Prehistoric Turquoise Mining in the Halloran Springs District, San Bernardino County, California

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Title Prehistoric Turquoise Mining in the Halloran Springs District, San Bernardino County, California

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Journal Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology, 2(2)

ISSN 0191-3557

Authors Leonard., N. Nelson, III Drover, Christopher E.

Publication Date 1980-12-01

Peer reviewed

eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 245-256 (1980).

Prehistoric Turquoise Mining in the Halloran Springs District, San Bernardino County, California

N. NELSON LEONARD, III CHRISTOPHER E. DROVER

REHISTORIC turquoise mining in Cali Eisen observed prehistoric mines and petro- Pfornia has been treated in a cursory glyphs, and collected Southern Paiute oral fashion, and the papers which address this traditions. While providing interesting specula industry are based upon field work prior to tion for readers of the Call, the expedition 1930. The intensity of mining and its relation accomplished little to further scientific under ship to cultural development in the Southwest standing of the region. Commercial mining suggests this activity warrants detailed analysis. interests continued into the second decade of This article addresses the tools, techniques, the twentieth century. and antiquity of aboriginal turquoise mining in Malcolm Rogers' work in the 1920's was the Halloran Springs district of San Bernar the earliest archaeological research and the dino County, California. only systematic study of prehistoric mining in this region until the present. Rogers, stimu HISTORICAL BACKGROUND lated by accounts in geologic reports and Claims filed between 1895 and 1898 and journals, conducted a cursory field review in mineral specimens submitted to the California 1926 and a more extensive nine-day reconnais State Mining Bureau marked the European sance during October, 1928. During the latter discovery of the Halloran Springs turquoise expedition, surface collections at East Camp' district (Pogue 1915:46). Further discoveries and a survey of local springs and rockshelters and reports of extensive mineral deposits and were conducted. Several mines and rockshelters evidence of prehistoric mining prompted the were excavated. Rogers believed that the mate San Francisco Call newspaper to organize a rial culture he observed resulted from sporadic small expedition headed by Gustav Eisen of but intensive use of the area during early the California Academy of Sciences to explore Puebloan times (Basketmaker III and Pueblo I) the region (Walcott 1898:582-584; Eisen 1898). and more recently by Chemehuevi (Rogers n.d., 1929). In 1944, Robert Heizerand AdanTreganza N. Nelson Leonard, IlL San Bernardino County Museum, 2024 Orange Tree Lane, Redlands, CA 92373. Christopher E. Drover, (1944) reviewed prehistoric mines and quarries Golden West College, Huntington Beach, CA 92647. in California. They abstracted data from [245] 246 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Rogers' field work and concluded, as did miners had also obtained two radiocarbon Rogers, that these mines were the result of use samples from the Bonnie Blue. by Southwestern populations. Heizer, inter All remains about the mine were collected, ested in evidence of Southwestern culture con boxed, and labeled for transport. The two tact in California, visited one site at the north radiocarbon samples, which had been wrapped end of East Cronise Lake (SBr-202) and West in aluminum foil and stored in a glass jar, were Camp (SBr-207) in 1949. also packed. An undisturbed prehistoric mine directly PROCEDURES adjacent to the Bonnie Blue was selected for During April, 1978, the senior author excavation. A one-meter-wide trench, oriented visited the Halloran Springs region in the com north/south, and including the total areal pany of Robert Reynolds, Curator of Earth extent of the mine was laid out. The trench was Sciences, San Bernardino County Museum. excavated in cultural levels, and excavation Mr. Reynolds had been monitoring modern- continued until bedrock was encountered. The day mining operations and advising miners of trench was excavated with trowel and shovel; the scientific value of the prehistoric tools they all soil was passed through 1/8-inch-mesh. A discovered in working prehistoric sites. Cur second trench, oriented east/west and inter rent mining practice is to identify the site of secting the first at the center of the mine, was prehistoric mines, remove the fill (muck) from also excavated. All materials were located these mines, and work exposed veins by hand. three dimensionally while in situ. Observations During this visit to the West Camp vicinity were recorded by notes and photographs. (SBr-207), we found the miners had set aside Preliminary processing, washing, cata all foreign materials—cultural remains— loguing, and analysis of cultural remains took encountered during their mucking operations. place at the San Bernardino County Museum. As all work was accomplished by hand, it Tools were described by the following attri appeared the miners were able to recover a butes: material, weight, dimensions, shape of high percentage of prehistoric remains. These utilized surface, type of wear, and presence of were stacked directly adjacent to the mines. purposeful shaping. All remains have been Because of the large quantity of tools and stored at the San Bernardino County Museum, tool spalls retained and our wish to excavate a and are referenced by accession number mine using archaeological methods, a second SBCM-387. Prior to and during analysis, the field trip was planned. In May, 1978, the collections of the museum were reviewed as authors and a crew of four spent two days were the collections and field notes of Malcolm examining the area within the Apache Canyon Rogers, which are housed at the San Diego Mining Company claims, collecting a large Museum of Man. Radiocarbon samples were sample of prehistoric artifacts, and excavating analyzed by the Archeometry Laboratory, a small prehistoric mine. University of California, Riverside. After reviewing cultural remains assembled MINING DISTRICT AND MINES about the numerous active mines, materials from one mine, the Bonnie Blue, were selected The Halloran Springs District, Manvel for study. This mine was the farthest from the District (Kuntz 1899, 1905; Pogue 1915), or mine headquarters and was the most recently Turquoise Mountain region (Rogers 1929), is excavated. These factors suggested that it was situated 25 km. northeast of Baker, California unlikely that many of the artifacts had been (Fig. 1). The district is characterized by two removed by rockhounds. Contemporary distinct topographic regions. The west and PREHISTORIC TURQUOISE MINING 247 central portions of the district are dominated they are marked by shallow, roughly circular by rugged, weathered ridges and hills rising to depressions. The actual mine is usually a maximum of some 250 m. above surrounding irregular, with its shape and size dictated by the alluvial deposits. The eastern region is domi occurrence of turquoise deposits. The mines nated by small mesas capped by Pleistocene range in size from prospects 2.5 m. by 2.0 m. by basalt lava flows. The southern portion is 0.7 m. to large mines 9.0 m. by 4.0 m. by 4.0m. deeply eroded, forming step-walled canyons; in extent. Mines on the scale of the latter are the northern aspect features gently sloping not unusual. Rogers (1929:4) describes the alluvial valleys and fans. mucking of a large mine at East Camp; compar able mines have been uncovered in the West Camp group (E. Nazelrod, 1978, personal communication). The following characterization of mine fill has been drawn from the excavation of a small open pit mine at West Camp. The surface sur rounding the mine exhibited a thin layer (0 to 10 cm.) of light yellow-brown sandy soil mixed with angular rock. The upper (0 to 30 cm.) level in the mine was a light gray-brown compact sandy soil with angular rock. No cultural remains occurred in the soil surrounding the Fig. 1. Location of the Halloran Springs district. mine or on the upper level within the mine. Below 30 cm. the soil became loose and rocky; Historically, mining claims have clustered a calcium carbonate cement coated many of in three areas: West Camp, Middle Camp, and the rocks. This soil persisted to bedrock; all East Camp (Kuntz 1899; Pogue 1915). These cultural remains occurred in this level. clusters also reflect aboriginal patterns of DESCRIPTION OF TOOLS mining. West Camp is located on the rugged western slopes of Turquoise Mountain. This The only published description of tools was probably the most heavily mined region from the Halloran Springs District is Rogers' prehistorically (Rogers 1929:5). Many of the 1929 account. He describes stone mauls, picks, mines have been obliterated by modern mining and axes. These groupings are based upon the activity or obscured by erosion. Middle Camp shape of the utilized surface: "blunt-nose is located 5 km. to the east on the eastern slopes hammer, a sharp-nose pick, and a chopping of Turquoise Mountain. Aboriginal mines are type similar to the double-bitted axe" (Rogers located about the base of the rocky slopes. 1929:5). Tool forms are further divided into There is little evidence of aboriginal mining at two classes: tools "crudely" shaped and made this location (Rogers n.d.). Seven kilometers from local basalt and those "carefully" shaped farther east is East Camp where aboriginal specimens of non-local materials. mines are situated in shallow alluvium near While the forms described by Rogers have low rock outcrops. In 1928, Rogers found this been recognized by subsequent researchers, to be the best preserved grouping of aboriginal they represent the unusual rather than the mines. commonplace tool forms. The current sample Prehistoric turquoise mines in the Halloran of 184 hammers contains 24 grooved or Springs District are of a open pit type. Today notched specimens, Rogers' "crudely shaped" 248 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY category. No specimens comparable to those 250 to 1700 gm. Thirty-three percent of these described as "carefully shaped" have been hammers are over 1000 gm. There is also a recovered, although one three-quarter grooved tendency for utilized edges to be less acute. axe, exhibiting extensive pecking and grinding, Notches and grooved tools were presum was recently recovered from a mine at West ably hafted. Comparable forms have been Camp. recovered elsewhere with handles in place. Hammers are blocks or large flakes of Hammers from salt mines in southeastern stone showing evidence of battering, crushing, Nevada (Harrington 1927; Shutler 1961:Plate and pitting. A variety of raw material was 102a) exhibit a split branch encircling the ham selected: basalt (82), quartz (45), quartz breccia mer head tied with twine about the base of the (24), meta-quartzite (23), quartzite (7), gneiss head. Similar branch handles without twine (2), and chalcedony breccia (1). All but quartz lashing have been found in turquoise mines in ite are available within 10 km. of the mines. Zacatecas, Mexico (Weignad 1968: fig. 8). Quartzite occurs in the Clark and Mescal Seven of the twenty-four notched and Mountains to the east, the Old Dad Mountains grooved hammers exhibit abraded areas on to the south, and the Soda Mountains to the lateral surfaces. These areas are polished and west. Tool mass varies greatly; weights range exhibit striations visible without magnifica from 60 gm. to 3.56 kg. Despite this range, 85% tion. These areas range in size from surfaces of the tools weigh 1 kg. or less. Eighteen of the measuring I cm. by 4 cm. to surfaces 12.7 cm. smaller hammers are reused spalls from large by 7.6 cm. Rogers (1929:5) noted the presence hammers. of polish on specimens and cites this as evi Tools exhibit one or more utilized surfaces. dence of wedges associated with hafting. This The shape of these surfaces, the cross-section may be the case in some instances; however, it at a right angle to the long axis of the edge, is also likely that hammers functioned as varies from acutely angular (17) to angular lapping stones (a grinding or polishing tool). (126) to rounded (171) to flat (7). Acutely Three hammers, lacking notches or grooves, angular edges are limited to smaller tools, tools exhibit polished surfaces. In addition, a single with a mean weight of 250 gm. piece of quartz breccia has been recovered The majority of tools are irregular in out- which exhibits a polished surface measuring fine exhibiting no modifications other than 9.5 cm. by 11.4 cm. and no evidence of through use (Fig. 2c-f). Twenty-four specimens battering. exhibit notching (19) or grooving (5). Notches The only other cultural remains collected occur medially (Fig. 2b); two or three may be are a possible wedge and hammer spalls. The present, depending on the size and thickness of wedge is a large flake of basalt exhibiting bat the tool. Shaping ranges from a single blow to tering about the striking platform and edge pecking of a deep, broad notch. Grooves are opposite the platform, with polishing and pecked medially (Fig. 2a); at least 30% of the striations over 40% of the dorsal surface. tools' circumference displays modification. Twenty-seven spalls were recovered. These are Notches are present in cases where the groove unmodified fragments of hammers; they range did not extend to a protruding edge. in weight from 6 to 72 gm. As a group, hammers which exhibit shap ing differ in other aspects from the more TURQUOISE MINING numerous unshaped hammers. All grooved or notched hammers are made of basalt. The Turquoise is a secondary mineral, forming weight range is not as great, and varies from veins in fragmented igneous rock or irregular PREHISTORIC TURQUOISE MINING 249 nodules in highly altered rock. It forms veinlets, specimens may be found within a few feet of filling joint planes and fracture zones in the the surface. granitic porphyry at West Camp. The hardness Current turquoise mining operations in of turquoise is between 5 and 6 on the Mobs clude a sequence of tasks comparable to the scale; the surrounding granitic porphyry is aboriginal mining process: location of a poten approximately 6. Veins of turquoise may be tial mineral source, exposure of a productive found exposed in rock outcrops; good quality vein by removal of the surrounding rock, ex-

Fig. 2. Common hammer forms from Halloran Springs district: a.grooved hammer; ^.notched hammer; f-/.-unshaped hammers. Length of a: 21.5 cm. Photo by R. A. Hicks. 250 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY traction of turquoise specimens, and reduction the mines. of specimens by removal of matrix. Through The use of fire or combination of fire and out the extraction process, it is necessary to water to fracture rock was a method employed have a relatively clear working area; thus to mine turquoise in Nevada, Arizona, and removal of waste rock is an integral part of New Mexico. Reference has been made to mining. numerous concentrations of burnt rock in Aboriginal miners located turquoise de mine fill (Bartlett 1935; Shutler 1961). Rogers posits by surface traces. Rogers (n.d.) described (n.d., 1929) does not mention burnt rock in drifts excavated into soil overburden to follow mines at East Camp. While a small hearth was a vein exposed in a bedrock outcrop. Rock was present in the Bonnie Blue Mine, miners report fragmented and removed to a depth sufficient that burnt rock is uncommon (E. Nazelrod, to yield quality specimens. If a vein of tur 1978, personal communication). Fire-affected quoise proved productive or other veins were rock was not present in the small mine exca exposed, the operation was expanded. vated by the authors, nor was it observed in the Extraction of rock and removal of tur dumps from recent mucking of aboriginal quoise specimens was accomplished by fractur mines. Thus, it appears that rapid heating and ing of the granitic porphyry by percussion. A cooling was not a primary technique in the wide range of hammers were employed. The fragmentation of rock in the Halloran Springs more massive hammers, exhibiting broader District. working surfaces, were used for the heaviest Nasiatka (1969:3), in discussing tunnefing work. Lighter forms with angular working technology prior to blasting, stated that fire- surfaces were used for more precise work. setting was the primary method of breaking Most hammers were hand held. Approxi hard rock wherever an adequate supply of mately 15% of the hammers were hafted. As timber existed. Another common method of hafting allowed application of greater force, rock fragmentation cited by Nasiatka was the these tools were probably associated with use of wooden wedges. Stone tools were used breakage of large masses. Large spalls driven to drive wooden wedges into fractures. The from working edges and hammers split in half wedges were then moistened and as the wood attest to the heavy use of these tools. expanded the rock was loosened. If methods Shaping of turquoise is represented by one other than percussion were employed in the lapping stone and polished surfaces on several Halloran Springs District, the use of wooden hammers. Lapping may have been restricted to wedges is likely. grinding a facet on a specimen to ascertain the quality of the stone. DATING No artifacts that may be associated with removal of waste rock were recovered. Three basic lines of evidence are available However, fragments of tortoise shell have been in reconstructing the periodicity of aboriginal reported from mines at West Camp (E. Naxel- mining in the Halloran Springs region: cross- rod, 1978, personal communication). Rogers dating time sensitive artifacts in association (1929:4) described numerous tortoise shells, with turquoise mining to established sequences, the scapula from a large mammal, and two direct radiometric assays of organic remains large potsherds with ground edges found associated with mining, and ethnohistoric during the mucking of aboriginal mines at East accounts. Camp. These tools were probably used as A number of time-sensitive artifacts have scoops to collect and remove broken rock from been found in association with turquoise PREHISTORIC TURQUOISE MINING 251 mines, turquoise mining tools, and turquoise. In a later article, Rogers (1945) equated Cotton Southwestern pottery is the most diagnostic. wood series projectile points with Chemehuevi At East Camp Rogers noted the occurrence of type. . . . twenty-five Puebloan-type sherds . . . During much of Rogers' initial work. South consisting of two different pastes ... a western ceramic typologies simply were not white paste almost free of inclusions, and a available (see Rogers 1929:7). Later, Rogers gray paste, thick with coarse inclusions sent type collections to Lyndon Hargrave at [Rogers 1929:6]. the Museum of Northern Arizona (Hargrave 1932:14) and updated many of his earlier site Notably, Rogers observed the absence of records. Table I illustrates the variety of intru "Mohave" (buff and brown) wares at East sive Southwestern ceramics found by Rogers Camp (1929:6). The gray wares would appear in the Halloran Springs District. to be Lino Gray (Tusayan Gray Ware—Tsegi Regarding other time sensitive artifacts, Series), and Pyramid Gray (Lower Colorado Rogers (1929:6, Plate 2) also recorded Buff Ware—Barstow Series), respectively ". . . one three-quarter grooved hammer (Colton and Hargrave 1937:191-192; Colton similar to those of southern Arizona." Other 1958). The occurrence of the coarse tempered similar, highly polished, three-quarter grooved Pyramid Gray in association with the more axes have been observed by the authors from finely tempered Lino Gray in contexts in which the West Camp locality both in the possession brown and buff wares were absent led Rogers of modern miners and at the San Bernardino to suggest a sporadic Basketmaker Ill-Pueblo County Museum (SBCM-387). Rogers' conten I occupation of the eastern Mojave Desert tion that this artifact was intrusive is supported (1929, 1939:61, 65; 1945:176). From a South by Heizer (1946). These axes lack raised ridges western context Lino Gray dates prior to A.D. around the grooves. Such axes are found only 750 (Colton and Hargrave 1937:191-192), in pre A.D. 500 contexts at the Hobokam site while Pyramid Gray is suggested to range from ofSnaketown(Haury 1976:291). Thetemporal A.D. 900 to A.D. 1150 (Colton 1958:Ware 16, context of these forms at Snaketown may also Type 31). One gray ware sherd from the West be significant in the light of turquoise sourcing Camp collection at the San Bernardino research by Sigleo (1970, 1975). County Museum exhibited olivine temper, a Sigleo's research involved trace element characteristic of Moapa Valley gray ware. analysis of turquoise recovered from archaeo Of several rockshelters Rogers investi logical sites in the Southwest. Specifically of gated, Half-Moon Cave produced both ceram interest were her findings that 13 turquoise ics and a stratified deposit. At least two beads from the Hobokam site of Snaketown, stratigraphic components were observed. The 30 miles south of Phoenix, Arizona, were lower level exhibited turquoise chips, hammers apparently derived from Halloran Springs. and hammer spalls, pottery, and milling tools. The beads, found in a Gila Butte Phase (A.D. Rogers (n.d.) noted that the potsherds were 500 to A.D. 700) house, were compared to Pyramid Gray, Deadman's Fugitive Red, and turquoise from 23 turquoise mining districts Verde Black-on-Gray. The upper component (Sigleo 1975). Since turquoise is known from contained arrow points, glass beads, beds Snaketown as early as the Vahki Phase (300 made of yucca and bunch grass, and milling B.C. to 100 B.C.) Haury has speculated that: tools. Of note was the absence of turquoise chips and mining tools. The projectile points The random selection from the collection were described as Chemehuevi (Rogers n.d.). as a whole suggest that the area known as 252 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Table 1 SOUTHWESTERN POTTERY FOUND IN ASSOCIATION WITH TURQUOISE MINING ACTIVITY^

Himalaya Mines Half-Moon Halloran Cave Wash M-20 M-20a M-21 M-23 M-70

Lino Gray (Before A.D. 750) XX XX

Deadman's Fugitive Red (A.D. 700-1050) XX XX

Deadman's Gray (A.D. 700-1150) XX

Pyramid Gray (A.D. 900-1150) XX XX

Aquarius Orange (A.D. 1000-1100) XX

Aquarius Black-on-Orange (A.D. 1000-1100) XX

Verde Black-on-Gray (A.D. 1050-1300) XX

East Camp group of mines in California of 1520 ± 180 radiocarbon years: A.D. 430 was the main supplier of turquoise in the (UCR 844b); corrected to A.D. 510 to A.D. later stages of Hobokam prehistory. 530 (Ralph er a/. 1973). Follow-up studies in this region to detect Ethnographic literature (Kroeber 1959; direct evidence of Indian activity, and Euler 1966; Laird 1976) indicates both the further testing of Pioneer Period [Vahki knowledge of the Halloran Springs turquoise Phase] turquoise samples to see if early district and the actual acquisition of turquoise stones came from there as well, could lead from this source by Chemehuevi and possibly to helpful information about Hobokam commercial and mining efforts [Haury Mohave groups. The reader may refer to the 1976:278]. paper by Drover immediately following this paper for relevant excerpts. Two radiocarbon determinations were The earliest known period of mining activ obtained from charcoal and bone specimens ity in the Halloran Springs District dates recovered from the Bonnie Blue Mine at West between A.D. 400 and A.D. 750. This period is Camp by contemporary miners. The wood marked by a radiocarbon date of A.D. 510 to charcoal specimen yielded a date of 880 ± 100 A.D. 530 from West Camp, the presence of radiocarbon years: A.D. 1070 (UCR 844a); three-quarter grooved axes at several locations correction for secular variation results in a in the district, Sigleo's identification of Hal range of A.D. 1090 to A.D. 1120 (Ralph er a/. loran Springs turquoise in a Gila Butte Phase 1973). An unburnt bone fragment of a large house at Snaketown, and Lino Gray pottery mammal from a separate context yielded a from East Camp. second date (acid insoluble organic fraction) The second period dates between A.D. 750 PREHISTORIC TURQUOISE MINING 253 and A.D. 1200. This period is defined by a Gray, the earHest pottery present at Halloran radiocarbon date of A.D. 1090 to A.D. 1120, Springs, represents a second area located in the from West Camp, sherds of Pyramid Gray Virgin River region and/or the Colorado from East Camp, sherds of Deadman's Fugi Plateau. This ware is likely of the Virgin or tive Red, Pyramid Gray, and Verde Black-on- Kayenta Branch, since it is not known to have Gray from the lower level of Half-Moon Cave, been manufactured southeast of the Colorado and sherds from the Halloran Wash site. River. The third period dates between A.D. 1200 The second period of mining is marked by and A.D. 1900. Mining during this period is ceramic types manufactured south of the suggested by the presence of Panamint Brown Colorado River between Needles and Flag- pottery (May 1978:38) at East Camp and ethno staffi Deadman's Gray, Deadman's Fugitive historic accounts. Red, Aquarius Orange, Aquarius Black-on- Orange, and Verde Black-on-Gray are all CONCLUSIONS indicative of the Cohonina and Prescott The infrequent occurrence of turquoise in Branches of the Patayan Culture. Rogers habitation sites in California and the presence (1945:175) felt that these types represented of intrusive Southwestern ceramics in the tur trade wares and predated local pottery manu quoise mining vicinity have been used to argue facture. This ceramic assemblage shares simi that mining was not conducted by local popu larities with assemblages from other areas of lations (Rogers 1929, 1939:65; Heizer and the Mojave Desert: the Providence Mountains Treganza 1944). However, at least one author (Davis 1962; Donnan 1964; True et al. 1966) has concluded that people Hving in the region and Cronise Lakes (Drover 1979). If there is a mined turquoise and traded both rough and pattern of ceramic similarity over the eastern finished goods to the south and east (King Mojave, then it may indicate cultural similar 1976:30). ities between the Amacava (desert and northern The general lack of finished turquoise Riverine Yumans) Branch of the Patayan Cul products in California, the scarcity of lapping ture with the Cerbat and Cohonina and Pres tools and partially complete turquoise artifacts cott Branches of northern Arizona (Drover within the mining district and the absence of 1979:137). this assemblage outside the immediate vicinity In other words, the prehistoric occupants of mines, and the demand for turquoise in the of the northeastern Mojave Desert from about Southwest suggest mining during the first and A.D. 900 to A.D. 1500 may have been the same second periods at Halloran Springs was by cultural-linguistic group as the Patayan of Southwestern populations. Artifacts used to northwestern Arizona. Schroeder (1952) uses describe the phases of mining also reflect the the term Amacava to describe this phase of source of miners and / or consumers or possible activity both at Willow Beach and in the redistribution centers for turquoise goods. Mojave Desert. Upland Patayan groups may The initial mining period was prior to local have been involved in turquoise mining and ceramic manufacture. While no Hobokam distribution with the Hobokam. An isolated ceramics have been reported from this area, the Hohokam burial near Kingman (True and three-quarter grooved axes are manifestations Reinman 1970) and a site near Prescott, of Hobokam culture. Sigleo's trace element Arizona, in which both raw and shaped tur identification of Halloran Springs turquoise at quoise occurred as well as turquoise mosaics Snaketown is a definite tie between this tur and Conus sp. tinklers (Spicer and Caywood quoise source and southcentral Arizona. Lino 1936) may suggest such cuUure contact. 254 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

The Shoshonean presence during the third Colton, H.S., and L. L. Hargrave period of mining is indicated by Panamint 1937 Handbook of Northern Arizona Pottery Brown Ware. This period corresponds to the Wares. Flagstaff: Museum of Northern occupation of the region by the Chemehuevi. Arizona Bulletin Number 11:29-35.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Davis, James T. 1962 The Rustler Rockshelter Site (SBr-288), A great many people have been involved in A Culturally Stratified Site in the the collection and analysis of data included Mohave Desert, California. Berkeley: within this report. The authors are most appre University of California Archaeological ciative of the time and information supplied by Survey Report 57:27-73. Ed and Monte Nazelrod of the Apache Canyon Mining Company. Bob Reynolds and Gerald Donnan, Christopher B. Smith, San Bernardino County Museum, 1964 A Suggested CuUural Sequence for the encouraged this research and offered advice Providence Mountains (Eastern Mohave drawn from their years of familiarity with the Desert). Los Angeles: University of Cali region. The Museum of Man, San Diego, fornia Archaeological Survey Annual allowed the authors access to the notes and Report 6:3-22. collections made by Malcolm Rogers; Ken Drover, Christopher E. Hedges was extremely helpful in locating 1979 The Late Prehistoric Human Ecology of materials. Dr. R. E. Taylor, University of Cali the Northern Mohave Sink, San Bernar fornia, Riverside, graciously provided for the dino County, California. Ph.D. disserta analysis of radiocarbon samples. Marilyn tion on file at the University of California, Meyer generously assisted by editing a draft of Riverside. this paper. Eisen, Gustav NOTES 1898 Long Lost Mines of Precious Gems are 1. Rogers often used the names of mines to Found Again, Located in the Remotest describe the location of cultural remains. The terms Wilds of San Bernardino County and he adopted are either incorrect or misleading Marked by Strange Hieroglyphics. San (Murdock and Webb 1966). Thus, this paper limits Francisco: The San Francisco Call, locational references to general areas: West, March 18 arid 27. Middle, or East Camp. Euler, Robert C. 2. Data presented in Table 1 are drawn from 1966 Southern Paiute Ethnohistory. Salt Lake the notes of Malcolm Rogers and Jay W. Ruby's City: University of Utah Anthropological Ph.D. dissertation (1970: Appendix II,). Papers No. 78.

REFERENCES Hargrave, Lyndon L. 1932 Guide to Forty Pottery Types from the Bartlett, Katherine Hopi Country and the San Francisco 1935 Prehistoric Mining in the Southwest. Mountains, Arizona. Flagstaff: Museum Flagstaff: Museum of Northern Arizona, of Northern Arizona Bulletin 1. Museum Notes 7(10). Colton, Harold S. Harrington, Mark R. 1958 Pottery Types of the Southwest. Flag 1927 A Hafted Stone Hammer from Nevada. staff: Museum of Northern Arizona, Heye Foundation Indian Notes and Ceramic Series 3D. Monographs 4(2): 127-131. PREHISTORIC TURQUOISE MINING 255

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