Marketing. Creating Muñiz A and O’Guinn T (2001) Brand community. Journal of Consumer Research 27(4): Stakeholder Value. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. 412–432.

de Chernatony L (2012) From Brand Vision to Brand Evaluation. The Strategic Napoli J, Dickinson S, Beverland M and Farrelly F (2014) Measuring consumer-based Process of Growing and Strengthening Brands. New York, NY: Routledge. brand authenticity. Journal of Business Research 67(6): 1090–1098.

de Chernatony L, McDonald M and Wallace E (2011) Creating Powerful Brands. Oxford: Närvänen E (2013) Extending the collective consumption of brands. PhD theis, Tampere Butterworth-Heinemann. University, Finland.

Edwards L (2010) Authenticity in organisational context. Fragmentation, contradiction Quinton S (2013) The community brand paradigm. A response to brand and loss of control. Journal of Communication Management 14(3): 192–205. management’s dilemma in the digital era. Journal of Marketing Management 29(7–8): 912–932.

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Rose G, Merchant A, Orth U and Hortsmann F (2016) Emphasizing brand heritage. Does it work and how? Journal of Business Research 69(2): 936–943.

Rosenbaum-Elliott R, Percy L and Pervan S (2018) Strategic Brand Management. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Schallehn M, Burmann C and Riley N (2014) Brand authenticity. Model development and empirical testing. Journal of Product and Brand Management 23(3): 192–199.

Schau H, Muñiz A and Arnould E (2009) How brand community practices create value. Journal of Marketing 73(5): 30–51.

Urde M, Greyser S and Palmer J (2007) Corporate brands with a heritage. Journal of Brand Management 15(1): 4–19.

Wiedmann K-P, Hennings N, Schmidt S and Wuestefeld T (2011) The importance of brand heritage as a key performance driver in marketing management. Journal of Brand Management 19(3): 182–194.

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INTRODUCTION starting to feel like a never-ending saga without actual solutions to the legitimacy A DECADE has elapsed since the awake problem. Despite suggestions – such as of the world-shattering Financial Crisis. establishing new organizational design 15 This equals to the length of the most recent solutions for business schools that have ar- and global surge of disbelief in the educa- rived at an “intellectual dead-end” (Khurana tion of business elites. Over the past ten and Spender, 2012: 620), and encouraging years, this distrust in institutions known as business schools to pursue other strategic What Ails Contemporary business schools has given rise to some of choices to move away from isomorphism the most relevant management literature of and increase their local impact (Lejeune our lifetime. For once, business scholars et al., 2019) – have been made by respect- Business Schools? have been able to enjoy the rare luxury of ed management scholars, the questions being in the eye of the storm, and to break remains: Why so little has changed? And out from our perpetual roles as occasional moreover, what next? observers of other people’s businesses into In our view, most critical accounts observing participants or even self-ethno- of business schools to date focus more graphic researchers of our very own. on the treatment of symptoms such as the While business schools have been implementation of research assessment KIMMO ALAJOUTSIJÄRVI the most successful academic institutions frameworks and increased corporatization KATARIINA JUUSOLA of the last century and a growth and suc- and micromanagement in our institutions KERTTU KETTUNEN cess story in the global university field, (among exceptions Ginsberg, 2011; Giroux, now their legitimacy as social, academic 2014; Hentschke et al., 2010; Parker, 2018), THIS ESSAY argues that the reasons for brella called business school without much and management ‘profession’ education- rather than addressing the problematic root the legitimacy problems of contemporary questioning of their principles, and in disci- al institutions is criticized in many ways cause of the legitimacy problem. Thus, per- business schools are inherently ideological. plinary silos as silent ideologies that do not (Alajoutsijärvi, 2012, 2013; Alajoutsijär- haps like in Alcoholics Anonymous, after We claim that the hidden but strongly pres- easily collide with one another. We argue vi et al., 2013, 2015; Alvesson and Spicer, admitting having a problem, some critical ent ideologies of business schools are neo- that contemporary business schools have 2012); Huzzard et al., 2017; Kettunen et al., soul searching would be needed to figure liberalism, shareholderism, and manageri- become prisoners of these ideologies that 2015; Locke, 1996; Mintzberg, 2004; Park- out why we remain collectively so power- alism. Despite their symbiotic life enabled are embedded in higher education policy, er, 2014, 2018; Pfeffer and Fong, 2004). In- less over it. in most business school organizations, surround us in most research and teaching deed, in this relatively short period of time In this essay, we argue that the un- these ideologies are full of distortions and that we perform, and are maintained by our in the history of management scholarship, a derlying problem with our ‘addiction’ to cor- internal inconsistencies. Yet, they are be- organizational structures and disciplinary great number of perspicacious, self-critical poratize our institutions is not an intellectu- ing practiced and promoted under the um- hierarchies. and nerve-touching accounts of business al but ideological blind alley that we have schools have been authored in the pages arrived at. That is to say, there is nothing of numerous prominent management jour- particularly wrong with our business acade- nals. While these studies are academically micians’ intellectual capacities or intrinsic rigorous and relevant for higher education motivations to engage in interesting and so- Suopealle lukijalle policy, it is another story whether these cietally impactful research or to understand Tämän jutun teemoista meillä on tarinaa riittänyt. Politiikka, retoriikka, teoriat, ideologiat, kauppakorkeakoulut pieces of literature are being read by those the limitations of quality assurance frame- ja bisnekset ovat soljuneet puheissa ja papereissa. Punalamput otsalla on menty, eikä Gadameria ole avuksi who should read and learn from them. works when implemented in academic con- huudettu. Mielipiteet ovat vääntyneet ja kääntyneet, mutta se kai on tarkoituskin akateemisessa työssä ja Indeed, complaining about and blam- texts. What seems to create a more difficult elämässä. Juttu pyrkii olemaan lennokas mutta niin on Henkkakin. ing of business schools’ current state is issue to tackle, however, are the implicit

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ideological stances that business schools business schools the principal “ideological cording to Hall (1985), the main function of spective societies through theories, frames and their scholars accept and pass on, car- state apparatus” (Hall, 1986: 32). Conse- ideology is to reproduce its material exis- and narratives that are different forms of ing too little about how distorted they might quently, we appear to accept the proposi- tence and expand, which happens through symbolic representation. Theories refer be. Hence, the questions posed by Hall tions of the above-mentioned ideologies as powerful superstructures in a society, i.e. to general guiding principles and political (1986) remain unanswered within our field: a neutral force or some of kind of Darwinian institutions, but also it requires support of instruments for why and how institutional biological law, like the theory of evolution. cultural institutions such as the media and structures and practices should operate “why some people – those living Reasons why this is so, together with some political parties who have the ability to “cul- (Thornton et al., 2012). Frames are more their relation to their conditions of thoughts on how it could be altered for the tivate” certain belief systems and moral in concrete forms of the theories that enable existence through the categories of benefit of our field and profession, is the the wider society. individuals to locate, perceive, identify, and a distorted ideology – cannot recog- purpose of this essay. Our essay thus con- As ideologies are fostered by strong label events that they encounter (Benford nise that it is distorted… Are the dis- tributes to the emerging stream in critical institutions, they have a tendency to be- and Snow, 2000). Thus, frames are political tortions simply falsehoods? Are they management education literature that has come “blind” and subject to distortions, as and rhetorical processes of group identifi- deliberately sponsored falsifications? started to question the hidden ideologies any one-sided explanation only reflects only cation, which materialize in emergence of If so, by whom?” (p. 33) of what we teach, preach and practice (e.g., part of the truth, hence it is, in a sense, a certain collective identities and promoting Alvesson and Kärreman, 2016; Ghoshal, false (Hall, 1986). From a negative point of certain practices. This typically results in More specifically, in this essay, we 2005; Klikauer, 2013; Locke and Spender, view, ideologies powerfully guide thinking emergence of certain micro-level routines, argue that what ails business schools are 2011; Parker, 2018). away from a multi-faceted critical review taken-for granted rules, rhetoric, as well as three more or less implicit and uninten- and even silence other ways of thinking macro-level norms, values and expecta- tional ideological stances of teaching and and reasoning. The danger of ideologies tions that are shared and cultivated by the research: neoliberalism, managerialism THE MECHANISM OF is that they thus disturb and obstruct the members of organizations, occupations and and shareholderism. What is common to IDEOLOGY AND ITS SYMBOLIC understanding of complex reality and fun- industries within the field. Narratives, on the all these three ideologies is that they pose REPRESENTATIONS damental issues, as they aim to legitimize other hand, are influenced by the theories distortions that are rarely questioned in both goals and means that they are driving. and frames that materialize in specific vo- a business school setting. They include a The theoretical discussions of social However, while ideologies tend to be pow- cabulary, stories or accounts to articulate wide array of policies and practices that science about the concept and role of ide- erful and reproducing belief systems, some- events and human action by reflecting spe- are at the first sight internally consistent ology are diverse and often negative (Hall, times ideology can also change the existing cific organizational practices, developments and aligned with each other. While a closer 1985, 1986). Ideology can be understood as power relations of society (Eagleton, 1991; and outcomes that give meaning to specific investigation reveals their inconsistencies a mental framework consisting of “the lan- Klikauer, 2013). physical or social phenomena (Weick et al., and contradictions, it also shows that when guages, the concepts, categories, imagery Many sociologists claim that any ed- 2005). Narratives legitimate power forces put together, these three form a pervasive of thought, and the systems of represen- ucational institution, whether a school, uni- constructed by frames and theories as they and powerful symbiosis that we seldom tation which different classes and social versity, research center or a training body, diffuse easily through social actors within even recognize as ideology-laden. Com- groups deploy in order to make sense of, are at the core when ideologies are created, the field (Thornton et al., 2012). Hence, as pared to many other more out-spoken ‘isms’ define, figure out and render intelligible the disseminated and maintained due to their narratives legitimize the related frames and like communism and fascism, the silenced way society works” (Hall, 1986: 29). In oth- competence and legitimacy in promoting theories, it increases mimetic isomorphism anonymity of neoliberalism, managerialism er words, ideology is seen as an indicative certain political ideologies (Cameron et al., within the field as organizational actors in- and shareholderism is actually the cause of collection of ideas, a perspective of reali- 2003; Elias, 2000). Business schools are creasingly imitate successful organizations their overwhelming power. ty, and as a set of practices that begin to particularly effective in this, as they bring and their ideas and practices (DiMaggio Indeed, business schools have an dominate the social thinking of a particular together future business executives. and Powell, 1983). implicit agenda of what we as faculty mem- group. Ideologies are, in fact, dependent on In the next chapter, we explain the bers or administrators market to students, such groups, because unless they are able ideological emergence and diffusion of neo- universities and larger society, which, ac- to connect particular constellation of social liberalism, managerialism and shareholde- cording to Althusser’s terminology, makes forces, they cannot become effective. Ac- rism within business schools and their re- → 214 215 HENRIKKI TIKKANEN – 50 15 – THE EMERGING SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT IN BRAND MANAGEMENT

THE EMERGENCE OF THE nism in the USSR, and fascism in Germany ularly influential behind the shareholderism to be similar and thus they can and should HIDDEN IDEOLOGICAL AGENDA and Italy. While Keynesian model had been ideology and developing the means for be subjected to similar universal manage- OF CONTEMPORARY BUSINESS successful in building strong welfare econ- achieving its goals. The former was a well- ment ideas, practices and methods. In man- SCHOOLS omies, its Achilles heel was its vulnerability known political economist, a celebrity pro- agerialism, experience or industry-specific to inflation (Crouch, 2011), which resulted in fessor of that time and an advisor to Ronald knowledge are of secondary importance From ideas and ideologies to theories its end as a result of the inflationary shocks Reagan and Margaret Thatcher. Friedman is (Klikauer, 2013). of the 1970’s. At that time, policymakers famous for his quotes on the rationalization While shareholderism applies only to Out of the three ideologies of neoliberal- were persuaded by economic experts to of pursuing shareholder wealth at almost the private sector, managerialism has been ism, managerialism and shareholderism, abandon Keynesianism and replace it with any cost¹ and for his detestation towards implemented as a solution across private the first one is the vaguest one without a tougher approaches and ideologies (Smith, the government². Jensen and Meckling, in and public sectors, as a solution to erase clear all-encompassing definition to date 2010). turn, developed a new theoretical justifica- any ‘slack resources’ in an organization and (Crouch, 2011, 2013). While neoliberalism One of the guilty parties of the 1970’s tion for the ability of free markets to solve overcome the presumed inefficiency of par- has many branches and practices, its core economic crisis was found to be the business the problems of business and society. This ticularly public sector organizations to solve theme focuses on promotion of free mar- elite, which was not sufficiently diligent in the new product was the so-called Agent-Prin- societal problems. Neoliberalism, share- kets. Free markets are thought to be the interests of shareholders. This gave rise to cipal Theory, which radically changed the holderism and managerialism all view pri- best system due to its assumed ability to economic research on the subject and the power relations within firms and placed vate sector organizations as powerful, agile increase efficiency and responsiveness theory of shareholderism. Shareholderism more emphasis for ensuring more authority and customer-oriented pillars of well-being, to consumer choice by enabling competi- means a theory according to which share- for the management, which were needed to while the public sector ones are inefficient, tion. This is consequently thought to erase holders are prioritized over other stakeholder act on behalf of the shareholders in mak- bureaucratic and slow to change – but market imbalances in under- or oversupply groups. This view was justified by the idea ing the organizations more effective in the which can be fixed with help of manageri- and eliminate unnecessary or overpriced that shareholders as the most important free markets and maximizing shareholder alism. Managerialism in the public sector products and services from the market, group in society as they carry the risks of wealth. After all, according to Friedman, has taken form through privatization efforts thus serving consumer interests and even doing business and creating wealth through that was the sole social responsibility of as well as incorporating management mod- producing optimal societal welfare (Olssen investments. For this reason, business exec- an organization. The seemingly symbiotic els in them resembling those of the private and Peters, 2005). Free markets, however, utives are subordinates to shareholders, i.e. relationship between the shareholders and sector. require very specific conditions to function agents who have to strive to maximize the managers was natural as their interests are Paradoxically, while managerialism – i.e. they should be kept out of the reach wealth of their principals. undeniably aligned – both parties are seek- requires support of shareholders, its ide- and interference of state and politics that Together with neoliberalism, the ing for maximizing their own self-interests. ology in the long run aims to diminish the might limits its ways of operating – unless greatest “achievement” of shareholderism Increasing influence and promotion of decision-making power of the shareholders. the state can safeguard and promote the in- is the deregulation of the financial sector. shareholderism was fruitful for emergence terests of neoliberalism (Crouch, 2011). The background to this regulation was the of the ideology of managerialism, which fo- From theories to political and rhetoric Neoliberalism became a dominant 1930’s experience of financial and banking cuses on the internal organization of com- frames in business schools and the society ideology when its predecessor Keynes- crises, with the aim of creating a stable sys- panies and in the concentration of power ianism entered its own crisis in the 1970’s tem that would prevent bank collapse and on managers. The central doctrine of this While theories tend to remain abstract, neo- (Campbell and Pedersen, 2001; Smith, panic and curb speculation (Varoufakis et ideology is that of decontextualization – all liberalism, shareholderism and managerial- 2010). Until then, different versions of al., 2011). However, the 2008 financial crisis organizations and industries are assumed ism have turned into powerful frames of ref- Keynesian model with its government de- has questioned the value of achievement, mand management and welfare state ini- and whether free markets are capable of tiatives were practiced in various Western producing the kind of welfare it was intend- countries since early twentieth century. ed to. Elsewhere, other significant competing eco- Professors Milton Friedman, Michael 1 “The social responsibility of business is to increase its profits” (Friedman, 1970: 122). nomic models had thrived; namely commu- Jensen and William Meckling were partic- 2 “The government solution to a problem is usually as bad as the problem” (Friedman, 1975: 6).

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erence across industries and professional its adoption and promotion by an influential 2007; Engwall, 2004; Kieser, 2004; Kipping because of their ability to combine econom- fields, which have materialized in distinct network of supranational organizations. In et al., 2004; Locke, 1996; Üsdiken, 2004, ics with politics and to use widely appealing practices, taken-for granted rules, rhetoric, the 1970’s, the Organization for Econom- 2007). American business schools also narratives of competition, economic growth, as well as macro-level norms, values and ic Cooperation and Development (OECD) benefited from the fact that had successfully efficient markets, privatization, customer expectations that are witnessed in most discarded Keynesian ideals and began to professionalized the entire business school satisfaction, and also some specific vocab- modern organizations. The reason for this promote neoliberal ideas and free markets, field by establishing membership organiza- ulary such as ‘rational choice’ and ‘consum- is that as these ideologies gained popular- encouraging the privatization of public ser- tions such as the Association to Advance er choice’ to promote it. These discourses ity, so did the institutions and people pro- vices (Crouch, 2011). In parallel, the World Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) in normalized the idea that public sector or- moting them. Bank promoted the diffusion of a similar 1916 (Durand and McGuire, 2005). Later, ganizations are welfare parasites that need The first ‘results’ of the success of agenda in developing countries (Naidoo, other normative professional institutions to be fixed (Apple, 2000; Crouch, 2011; neoliberalism were to be seen in the 1980’s, 2011). As these powerful and undeniably such as the Academy of Management be- Giroux, 2014). In parallel, neoliberal ideas which were, by coincidence, witnessed legitimate network organizations acted as came established as a dominant avenue for were brought into universities through spe- during a period of strong economic growth. active supporters of these ideologies, their promoting business school research, ideas, cific narratives that focused on universities’ Perhaps the policymakers forgot the basic wholesale adoption was facilitated in coun- and their global diffusion. In addition, Amer- role in creating more competitive economy, rule that correlation does not necessari- tries where conflicting institutions were not ican business schools dominate the content which was actively promoted in many West- ly imply causality. At the same time, other established. For example, because it was production and publishing industry, which ern countries in the late 1990’s through ‘failed’ economic models had been already important to raise the quality of education, markets and packages political theories into popular terms such as ‘knowledge capi- forgotten or deemed as ineffective applica- the OECD and the World Bank actively as- practice through consulting, books, maga- tal’, ‘knowledge economy’ and ‘triple helix’. tions, which did not really leave any viable sessed different countries based on their zines and software products. Other univer- These discourses legitimized the idea that alternative for neoliberalism (Crouch, 2011; education systems and the contribution sity disciplines cannot compare to business knowledge produced by the universities Smith, 2010). of those education systems to economic schools on this matter (Alajoutsijärvi, 2013; should be strategically aligned according Furthermore, the teachings of neo- growth (Burden-Leahy, 2009; Schuetze, Alajoutsijärvi and Kettunen, 2018). to the needs of corporations and the state liberalism and its related products were 2012), suggesting neoliberal educational Paradoxically, while MacIntyre’s (Etzkowitz et al., 1998). actively promoted in the media, the tool reforms for underachieving nations to im- (1985) classical doubt about the universality Shareholderism narrative focuses on used by individuals to obtain “perfect” infor- prove their performance (Spring, 2009). of business management skills remains un- the normalizing the idea that the purpose mation. For example, the “Chicago School” These organizations simultaneously pro- resolved, it seems to be a silenced issue in of business is to maximize shareholder val- of economics became popularized by the moted other key interests of neoliberalism business schools. Instead, business school ue. Such discourse was legitimized by the best-selling book Free to Choose by Milton such as support for giant multinational cor- teaching and research are explicitly cen- claim that shareholders are the most signif- and Rose Friedman, which also sparked a porations (Crouch, 2011), which promoted tered around promoting management goals icant risk bearers in a business and hence ten-part television series (Crouch, 2011) that the interests of shareholderism as well as (profits and bonuses) by maximizing share their interests should be prioritized. This facilitated the emergence of a collective managerialism. price with little questioning of the manage- powerful narrative has completely ignored identity amongst similar-minded people and Moreover, business schools, partic- ment’s right and expertise to lead, let alone the fact that other stakeholders have much global diffusion of those ideas. After Milton ularly American ones, had also their stake the potential negative consequences of higher risks at stake as their livelihood is Friedman’s scholarly work was awarded the and ways in promoting these ideologies. such assumed right to manage. dependent on the organization. Nobel Memorial Prize for Economic Science American business schools and their as- When viewing the shareholder dis- in 1976, Friedman also became symbolical- sumed superior management knowledge From political and rhetoric frames to course and its assumed rationality, one can ly a highly regarded and influential scholar had become a frame of reference for the normalizing narratives see it has rather peculiarly distorted views and a role model of an advanced business rest of the world ever since the World War (e.g., Stout, 2002, 2012). Firstly, shareholde- school thinker both within and outside of the II. Their teaching and research were ad- The main narrative of neoliberalism focus- rism assumes all shareholders to be similar US (Ebenstein, 2007). mired and copied for example in UK, Aus- es on means and ends of achieving effi- and only interested in the return on their in- Another reason for the spread of neo- tralia, Nordic countries and later in German cient markets. The ideas of neoliberalism vestments. Secondly, shareholderism has liberalism and its core ideas was aided by speaking countries (Djelic and Amdam, gained influence in most Western societies wrongfully established the idea that share-

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holders own the company and that they DISCUSSION: BUSINESS stream theories ignore moral and ethical hold direct decision-making power over SCHOOLS IN THE IDEOLOGICAL responsibilities or move them somewhere the organization. This distortion probably PRISON? else: the system, the shareholders, the began with Milton Friedman’s (1970) well- external forces, or even the human nature known essay and the misunderstanding of In this essay, we have argued that what ails itself. Reducing complex organizational shareholder preference and organization- business schools is an ideological, not intel- and social problems to mathematical prob- al power. In fact, shareholders of publicly lectual dead-end. We claim that the hidden lems has focused attention on maximizing listed companies do not own the company, but very much present ideologies of busi- shareholder value and de-emphasized but only a share of potential future profits ness schools are neoliberalism, sharehold- stakeholder balancing; bad theories pro- (Stout, 2002). In addition, their ability to erism, and managerialism. Despite of their duce bad consequences and bad people. use direct control and power in the compa- symbiotic life enabled in most business Ghoshal’s message to business schools: ny’s internal affairs is very limited. Thirdly, school organizations, these ideologies are teaching and research programs should shareholderism claims that it has the ability full of distortions and internal inconsisten- return to a multi-faceted concept of reality. to make business more effective. In reality, cies. Yet, they are being practiced and pro- Instead of being imprisoned by neo- implementing such ideology leads only to moted under the umbrella called business liberalism, shareholderism and manageri- effectiveness in achieving short-term exec- school without much questioning of their alism, a more sustainable agenda for re- utive bonus goals. Furthermore, its ability to principles, and in disciplinary silos as silent search and teaching of business schools secure shareholders’ interests in the long ideologies that do not easily collide with (and not just scholars in the critical man- run is questionable, as short-term profits one another (management scholars main- agement studies tradition) would focus on are made at the expense of company’s ly believe in managerialism, economists in revealing the inconsistencies within and long-term development. neoliberalism, and researchers of finance in between ideologies, as well as their weak- Managerialism narrative emphasiz- shareholderism). We argue that most con- nesses and unwanted consequences. In es the idea that leaders have the right to temporary legitimacy problems and issues the light of legitimacy problems in manage- lead and remove management barriers. It of business schools are due to the fact that ment education, business studies should assumes similarity of organizations and we have become prisoners of these ideolo- seek to renew its identity as an argumen- industries, whereby, for example, forest gies that are embedded in higher education tative social science and critical observer industry corporatizations, universities and policy, surround us in most research and and reporter of ‘big things’ of economy and kindergartens can be subject to the same teaching that we perform, and are main- business. Instead it has been placed on universal management practices. These tained by our organizational structures and a hidden agenda of purporting universal beliefs are also largely the rhetoric of busi- disciplinary hierarchies. truths and unquestionable theories, frames ness schools, despite of the fact that such Ghoshal’s (2005) well-known es- and narratives. The discussed three ideol- belief is both intellectually dysfunctional say on ideologically inspired theories has ogies and their many inconsistencies and and empirically wrong (Klikauer, 2013). Also, raised a lot of references, but its impact on generally paradoxical nature could them- it promotes viewing staff as a ‘resource’ that business schools has so far been limited. selves rather become the very focus and needs to be managed and focuses on cre- According to him, ideologically driven the- target of scientific inquiry. ating ways of management where the ‘man- ories are self-fulfilling prophecies that lead aged aspects’ can be counted and made to opportunistic and short-sighted actions part of staff’s performance indicators. of people. According to Ghoshal, the main-

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Mintzberg H (2004) Managers, Not MBAs: A Hard Look at the Soft Practice of Üsdiken B (2007) Commentary: Management education between logics and Managing and Management Development. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler locations. Scandinavian Journal of Management 23(1): 84–94. Publishers. Varoufakis Y, Halevi J and Theocarakis N (2011) Modern Political Economics: Naidoo R (2011) Rethinking development: Higher education and the new imperialism. Making Sense of the Post-2008 World. New York, NY: Routledge. In: King R, Marginson S and Naidoo R (eds) Handbook on Globalization and Higher Weick K, Sutcliffe K and Obstfeld D (2005)Organizing and the process of Education. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing, pp.40–58. sensemaking. Organizational Science 16(4): 409–421. Olssen M and Peters MA (2005) Neoliberalism, higher education and the knowledge economy: From the free market to knowledge capitalism. Journal of Education Policy 20(3): 313–345.

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2000-luvun alkupuolella Henrikki tuli TKK:n Tutalle markkinoinnin professoriksi muuta- "Muistan mien vuosien ajaksi, toimien tällöin samal- la TKK:n MBA-koulutusyhtiön johtajana ja Henrikin noista 16 koulutusohjelman dekaanina Tutalla. Yhteistyömme ja yhteydenpitomme varhaisista on jatkunut saumattomana tutustumises- tamme alkaen, sisältäen välillä intensii- yhteyksistämme Projekti­mark kinointia visempiä yhteistyörupeamia, ja välillä pi- dempiä hiljaisia kausia yhdessä tekemisen suhteen, jolloin olemme molemmat keskit- nuorena, tyneet omilla tahoillamme toimimiseen. Mi- ja projekti­ nulle on ollut ilo saada kehittää ja toteuttaa energisenä projektiliiketoiminnan ja projektimarkkinoin- nin opetusta Henrikin kanssa ja hänen tuel- ja palava­ laan, osallistua tämän tästä samoihin kan- liiketoimintaa sainvälisiin ja kotimaisiin konferensseihin ja sieluisena tohtoriopiskelija-seminaareihin, ja kirjoittaa yhdessä tieteellisiä papereita ja artikkeleita KARLOS ARTTO nuorena meitä yhteisesti kiinnostavista projektimark- kinoinnin ja projektiliiketoiminnan aiheista. Kuitenkaan yhteinen intressimme professorina..." projektimarkkinointiin ja projektiliiketoimin- taan ei pelkästään selitä yhteistyötämme ja yhteydenpitoamme, vaan on selvää, että AALTO‐YLIOPISTON markkinoinnin pro- listuimme tuolloin markkinoinnin tutoriaaliin Henrikin suhtautuminen ja asenne so. pa- fessori Henrikki Tikkanen täyttää 50 v ke- Lappeenrannassa, jonka tutoriaalin esityk- lavasieluisuus eteen tuleviin asioihin, sekä sällä 2020. Toivotan sydämelliset onnittelut sessään Henrikki oli omistautunut projekti- johdonmukainen ja tinkimätön mutta samal- Henrikille, samalla muistellen jo vuositu- markkinoinnin keskeisiin teemoihin, ja minä la joustava ja asioiden edistämistä ruokkiva hannen vaihteessa alkanutta erinomaisen puolestani pidin oman esitykseni projektilii- ote, on tehnyt Henrikin kanssa yhdessä te- hienoa yhteistyötämme tutkimuksen ja ketoiminnasta. Yhteinen intressimme pro- kemisestä ja asioiden yhdessä pohtimises- opetuksen saralla. Muistan Henrikin nois- jektimarkkinoinnin ja projektiliiketoiminnan ta kiinnostavaa, helppoa ja mukavaa. ta varhaisista yhteyksistämme nuorena, tutkimusilmiöihin varmaankin toimi alku- Henrikki, minulle on ollut suuri ilo pi- energisenä ja palavasieluisena nuorena sysäyksenä ensitapaamisesta asti pitkään tää yllä yhteistyötämme ja yhteyttä Sinuun professorina, joka oli omistautunut projek- jatkuneelle yhteistyölle ja yhteydenpidolle. kaikki nämä vuodet tähän asti, ja minulla on timarkkinoinnin alueen tutkimiseen ja opet- Ennen siirtymistään Helsingin Kauppa- myös suuri ilo onnitella Sinua syntymäpäi- tamiseen. Muistan muun muassa, että osal- korkeakoulun markkinoinnin professoriksi vänäsi: Paljon onnea Henrikki!

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"Tällaisia mies­ Mahdoton hahmojen malleja ei kuulemma enää mies valmisteta millään pajalla."

PEKKA MATTILA

MIES ON paradoksi. Hän sisäisten risti­ Mies toisaalta innostuu, jos yliopisto sessa rinteessä. Kympin säästö voi lopulta Glamouria mies ei tosin haekaan. Yl- riitojen ja ulkoisien saavutusten tuotos. Ulko­ hallinnollisena instituutiona kävelytetään toi- muodostua tonnin tappioksi. lätys ja väittely ovat enemmän hänen mie- puolisille hän on kerrassaan mahdoton se- sinaan jopa kuilun lähelle – ei koskaan aivan Vaikuttamistaidoissaan mies ei to- leensä. littää. partaalle vaan turvaköyden päästä siihen. tisesti ole kiero kardinaali Richelieu vaan Tällaisia mieshahmojen malleja ei Mies viihtyy aina parhaiten nuorten Mies ei nimittäin jaksa lainkaan yksi- pikemminkin luova mutta periaatteellisesti kuulemma enää valmisteta millään pajalla. tutkijoiden seurassa. Kiivaassa väittelytilan- tyiskohtaista budjetointia ja taloussuunnit- jäykkä Bismarck. Siksi niitä pitää onnitella ja arvostaa juuri nyt. teessa hän löytää silti nopeasti senioriteet- telua. Ja tosiaan. Kertomuksen mies ei Niitä pitää myös haastaa, kyseenalais- tinsa. Epävirallisten huhujen mukaan hän oli Hän myös hermostuu, jos tutkija- väittämänsä mukaan arvosta muodollista taa ja kiusoitella niin, että miekkailun taito ensimmäinen täysin tenuroitu sekä ehdotto- koulutettavan matkalaskusta on vähennetty koulutusta tai virallisia tutkintoja. Ihmiset säilyy ja siirtyy seuraaville. masti nuorin professori jo varhaisessa Bo- melkein neljäkymmentä euroa perusteetta oivaltavat ja keksivät paljon arjen äärellä, lognan yliopistossa Keski-Italiassa. hallinnon – eli talouden palvelukeskuksen – hän toistaa. Mies muuttuu pinkiksi ja lopulta kar- puolesta. Toisaalta mies itse puurtaa vuosia miininpunaiseksi, jos yliopistoa ja akate- Mies on aina valmis periaatteelliseen sotahistorian – tarkemmin laivastohistorian miaa ei yhteisönä kunnioiteta. Vastustaja ei sotaan kympeistä muiden puolesta. Tämä – äärellä ilman minkäänlaista järkevää ta- saa lainkaan armoa vaan ankaran saarnan. lienee tahtopoliitikon aito akateeminen pro- loudellista tuotto-odotusta. Britannian men- Saarna päättyy vain vastapuolen poistuessa fiili. Näissä taistoissa sekä Don Quijote että neillä amiraaleilla on rajattu glamour-vaiku- sateeseen. Rosinante usein kompastuvat yläsuuntai- tus ja vielä heikompi maksukyky.

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232 233 234 ISBN 978-952-94-VVVV3901-0 ISBN 978-952-94-3902-7

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