DOCSLIB.ORG

Cave Dwellings in the Mediterranean Basin

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Cave Dwellings in the Mediterranean Basin ISSN 0354-8724 (hard copy) | ISSN 1820-7138 (online) Cave dwellings in the Mediterranean Basin Urdiales Viedma María EugeniaA*, Maccarone AlessandraB Received: July 2011 | Revised: October 2011 | Accepted: November 2011 Abstract The construction and use of subterranean caves for different functions has been relatively commonplace through- out history in different regions around the world, especially in the Mediterranean basin. Some of them are still standing at the beginning of the 21st century, and are a good example of adaptation to the geographic environ- ment, and a part of the historical heritage. Following a short overview of the different Mediterranean countries, this work pays special attention to the pre- sent use of caves as dwelling spaces in Italy, and particularly in Spain where the caves are currently in an interest- ing process of renovation to meet the needs of the present population. This process is helping to boost the local economy, and it is funded by both private and public sources in several towns in Andalusia (Spain). Keywords: Cave dwelling, Mediterranean basin, popular house, cultural heritage, bioclimatic housing Introduction encouraging their practical utilization in order to The excavation of subterranean areas has been rel- foster the development of rural areas at the begin- atively common throughout Human History, hav- ning of the 21st century. ing developed a wide range of functions, chief In the present work we present a synthesis of a among them mining, water transportation, prod- number of previous studies on the cave dwellings, uct and tool storage, and as places of worship, cem- alongside a new study carried out by the authors eteries, and more frequently as human dwellings, about the present and prospective status of these making the excavated home a typical popular con- homes. struction and a relevant element within the ru- ral landscape which reflects the cultural heritage of its dwellers. Multiple variables converge into its The Cave Dwelling as Popular Housing genesis and maintenance, among which environ- Throughout history, populations have continuous- ment, lifestyle and economical activity are of par- ly adapted to their environments, developing their ticular importance. own “façon de vivre” (Derruau, 1983). From a vari- The extent of these dwellings has been nota- ety of options offered by the environment, individ- ble across several geographic areas. The Mediter- uals have made choices to satisfy their own needs. ranean basin is one of these privileged regions; its The specificities of each territory, the established coastal countries still retain some of these original priorities, and the different technological levels of constructions, which contrast with the homoge- each society also imply different results in each ge- neity of conventional housing construction which ographic area. The amplitude of the concept (façon is the product of standardized building methods de vivre) ranges from the structure of economic ac- in our current civilization. The positive valuation tivity to the establishment of specific cultural pat- of these constructions produced rescue efforts to terns, along with the methods of house construc- salvage these dwellings as cultural heritage, while tion and the setting of population centers. A Department of Human Geography, Faculty of Letters and Philosophy; University of Granada, Spain B S.A.V.A. Department, Faculty of Engineering, University of Molise, Campobasso Italy * Corresponding author: Urdiales Viedma María Eugenia, e-mail: [email protected]; co-author: Maccarone Alessandra, e-mail: [email protected] Geographica Pannonica • Volume 15, Issue 4, 119-126 (December 2011) 119 Cave dwellings in the Mediterranean Basin The current process of universality in house con- being an essential complement for the develop- struction typologies began with the Industrial Rev- ment of economic activity, mainly agrarian. The olution, although this phenomenon experienced a peculiar natural environment, the kind of peo- more significant development during the 20th cen- pling (disperse or concentrated), the complexi- tury, especially in its second half when urbaniza- ty of agrarian landscapes, and the different types tion was intensified. In contrast with this tendency of property and exploitation, lead to a remarkable (mostly urban), the popular house continues to ex- diversity in popular housing. ist especially in rural environments, where it con- With the passing of time, its traditional eco- tinues to have a substantial presence while it helps nomic function has declined (as has agrarian ac- to characterize the rural landscape. tivity), thus popular housing is increasingly being Within this general frame work, the cave dwell- identified with its residential function and can ing has developed a rather significant role in that it be readapted as well to the current socioeconom- reflects the conditions of the natural environment, ic conjuncture of the rural environment, mainly and at the same time it has been configured as an through the development of other economic ac- example of a construction that adapts to the needs tivities, usually related to the hostelry industry. and priorities of the population that inhabit these dwellings. As with other kinds of popular houses, caves have a set of specific characteristics that per- Adaptation to the Geographic Environment mit an individualized analysis. First of all, it must When excavating the caves, the population has be born in mind that it is a construction that has applied simple and intelligent techniques to take not been conceived nor designed by architecture advantage of favorable conditions that the envi- professionals, but rather it is the result of intuitive ronment offered. Amongst these, geomorphic and knowledge, forged over time by the populations of climatic peculiarities of the territory are to be different cultures. As a consequence, its execution highlighted (Urdiales, 1987). has been frequently carried out by its own dwellers, In fact, the selection of adequate materials is a with the help of family or neighbors. key issue. The preferred terrains are composed of volcanic or sedimentary materials that are easy to excavate and have the capacity of becoming harder Part of the Cultural Heritage as time goes by. Sandstone, clay, marlstone or ter- The popular house represents the values and tradi- tiary conglomerates with solid foundations fulfill tions of the community in which it has developed, the basic conditions required for a cave dwelling, and which are also part of the whole process in both not only for the ease of the excavation process but conception and development. These are construc- also for the subsequent safety of the interior. tions built in accordance with the uses and the needs Complementarily, certain climatic conditions of their dwellers. That implies that the house need are required, among which low precipitations and not be conceived in a definitive manner, but that it continental climate features deserve to be high- progressively adapts to new requirements of the fa- lighted. In those conditions, caves perform ad- miliar and economic entity it serves. This subordi- equately thanks to the isotherm they generate nation is shown in the adaptation of the construc- (around 14/19ºC), which creates a microclimate tion to changes in the size of the family, economical in contrast with the more extreme values typi- specialization, or any other change that takes place cal of continental climates. However, climatical- in the familiar system of production. ly speaking, there are some disadvantages. A ma- Originality is another of its differentiating fea- jor one among these is the “torrential” nature of tures, which implies significant constructive dif- rains common in this type of climate, and its ca- ferences between some places and others, far from pacity to erode these materials which are funda- the morphologic homogeneity that conventional mentally soft and frequently lack vegetation. This houses have in the current framework of globali- significant disadvantage is counteracted with ma- zation due to the expansion of the western way of sonry works that can always be found in current life. Its specific features and valuation as part of excavated housing. the cultural heritage have caused popular hous- Another disadvantage is related to the slow, yet es to be deemed an interesting territorial resource continuous, erosion of the materials caused by in the process of economic diversification and fos- sharp temperature changes, and the penetration tering the rural environment. of water into small fractures in the rock, causing its volume to increase when water solidifies into ice. The greater or lesser effect of this variable is Functional Diversity closely dependent upon the temporal extension Traditionally, rural housing has had the double of sub-zero temperatures, which frequently last function of providing shelter to its dwellers, and longer than six months in continental climates. 120 Geographica Pannonica • Volume 15, Issue 4, 119-126 (December 2011) Urdiales Viedma María Eugenia, Maccarone Alessandra In addition to the aforementioned geological With the passing of the time, the number of variables, we should point out the poverty which constructions has significantly declined, at the to a greater or lesser extent has affected the pop- same time that its original structure has been ulation segments in several geographic environ- modified for the purpose of adapting it to the new
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Mediterranean: One Sea, Many Names
    The 14th International Seminar on Sea Names Geography, Sea Names, and Undersea Feature Names The Mediterranean: One sea, many names Pokoly Bela (Senior Adviser, Committee on Geographical Names, Ministry of Agriculture and Regional Development, Hungary) 1.An Important Sea 1.1. The Mediterranean Sea, covering an area of 2,5 million sq. kms, holds its importance in its geographical position. Wedged between Europe, Asia and Africa, it is lined by no less than 21 independent states. Of all countries of the world at least one in ten has a coastline along its shores. Fig. 1. The Countries around the Mediterranean Sea 1.2. Indeed the sea has, over the centuries, lost some of its overwhelming position. With the expanding contacts to the Far East and with the exploration of the „new” continents, it was realized that it is no longer the centre of earth. 1.3 With the opening of the Suez Canal, with the discoveries of vastly important oil and gas deposits in the Middle East, and with expanding international contacts and tourism it has witnessed a comeback in the past two centuries. 2. It is not possible to highlight all aspects of this sea however, so I need to look some aspects of its naming. 2.1. As with all seas, local people of ancient times, unaware of other seas called it The 324 The 14th International Seminar on Sea Names Geography, Sea Names, and Undersea Feature Names Sea. Similarly with other seas, it was also called Great Sea by local peoples living along its shores. 2.2.
    [Show full text]
  • The Corvus, the Roman Boarding Device
    Wright State University CORE Scholar Classics Ancient Science Fair Religion, Philosophy, and Classics Spring 2020 The Corvus, the Roman Boarding Device Jacob Stickel Wright State University - Main Campus, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://corescholar.libraries.wright.edu/ancient_science_fair Part of the Ancient History, Greek and Roman through Late Antiquity Commons, History of Science, Technology, and Medicine Commons, and the Military History Commons Repository Citation Stickel , J. (2020). The Corvus, the Roman Boarding Device. Dayton, Ohio. This Presentation is brought to you for free and open access by the Religion, Philosophy, and Classics at CORE Scholar. It has been accepted for inclusion in Classics Ancient Science Fair by an authorized administrator of CORE Scholar. For more information, please contact [email protected]. A philological examination of Eratosthenes’ calculation of Earth’s circumference Kelly Staver1 1 Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio, U.S.A. Introduction Errors in Eratosthenes ’ Assumptions Historical Inconsistencies of Eratosthenes’ Final Result • A Greek mathematician named Eratosthenes calculated an accurate measurement Two of Eratosthene’s five assumtpions are either mistaken or questionable at • Cleomedes and John Philophus state Eratosthenes’ result was 250,000, whereas of the Earth’s circumference, that being 250,000 stades or close to Earth’s actual best: many others such as Vitruvius, Martianus Capella, Strabo, and many others state circumference of 40,120 km,¹ in Hellenistic Alexandria, Egypt circa 240 B.C.E.² • Assumption (1) is incorrect. The longitudinal difference between it was 252,000 stades.¹⁴ • To do this, Eratosthenes’ utilized the distance between Alexandria and Syene and Syene and Alexandria is about 3 degrees.⁶ • Benefits of 252,000 stades: gnomon measurements taken in Syene and Alexandria at noon on the summer • Assumption (2) is questionable since we do not know how long a • Yields a clean 700 stades per circular degree.¹⁵ solstice.³ stadion is.
    [Show full text]
  • The History of Cartography, Volume 3
    THE HISTORY OF CARTOGRAPHY VOLUME THREE Volume Three Editorial Advisors Denis E. Cosgrove Richard Helgerson Catherine Delano-Smith Christian Jacob Felipe Fernández-Armesto Richard L. Kagan Paula Findlen Martin Kemp Patrick Gautier Dalché Chandra Mukerji Anthony Grafton Günter Schilder Stephen Greenblatt Sarah Tyacke Glyndwr Williams The History of Cartography J. B. Harley and David Woodward, Founding Editors 1 Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean 2.1 Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and South Asian Societies 2.2 Cartography in the Traditional East and Southeast Asian Societies 2.3 Cartography in the Traditional African, American, Arctic, Australian, and Pacific Societies 3 Cartography in the European Renaissance 4 Cartography in the European Enlightenment 5 Cartography in the Nineteenth Century 6 Cartography in the Twentieth Century THE HISTORY OF CARTOGRAPHY VOLUME THREE Cartography in the European Renaissance PART 1 Edited by DAVID WOODWARD THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS • CHICAGO & LONDON David Woodward was the Arthur H. Robinson Professor Emeritus of Geography at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 60637 The University of Chicago Press, Ltd., London © 2007 by the University of Chicago All rights reserved. Published 2007 Printed in the United States of America 1615141312111009080712345 Set ISBN-10: 0-226-90732-5 (cloth) ISBN-13: 978-0-226-90732-1 (cloth) Part 1 ISBN-10: 0-226-90733-3 (cloth) ISBN-13: 978-0-226-90733-8 (cloth) Part 2 ISBN-10: 0-226-90734-1 (cloth) ISBN-13: 978-0-226-90734-5 (cloth) Editorial work on The History of Cartography is supported in part by grants from the Division of Preservation and Access of the National Endowment for the Humanities and the Geography and Regional Science Program and Science and Society Program of the National Science Foundation, independent federal agencies.
    [Show full text]
  • Alexander and the 'Defeat' of the Sogdianian Revolt
    Alexander the Great and the “Defeat” of the Sogdianian Revolt* Salvatore Vacante “A victory is twice itself when the achiever brings home full numbers” (W. Shakespeare, Much Ado About Nothing, Act I, Scene I) (i) At the beginning of 329,1 the flight of the satrap Bessus towards the northeastern borders of the former Persian Empire gave Alexander the Great the timely opportunity for the invasion of Sogdiana.2 This ancient region was located between the Oxus (present Amu-Darya) and Iaxartes (Syr-Darya) Rivers, where we now find the modern Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, bordering on the South with ancient Bactria (present Afghanistan). According to literary sources, the Macedonians rapidly occupied this large area with its “capital” Maracanda3 and also built, along the Iaxartes, the famous Alexandria Eschate, “the Farthermost.”4 However, during the same year, the Sogdianian nobles Spitamenes and Catanes5 were able to create a coalition of Sogdianians, Bactrians and Scythians, who created serious problems for Macedonian power in the region, forcing Alexander to return for the winter of 329/8 to the largest city of Bactria, Zariaspa-Bactra.6 The chiefs of the revolt were those who had *An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Conflict Archaeology Postgraduate Conference organized by the Centre for Battlefield Archaeology of the University of Glasgow on October 7th – 9th 2011. 1 Except where differently indicated, all the dates are BCE. 2 Arr. 3.28.10-29.6. 3 Arr. 3.30.6; Curt. 7.6.10: modern Samarkand. According to Curtius, the city was surrounded by long walls (70 stades, i.e.
    [Show full text]
  • As Fast As a Hare: Colonization of the Heterobranch Aplysia Dactylomela (Mollusca: Gastropoda: Anaspidea) Into the Western Mediterranean Sea
    Cah. Biol. Mar. (2017) 58 : 341-345 DOI: 10.21411/CBM.A.97547B71 As fast as a hare: colonization of the heterobranch Aplysia dactylomela (Mollusca: Gastropoda: Anaspidea) into the western Mediterranean Sea Juan MOLES1,2, Guillem MAS2, Irene FIGUEROA2, Robert FERNÁNDEZ-VILERT2, Xavier SALVADOR2 and Joan GIMÉNEZ2,3 (1) Department of Evolutionary Biology, Ecology, and Environmental Sciences and Biodiversity Research Institute (IrBIO), University of Barcelona, Av. Diagonal 645, 08028 Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain E-mail: [email protected] (2) Catalan Opisthobranch Research Group (GROC), Mas Castellar, 17773 Pontós, Catalonia, Spain (3) Department of Conservation Biology, Estación Biológica de Doñana (EBD-CSIC), Americo Vespucio 26 Isla Cartuja, 42092 Seville, Andalucía, Spain Abstract: The marine cryptogenic species Aplysia dactylomela was recorded in the Mediterranean Sea in 2002 for the first time. Since then, this species has rapidly colonized the eastern Mediterranean, successfully establishing stable populations in the area. Aplysia dactylomela is a heterobranch mollusc found in the Atlantic Ocean, and commonly known as the spotted sea hare. This species is a voracious herbivorous with generalist feeding habits, possessing efficient chemical defence strategies. These facts probably promoted the acclimatation of this species in the Mediterranean ecosystems. Here, we report three new records of this species in the Balearic Islands and Catalan coast (NE Spain). This data was available due to the use of citizen science platforms such as GROC (Catalan Opisthobranch Research Group). These are the first records of this species in Spain and the third in the western Mediterranean Sea, thus reinforcing the efficient, fast, and progressive colonization ability of this sea hare.
    [Show full text]
  • 9 · the Growth of an Empirical Cartography in Hellenistic Greece
    9 · The Growth of an Empirical Cartography in Hellenistic Greece PREPARED BY THE EDITORS FROM MATERIALS SUPPLIED BY GERMAINE AUJAe There is no complete break between the development of That such a change should occur is due both to po­ cartography in classical and in Hellenistic Greece. In litical and military factors and to cultural developments contrast to many periods in the ancient and medieval within Greek society as a whole. With respect to the world, we are able to reconstruct throughout the Greek latter, we can see how Greek cartography started to be period-and indeed into the Roman-a continuum in influenced by a new infrastructure for learning that had cartographic thought and practice. Certainly the a profound effect on the growth of formalized know­ achievements of the third century B.C. in Alexandria had ledge in general. Of particular importance for the history been prepared for and made possible by the scientific of the map was the growth of Alexandria as a major progress of the fourth century. Eudoxus, as we have seen, center of learning, far surpassing in this respect the had already formulated the geocentric hypothesis in Macedonian court at Pella. It was at Alexandria that mathematical models; and he had also translated his Euclid's famous school of geometry flourished in the concepts into celestial globes that may be regarded as reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285-246 B.C.). And it anticipating the sphairopoiia. 1 By the beginning of the was at Alexandria that this Ptolemy, son of Ptolemy I Hellenistic period there had been developed not only the Soter, a companion of Alexander, had founded the li­ various celestial globes, but also systems of concentric brary, soon to become famous throughout the Mediter­ spheres, together with maps of the inhabited world that ranean world.
    [Show full text]
  • Northwestern Iberian Tin Mining from Bronze Age
    Northwestern Iberian Tin Mining from Bronze Age to Modern Times: an overview Beatriz Comendador Rey, Emmanuelle Meunier, Elin Figueiredo, Aaron Lackinger, João Fonte, Cristina Fernández Fernández, Alexandre Lima, José Mirão, Rui J.C. Silva To cite this version: Beatriz Comendador Rey, Emmanuelle Meunier, Elin Figueiredo, Aaron Lackinger, João Fonte, et al.. Northwestern Iberian Tin Mining from Bronze Age to Modern Times: an overview. A Celebration of the Tinworking Landscape of Dartmoor in its European context: Prehistory to 20th century, Dartmoor Tinworking Research Group, May 2016, Tavistock, United Kingdom. pp.133-153. hal-02024038 HAL Id: hal-02024038 https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02024038 Submitted on 21 Mar 2019 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. Northwestern Iberian Tin Mining from Bronze Age to Modern Times: an overview Beatriz Comendador Rey1*, Emmanuelle Meunier2, Elin Figueiredo3, Aaron Lackinger1, João Fonte4, 1 5 6 3 Cristina Fernández Fernández , Alexandre Lima , José Mirão , Rui J.C. Silva 1. Grupo de Estudos de Arqueoloxía, Antigüidade e Territorio (GEAAT), Universidade de Vigo, Spain 2. Laboratoire TRACES (CNRS), University of Toulouse Jean Jaurès, France 3. Centro de Investigação em Materiais (CENIMAT/I3N), Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Portugal 4.
    [Show full text]
  • The Catalyst for Warfare: Dacia's Threat to the Roman Empire
    The Catalyst for Warfare: Dacia’s Threat to the Roman Empire ______________________________________ ALEXANDRU MARTALOGU The Roman Republic and Empire survived for centuries despite imminent threats from the various peoples at the frontiers of their territory. Warfare, plundering, settlements and other diplomatic agreements were common throughout the Roman world. Contemporary scholars have given in-depth analyses of some wars and conflicts. Many, however, remain poorly analyzed given the scarce selection of period documents and subsequent inquiry. The Dacian conflicts are one such example. These emerged under the rule of Domitian1 and were ended by Trajan2. Several issues require clarification prior to discussing this topic. The few sources available on Domitian’s reign describe the emperor in hostile terms.3 They depict him as a negative figure. By contrast, the rule of Trajan, during which the Roman Empire reached its peak, is one of the least documented reigns of a major emperor. The primary sources necessary to analyze the Dacian wars include Cassius Dio’s Roman History, Jordanes’ Getica and a few other brief mentions by several ancient authors, including Pliny the Younger and Eutropius. Pliny is the only author contemporary to the wars. The others inherited an already existing opinion about the battles and emperors. It is no surprise that scholars continue to disagree on various issues concerning the Dacian conflicts, including the causes behind Domitian’s and Trajan’s individual decisions to attack Dacia. This study will explore various possible causes behind the Dacian Wars. A variety of reasons lead some to believe that the Romans felt threatened by the Dacians.
    [Show full text]
  • Maps in Renaissance Libraries and Collections George Tolias
    25 • Maps in Renaissance Libraries and Collections George Tolias The aim of this chapter is to highlight some apparently “he compiles it [the description] into a well-ordered and peripheral yet widespread scholarly uses of maps during proportionally measured map lest it be lost.” 2 the Renaissance—uses associated with map collecting, The allegory broadly agrees with Strabo’s view of display, and study. The chapter examines the role of maps mapmaking as a process of mnemonic reconstruction.3 as visual memory aids in the light of the available evi- However, the fact that Cusanus used the map as a metaphor dence; it then traces the presence and arrangement of to help his readers understand both the process of recon- maps in Renaissance libraries and collections; and finally, it examines the symbolic functions and learned uses of maps within early modern humanistic culture. The research for this chapter was made possible by the Arthur and Janet Holzheimer Fellowship, 2001–2, awarded by the Institute for Re- search in the Humanities of the University of Wisconsin, Madison, and Maps as Memory Aids thanks are due to the fellows of the institute for their helpful comments in the early stages of the work. I was particularly fortunate in being able Although the Renaissance has been described as “the age to use the resources of the History of Cartography Project, and warm of manuals,” a period “inexhaustible in its search for nor- thanks are due to the members of the Project for their constant and valu- able assistance. Naturally, my warmest thanks of all would have gone mative principles of general and perennial value, which to David Woodward for his encouragement and generous advice.
    [Show full text]
  • Link to PDF File
    THE ORIGIN OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT AND THE MACEDONIANS DOCUMENTATION ACCORDING TO ANCIENT GREEK LITERARY TEXTS Herodotus, Thucydides, Plutarchus, Arrian, Demosthenes, Polybius, Isocrates, Strabo, Hesiod INTRODUCTION This survey is written to prove historical facts that are actually indisputable and beyond the shadow of any doubt. However, since today there is on-going discourse on the self- evident, it might be useful that we should remain and explore these issues for a while. One of my recent studies on the origin of Alexander and the Macedonians, based on the works of great authors of ancient Greece has led to the documentation of the –more or less known- arguments on the issue. And since the semiotic value of the word is a far more serious issue that one could assume, and even more significantly when it concerns an historic and highly controversial word as Macedonia, it is essential to take a close look on what is recorded by the historians of antiquity1. Ι. THUCYDIDES (464 – 395 BC) Starting from the beginnings of the references on the term Hellenes/Greeks we see that Thucydides, one of the greatest historians and political philosophers of all times reports that before the Trojan War, there is no mention of the term Hellenes and that the first time we meet the term is in Homer as a definition of those from Fthiotis under Achilles who participated in the expedition against Troy – “the first Hellenes”2. In Homer, Thucydides continues, the Hellenes are referred to in the same sense as the Achaeans, Argaei (from Argos), Danaäns. It should be pointed out that the term “barbarians” is not met in the Homeric epics since the term “Hellenes” had not yet been singled out (and later established) “as the exact opposite definition” to distinguish Hellenes from ‘barbarians’3, as the great historian concludes.
    [Show full text]
  • Indigenous Mapmaking in Intertropical Africa
    3 · Indigenous Mapmaking in Intertropical Africa THOMAS J. BASSETT Although [they are] also known for their mapmaking A third factor behind the meager historiography is that skills, the cartography of the peoples of Africa is less restricted definitions of "map" have excluded a range well known than that of the Indians [of North and of processes and artifacts from serious study. Even if South America].1 This chapter could not have been written without the contributions of many individuals who provided references, illustrations, and critical Our knowledge of African mapmaking has substantially comments at various stages of its preparation. In particular I thank improved since Bruno Adler's seminal survey of non­ Daniel Ayana, Edmond Bernus, Donald Crummey, Jim Delehanty, Western cartographic traditions in 1910. This is particu­ Henry Drewal, Kimbwandaende Kia Bunseki Fu-Kiau, Christraud larly true for North African mapmaking, which emerged Geary, Christian Jacob, Manfred Kropp, Jamie McGowan, Philip out of ancient Egyptian civilizations and Islamic cultures.2 Porter, Labelle Prussin, Allen Roberts, Mary (Polly) Nooter Roberts, Charles Stewart, Jeffrey C. Stone, Taddesse Tamrat, Claude Tardits, and However, our understanding of sub-Saharan mapmaking Jan Vansina. remains comparatively weak (see fig. 3.1 for a reference 1. Bruno F. Adler, "Karty pervobytnykh narodov" (Maps of primi­ map of Africa). The historiography is particularly scanty. tive peoples), Izvestiya Imperatorskago Obshchestva Lyubiteley Yeste­ When maps of Africa do receive attention, the focus is al­ stvoznanya, Antropologii i Etnografii: Trudy Geograficheskago Otde­ most exclusively on European maps of the continent.3 The liniya (Proceedings of the Imperial Society of the Devotees of National Sciences, Anthropology, and Ethnology: Transactions of the Division of dearth of studies of indigenous African mapmaking may Geography) 119, no.
    [Show full text]
  • "The Failure of Alexander's Conquests and the Administration of Bactria
    64 Hirundo The Failure of Alexander’s Conquest and Administration of Bactria-Sogdiana By Michèle Smith Both during his lifetime and following his death, Alexander III of Macedon became a legend for his conquest of the Persian Empire until “the limits of the known oecumene.”1 Despite this fame, several of Alexander the Great’s conquests were not as successful as popular memory suggests. The ancient evidence clearly states the difficulties during Al- exander’s campaigning in the upper satrapies of Bactria-Sogdiana in 329-327 B.C., which took approximately eighteen months to suppress.2 Some scholars have dismissed this as a difficult campaign in which Alexander ultimately succeeded. However, an in-depth study of the ancient evidence not only reveals the failures in the method of conquest which Alexander used in these satrapies, but also his inability to control the satrapy once he had re-crossed the Hindu Kush to conquer India.3 Thus, the events at Bactria-Sogdiana as recorded by the available ancient evidence demonstrate that Alexander only succeeded in “extricat[ing] himself from a problem largely of his own making” in these satrapies, as well as his greater failure in administering the empire.4 A study of the vulgate tradition reveals that his inflexible assertion of control on local practices caused revolt, which was impossible to completely suppress during his lifetime due to locals’ use of guerrilla tactics and unrelenting determination. This example illustrates the fact that Alexander was famous for his conquests, not the management of his empire. Alexander’s speech after the revolt at Hyphasis clearly indicates his preference to conquer new lands rather than to return to his doriktetos chora, “which are not held securely.”5 This proved to be one of his largest failures, as his empire was already unravelling even before his premature death in 323 B.C.
    [Show full text]