THE

GEOaRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR

BY

FRANK M. McMURRY, Ph.D.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1918

All rights reserved Walter ainton Jackson Library The University of North Carolina at Greensboro Special Collections <& Rare Books

World War I Pamphlet Collection Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2010 with funding from Lyrasis IVIembers and Sloan Foundation

http://www.archive.org/details/geographyofgreatOOinmcmu CA^ THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR

By Frank M. McMurky

Fig. 2.

1. German Empire in 1914 Empire, just as there are many in our own country, and they vary in size and im- (Before the War) portance even much more than states of the In order to understand the geography of do ours. In Fig. 2 one can German* Empire the war, it is necessary to make some study easily see which is largest. of Germany. How does Prussia compare with all the other There are many states in the German states together in area and population? Copyright, 191S, by The Macmillan Ccmpant/ 1 THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR

Which is second in area and population? to find suitable places for the emigration of Which is third in each ? Trace the boundary Germans from the Fatherland. Although of Prussia. Locate Bavaria and Saxony. the density of population of Germany itself Note that three of the states are only cities. (Fig. 534, main text) is not so great as Name and locate each of these (see p. 39). that of some other countries, it has greatly Our largest state is Texas,- which is more increased in recent years and some outlet than two hundred times as large as Rhode has seemed necessary. Island, our smallest. Our largest state in The fact is, however, that very few Ger- population is New York, which contains mans have emigrated to these colonies. more than one hundi-ed times as many One reason for this is that the torrid climate people as Nevada, our smallest state in there makes life almost impossible for white population. Yet wt have no state that is people ; at any rate, in such regions the nearly equal'^to all the others either in area white man soon loses energy and health. or population ; in fact, each is a very small The kind of government that a country part of the whole. has may be of vital importance to other is of From the map it is*plain why people so countries, and that true the -pj^g objection often name Prussia when speaking of Ger- German government. Its form to their kind of government many. Perhaps the map suggests to you, is a monarchy and the chief too, that it is dangerous for a nation to officer is the Kaiser, William II. He ap- have one state so much larger than all the points the leading mmister, called the Chan- others together. In the United States there is cellor, and the latter appoints the other no such danger. But if Prussia's importance members of the cabinet, such, for example, and power correspond to its size, it can con- as Minister of Interior and Minister of trol the other twenty-four states and have Education. The difiiculty is that these its own way. If it happened to be governed ministers who form the German cabinet and by selfish men, all the other states would very largely control the state are respon- Kaiser, to the people. have to suffer ; and even if it were well gov- sible to the and not erned, the other states would have too little Also, the Kaiser is not elected by popular of self-government. It is generally believed vote,, as our President is, but has in- that these dangers have not been avoided; herited his office and claims that he holds indeed, that Prussia's bad leadership has it by divine right, or by appointment from been the principal cause of the great war. God alone. Neither is he responsible to the Germany has only a small number of people. colonies, as is seen in Fig. 1. Notice their Thus the people have little authority in areas. There are three that the government. It is their duty to be Germany's ^^^ ^^^^ much larger than directed, — to obey, rather than to lead. is no effective check on the Kaiser colonies Germany, and their popula- There together reach well into or on the leading statesmen subject to him, 1. Location, tions area, and the millions (see p. 39). All of if they happen to be narrow in their plans popu a ion them are in the torrid zone or or too ambitious ; these leaders can even de-

very close to it. Locate each of those in clare war without the consent of the people. Africa. Note the latitude of New Guinea. To this power our objection is very serious. Germany has been greatly interested in We do not believe that a few men should power. is so fearful an 2. Their her colonies and has spent have such War importance large sums of money for their undertaking, the welfare of the mass of the development. Her apparent aim has been people is so mvolved in it, that they ought THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR

to have a voice in deciding such an issue ; at to make Prussia powerful without much re- least, only those who represent them and are gard to the rights of other people. One of fully responsible to them should have that power. Otherwise a small group might at any time make end- less trouble both for themselves and for other nations. That is what the small group in Germany has done, in starting this war, and the

United States is determined to © Underwood and Underipood aid in making Fig. 3. — German submarine of the largest type stopping the Spanish mail steamer off Cadiz. such a step im- possible again. This is one of our great his early acts was to attack the little country aims in the present war. of Denmark and take from it the south- section called ern Schleswig- Annexation of Holstein, about one third of Schleswig- 2. Examples of Prussian Leadership the whole country. This region Holstein We commonly think of the United States was annexed to Prussia and has remained as a young nation, and of the governments a part of it ever since (Fig. 2).

o^ Europe as very old, but In area Schleswig-Holstein is The youth of nearly equal the German the fact is that Germany is the to Massachusetts, and it has been important Empire youngest of the great nations. as a farming region. We are nearly a century older than Ger- The Kaiser Wilhelm Canai and the naval many, for that Empire was founded in 1871. port, Kiel, have >nade ii especially noted There were, of course, German people living in recent years (Fig. 4). The canal was in that region long before, but until that dug in order tc secure a short and safe date they were not brought together to route for vessels from the North Sea to the form the German Empire. Baltic. Kiel is a port at the eastern end The leadership in German affairs, both of the canal, with a harbor so remarkably before 1871 and since, has rested with Prussia. good that it has become the chief naval Several acts show the spirit that has pre- station of Germany. German war vessels vailed in Prussia and, therefore, in the Ger- can reach the North Sea very quickly man Empire during the last sixty years. from this haven, and they can escape- About 1860 a very strong and unscrupu- just as quickly by this route when there lous man named Otto von Bismarck became is need. the chief minister in Prussia. His aim was Very soon after 1870 Germany found a THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR chance to quarrel with France and improved from this territory as from all the rest of the opportunity. France was invaded and Prussia; and had they not had these rich ^^ris captured within a few iron mines in their possession this great Annexation of Alsace- months. The terms of peace war would have ceased long ago. Lorraine ^j^j^^ were finally' agreed upon The other reason was, perhaps, just as required France to pay to the Germans an important in their minds. Alsace-Lorraine indemnity of one billion dollars and also had been the principal source of iron in France, and if France were de-

prived of it, the Germans thought she could hardly carry on a successful war in the future. She might, then, be re- duced to a second-class power and Germany would be able to overcome her at will.

Ambitions of Germany since 1871

The Prussians and some of the small German states that

had joined them Reasons for had much reason encourage- ^^^^ to feel encouraged by their successes. As a re- sult of the war with Denmark they had acquired extensive of their Fig. 4. territory; as a result struggle with France they had to cede to them the region called Alsace- obtained still more valuable territory and a Lorraine (Fig. 2). billion dollars besides. There was another

This is a region about as large as Con- great benefit. This Franco-Prussian war, as necticut and, like Schleswig-Holstein, valuable it M^as called, had brought the many small

for its farm products, especially grapes, and political divisions of the Germans together their for its textile industries. But there were two and made it possible to found, by

other reasons why Prussia coveted it. union, a new nation called the German place, as It is a land that is remarkably rich in iron Empire. That great event took ore and coal, and while Germany had ores stated before, in 1871. in other sections, none of those sections was Thus the Germans started out as a new so rich in these two minerals. The Ger- nation feeling highly pleased with them- mans foresaw that their need of iron would selves. They had been invincible in fighting be likely to increase in the future, owing and had also become rich. A billion dollars both to increased manufacturing and also in those days seemed a fabulous amount and rolling to*possible war. War calls for an enormous made the Germans feel that they were for amount of iron and steel. In 1911 they in wealth. Another fact gave reason obtained over three times as much iron ore great pride. Neither of these wars had .

THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR

lasted more than a few months and they It had long been expected that at the death were therefore not very costly. That fact of the Emperor Francis Joseph, which oc- must have awakened a very important ques- curred only in 1916, the empire would neces-

tion in the minds of the people : If wars can sarily fall apart, according to the many

prove so profitable and yet can be made to nationalities that composed it. cost so little, may they not be very desirable In such circumstances the leadership for a nation ? May not war be a very good would naturally fall to Germany, for she thing ? was by far the strongest power.

After the founding of the empire Bismarck Such leadership by Germany, since it remained Chancellor for many years. He would allow her to dominate this group of The Middle- was ambitious to develop its states, both in military and economic mat- Europe plan power to the fullest extent, in- ters, would immensely increase her power deed to make it supreme in Europe just as both in war and in peace. he had made Prussia supreme in Germany. There was another project which was To this end not only schools were developed closely related to this one and was really a and mines and factories, but great schemes continuation of it. This became known as for 'political power as well. One of the the " Berlin-to-Bagdad Plan," and as time " latter was called the Mittel-Europa " or passed the two were developed together. " " in English the Middle-Europe plan. According to this scheme the ^liddle- This was a scheme for the combination Europe project was to be extended so as under one leadership of as many of the to include southwestern Asia. The Berlin-to-

1 What the countries in central Europe as Asia Minor just south of the Bagdad plan plan was possible. to support is They were Black Sea held by Turkey, i. what the one another in commerce and also in de- and to the south and south- project was fense against enemies in war. The govern- east of that region are a number of weak ments were to be independent as before, IMohammedan states somewhat under the but the several nations were to act together control of Turkey. Thi-ough a close alliance in military and economic matters. with Turkey, Germany secured valuable On Fig. 416, main text, you can see what rights in this entire area, including the right nations might have been expected to join such to plant colonies, develop trade, and build league. The two most promi- 2. Who the ^ railways. An especially important feature leader was nent would naturally be Ger- in the plan was the building of a railroad many and Austria-Hungary. all the way from Constantinople to Bagdad, Several, if not all, of the Balkan States more than a thousand miles distant, on the would be included, and Turkey, for she Tigris River. This river flows through the still had some territory in Europe. It famous country of Mesopotamia and to the was hoped, too, that Norway and Sweden, Persian Gulf. This road would, of course, Denmark, Holland, and Italy might be in- be connected with the road from Berlin to duced to join. Constantinople, so that Berlin, and even Of the two most prominent nations Austria- Hambiu-g, would be directly connected by Hungary could not, of course, be the leader. rail with Bagdad; hence the name, the Her area was somewhat greater than that " Berlin-to-Bagdad Plan." The right for its of Germany and her population not very construction was obtained from Turkey by much less. Her population was very mixed, Germany in 1902-1903. Figure 5 shows how however, with many opposing interests, and nearly completed this railroad was in Jan- their union under one ruler was very loose. uary, 1918. Estimate the nmnber of miles 6 THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR that remain to be built. Note the countries tains valuable mineral deposits, also. It through which it passes. promised, therefore, to be a good substitute The Turkish Government has always been for some of the colonies that Germany regarded as exceedingly untrustworthy and thought she needed so badly. cruel ; and it has allowed or even favored The railroad as a means for transportation so many massacres of innocent people within of goods secured a very important advantage. its borders that it has hardly been classed Heretofore the shortest route by water for among the civilized nations. Yet in order goods from India, the East Indies, and otJier to carry through the Berlin to Bagdad pro- countries of eastern Asia, to western Europe ject the Germans cultivated the friendship has been around Arabia, through the Suez

PROPOSED BERLIN TO BAGDAD RAILWAY

Fig. 5. of the Turks diligently, and the Kaiser, in Canal and the entire length of the Mediter- a speech at Damascus in 1898, declared: ranean, to the Atlantic Ocean. Trace this " The three hundred million Mohammedans course in Fig. 1. This was usually a safer who live scattered over the globe may be and easier route than any by land. Even assured of this, that the German Emperor goods from many parts of the Turkish Em- will be their friend at all times." pire have had to be transported long dis-

Much of the Turkish Empire is arid ; but tances by camels in order to reach Europe. in Bible times the Tigris-Euphrates Valley, But this railway would solve these difficulties

2. Its value in or Mesopotamia, was very pro- of transportation. It would furnish a far time of peace ductive, and by the aid of irri- shorter and more convenient route to and gation it could be made so again. It con- from the Orient, and save a great quantity ;

THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR

of time. It is no wonder that Germany submit, and the plan would therefore mean magnified such an advantage. a state of constant warfare over this vast Preparation for war, as has been indicated, area. has always been an important part of the Referring to this plan of the Germans

3. Its value in German plans. This proposed President Wilson, in his Flag Day Address, time of war xosid secured a very great ad- June 14, 1917, said : vantage in case of war, particularly war " Their plan was to throw a broad belt of with either Russia or Great Britain, who German military power and political control were her most dangerous opponents among across the very center of Europe and beyond the Great Powers. the Mediterranean into the heart of Asia It gave to Germany the control of Con- and Austria-Hungary was to be as much stantinople and, thereby, of the passage their tool and pawn as Serbia or Bulgaria from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. or Turkey or the ponderous states of the This is the outlet by water on which Russia East. Austria-Hungary, indeed, was to be- has always been most dependent, for her come part of the central German Empire, ports in the Baltic Sea and on the Arctic absorbed and dominated by the same forces are hard to reach and frozen up much of and influences that had originally cemented the year. Yet Russia could now easily be the German states themselves. The dream blocked at this point by Germany. had its heart at Berlin. It could have had

The most valuable colony in all the a heart nowhere else ! It rejected the idea British Empire is India, toward which this of solidarity of race entirely. The choice

railroad reaches. King George is known of peoples played no part in it at all. It as King of England and Emperor of India. contemplated binding together racial and There are an enormous population and untold political units which could be kept together wealth in that vast country, and no doubt only by force — Czechs, jNIagyars, Croats, Germany has often cast longing eyes in its Serbs, Roumanians, Turks, Armenians — the direction. If she were at war with England proud states of Bohemia and Hungary, the this railroad might make it easy for her to stout little commonwealths of the Balkans, make a vast amount of trouble in India, and the indomitable Turks, the subtile peoples perhaps to attack it directly with an army. of the East. These people did not wish to The realization of the Berlin-to-Bagdad be united. They ardently desired to direct plan required that Germany dominate all their own affairs, would be satisfied only by countries through which the undisputed be 4. Why this ^^ independence. They could plan is offensive road passed; in short, they kept quiet only by the presence or the con- to the world ij x* n i. j. -C would practically have to be stant threat of armed men. They would governed by Germany or her allies. In live under a common power only by sheer these countries are people of many different compulsion and await the day of revolution. races and languages who have few interests But the German military statesmen had

in common and who are just as anxious to reckoned with all that and were ready to

govern themselves as we are to govern deal with it in their own way." ourselves. Our idea is that they should It might seem that German ambition have this privilege; that it would be most would be satisfied with all the preceding unjust and an act of extreme tyranny for plans. But there is one other Pan- another nation, simply because it had the aim that shows still wider am- Germanism power, to subject these peoples to its own bitions among some of the leading Germans. will. We should not expect them all to It is known bv the name of Pan-Germanism. 8 THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR

There are many Germans scattered over themselves as Germans rather than Ameri- the earth. Millions of our own citizens are cans and to act accordingly. That would

of German birth or descent ; there is a tend to make trouble for the rest of the

large nmnber in Brazil, in Chile, and else- world; but it might strengthen Germany, " where. It was the plan to unite all these and that was the object. The part " pan

as far as possible. For that pm*pose many in the term " Pan-Germanism " is from the societies were formed in these comitries, and Greek meaning "all," and the name signifies other societies were organized in Germany to the extension of German rule wherever Ger- keep in touch with them. German-speaking mans live. people in foreign lands were m-ged to pre- All these plans made war a possibility at serve the use of the German language, and any time and a certainty some time in the money from Germany was freely spent in near future. German states- Preparations foreign lands to found German newspapers men foresaw this outcome from ^or war which should spread German culture. the beginning and for the last fifty years

ARMIES, PEACE FOOTING JANUARY 1914 250,000 500,,000 1,000,000 RUSSIA,. ,290,000 '^^^-"^y^^^^yyy^yyyyyyyyyyy^yyyy^^^ FRANCE. .763,820 -.y^y^yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy^ ITALY.... .305,038 ym^ GREAT BRITAIN- .250,000 yjyM<

RUMANIA . 130,000 I ! UNITED STATES- .104,569 BELGIUM . 47,603 SERBIA.. .361,747 'yyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyy^ PORTUGAL .30,000

GERMANY .866,026 '^y^!'^^y}'Ay;y>9:yyyi.

BULGARIA .. 59,900

Fig. 6.

There was no objection to all this provided their preparations for war have kept pace it aimed at nothing more than a warm feel- with their development of these projects. ing toward the ]Mother Country. With many Any American who visited Germany thirty Germans, however, it meant much more. years ago was struck with the prominence

With them the idea had become established of army oflficers and soldiers everj^'here. that all Germans, no matter where they Even then every able-bodied man had to dwelt, should be regarded as forming one receive some training for war. Since that great nation. And again, of course, that time such preparations have greatly in- great nation was to be Germany. In 1905 creased. In the years 1911, 1912, and 1913 Germany passed a law providing that every the German army in time of peace was German who became a citizen of a foreign raised from 515,000 to 866,000 men. War country might at the same time retain his taxes were raised correspondingly. The gov-

citizenship in Germany. In that case, if ernment made great purchases abroad of a war were to begin between Germany and many kinds of military supplies. Quantities the United States, the 15,000,000 Germans of nitrate of soda, for instance, for the manu- in our country would be invited to count facture of explosives, were imported from THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR

Chile and stored. German manufacturers that she could conquer the earth nation by of chemicals used in munitions were forbidden nation." to export them. Railroads leading to France and Belgium, as well as to Russia, together 4. The War in 1914 with their equipment, were improved, so as to be ready for transportation of troops at While Germany was making all these a moment's notice. The navy was strength- preparations so openly, she declared that they in corresponding fashion. Austria- for defense ened were only, and other unprepared- Hungary and Turkey, already under the nations did not make them- ness of the guidance of the Germans according to the selves ready for the attack that ^li^s Middle-Europe and Berlin-to-Bagdad proj- Germany was really planning. Perhaps ects, were making similar improvements. France alone fully comprehended the situa-

POPULATION 50.000.000 100,000,000 150,000,000 RUSSIA_. .174,099,600 ^^^^^^^^^^^^.^.j^^^fe?^^^;^;^^;:^^^ UNITED STATES- 102,000,000 ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ GREAT BRITAIN- .45,370,530 ^^^^^^^ FRANCE... .39,601,509 ^^^^^^^ ITALY .35,597,784 ^^^^^ RUMANIA...... 7.600,000 BELGIUM.. ...7,600,000 PORTUGAL ...6,000,000

SERBIA. _.. ...4,550,000

GERMANY, . 67,8 1 2,000 '^yyyyy^y^yyyyyyyyyy^yyyyyyy^^ AUSTRIA- HUNGARY- . 5 1,340,378 ^^^^^^^^

TURKEY.__ .3 1,000,000^^^^^ ;

BULGARIA. ...5,000,000^ ;

Fig. 7.

In 1914 the Germans felt that their prepa- tion. Yet her population (Fig. 7) and ration was complete. resources were much inferior to those of In an address delivered in Chicago, Sep- Germany. Likewise Russia's army, though tember 14, 1917, Elihu Root, former United large (Fig. 6), was inferior to Germany's States Senator from New York, summed up army in training, equipment, and effective- the case as follows : ness. All of the nations now allied hoped " It now appears beyond the possibility still that war might be avoided. Conse- of doubt that this war was made by Ger- quently they did not prepare for war as many, pursuing a long and settled purpose. completely as Germany did. For many years she had been preparing to Among the Great Powers of Europe that do exactly what she has done, with a thorough- entered the war immediately, England had. ness, a perfection of plans, and a vastness of by far the smallest army and it was scat- provision in men, munitions, and supplies tered widely over the earth. She had small never before equaled or approached in human supplies of munitions and few factories for history. She brought the war on when she making them. Her people had not believed chose, because she chose, in the belief that Germany would provoke a war. But - :

10 THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR she did have the advantage of a great navy. " Across the path of this railway to Bagdad In Fig. 8 compare the warship tonnage of lay Serbia — an independent country whose the several powers. England's navy has sovereign alone among those of southwestern been her salvation. Europe had no marriage connection with The event that" immediately led to the Berlin, a Serbia that looked toward Russia. war occurred in Austria near the Serbian That is why Europe was nearly driven into

How the border. On June 28, 1914, the war in 1913 ; that is why Germany stood war began heir to the throne of Austria- so determinedly behind Austria's demands Hungary, Archduke Francis Ferdinand, in 1914 and forced war. She must have

' ' and his wife, were assassinated by Serbian her corridor to the southeast ; she must

WARSHIP TONNAGE JANUARY 1914 500,000 1,000,000 1,500,000 2,000,000

GREAT ^^^^^^^fii<:i^^^^^^i<^^:i^c^^:f^^^^^^ BRITAIN- 2,200,000 UNITED STATES 774,353 ^^^.^^^i^^^^^^^^^^.-^^y^.;>^^i^^^ FRANCE. '^^^^^^^^^^^<:^h^.^hi^^!i^.^^i^ RUSSIA.. .270,861 ^^^^^^^^^i^ ITALY.... 285,460 ;j^^^^^^^^#^ JAPAN.. .519,640^^^^^^^

GERMANY.. 951,713 '^.^^^^^.^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ii^^^^^^:??^^ AUSTRIA- HUNGARY- .221,526 ;^^^^#^^ TURKEY...... 30,000

Fig. 8. sympathizers. Bad feeling already existed have political domination all along the route between Austria and Serbia, and this deed of the great economic empire she planned." naturally made it worse. The first great object of the Central Powers One reason for the bad feeling was that was to conquer France, and they hoped to

hostile to the Middle-Europe accomplish that feat before -p,^ ..„ Serbia was ^ _„, in ^ Ine war plan, and was, therefore, opposed to the Russia, on their east, could the west Berlin-to-Bagdad railway, which would have strike an effective blow. I. Reasons for to pass through its territory (Fig. 5). That In order to do this they must entering t^°"sh unpardonable offense against Ger- capture Paris. The shortest ^'"^^^ was an Belgium • p /-( -n • many and her allies. distance from Germany to Paris Feeling that they were fully ready for is only 170 miles, west from Metz (Fig. 11). war, the Central Powers now saw the excuse But whether one approaches Paris from the for beginning it. As punishment for the east or northeast, the route is difficult on murder of the Archduke, Austria, with the account of the rough surface. This map full support of Germany, made demands on shows a series of hills running in a general Serbia that were altogether too humiliating northern and southern direction between the for acceptance. Then, when Serbia rejected Paris basin and the German frontier. On them, war was declared. the side toward Paris these hills have long, The responsibility of Germany in the gentle slopes, but on the eastern side they whole matter is stated by President Wilson, have steep slopes that are hard to climb. in his Flag Day Address of 1917, in the The rivers run between these ranges of hills following words and in some places cut their way through Dl

< ^ ^ = C Z! -.

i i

11 12 THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR them. If one followed their courses, one only to save time, but also to enrich them- could find a comparatively easy road. But selves greatly while taking from their enemies their valleys are narrow, with steep sides in the means of carrying on the war. For these some places, and these can be easily defended reasons their choice must have seemed to against a powerful enemy. them a masterly one.

There is only one route that is compara- There were most vital reasons, however, tively level land all the way, and that route against this selection. Germany ^ Reasons leads through Belgium and then down south- had pledged herself by solemn against entering west near the coast toward Paris. This is agreement to respect the neu- ^ the route that the Teutons chose. It is trality of Belgium, and if there was any sense

© Underwood and Underwood Fig. 10. — French troops on the way to the front. longer than any other, being 250 miles, but of honor in her she would keep this pledge. it is the easiest way on account of the level Also England had bound herself to protect ground over which it passes. the neutrality of Belgium; so it was likely

There is another reason that no doubt that she would declare war against the Teu- influenced this choice. Belgium is a re- tons if they crossed the Belgian frontier. markably fertile country; also, southern But honor counted little with the Germans Belgium and northern France are, together, when such advantages were involved, and one of the richest mining and manufacturing England's army was so small that the war regions in the world. France obtains from might be finished before it could be made to this section nine-tenths of her iron ore, as count. So Belgium had to suffer. well as half of all her coal. Much more This invasion of Belgimn by Germany, than one-half of all her iron and steel fac- contrary to her own pledge, was an act of tories are located here. In choosing this tremendous significance for all the nations route, therefore, the Teutons could hope not of the earth, particularly for the small ones THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR 13

Fig. 11. — The approaches to Paris from the east and northeast.

It was really a declaration that the small informed its people that it was necessary nation must expect to suffer in the future. for his army to cross, but that the Belgians ^ight, not Right, was to rule; would not be injured if they did not resist, 3. Importance of Germany's and any people that lacked and that they would be paid in gold for any ^^^ the physical force to protect damage that might be done. itself against attack might expect to be To his astonishment they refused. This " subdued and governed by stronger nations. was then- reply : The Belgian government,

Never was a more direct blow struck against if they were to accept the proposals submitted liberty. to them, would sacrihce the honor of the The Germans had planned to march a nation and betray their duty toward Europe.'' certain distance each day, and allowed them- King Albert did not hesitate. He threw his selves six days to get past Belgium. They small army across the German path, even

did not expect the Belgians to have the cour- though it meant destruction for both army age to try to stop them. and people, and he delayed then- advance At the start, though, there was a delay. ten full days. The Germans were furious When the army appeared at the frontier of and inflicted on Belgium awful ptmishment. the little country, the German commander The ten days, however, saved France. It 14 THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR

gave the French time to assemble their they finally had to take at the end of the armies and the English time to send a small year's fighting is also shown in Fig. 11. ^o^ce to theb aid. Also, this This 4. Importance was one of the great bat- 5. The result of Belgium's act of the Belgians aroused the ties of history. For the time of the campaign resistance admiration of the world; it being, at least, it decided that France should was as noble as the conduct of the Ger- remain French and not become Prussian. mans was ignoble, and it drew to them Germany did not succeed in crushing France before Russia could

act. On the The war in contrary, Rus- the east sia assembled a great army and invaded East Prussia. In order to meet this at- tack Germany was compelled to withdraw some of her forces from France. This helped to check the Germans on the Marne. Russia also invaded Austria, and thus she kept the Teutons ex- ceedingly busy on the eastern front. Figure 13 shows the lines held in the east toward the end of 1914. The superiority of^ the British navy (Fig. 8) was im- mediately made The war upon to count. By the seas the end of the year the German fleets, war and mer- chant, were driven from the British Official Photograph Fig. 12. — British troops entrenched on the western front. seas. When it is recalled that three fourths of the the support of fair-minded people every- earth's surface is water, the importance of where for the awful years that have this advantage begins to be apparent. All followed. this area was at the disposal of the British The Germans soon left Belgium behind for transporting supplies, as well as troops and came within sight of Paris. Figure 11 from her colonies ; at the same time it was shows the line that they held when nearest closed to Germany. to the city. Estimate the distance. The The War in 1915 French government had left the cajntal, on account of the imminent danger, and moved The campaign of 1914 had proved en- to Bordeaux. It looked as though the city couraging to the Allies on the Discourage- would have to fall. whole; but there were many mentstothe ^^^^ . . But the furious battle of the Marne reasons for discouragement turned the invaders back, and the line that during the year 1915. THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR 15

Several attempts were made to drive Dardanelles, with the object of getting the Germans from their position in the possession of this outlet from the Black

1. On the west, but without much suc- Sea and capturing Constantinople. In spite western front gess. The line of battle re- of great efforts it resulted only in failure mained throughout the year much the same and enormous losses of men. as shown in Fig. 11. It had other bad effects. Bulgaria had In the east the Russians were badly de- hesitated to ally herself with either party;

feated. Figure 13 but now she felt it

2. On the shows safe to join the eastern front h O EASTERN BATTLE FROlfT W 1914 Teutons. Then the far into German A ustro- Germans and Austrian ter- and Bulgarians to- ritory they had gether overran advanced in 1914. Serbia and crushed But this year they that nation. These were driven out of events brought the this conquered ter- Middle-Europe ritory and lost ex- plan to much tensive areas of nearer realization, their own. k\\ and paved the way Poland was taken for further devel- from them, includ- opment of the great ing the great cities Bagdad railway. of Warsaw and The Central Pow- Lodz, and they lost ers had good reason over 2,000,000 men to feel encouraged. in captured, killed, Even in war,

and wounded. horrible as it is, Figure 15 marks there are many the line of battle rules Gennan in the closing days to be barbarities of the year. followed to which Turkey (p. 40) all the leading had joined the governments have Central Powers in agreed. These

1914, but the Fig. 13 rules were sup- Balkan States, lying posed to have force between 3. Advance of Turkey and Austria, of law for the various nations and to limit the Berlin-to had not, with the exception of its evils in important ways. Bagdad plan. Serbia, declared in favor of While Germany had fully agreed to these either side. Under those conditions, and laws she has shown no more respect for with Serbia one of the Allies, both the Middle- them than she showed for her agreement Europe project and that for the Berlin-to- in regard to Belgiimi. Here are only a few Bagdad railway were blocked. of the things she has done in violation of In order to check them still further, the international law : she has repeatedly Allies planned an expedition against the massacred men, women, and children, ap- 16 THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR parently with the mam object of making In 1915 there occurred some events that herself feared; she has robbed conquered brought much encouragement. One was the territory of food, raw materials for manu- entrance of Italy on the side of ^^^^^^^ ^^^ tools, machinery, and anything the Allies. In Figs. 6, 7, and 8 factures, '^ ' . encourage- notice her popula- ment among tion as compared the Allies

with that of other i. Entry of ^^^^ °^ countries ; also the ^^l?J^ size of her army and her warship tonnage. The fact that she produces very little coal and iron greatly reduces her strength; but in spite of that- fact she has brought very valuable help. As soon as she lost all control of the seas, Germany had to leave her colonies ^^ ^oss of to their fate. One colonies by ®'™*°y of the first to be Ai i-^ 4U taken was Kiau-Chau (Fig. 1), by Japan. Germany had highly

valued this colony . Other islands in the Pacific were soon lost. By British Official PTiotograpH

Fig. 14. One of the giant dirigibles guarding the British coast. the end of 1915 all the four large German colonies in Africa had else she could lay her hands on, that, after re- been invaded and most of their territory con- moval to her own land, might be of value quered. (Fig. 1.) Germany has no colonies now. to her own people ; what she could not hope When England declared war, she naturally to use she has wantonly destroyed, simply expected the support of all her English colo- citizens in conquered nies. This support was of very in order to leave ^ Loyalty of territory as destitute as possible. For ex- great importance, for these British colo- nies ample, to that end she has even killed or- colonies constitute a large part chard after orchard of fruit trees and has set of the British Empire. The "Mother " fire to houses and farm implements. Tens Country," called the United Kingdom of of thousands of civilians in Belgium, Poland, Great Britain and Ireland," includes Eng- and elsewhere have been transported to land, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. It has

Teuton lands to work as slaves ; men, women, an area all together of only about 120,000 and children have been placed in front of the square miles, which is less than one half that firing line in order to protect the Teuton of Texas; its population is more than gas and liquid fire have been 45,000,000, which is over ten times that of soldiers ; poison introduced. Probably every international Texas. Compared with the United States law to which Germany had agreed has been the United Kingdom is a small country, both it broken by her repeatedly. It is well for us in size and population (Fig. 7) . How does to know such facts in order that we may compare with Germany? understand the kind of enemy we are fighting. When the colonies are added, however, the THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR 17

Empire is enormous. On Fig. 1 note how cies from England made it especially difficult many parts of the earth belong to the British for them to keep in close touch with the Empire. Its possessions are found in every Mother Country. Difference in language continent and border every ocean. In North and customs in many cases would cause her

(1) Extent of America they are Canada and influence to be felt still less. In such cir- colonies the Newfoundland. Name the cumstances it seemed hardly probable that most important parts of Asia that are British a war that she declared would lead them possessions; of Africa. What other important regions are British? Note

the population of India ; of Canada ; of Australia (main text, pp. 411, 424, 425). All these possessions together increase the area under English control more than 12,000,000 square miles, and the

population 450,000,000. It is evident

that it made a very great difference to the British whether these dependencies supported them strongly in the conduct of the war or whether they refused support. Germany did not believe that Eng- land's colonies would respond vigor- ously to the call from the

expectation in Mother Country ; and she regard to their J^^^J strong rCaSOUS for this loyalty i t j? belier. Undoubtedly the Germans argued

that if these possessions belonged to Germany, many of them would break

away from German control at the first opportunity. Schleswig-Holstein has been a problem to the German govern- ment ever since its annexation; and Alsace-Lorraine has caused far more trouble. There has probably never been a time since 1870 when the great Fig. 15. majority of the inhabitants of Alsace- Lorraine would not have returned to French to share fully with her in hardship and control, if they had had a chance to vote on danger. the question. Germany has shown a re- Aside from such reasons for disloyalty, Ger- markable tendency to arouse the hatred of many proposed to supply one herself. She the foreign peoples whom she has governed, set to work, even before the war, to stir up and of course she would not admit that discontent among many of the colonies. England possessed any more skill than she Furnished with large sums of money, men herself had shown in governing colonies. were sent who gave their best efforts toward

The long distance of many of the dependen- stirring up in the colonies ill feeling toward :

18 THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR

the English and aiding\ny movements that ent nation ; or whether its parts would unite might lead to disloyalty and rebellion. This more closely than ever to form one more seems an easy task, too, when one remembers powerful nation. The response of the colo- that in any country there are many persons nies has answered this question. who grumble against the government. The No doubt one reason for this result was the fact that not many years ago England had sense of danger that the dependencies felt been at war with some of her colonists, when Germany declared that (4) Reasons for especially those in South Africa, gave hope of Might rather than Right should *^^'« ^"^""^ great success in this attempt. Germans have rule the world. Independent small nations been employed to stir up trouble in this man- in that case had little chance ; they must ally ner in probably every one of the British colo- themselves with others in order to be pro- nies of importance. The ambition was not tected. This danger, then, tended to unite merely to prevent aid to the British but to them and to draw them to the more powerful compel the British to consume much of their Mother Country. strength in quelling rebellion among their colo- Yet they would hardly have responded so nies. Indeed, by that means they hoped that willingly to the call, had they not in past years England would be so fully occupied that she been treated with respect by the United would have little energy left for fighting the Kingdom ; had they not been given freedom

Germans. to a large extent ; and had they not been well To the astonishment of the Germans their protected as British subjects when protection plan did not work. The British Empire did was needed. The occasion was a test of the not fall apart. Of the scores and kind of government Britain had established (3) Their re- . . colonies ; — to the disgust of sponse to the scores of colonies, big and little, over her and call of the j^gt ouc has declared its inde- Germany — she stood the test astonishingly Mother Country , r^ .^ pendence. On the contrary, well. their loyalty has astonished the world. Not The greatness of the cause must have been only have they remained friendly ; they have a third reason for this response. The war at joined actively in the prosecution of the war, first may have seemed remote to some of the furnishing men, money, and supplies to the colonies, but they soon saw that Germany fullest extent possible. The war against was threatening the existence of democracy Turkey has been very greatly aided by sol- throughout the world. The only hope that diers from India. Canada has sent to the men will ever enjoy the right to govern them- battle fields about a half million men — an selves in peace lies in the destruction of mili- undertaking greater than it would be for us tarism. The war, therefore, concerned them to send six millions. Australia and New Zea- directly and they must share iu the struggle. land have done correspondingly well. Even The exhibition of loyalty by the British the small islands have been eager to do their colonies was one of the especially encouraging bit. Early in 1916 Jamaica, with a popula- facts in the midst of the many discourage- tion of less than one million, sent her second ments of the year 1915. ship load, consisting of about eleven hundred

men. ^ 6. The War in 1916 No'one had known before how firmly the many parts of the British Empire were put In the w^est two great battles were fought together. No one had known whether, at Verdun and the Sorame, each lasting several a great crisis, the Empire would crumble, months and resulting in defeat to the Ger- each division of people to form an independ- mans with enormous losses of men. The THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR 19 line, however, as drawn in Fig. 11, was ter defend. Compare the line in Fig. 18 not greatly changed. The Russians and with that in Fig. 11. In this region the

Events on the Italians were also successful in Allies in heavy battles won father On the west- east and west opposing the Austrians. The victories that were of much "n front fronts balance of the fighting was, importance. Yet no decisive results were therefore, favorable to the Allies. reached on this front during the year. lloumania, how- ever, who had en- Further prog- t e r e d ress of the the war Middle- on the Europe and Bagdad Rail- side of way plans the Al- lies, was conquered. Her rich wheat fields and oil wells were taken. She made the third Balkan State that had been added to Teuton territory since the war began. This addition brought the Middle-Europe plan almost to full reali- zation. Greece alone remained neutral. British Offlcial Photograph The war was bring- FiG. 16. — British armored 'tank" passing through a burning village on the way to the ing its reward. front in France. Events in Turkey also advanced the railway project. A con- Russia sprang a surprise on the world in siderable British force from India had 1917, a surprise whose results for good and marched up the Tigris River toward Bagdad evil are thus far vast but lui- On the Rus- (Fig. 5), winning some victories on the way. certain. First came the revolu- sian front But they were surrounded by the Turks and tion early in the year, the Czar abdicat- finally compelled to surrender. The force ing in INIarch and the government being that was lost consisted of 13,000 men. The taken over by a moderately liberal party. main part of the railroad that remained to Finally a very radical party, called the Bol- be built was in this region, and this victory sheviki, obtained control. They ignored all brought the possibility of its completion obligation to the Allies, cximpletely under- much nearer. mined army discipline, and made a separate peace with Germany. Although up to 7. The War in 1917 1917 Russia had fought hard and suffered The Germans in France, early in the year, fearfully on the side of the Allies, she now retreated a considerable distance along a fifty- withdrew from the war. From this year mile front to positions that they could bet- on, therefore, the line of battle in this part 20 THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR

Fig. 17.

of the east, as indicated in Fig. 15, entirely sembled and hurled against Italy. That disappeared. This withdrawal was a most country suffered terrible losses and the severe blow to the Allies, for the Germans work she had accomplished during the pre- began not only to overrun Russian territory ceding two years was undone. at will, but also to transport their troops that During 1917 the Allies more than re- were not needed in this region to other battle trieved their recent losses in Checks to lines. the Tigris valley. Early in the the Middle-

] J. J u Europe and This act of Russia had a fearful effect in Biagdad was captured by ^j^^ Bagdad On the Italian northern Italy. On that line the British and most of Pales- Railway fro°t enormous Austrian forces, many tine also was taken from the projects of them brought from Russia, were as- Turks. Jerusalem was surrendered to the THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR 21

British early in December of this year. The civilized world gasped at such frightful-

It began to look now as though the Teutons ness; but it was believed by the Germans would never extend their railroad to Bagdad to be a sure means of winning the war, and the Persian Gulf, and without the ad- and that was what they sought. Interna- dition of this section the whole scheme lost tional law did not count with them. its value. The German people were assured by their At the same time a blow was struck against leaders that such use of the submarine would the Middle-Europe plan. The one remaining bring the English to their knees in a few neutral power among the Balkan States was Greece. Its ruler, King Constantine, was vio- lently pro-German, while a majority of the Greeks favored the Allies. Dur- ing this year Constantine was deposed and Greece joined the Allies (p. 40). This was surely a deep disappointment to the Teutons. The location of Greece as an Allied power, so close to the Serbians, who were still hostile to the Teutons even though conquered, and so near to the rail- way, might cause strong opposition to both proj- ects at any time. This was the year in © Undericood and Underwood which the submarine Fig! 18. — A convoy of ships carrying food and supplies to the Allies. reached its greatest de- structiveness Up to the first months. The latter had to receive much of On the seas of this year it had been active their food, ammunition, and other supplies and, together with mines, had destroyed from abroad, and Germany thought that nearly 4,000,000 tons of merchant shipping. the submarine would cut off all such aid. This was only a small part of the entire With England out of the war. it would British merchant marine. soon end. But up to this time a great many vessels From January to June they sank 3,600.000 had been spared from attack. Now on Feb- tons of shipping. It was a critical period for ruary 1,1917, the plan of unlimited cruelty was the Allies. But means for protection against developed and its de- adopted ; the use of the submarine was freed the submarine were from restrictions and any vessels were attacked structiveness began to decline. England and sunk without warning, no matter what was not starved out and the crisis is past. nation they represented or who was on them. The policy of frightfulness, however, had 22 THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR 23

unfavorable consequences for the Germans, It meant that it took all this time for

which they, no doubt, appreciate now far these nations to grasp the situation ; to more than they did then. comprehend the objects of the Teutons; and to realize the methods they were adopting in pursuit of these objects. 8. Additions to the Allied Nations They had been astounded at the absence During 1917 eight new countries, repre- of all sense of honor on the part of Germany senting all parts of the earth, entered when she invaded Belgium and declared New enemies the war against Germany, her contract to respect its neutrality only to the Teutons while not a single new power a " scrap of paper." They had been horrified joined^the Teutons. On page 40 there is a at her brutality toward the Belgians and

Fig. 20. — British camp in western France where officers are trained in modern warfare. list of these powers with the dates on which other conquered peoples. They had been war was declared. Note these dates. (In shocked at her selfishness and greed in Fig. 19 note their names and locations. robbing conquered territory. TMien the

How many continents do they represent ?) Limtania was sunk, destroying 119S lives, Originally it was generally expected that 114 of them American, they saw that she the war would last only a few months. was inconceivably cruel. When, therefore, to be un- Their reasons Now after two and one half her plots and conspiracies began for entering years of awful fighting, these covered in all parts of the world, they realized the war onlookers determined to assist that she was wholly unworthy of trust. in blocking the Teutons, no matter how The significance of Pan-Germanism had fearful the sacrifices might be. Why did now been made clear; and it menaced the they take such risk, and all on one side? liberties of the world. It was, therefore, the What did it mean? duty of all nations to combine to put it down. 24 THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR

peace. At the time we declared war our 9. The United States in the War standing army was composed of only about

The declaration of war by the United States 100,000 men (see Fig. 6), a very small meant a great addition to the forces of the number when compared with the 866,000 in f\ , ,«»o«.,,^»o AlUes. Our population is over the German standing army. Beyond this Our resources ^ \ compared with 100,000,000, while that of Ger- number, we had very few trained soldiers, thoseofGer- many is less than 70,000,000. while every able-bodied man in Germany had many j^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ superior to received extensive training. On the other Germany, since we have over 3,000,000 square hand, peace societies were numerous and ac- miles, while she has only 210,000, which is tive throughout the land, urging the avoid- ance of all war, and some influ- ential persons had reached the point where they op- posed allowing children even to play with tin sol-

diers because it directed their thoughts too much to fighting. As a nation we knew that we would provoke no war; and up to that time we were convinced that no one was likely to attack us. In short, we cher- ished the hope Underwood and Uiidiru and expectation Fig. 21. Distributing equipment at the OflScers' Training Camp, Plattsburg, N. Y. that all war would much less than that of Texas alone. In raw be avoided by us in the future. materials, manufactures, and wealth our su- This condition made us harmless in the periority over Germany is also striking. We eyes of the Germans. Also, they saw that produce nearly twice as much coal and iron as even if we were awakened from our dreams

Germany, we manufacture more than twice about peace, it would be a long time before as many goods and our total wealth is about we could be ready to fight. We lacked not three times hers. only soldiers, but ofiicers as well; also an

In spite of these facts Germany showed con- adequate supply of munitions ; indeed, we Why Ger- tempt for us as a possible en- were without the thousand and one things many did not emy. Why ? that Germany had been carefully provid- fear us First of all, because as a ing during the last fifty years. No one people we are remarkably devoted to understood better than she what a mighty THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR 25

task it would be for us to get ready to fight. Even if we ever finally pre- pared ourselves, the field for fight- ing was at least 3000 miles away, and we lacked the ships for transporting our men and their supplies. More than that, if by some miracle these were pro- vided, the subma- Fig. 22. — Building "Liberty Ships" on Puget Sound. rine would pre- vent their arriving on the other side. When all Geography constantly deals 'v\-ith the seven these points are considered, certainly the Ger- great occupations of men; namely, agricul- mans had much reason for feeling safe from us. ture, fishing, lumbermg, mining, qut new manufac- occupation ^^^ ^^^ extent t u r i n 2 transportation, and trade. Our declaration

of war on April 6, 1917, added another, that of carrying on war. This has gradually become the greatest of the eight, and one that to a large degree controls all the

others. That is a very remarkable fact, when it

is remembered that only a few years ago we com- monly believed that we could avoid war. It shows how quickly and completely a great na- - tion can change. ' The great extent of

this occupation is sug- © Utidertcood and Under trood gested by a very few Fig. 23. — One view of the steel works at Ensley, just outside of Birmingham, Alabaana, where now munitions of war are made. facts. In the latter part ;

26 THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR

Fig. 24. — Military map of the summer of 1918 we had over 3,000,000 workers at home to keep one soldier in the- men in France or in training at home. It has field — so many kinds of work are necessary been often stated that it takes seven or eight such, for example, as farming, mining, manu- THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR 27

of the United States. facture of clothing, munitions, ships, etc., to are keeping not less than 20,000,000 others meet all military needs. If that statement is fully employed. The center for this great

correct, it would mean that these 3,000,000 business is our capital, Washington, and prob- 28 THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR ably many more than 100,000 clerks and other possible upon different communities. It was government employees have been called there a question whether such a plan would be since the war began. The city has accord- acceptable to the people, and during the de- ingly increased tremendously in population. bate in Congress signs were not lacking that

I Underwood and Underwood Fig. 25. — Training soldiers at Camp Upton, Yaphank, Long Island, N. Y.

Other government work connected with the German influence was at work to defeat the war is carried on in hundreds of places plan. throughout the country. Yet the bill became a law, and all men The conduct of war calls for undertakings between the ages of twenty-one and thirty- of many kinds, each of which may be a great one were required to enroll for service on a

Our prepara business in itself. One of these given date. Ten million young men re- tion of an was the preparation of an sponded. Since all these were not needed at army army. Our first step was to call once, it was decided to determine by lot the for volunteer soldiers, and within a few order in which the men should be called. months these troops, together with those that The men were also divided into classes ac- we already had, made an army of a million cording to conditions that deserved con- men. Many of these were already well sideration in accepting or exempting them. trained for war. Thus a vast army has been drafted. Meanwhile it was clear, however, that sev- The training of so many soldiers was a eral millions would be needed if we took the great problem. Nearly all of them were

part in the war that belonged to us ; also that without military experience, having come

it would not do to wait for voluntary enlist- directly from farm, factory, and oflBce. They ments. The President proposed to raise the were assigned to camps or cantonments in necessary men by " selective draft " or con- many parts of the country, as shown in scription. By that means the burden of the Fig. 24.

fighting would be distributed as equally as Each cantonment is reallv a new city de- THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR 29 signed to be the tem- porary home of about 40,000 men in training. It is equipped with most of the conveniences >. of any city, having, for example, a water system, sewage sys- tem, electric lights, telephone, fire de- partment, and even paved streets. As © Vndericood and Underwood shown on the map, Fig. 26. — View of an army cantonment on the historic field of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. sixteen of these can- tonments were established during the sum- were necessary for all this construction in so mer of 1917 for the drafted men. ]\Iany short a time. other cantonments were built for the men Our navy was in far better condition for a who belonged to the National Guard, which great war than our army. In I-'ig. 8 note had been taken into the service before the how it ranked among the navies Development conscription act was passed. Thousands of the Great Powers. of our navy upon thousands of engineers, carpenters, At the time of our entrance into the war plumbers, and other workers, besides vast the Allied navies of Great Britain, France, quantities of lumber and other materials. Italy, and Japan were masters on the ocean. German warships, mer- chant vessels, and raiders

had been driven from it. But the German sub- marine, which had done much damage since the beginning of the war, had been declared by the German government on January 31, 1917, to

be free from all restric-

tions, and it was pro\Tng fearfully destructive to Allied vessels. At that time the Germans gen-

erally relied upon it to bring victory. It was otir task, there- fore, to construct more war vessels, as many as we possibly could; and

Fig. 27. — A United States Warship using a smoke screen in the "danger zone." to increase verv greatlv 30 THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR

these piu-poses; and, since many ships were being sunk e^'el•y week by submarines,

a still greater number would have to be built in order to meet this loss. Such vessels as these, used for transporta- tion of goods in time of peace, are called " mer-

Underwood and Underwood chant marine."

Fig. 28. — A sham battle at Pelham Bay Naval Training camp, Pelham Bay, N. Y. At the time war was declared by the number of naval officers and men. This us our merchant marine on the ocean was task, like that of preparing a vast army, has small. While we had had a great foreign been accomplished with remarkable success. trade, nine tenths of our imports and ex-

The purpose of the navy is to destroy the ports had been carried in ships owned by enemy submarines and to afford protection foreign countries. That was not all. We in other ways. In addition to lacked the equipment, such as the shipyards, Building of vessels it was seen that we machinery, and trained workmen, necessary army trans- war ports and a would need a vast number of for building a great number of ships. Also, merchant other ships marine p tor trans- portation of all sorts of things to Europe. Sev- eral million soldiers would need to be taken over; food for them would have to be sup- plied by us, too; also clothing, ammunition, horses, engines, and hun- dreds of other articles. In addition great quan- tities of food would need to be sent to our Allies, since they could not meet all their own wants. Thousands of vessels

would be required for Fig. 29. — Launching a steel" Liberty Ship," shipbuilding yards, Mobile, Alabama. THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR 31 ships like great buildings can be built only numbers. Millions of shoes, blankets, uni- very slowly. forms, and hats have had to be made. To There were many difficulties to be over- meet all such requirements hundreds of fac- come here; and our progress at first was tories have abandoned their regular work very slow. We could not hope to accomplish and have undertaken some of these things. much during 1917; it took time to get the Thus one sees how great a business war ma\- work started. In the spring of 1918, how- be ; it can demand a large share of the efforts ever, results began to appear; dozens of of the nation. vessels per month began to be launched, and High officials in Germany had promised then as many per week. In one day, July 4, their people that even if the Transporta- almost one hundred were launched. The United States raised a great tion of troops number continues to increase at an astonish- army and secured vessels for its transporta-

FiG. 30. — A giant American built airplane, used for bombing purposes. ing rate, and now the new vessels built by our tion, it would never be allowed to reach Allies and ourselves each month far exceed France. There was much doubt among us, those destroyed. By our astonishing energy too, about the success we should attain in the point of safety has been reached in ship- transporting large numbers of men. The first building. troops were sent over in May, 1917. The Upon the declaration of war our govern- number that followed from month to month ment at once began preparations for the ex- was watched by us and oiu- Allies -— and tensive manufacture of muni- probably by the Germans also — '^"ith great M uf t of munitions tions and other articles neces- anxiety. There were transported in and equip- sary in war. Rifles, machine "^^^ guns, cannon, and powder had to May, 1917 1,71S January, 191S 46,776 be provided in enormous quantities. For this June 12,261 Februar\ 48,027 purpose manufacturing centers have been July 12,9SS March S3.S11 August 1S,323 April 117,212 developed that are cities in themselves, given September 32,523 Mav 244,345 up wholly to this one kind of work. Air- October 3S,259 June 276,372 planes, motor-trucks, armored cars, and trans- November 23,016 July over 300,000 port wagons have had to be produced in vast December 4S,S40 August about 250,000 32 THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR

Many of the Germans have found it diffi- bunks eight hours. It is plain that the beds cult to believe these figures ; and even to us were kept very busy. they are wonderful. Transportation of people Upon declaration of war German vessels on any such scale upon the ocean has never m American ports were seized and have before been accomplished. been used in transport service. The larg-

jit should be remembered, too, that danger est transport of all is the Leviathan, formerly in the form of submarines lurked about the called the Vaterland, which sailed between Hamburg and New York. Provision of food for our Allies, par- ticularly the English and French, is another undertaking that has called for much planning and

1 a D O r Q^y provision on our of food for part, our Allies The British are a manufacturing na- tion, relying upon imports from other countries for much of their food. Be- fore the war the want of such imports for even a few weeks would have caused much suffering. Since the war be- ) Kadel and, Herbert Fig. 31. — American troops disembarking at a port in France. gan, large areas that were formerly transporting vessels at every moment. Yet wooded and were parts of large estates and practically not a man has been lost on the parks have been brought under cultivation. way to Europe. By the aid of our allied With this improvement it is said that the navies and our own the vessels have been British can supply enough food to last them protected on all sides. The courage and en- at least eight months in the year. To supply durance of the men in these navies will be the other third from abroad, however, is no admired in all time to come. small task. In order to provide space on shipboard for Before the war France was less dependent so many soldiers, especially in the recent on imports for food, although she required a months, the partitions of some of the vessels good deal. The war, however, has devas-

were removed and all possible space suited tated a part of the land ; and, partly because for bunks was utilized. The soldiers slept so many of the men were engaged in fighting in shifts, each of three shifts occupying the and partly because the soil has lacked fertili- THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT-WAR 33 zation, her crops have been unusually small. This need furnished an opportunity for In November, 1917, the United States Food every one to be patriotic by doing his bit, Administration stated that the 1917 wheat particularly by helping to produce more of crop of France, as compared with that of 1913, various kinds of food and to consume less of was short over one half or 176,000,000 those that were needed abroad. bushels ; that the potato crop was short The success of our efforts is as gratifying about one third or 165,000,000 bushels ; that in this case as in the others already men- the sugar-beet crop was short over two tioned. Our average monthly export of beef thirds or 148,000,000 bushels; that the num- before the war was 1,066,000 pounds; and ber of cattle had decreased about one sixth or of pork 41,531,000 pounds. In June, 1918, we 2,435,000 head; that the number of sheep had de- creased over one third or 5,535,- 000 head; and that the number of hogs had de- creased two fifths or 2,825,- 000 head. Both the British and the French had to receive great i^-^.3i^/-C,??t:r V^-T*^-f^ •' quantities of c food from abroad or give up fight- ing.

[Heretofore Fig. 32. — Women at Washington, D.C., learning to run a tractor in order to do farm work. these imports came largely from Canada, Australia, Argen- sent abroad 92,173,000 pounds of beef and tina, and other agricultural countries. But 169,331,000 pounds of pork. Our export of ships were lacking for transportation of wheat has likewise been tremendously in- con- wheat all the way from Australia, and for creased. These are facts that have — several reasons many of these other countries vinced our Allies — and the Germans, too have not been able to supply as much as that we can be depended upon. usual. Thus it was that the United States Care of the wounded is another phase of was left to furnish it. war that has called for much planning and a Our country as well as England ranks high in great number of workers. In Care of the wounded manufacturing ; in fact the United States is the ancient wars little provision was greatest manufacturing nation. Yet we pro- made for those who were injured. They died duce most of our food and have always exported from lack of care if their wounds were serious. some. Now it became necessary for us to ex- Now, unless a wound is very serious, the man port far more. Wheat and meat were the things is expected to recover and to return to the of well as most needed ; and under Mr. Hoover's lead we ranks. It is a matter economy as set to work to secure enough to save our Allies. humanity to attend to him. 34 THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR

The soldier is not only cared for when he orphans and feeds refugees until they can

is wounded, but is kept in health if pos- care for themselves.

sible. It is the business of doctors to be Wars are now fought by citizen soldiers. the lookout for contagious diseases, to If possible, they should come on Provision for inspect drinking water, to watch over food, back home at the end of the the comfort war better and entertain- than when ment of sol- diers they left. Their leisure time, there- fore, should be properly spent, and they should have such comforts and entertainments as will keep them healthy minded and happy. A

great force of workers is employed to assist the soldier in these respects. They lead in many kinds of games, they organize schools, exhibit motion pictures, furnish music and reading matter, and establish stores where needed articles can be bought at reasonable prices. The fighting

power of men is much affected by such care, as well as their health and morals. Such organi- UndeTwood and Underwood (£) zations as the Young Fig. 33. — Filing pledges to save food at the office of the Food Conservation Com- Christian Associ- mission, New York. Men's ation, the Knights of

and to see that camps are in a sanitary con- Columbus, the Salvation Army, and Jewish dition. societies have assumed responsibility for this The Red Cross Society is organized under work. of supervision of the government to do much 10. The War in 1918 this work. It has many doctors and trained niu-ses. Under them are assistants who bring In the west the Germans aimed at the the wounded to hospitals for treatment. Channel ports, especially Calais, and at Paris. They help the men with their mail and aid Their plan was to break through On the west- em front them in communicating with parents and the line of defense at once, or by friends. In the regions ruined by war the one drive after another to bend it until it Society helps to look after homeless people. would have to give way. The drives began It finds temporary shelter for widows and in March, and one after another was made THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR 35 with tremendous force. The Allies had to yield extensive areas, until, on July 15, the line stood as shown in Fig. 34. On July 15 another terrific drive began which allowed the Ger- mans to cross the Marne. The French suffered heavy losses ; but the American Army was in the line and helped to meet the shock. Our men fought like veter- ans and helped drive the invaders back across the Marne. Then the Allies undertook an offensive of their own and forced the Teutons to retreat Fig. 34. further until Paris was made safe from attack. This second battle ours, General Pershing had possibly 300,000 of the Marne seems likely to be remembered men in this battle, and 1,000,000 more in as the turning point in the war. Though other parts of the line or in reserve. The the French forces were of course far larger than great energy and skill ^that our country had shown dur- ing more than one year in cre- ating an army, building ships, and transport- ing men had now begun to count. Other attacks made by the Allies soon after brought fiu-ther disaster to the Teutons. On the Italian front, also, the tide On the ^-ag Italian front tiu-ned in favor Britisn Official Photograph Fig. 35. — American troops on their way to the trenches on the British front. of the Allies. 36 THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR 37

A great Austrian drive had been planned to seem a plan for the conquest of their country crush Italy, while the British and French were by the Allies, and thus drive them into open kept too busy to give aid. This took place in sympathy with Germany. At the present May. At first success appeared to be with time it appears that this objection has been the Teutons. Then the Italians rallied, de- overcome and that both military and civil aid, feated them, and drove them back. The as just indicated, will be sent to Russia in Austrian leaders had promised their army increasing quantity in the near future. food and supplies in abundance in the con- In August Allied forces were landed on the quered territory of fertile northern Italy. Murman coast and occupied Archangel on the Money was even issued to them in advance White Sea (Fig. 358, main text), others were to be spent in Venice. But there was no op- landed in Vladivostok. These forces co- portunity to use it. Instead the army marched in great haste in the opposite direction, leaving be- hind them thousands of dead and of prison- ers and vast quanti- ties of war material. The state of affairs in Russia continued to worry the Allied nations, for the Ger-

Events in mans Russia were obtaining a firmer and firmer hold upon the country. Many persons urged armed I Committee on Public Informaiion intervention by the FiG. 37. - French children greeting American soldiers on their way to the front in France. Allies. They be- lieved that a large part of the population, operated with forces of friendly Russians and especially in Siberia, was hostile to Germany former subjects of Austria-Hungary who had and would welcome an Allied army sent for been prisoners in Russia but now asserted their protection. It could best be sent, they their independence. The most important of thought, by way of Vladivostok (Fig. 455, these forces were the Czecho-Slovaks who main text) and might well be accompanied had come from Bohemia and otlier subject by experts who should help in reorganizing states of Austria-Hungary. the government, industry, and education. American participation in the war on a Such a plan might finally, also, restore the still vaster scale was assured when in August battle line in Russia and thus compel Ger- the limits of the draft age were lowered from many to withdraw soldiers from the west in twenty-one to eighteen and raised from order to oppose it. thirty-one to forty-five, thus making avail- There was one important objection to such able several million more soldiers for the a move. To many of the Russians it might next year's campaign. -

38 THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR

money. For example, the pay of a private 11. Cost of the War soldier is thirty dollars per month, with an

There is no accurate way of estimating a extra allowance of three dollars per month great many of the costs of war. For example for foreign service. Three million soldiers difficult to assign definite therefore cost the nation close one Values that ^^ ^^ a would to cannot be cost to the loss of a life, to hundred million dollars per month. Cloth- estimated g^ wound that partly or wholly ing is an additional item, costing much more

disables a man for work; to loss of health during war than in time of peace. It is

owing to exposure ; to the pain endured by a estimated that during peace times each wounded man even though the wound finally soldier, fully equipped, costs our government heals; to the life-long sorrow and loneliness fifteen hundred dollars a year. A single great

due to death of loved ones ; to the neglect in cannon costs many thousands of dollars, and education and other care that children suffer a single shot from it at least several hundreds.

when they have been made orphans ; to the The numbers of men engaged in this war far anguish caused by the separation and partial exceed those in any previous war, and the destruction of families living in the region of expenses reach fabulous sums. fighting. All such things are to be counted In order to raise the money the govern-

among the costs of war ; indeed, they are the ments have not only levied unusually high main costs because they show what a fearful taxes but have also borrowed extensively.

thing war is, and should always be kept in Each nation had debts before the war be- mind when the glories of war are mentioned. gan; but they have all been tremendously

Yet there is no way of estimating their worth. increased since that date. The indebtedness A few of the very many kinds of work re- total debt of each country ac- of the leading nations at war Expenses 01 quired for the conduct of war cording to the latest estimates of the war have been briefly described. the Department of Commerce of the United

Each of these calls for vast sums of States was as follows :

PERCENTAGE OF DEBT \0% 2Q% 30% 4054

' ' ' ' ' '. ', UNITED 5.97/ :iimimmi^i -.

GREAT '/'^ •: ..,- > 44.3% ^^^^gigg«r«=5585igsgssJ!g?pr •, . V ^ mmaiUM

; ...:;;::::::: FRANCE 40.7% immimmimiimiii^^.- ._ : i

-. ', ITALY 25. % mm-/-':-}--' ...;;i, | ;"- --'o-^ GERMANY 35.3% s^^'- ' - AUSTRIA 36.3 % ^i=g?&A«ss^^sj;w-i?j;^«^ii!iss^!5s^^

COMPARISON OF NATIONAL WEALTH AND DEBT

950.000,000,000 flOO.000.000.000 tl5O,OOO.000.000 t 200.000,000,000

UNITED 8220,000,000,000 ^^^^^^12 i^

GREAT 8 86,000,000.000 BRITAIN" « 39,000,000,000

859,000,000,000 FRANCE- 624,000,000,000

ITALY--- 8 20,000,000,000 '"*5, 000, 000, 000

AUSTRIA HUNGARY "

Fig. 38. .

THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR 39

It is possible to estimate the worth of all that our per cent of indebtedness is smaller the property owned by each nation and thus than that of any one of the other Powers. find its total wealth. Then by comparing This means that the loans we make to our the debt of each with this total wealth its Government are far safer than those made to percent of indebtedness can be shown. any one of these other Powers. In other Note this per cent in the table. Observe words, our investments in United States that the wealth of the United bonds and war savings stamps are the safest The security States far exceeds that of any investments in the wide world. That is

States loans ^^^ ^^ ^^^ other countries. In something to make us proud, and also to fact, it is as great as that of sev- make us eager to make more loans to eral of them added together. Observe, also, Uncle Sam.

States of Germany

Population Population Name Aeea sq. mi, Name Abea sq. mi. 1910 1910

Kingdoms — Principalities —

Prussia 134,616 40,165,219 Sch warzbu rg-Sonders- Bavaria .... 29,292 6,887,291 hausen 333 89,917 Saxony 5,789 4,806,661 Schwarzbiu"g-Rudolstadt 363 100,702 Wiirttemberg—. 7,534 2,437,574 Waldeck . . . 433 61,707 Grand-Duchies Reuss-Greiz . 122 72,769 Baden 5,823 2,142,833 Heuss-Schleiz 319 152,752 Hesse 2,966 1,282,051 Schaumburg-Lippe 131 46,652 Mecklenburg-Schwerin 5,068 639,958 Lippe .... 469 150,937

Saxe-Weimar . 1,397 417,149 Free Towns — Mecklenburg-Strelitz 1,131 106,442 Liibeck 115 116,559 Oldenburg .... 2,482 483,042 Bremen 99 299,526 Duchies — Hamburg . 160 1,014,664 Brunswick .... 1,418 494,339 Imperial Territory —

Saxe-Meiningen . 953 278,762 Alsace-Lorraine . 5,604 1,874,014

Saxe-Altenburg . 511 216,128 German Empire 208,780 64,925,993

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha . 764 257,177 Anhalt 331,128

Colonies formerly in possession of Germany

Name Abea sq. mi. Population Name Area sq. mi. POPULATIOX (Estimated) (Estimated) (Estimated) (Estimated)

In Africa Caroline, Pelew, and Togoland 33,700 1,000,000 Marianne Islands SOO 41,600 Kamerun 190,000 3,500,000 Solomon Islands 4,200 45,000 S. W. Africa .... 322,450 200,000 Marshall Islands 160 15,000 East Africa .... 364,000 7,000,000 Samoan Islands . . . 985 33,000 In the Pacific In Asia — German New Guinea 70,000 110,000 Kiauchau .... 117 60.000

Bismarck Archipelago . 20,000 188,000 Total dependencies . 1,600,412 12,192,600 »

40 THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE GREAT WAR

DECLARATIONS OF WAR ALLIED POWERS

N.^.T10N Declaration op War Aoainst 1914 1 1917 France Germany Aug. 3 Austria Aug. 13 Tiu-key Nov. 5 Bulgaria Oct. 16 Great Britain Germany Aug. 4 Austria Aug. 13 Turkey Nov. 5 Bulgaria Oct. 15

Serbia Germany Aug. 9 Turkey Dec. 2 Bulgaria Oct. 16 Montenegro Austria Aug. 8 Germany Aug. 9 Japan Germany Aug. 23 Russia Turkey Nov. 3 Bvilgaria Oct. 19

Portugal Germany Nov. 23 24 Italy Austria May Turkey Aug. 21 Bulgaria Oct. 19 Germany Aug. 28 May 24 San Marino Austria Roumania Austria Aug. 27 Nov. 28 Greece Germany July 2 Bulgaria July 2 United States Germany Apr. 6 Austria Dec. 7 Cuba Germany Apr. 7 Panama Germany Apr. 7 Austria Dec. 10 China Germany Aug. 14 Austria Aug. 14 BrazQ Germany Oct. 26 Siam Germany July 22 Austria July 22

Liberia Germany Aug. 4 CENTRAL POWERS Nation Declaration op War Against 1914 1917

. Aug. 1 Germany Russia . France Aug. 3

Belgium . . Aug. 4

Portugal . . Mar. 9

Roumania . Sept. 14 July 28 Austria Serbia . . Russia . . Aug. 6 Montenegro Aug. 9 Japan Aug. 27

Belgium . . Aug. 28

Allies Nov. 23 Turkey . . Roumania Aug. 29

Bulgaria Serbia Oct. 14 NATIONS THAT HAVE SEVERED RELATIONS WITH GERMANY June 17, 1917 Bolivia April 14, 1917 Haiti . . April 27. 1917 Costa Rica Sept. 21, 1917 Guatemala 1917 Honduras May 17, 1917 Peru Oct. 6, Oct. 7, 1917 Nicaragua May 18. 1917 Uruguay . I Declaration of war by the provisional government of Greece.