JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation Lecturer: Dr

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

University of Nairobi Department of Animal Production Course outline: JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation Lecturer: Dr. Muchai M.

Email ([email protected])

0722-286-133

Purpose of the Course The students should be able to demonstrate an understanding and application of marine ecology and biodiversity conservation in a management context. The student should be able to link ecology and biodiversity conservation to develop a solid foundation in managing fisheries resources.

Course Content • Overview of marine resources. (WEEK 1) • Marine Ecology & Habitats. (WEEK 2) • Subsistence and economic exploitation of marine resources. (WEEK 3) • Status of marine resources. (WEEK 4) • Threats to marine resources: anthropogenic and natural threats, climate change. (WEEK 5) • Management and conservation strategies: protected areas, ecosystem restoration, and ecosystem approach in management. (WEEK 6) • Integrated coastal zone Management (ICZM). (WEEK 7) • Relevant legislation and conventions including: Environmental Management and Coordination Act – 199 (EMCA 99), Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES), International Convention for Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) and United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and other Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs). (WEEK 8) • CAT (WEEK 9) • Practical (WEEK 10).

Expected Learning Outcomes of the Course The expected learning outcomes of the course should include: i. Capacity and ability to interpret, communicate, and provide solutions to ecology, biodiversity and conservation problems. ii. Competence in acquisition of broad scale knowledge on theory and practice of ecology, biodiversity and conservation. iii. Ability to apply the knowledge and skills acquired in the class to sustainably conserve and manage fisheries.

Mode of Delivery The course shall be delivered through scheduled lectures, case studies, discovery learning, problem-based learning, review of the scientific literature, experiential learning, group-based

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

learning, independent studies, Oral presentations by students; computer and field exercises; e- learning, assignments, field and laboratory practical, class discussions, student presentations on contemporary topics, essays, term papers.

Instructional Materials and/or Equipment LCD projector, prepared lecture notes, computers & computers software/programmes, textbooks/course books, e-books, journals, chalk and white boards, flip charts, video, photos, TV.

Course Assessment The course shall be assessed by assignment, sit in tests as CATs and through the main University Examination. CAT shall constitute 30% and main exam 70%.

Core Reading Materials for the Course Chape, S. et al. (compilers) 2003. 2003 United Nations List of Protected Areas. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/wdbpa/unlist Government of Kenya. 2011. Integrated Coastal Zone Management Action Plan for Kenya, 2011– 2015: Towards an Integrated Management of Kenya’s Coastal and Marine Resources. Nairobi: NEMA. Kaunda-Arara, B., and G.A. Rose, 2003. Effects of marine reef national parks on fishery CPUE in coastal Kenya. Biological Conservation 118: 1–13. McClanahan T.R. 1994. Kenyan coral reef lagoon fish: Effects of fishing, substrate complexity, and sea urchins. Coral Reefs 13: 231–241. McClanahan, T.R., and B. Kaunda-Arara. 1996. Fishery recovery in a coral reef marine park and its effect on the adjacent fishery. Conservation Biology 10: 1187–1199.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

OVERVIEW OF MARINE RESOURCES

The Kenyan coastline, approximately 500 km long, stretches from Vanga (Tanzania border in the south, 10 42’S) and borders Somalia (Kiunga, 40 40’S) in the north. The continental shelf covers an area of about 19, 120 km2 (UNEP 1998) and 200 nautical miles of EEZ.

Kenyan coastline is bathed by the northward-flowing warm waters of the East Africa Coastal Current, located between latitudes 1 and 5 degrees South with a narrow continental shelf, the coastal marine habitats are dominated by coral reefs, sea grass beds and mangroves, with large expanses of sandy substrates where river inputs from Kenya's two largest rivers, the Tana and Athi rivers, prevent the growth of coral reefs. The northern part of the coast is seasonally influenced by upwelling waters of the Somali Current, resulting in lower water temperatures for part of the year. The coast is made up of raised Pleistocene reefs on coastal plains and hills of sedimentary origin, which support native habitats, dominated by scrub bush and remnant pockets of the forests that used to cover East Africa and the Congo basin. The semi-diurnal tidal regime varies from 1.5 to 4 m amplitude from neap to spring tides, creating extensive intertidal platform and rocky-shore communities exposed twice-daily during low tides.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

Kenyan coastline has a rich DIVERSITY OF MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS. These ecosystems include MANGROVE WETLANDS, COASTAL FORESTS, ESTUARIES, SANDY BEACHES AND SAND DUNES, CORAL REEFS, AND SEAGRASS BEDS THAT SUPPORT A HOST OF MARINE AND COASTAL SPECIES. The ecosystems constitute an important life-support system for local communities. They supply vital resources that support livelihoods and economic development. Additionally, these ecosystems maintain the health of marine and coastal landscapes and seascapes at large. Kenya’s rich coastal biodiversity encompasses locally, regionally and globally important species, including Threatened species. The Kenyan coast is also endowed with a rich history of social and cultural interactions and traditions that span the entire shoreline. Notable amongst these traditions are the social, cultural, and economic opportunities that have been provided to the Kenyan coastal population through the use of the marine and coastal ecosystems for food, trade, recreation, and transport (Government of Kenya 2011). Marine resources must be properly managed to be sustainable for ourselves and future generations.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

MARINE (COASTAL AREAS) RESOURCES

Marine resources may be categorized as:

Physical Resources - Physical resources include petroleum and natural gas, which form from the buried remains of marine plankton. This category also includes many kinds of minerals, as well as fresh water extracted from seawater by desalination. Marine Energy Resources – extraction of energy directly from the heat or motion of sea water include several methods of generating electrical power from waves and currents, wind, tides, and thermal gradients in the oceans.

Biological Resources – are marine animals and plants harvested for food and other uses. The commercial fishing industry has fished many commercial fish stocks beyond their maximum sustainable yield.

Non-extractive Resources – include use of the oceans for transportation and recreation.

Renewable – naturally replaced by the growth of marine organisms or other natural processes. Examples are fish, kelp, sponges.

Non-renewable - deposited over millions of years and cannot be renewed in a human lifetime. Examples are natural gas, oil and solid mineral deposits.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

MARINE BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES

Plankton

PHYTOPLANKTON Phytoplankton, or algae, are tiny, single-celled plants. Phytoplankton are the primary producers of food and oxygen— the base of the food web. Phytoplankton need sunlight to live and grow, so the largest concentrations of phytoplankton are found near the surface of the water.

Major groups of phytoplankton include:

• Diatoms (Bacillariophyta) • Golden brown algae (Chrysophyta) • Green algae (Clorophyta) • Blue-green algae (Cyanophyta) • Dinoflagellates (Pyrrophycophyta) • Cryptomonads (Cryptophyta) • Microflagellates (Prasinophyta, Euglenophycota, Protozoa)

(Dinoflagellate) Noctiluca scintillans

ZOOPLANKTON

Zooplankton are planktonic animals that range in size from single-celled protozoa to tiny fish larvae to larger jellyfish. The zooplankton community is composed of both primary consumers (which eat phytoplankton) and secondary consumers (which feed on other zooplankton). Nearly all fish depend on zooplankton for food during their larval phases, and some fish continue to eat zooplankton their entire lives.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

(Jellyfish larva) Obelia sp. Copepod Acartia tranteri

Zooplankton are classified by size and/or by developmental stage.

Nanoplanktonic Flagellates

Nanoplanktonic flagellates help keep bacteria populations under control. They are characterized by either a long tail used for swimming (flagellates) or by hair-like structures called cilia Mixotrophs are an amazing organism that are half plant and half animal. Mixotrophs have the ability to ingest other organisms through phagocytosis (phago: "to eat" + cytosis: "cells" = the process of engulfing other cells for ingestion) but also contain functional photosynthetic structures.

Cnidarians

Cnidaria is a phylum that contains the colonial siphonophores and the scyphozoans—also known as the true jellyfish. Both of these animals are predators and have stinging tentacles.

Phylum Rotifera

Most of the rotifers are non-motile. Rotifers eat bacteria, detritus, other rotifers, algae or protozoa. Rotifers are highly efficient reproducers. They are able to reproduce asexually (without a mate) when environmental conditions are good, and sexually when environmental conditions are stressful.

Marine Gastropods

Marine gastropods include the larvae of benthic mollusks usually found in coastal waters, such as marine gastropods including heteropods or pteropods.

Polychaeta

The Polychaeta or polychaetes (Polychaeta means "many-bristled") are a class of annelid worms. Each body segment has a pair of fleshy protrusions called parapodia that bear many bristles, called chaetae, which are made of chitin. Polychaetes are sometimes referred to as bristle worms.

Copepods (Phylum Arthropoda, Subphylum Crustacea, Order Copepoda)

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

Most macrozooplankton are copepods found in marine ecosystems. Copepods swim using an antenna and frontal structures on their bodies. They eat phytoplankton and detritus, and occasionally other zooplankton smaller in size.

Cladocerans (Phylum Arthropoda, Subphylum Crustacea, Order Cladocera)

Claudocera are planktonic crustaceans found in coastal waters. They swim using an antenna, like copepods, but instead of using their first antenna—they use the second antenna. Cladocerans eat phytoplankton and other zooplankton. Like many species of zooplankton, cladocerans migrate to the surface at night. This is referred to as “diurnal migration”.

Adaptations

All species of plankton have been forced to develop certain structural adaptations to be able to float in the water column. Adaptations include: flat bodies, lateral spines, oil droplets, floats filled with gases, sheaths made of gel-like substances, and ion replacement. The flat body and spines allow some species of plankton to resist sinking by increasing the surface area of their bodies while minimizing the volume. All other adaptations keep plankton from sinking quickly to the bottom. Zooplankton have also adapted mechanisms to deter fish (their heaviest predator) including: transparent bodies, bright colors, bad tastes, red coloring in deeper water, and cyclomorphosis. Cyclomorphosis occurs when predators release chemicals in the water that signal zooplankton, such as rotifers or cladocerans, to increase their spines and protective shields.

Algae

Microscopic photosynthetic algae contribute a larger proportion of the worlds photosynthetic output than all the terrestrial forests combined. Microscopic algae and plants provide important habitats for life, sometimes acting as hiding and foraging places for larval forms of larger fish and invertebrates. Macroscopic algae in the ocean, such as Sargassum and Kelp, which are commonly known as seaweeds creates Kelp forests.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

MARINE ECOLOGY & HABITATS

The Marine habitats include mangrove forests, corals reef, Seagrass beds, Kelp forests, tide pools, muddy, sandy and rocky Shores/bottoms, Estuaries, Salt Marshes, Barrier islands and the open ocean (pelagic) zone.

Marine habitats can be divided into coastal and open ocean habitats. Coastal habitats are found in the area that extends from the shoreline to the edge of the continental shelf. Most marine life is found in coastal habitats, even though the shelf area occupies only seven percent of the total ocean area. Open ocean habitats are found in the deep ocean beyond the edge of the continental shelf

Alternatively, marine habitats can be divided into pelagic and demersal habitats. Pelagic habitats are found near the surface or in the open water column, away from the bottom of the ocean. Demersal habitats are near or on the bottom of the ocean. Pelagic habitats are intrinsically shifting and ephemeral, depending on what ocean currents are doing.

Marine habitats can be modified by their inhabitants. Some marine organisms, like corals, kelp and seagrasses, are ecosystem engineers which reshape the marine environment to the point where they create further habitat for other organisms.

Intertidal zones, those areas close to shore, are constantly being exposed and covered by the ocean's tides.

Shore habitats span from the upper intertidal zones to the area where land vegetation takes prominence. It can be underwater anywhere from daily to very infrequently. Many species here are scavengers, living off of sea life that is washed up on the shore. Many land animals also make much use of the shore and intertidal habitats.

Open Ocean

Pelagic zone

The open ocean is relatively unproductive because of a lack of nutrients, yet because it is so vast, in total it produces the most primary productivity. Much of the aphotic zone's energy is supplied by the open ocean in the form of detritus. The open ocean consists mostly of jellyfish and its predators such as the mola mola.

Coastal pelagic habitats Beyond the continental shelf, at depths ranging from 200 m and deeper, is the pelagic zone, where productivity is limited by light and nutrients. Primary and secondary plankton productivity is higher in the continental shelf than offshore, as a result of nutrient enrichment of shelf waters by heavy surface runoff from the rivers Tana.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

Deep sea: Sediment- and soft-bottom habitats

Sandy sub-tidal habitats dominate the shoreline from Malindi to Lamu.

The deep sea is considered to start at the aphotic zone, the point where sunlight loses its power of transference through the water. Many life forms that live at these depths have the ability to create their own light known as bio-luminescence.

Underwater video (sea creatures and their habitats)

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

MANGROVE FORESTS AND COASTAL WETLANDS

Mangroves are the evergreen salt-tolerant trees and shrubs growing in sheltered tidal waters between mean low water of neap tides and extreme high water of spring tides on tropical shores. Kenya’s mangrove forests and coastal wetlands are concentrated on the northern coast around the Lamu archipelago.

Mangrove forest community types found along the Kenyan coast

There are two general categories of mangroves: those found in fringe communities along the open coastline, and creek mangroves, which are found at river mouths.

Fringe mangrove forest form a relatively thin fringe along shorelines. Low-lying shores with large tidal ranges allow development of extensive fringing forests.

Fringe mangroves often indicate the presence of groundwater discharge sufficient to dramatically lower salinity levels, as are found at Mida Creek and the Lamu Archipelago.

Mangroves found at river mouths have greater patterns of zonation among species, because the tides, and thus the mangroves, reach farther inland. The major river drainages with the most extensive mangroves are the Tana and Sabaki.

Mangrove forests occur along the coast in the intertidal area between the land and the sea. Landward, mangroves are found adjacent to coastal terrestrial forests, while seaward, they coexist with seagrass beds and coral reefs.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

Nine species of mangroves are found in Kenya, protecting the coral reef community from land- based effluents and nutrients. The distribution of mangroves in Kenyan coast is primarily determined by salinity gradients, depth of water table, and the soil’s pH and oxygen content. • Avicennia marina is associated with sandy soils, • Rhizopora mucronata with muddy soils along rivers and creeks, • Ceriops tagal with dry areas, • Bruguiera gymnorrhiza with wet areas, and • Lumnitzera racemosa and Xylocarpus granatum with the landward fringe, where they also indicate the transition to brackish water. • Sonneratia alba is the pioneer species found on open coasts, with • Heritiera littoralis and Bruguiera often found behind it.

Salinity tolerances of selected mangroves.

Species Upper limit reference Note

A. marina 90‰ a dwarfed,  1 m height

L. racemosa 90‰ a

C. tagal 72‰ b healthy, but not tall

R. mucronata 55‰ a old ‘gnarled’ specimen

B. gymnorrhiza 10-25‰ a normal growing range

S. alba  35‰ a prefers normal seawater

Adaptations

Mangroves have developed many adaptations to survive in harsh saline conditions. The two most obvious adaptations mangroves have evolved are their roots and vivipary. Others include Salt regulation.

Roots

Most well developed mangroves possess aerial roots (e.g. stilt or prop roots in Rhizophora spp.; pneumatophores in Avicennia spp.; knee roots in Bruguiera spp. and Ceriops spp.). These roots function to ventilate the buried portion of the root system that lies in the highly anaerobic sediment.

Vivipary

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

Vivipary, where the embryo that results from normal sexual reproduction has no dormancy, but grows while still attached to the parent plant, is known in many mangrove families, including both Avicenniaceae and Rhizophoraceae. In Rhizophoraceae, the hypocotyl extends out of the fruit resulting in a propagule (see, for example, Rhizophora mucronata). One advantage is that while growing on the parent tree, the propagule is exposed to lower ionic concentrations. Propagules also float and are able to remain viable for weeks in seawater, thus facilitating dispersal

Salt regulation

A less apparent, but highly important adaptation is how mangroves cope with excess salt. All mangroves, to some degree, exclude salt at their roots and secrete salt through their leaves. Rhizophora, Bruguiera, Lumnitzera and Sonneratia all are highly effective at excluding salts at their roots, but are poor secretors (termed ‘non-secretors’). Avicennia on the other hand, can secrete salts at special salt glands on their leaves at a high rate.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

SANDY BEACHES AND SAND DUNES Sandy beaches are found throughout Kenya’s coast, most notably along the parts of the coastline dominated by terrigenous sediment and without fringing reefs, near the Tana and Sabaki rivers and northwards towards Lamu. Some of these areas have high dunes

Seagrass beds

Seagrass beds are usually associated with reef systems growing in shallow lagoons, creeks and bays. Sea grasses occur in extensive beds that cover the largest proportion of shallow reef slopes, and form an important habitat for many species living in them and adjacent systems.

Twelve seagrass species are found in Kenya, with Thallasondendron ciliatum Halophila ovalis, Halophila minor, Halophila stipulacea, Halodule uninervis, Halodule wrightii, Syringodium isoetifolium, Cymodocea rotundata, Cymodocea serrulata, Thalassia hemprichii, Zostera capensis and Enhalus acoroides.

Seagrasses show clear zonation patterns with water depth, sediment structure and exposure to air and sunlight during low tide. Species that are tolerant to exposure are found higher up on the intertidal, while those that cannot withstand exposure occur submerged in pools of water. Seagrass beds are important foraging grounds for endangered species such as dugongs

Other coastal and marine environment in Kenya: • Coastal forests. These are the last remnants of a vast forest belt that once extended from Somalia to Mozambique. Half of Kenya’s rare trees are found in coastal forests. • A variety of dry forests, thickets, woodland and savannas, including Brachystegia woodland, Cynometra thicket and palm (Borassus and Hyphaene) savanna. • A variety of dry bushland, forming a transition zone between the coast and inland habitats. • Grasslands and flooded grasslands, especially in the Tana River Delta. • Well‐developed fringing reef systems all along the coastline except where major rivers (Tana and Athi/Sabaki) discharge into the Indian Ocean. Patch reefs occur around Malindi and Kiunga in the North, and Shimoni in the south.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

CORAL AND REEF RESOURCES

Well-developed fringing reef systems are present all along the coastline except where major rivers (the Tana and the Athi/Sabaki) discharge into the Indian Ocean. Patch reefs occur around Malindi and Kiunga in the north, and around Shimoni in the south.

The Kenya coastline from Ngomeni southwards, and the islands from Lamu northwards is made up of fossil Pleistocene reef rock formations, resulting in large areas of intertidal reef platform below cliffs of 4–6 m in height. The cliffs are in the upper intertidal and exposed to the air for most of the tidal cycle, and thus have sparse biological communities

CORAL REEF ECOLOGY

• Coral reefs are rocky mounds and/or ridges formed in the sea by marine organisms through the accumulation and deposition of limestone (calcium carbonate). • The reef framework provides the structural foundation of a unique and rich marine ecosystem. A single reef may cover over100 sq km. • The living reef forms the top layer of the reef adding new limestone to the reef. • These specialized habitats provide shelter, food, and breeding sites for numerous plants and animals and form a breakwater for the adjacent coast, providing natural storm protection

Sometimes mistaken for and referred to as plants or rocks, corals are actually made up of small marine invertebrate animals known as Coral Polyps and their exoskeleton structure that acts as a home.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

Stony corals are the major reef architects. These small marine animals, (individual organisms are called POLYPS), produce a hard skeleton made of calcium carbonate, which they extract from the seawater and combine with CO2 for limestone.

• Coral are actually a special group of cnidarians • Hermatypic Corals - Corals that form large colonies called reefs and have a symbiotic relationship with the dinoflagellate Zooxanthellae • Ahermatypic Corals - Corals that are solitary or form small colonies- they often lack the symbiotic relationship with Zooxanthellae and do not help build reefs • All the different colors and shapes made up of thousands of individual polyps, each secreting its own small cup of coral limestone, which provide the building blocks for reef construction. Mutualism between the Coral Polyp and Zooxanthellae – group of dinoflagellates • Coral Polyp provides a home for the zooxanthellae, it provides nitrates and phosphates, and it gives off CO2 – 90% of the coral’s nutrients • Zooxanthellae carries out photosynthesis and make oxygen and food for the polyp through photosynthesis, gain nutrients from the corals nitrogen and phosphorus wastes, and provide for most of the colors for the coral in the reef making them look like underwater gardens

Coral reef Video

CORAL LIFE CYCLE AND REPRODUCTION

• First stage of the coral’s life cycle is planula larvae, which allows it to be free swimming. • Second stage of its life is polyp which is when the coral is stuck to a rock. • In the polyp stage, it is able to reproduce, o either asexual - involves the splitting of a coral (called fission) or sprouting another coral from itself (called budding). o sexually (with another polyp) o involves a cycle of:

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

SPAWNING >> FERTILIZING >> PLANULAE LARVAE SETTLEMENT >> CLONING. Planulae Settlement

REEF BUILDING ORGANISMS

Coral are actually a special group of cnidarians • Hermatypic Corals - Corals that form large colonies called reefs and have a symbiotic relationship with the dinoflagellate Zooxanthellae • Ahermatypic Corals - Corals that are solitary or form small colonies- they often lack the symbiotic relationship with Zooxanthellae and do not help build reefs • Fire corals • Blue and Organ Pipe corals • Coralline algae form cementing crusts that act as 'mortar' for the coral 'blocks' • Worm Reefs: Aggregations of the tropical reef worm (Phragmatopoma lapidosa) construct low reefs called Worm Reefs of tubes consisting of sand grains cemented together by protein. The reefs expand as worm larva settle on existing tube masses. The reef growth is controlled by waves bringing planktonic food and sand to the worms.

REQUIREMENTS FOR REEF FORMATION • A solid structure for the base with a hard substrate for attachment • Warm and predictable water temperatures > 20°C (68°F) and oceanic salinities • High Light Levels • Clear waters with high water transparency • Low nutrient waters - low in phosphate and nitrogen nutrients • Good water circulation with moderate wave action to disperse wastes and bring oxygen and plankton to the reef

Collection localities: Shelly beach lagoon Mombasa, Kikambala-Kanamai lagoon, Malindi deep sea, Lamu archipelago.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

TYPES OF CORAL

Corals come in a variety of shapes, sizes and colour. But there are two main types of corals: Soft Corals and Hard Corals.

HARD CORAL

There are 15 species of hard corals (Scleractinia) have been databased in the scientific collection which is a very small collection to the expected over 183 species recorded in Kenya (Fondo, 2002).

• Hard (Stony, scleractinian, “true”) corals build the reef by extracting calcium carbonate from the ocean water and they create a diverse 3-D habitat for many other organisms

HARD CORAL

Hard corals are made of a rigid calcium carbonate (limestone) and appear very much like rocks. Each polyp secretes a hard exoskeleton made up of calcium carbonate and a chalky internal skeleton that stays in place even after they die. As each generation of polyps dies and their exoskeleton remains, the coral grows a bit larger and because each polyp is so small, hard corals grow at a very very slow rate. Hard corals are scientifically known as “scleractinians”.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

Types of Hard Coral

Staghorn Coral

Staghorn coral (Acropora cervicornis): Staghorn coral is a branching coral with cylindrical branches ranging from a few centimeters to over 6.5 feet (2 m) in length. This coral exhibits the fastest growth of all known corals, with branches increasing in length by 4-8 inches (10-20 cm) per year.

Pillar Coral

Pillar corals (Dendrogyra cylindricus): This type of coral grows up from the sea floor, but without any secondary branching. They can grow to be up to 2.5 m (8 ft) tall. They can grow on both flat and sloping sea floors at a depth of between 1 and 20 m (65 ft). They are one of the few types of hard coral whose polyps can commonly be seen feeding during the day.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

Table Coral

Table Coral (Acropora): Table Coral is the same branching type of coral as Staghorn coral, however it grow as flat plates. The shape of table coral is ideal to expose as much of their surface as possible to sunlight. The usual color of table coral is a dull brown or green, but it is brightened up by the numerous reef fish that shelter under and around its plates.

Brain Coral

Brain coral (family- Faviidae): Named because of this corals spheroid shape and grooved surface which resembles an animal brain. The life span of the largest brain corals is 900 years. Colonies can grow as large as 6 or more feet (1.8 m) high.

Blue Coral

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

Blue coral (Heliopora coerulea): Blue corals is named for their distinctive, permanently blue skeleton, which is generally hidden by greenish-grey or blue polyps. Blue corals occur in tropical waters, on intertidal reef flats and upper reef slopes.

Great Star Coral

Great star coral (Montastraea cavernosa): This type of coral is a colonial stony coral. It forms into massive boulders and sometimes develops into plates. Its Polyps are the size of a person’s thumb and can be seen fully extend at night.

Tube Coral

Tube Coral (Tubastraea): Tube Coral is a large polyp stony coral, and is found in a variety of colors and forms depending upon species. The tubastraea faulkneri is known as the Orange Cup or Sun Coral.

Elkhorn Coral

Elkhorn coral (Acropora palmata): This species of coral is structurally complex with many large branches. A popular choice as a home for lobsters, parrot-fish, snappers and other reef fish. Elkhorn coral colonies are incredibly fast growing with an average growth rate of 5 to 10 centimetres (2.0 to 3.9 in) per year and can eventually grow up to 3.7 metres (12 ft) in diameter.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

SOFT CORALS

Soft corals are also composed of some rigid calcium carbonate, but it is blended with protein so it is less rigid than hard corals. These corals are “rooted,” but because they have no exoskeletons, they sway back and forth with the currents, appearing to be more like plants blowing in the breeze.

Types of Soft Coral

Gorgonian (Sea Fans)

Gorgonian: This family of soft coral is also called sea whips or sea fans. Individual tiny polyps form colonies that are normally erect, flattened, branching, and reminiscent of a fan. Others may be whiplike, bushy or even encrusting. A colony can be several feet high and across but only a few inches thick. They may be brightly coloured, often purple, red, or yellow. Gorgonians are found primarily in shallow waters, though some have been found at depths of several thousand feet. The size, shape, and appearance of the gorgonians are highly correlated with their location. The more fan-shaped and flexible gorgonians tend to populate shallower areas with strong currents, while the taller, thinner, and stiffer gorgonians can be found in deeper, calmer waters.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

Carnation Coral

Carnation Coral (Dendronephthya): Easily one of the most beautiful soft corals in the ocean the carnation coral comes in a spectacular range of colors and flourish below underhangs and caves. Unfortunately, this specimen of soft coral is extremely sensitive to changes in water chemistry and is on the decline.

Toadstool Coral

Toadstool Coral (Sarcophyton): Also known by a host of other names like Leather Coral, Mushroom Leather Coral and Trough Coral Sacrophyton corals are found in various shades of brown, with white or gold polyps. It is difficult to identify many species because they all have the similar appearance of a mushroom or toadstool, each with a distinct stalk and capitulum (cap). As they grow older, they develop a folded appearance.

Tree Corals

Tree Corals (family-Nephtheidae): These flowery soft corals are usually attached to hard surfaces including boulders, jetty pilings and coral rubble. These soft corals look like bushes. The common tissue is generally rubbery but rough to the touch. A thick ‘main trunk’ attaches to a hard surface on one end, with many small branches on the other end which is why they are referred to as Tree Coral. The Carnation Coral Dendronephthya belong to this family of soft corals.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

Sea Pens

Sea Pens (cnidarians belonging to the order Pennatulacea): Sea pens are grouped with the octocorals (“soft corals”), together with sea whips and gorgonians. They were named after their feather-like appearance reminiscent of antique quill pens. Sea pens may rise up to 2 metres (6.6 ft) in some species, such as the tall sea pen (Funiculina quadrangularis) and are sometimes brightly colored. Rarely found above depths of 10 metres (33 ft), sea pens prefer deeper waters where turbulence is less likely to uproot them.

Bubble Coral

Bubble Coral (Plerogyra sinuosa): Bubble corals have large water filled bubbles (vesicles) covering the large sharp sepia. Bubble coral can be seen in varying species, colors and forms. They maintain their egg-like or rather grape like appearance during the sunlit hours, then deflate at dark, manifesting finger-tentacles that feed on plankton, etc. This type of coral is sometimes referred to as Grape or Pearl Coral and also as Bladder Coral.

Video

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

MAJOR AREAS OF CORAL REEF DEVELOPMENT

• Shallow submarine platforms in the tropics • The best conditions for coral reef development are concentrated towards the western ends of the three major ocean basins (Atlantic, Pacific and Indian) so this is where most of the world's coral reefs are to be found.

THREE MAJOR REGIONS WITH GREAT DIVERSITY OF CORAL REEF ORGANISMS

• Indo Pacific Region – is the largest of the three major regions in center of map below • Red Sea – out pocket of the Indian Ocean in far west portion of the ocean basin • Greater Caribbean Region of the western Atlantic

Minor Regions of smaller fragmented areas of coral reef development

• Eastern Pacific, off Western Australia, Southern Japan in the Pacific ocean • Tropical eastern Atlantic, East coast of southern Brazil, Island of Bermuda in western Atlantic • These areas are at the extreme margins of the ecological tolerances of hard corals, where environmental conditions are only minimally capable of sustaining only a fraction of the hard coral species found in the two main regions of reef development

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

MAIN TYPES OF CORAL REEFS

The three main types of coral reefs are fringing, barrier, and atoll.

The most common type of reef is the fringing reef. This type of reef grows seaward directly from the shore. They form borders along the shoreline and surrounding islands.

When a fringing reef continues to grow upward from a volcanic island that has sunk entirely below sea level, an atoll reef is formed. Atolls are usually circular or oval in shape, with an open lagoon in the center.

Barrier reefs are similar to fringing reefs in that they also border a shoreline; however, instead of growing directly out from the shore, they are separated from land by an expanse of water. This creates a lagoon of open, often deep water between the reef and the shore.

Coral reefs are important because they bring in billions of dollars to our economy through tourism, protect coastal homes from storms, support promising medical treatments, and provide a home for millions of aquatic species.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

STAGES IN CORAL REEF DEVELOPMENT – THREE BASIC TYPES OF CORAL REEFS

They begin with a brand new tropical island produced by an oceanic hot spot or at a plate boundary and gradually change through thousands of years from a fringing reef, to a barrier reef, to an atoll, and finally to an extinct reef as a seamount (an underwater mountain) or guyot (underwater mountain or seamount with a flat top) A patch reef is an isolated coral growth forming a small platform in a lagoon, barrier reef, or atoll

Atoll with Patch Reefs Fringing Reef Barrier Reef

• The largest coral reef, the Great Barrier Reef, is 1,250 miles long • Large reefs grow at the rate of 1 to 2 cm per year • It's estimated that some of the largest reefs took as long as 30 million years to form • Scientists are aging reefs by counting the coral growth layers (like tree rings) Coral growth patterns: The growth rate and density of coral skeletons also vary with temperature and other environmental conditions, so their growth patterns can be analyzed much like tree rings. The chemical composition of the coral in a particular ring provides information about sea surface temperatures, salinity, runoff, and upwelling.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

ZONES OF A CORAL BIOME

• Coral reefs have the greatest diversity of marine life of any ocean biome and are often called the rainforests of the ocean. • A relatively small biome, but around 25% of the known marine species live in coral reefs.

• Shore or inner reef zone - area is between the crest and the shoreline. Depending on the shape of the reef, this area can be full of life including fishes, sea cucumbers, starfish, and anemones. • Crest reef zone - highest point of the reef and where the waves break over the reef. • Fore or outer reef zone - As the reef wall falls off, the waters get calmer. Around 30 feet deep, will be the most populated part of the reef along with lots of different types of coral species.

Importance of Coral reefs Coral reefs has one of the highest diversity ecosystem in the world with very high species diversity. Coral reefs provide an estimated US$ 30 billion each year in net benefits in goods and services to world economies, including, tourism, fisheries and coastal protection (Cesar et al., 2003) and are under heavy pressure with 27% already permanently lost. Coral reefs and corals are very important in ecosystem functioning including nutrient recycling, tourism attraction, aquarium and curio trade to earn income, provide resources for fisheries including food items such as fishes, crustaceans, and mollusks (Cesar et al., 2003). Reefs protect coastlines land from harsh ocean storms and floods. Coral provide bio-physical support to other critical habitats such as sea-grasses and mangroves, potent sources of important medicines, including anti-cancer drugs.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

CORAL REEF COMMUNITIES -CORAL REEFS ARE INHABITED BY THOUSANDS OF SPECIES INCLUDING: • Algae • Sponges • Soft corals • Sea slugs • Urchins and star fish • Worms • Crabs and lobster • Snails • Clams, scallops, and barnacles • Fish • Sea turtles • Sharks and rays

CORAL REEF FOOD WEB

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

CORAL REEF FISH COMMUNITIES

• Hundreds of species can exist in a small area of a healthy reef, many of them hidden or well camouflaged. • Reef fish have developed many ingenious specializations adapted to survival on the reefs. • They provide a home for 25 percent of all marine fish species • Loss and degradation of coral reef habitat, increasing pollution, and overfishing including the use of destructive fishing practices, are threatening the survival of the coral reefs and the associated reef fish.

STUDENTS: Coral Reef Fish Communities in Kenya

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

IMPORTANCE OF CORAL REEFS

• Fishery and nursery areas (food) • Tourism, recreation • Potential medicines such as medicines for cancer • Coastal protection - protection of coastlines from erosion

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

CORAL REEF HEALTH INDICATORS • Marine Apex Predators • Biomass • Average Catch Length • Coral Cover • Indicator Organisms

Coral Reef Indicator Organisms

• Regions of the world have established indicator organisms for coral reefs.

• In 1996 Reef Check developed a list of world-wide species which is used my many counties as a basis for regional indicator lists – the list was chosen to help recognize overfishing, blast fishing, poison fishing, aquarium fish collection, nutrient pollution, and curio collection

• Indicator Organisms: Global Banded coral shrimp (Stenopus hispidus) Butterfly fish (Chaetodon spp.) Crown of thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) Fleshy algae Grouper >30 cm (Serranidae, Epinephelinae) Hard coral Lobster Long-spined black sea urchins (Diadema spp.) Morey eel (Muraenidae) Parrotfish (>20 cm) (Scaridae or Scarinae) Pencil urchin Recently killed coral Snapper (Lutjanidae) Sponge Sweetlips - (Haemulidae Plectorhinchus spp.) Triton (Charonia spp.)

Indo-pacific region only Barramundi cod (Cromileptes altiverlis) Bumphead parrot (Bolbometopon muricatum) Giant clams (Tridacna spp.) Humphead wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus) Sea Cucumber (Thelenota ananas, Stichopus chloronotus)

Atlantic region only Gorgonia Flamingo Tongue Snail (Cyphoma gibbosum) Nassau grouper (Epinephelus striatus)

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

CORAL REEF THREATS

Threats to Coral Reefs, Their Impacts and Consequences

• Chemical pollutants • Excess nutrients • Sedimentation • Coral bleaching • Coral diseases • Climate change and ocean acidification • Overfishing

Healthy reef Damaged Reef

CORAL REEF MANAGEMENT

• Fisheries regulation • Marine protected areas • Coastal zoning • The problem of ecosystem phase-shifts (how if corals die and area is taken over by algae, it achieves a new steady state and is very difficult for corals to re-colonize).

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

CORAL FISHES IN KENYA Thirteen (13) major coral reef fish families include: Labridae (wrasses), Acanthuridae (surgeonfishes), Haemulidae (grunts/sweetlips), Scaridae (parrotfishes), Lutjanidae (snappers), Chaetodontidae (butterflyfishes), Siganidae (rabbitfishes), Mullidae (goatfishes), Lethrinidae (emperors), Pomacanthidae (angelfishes), Balistidae (triggerfishes), Carangidae (jacks) and Serranidae (groupers).

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

MARINE FISHERIES RESOURCES

Most of marine species diversity is benthic rather than pelagic. The fisheries resources of the Kenyan coast are estimated at 6 000 to 9 000 metric tonnes (UNEP 1998). Approximately 80 per cent of the marine fish catch is demersal, mainly from shallow coastal waters and reefs.

• Demersal marine fish Species • Pelagic marine fish Species • Crustaceans Species • Molluscs Species • Cephalopods Species

DEMERSAL Finfish of the families Lethrinidae, Siganidae (Rabbit Fish), Scavenger, Lutjanidae (Snapper), Parrot Fish (Scaridae), Surgeon Fish, Unicorn Fish, Grunter, Pouter, Black Skin, Goat Fish, Steaker, Rock cod, Cat Fish, Mixed Dermasal.

The red snappers (Lutjanidae) are very prominent in Kenya. Catches mainly in December, January and March, particularly on the part of the shelf adjacent to the southern part of North Kenya Banks and Ungwana Bay. Other times of the year the snappers are scarce on the shelf. The emperors (Lethrinidae) are never particularly abundant and catches mainly in January, March and November. The barracudas (Sphyranidae) are very abundant in Kenyan waters, the dominant species being Sphyraena japonicas mainly in January

The grunts (Pomadasyidae) are prominant in Kenya at all times with particularly good catches in November. The silver bellies (Leiognathidae) are very abundant and form dense local schools. Catches of the commonest species Leiognathus equulus are mainly in January. The goatfishes, Mullidae, especially Upeneus sulphureus mainly in July and in November. Other species are more sparsely distributed like U. vittatus. Others are the spotted sicklefish Drepane punctata found around Malindi.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

PELAGICS The small and medium pelagic fishery resources mainly consists of sardines (Clupeidae), anchovies (Engraulidae), and scads (Carangidae).

The medium sized pelagic are mainly captured outside the immediate inshore areas.

Cavalla Jacks, Mullets, Little mackerels, Barracudas, King Fish, Milk Fish, Queen Fish, Sail Fish, Bonitos / Tunas, Dolphins, Mixed Pelagics.

The larger pelagic fishes comprise the tuna and tuna-like species and the larger carangids which are caught in large numbers between 15–200 meters depth mostly in June and July. Some of them, especially the round scad Decapterus spp. and horse mackerel Trachurus spp., have vertical migrations, concentrating at the bottom during the day, and rise to the surface as schools in depths between 20 and 40 meters below the surface at dusk. Although there are some good catches of sardines and anchovies, small schooling pelagic fishes are never predominant over large areas as is the case for carangids. The local fishermen catch these fishes using deep nets at night and cast net early in the morning. Demersal fishes of importance comprise rabittfish (Siganidae), the scavengers (Lethrinidae), rock cod (Serranidae), snappers (Lutjanidae). The spiny lobster is common off Ungwana Bay at 200–250 metres in June, July and November.

Decapterus macarellus mainly in June, and in July. The larger carangids Gnathanodon speciosus, Carangoides malabaricus and Selar crumenophthalmus mainly in July. Spawning grounds of these species have not been located and it is possible that spawning takes place in deeper waters, further offshore. Ripening gonads of the round scads Decapterus spp. are observed in January, July and November, spent gonads are observed in March. It is possible that the carangids have two spawning seasons, April to June and September to October, but the peak of spawning seems to be in May-June along the coastline.

The sardines and anchovies are often caught in substantial quantities of completely different species, suggesting that schools are discrete and locally distributed. The main species caught in Kenya are round herring Etrumeus micropus, mainly in July.

Spanish mackerel, Scomberomorus commerson and S. plurilineatus and Indian mackerel, Rastrelliger kanagurta are caught accidentally in nets. They yield fairly good catches in November- April.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

SHELLFISH RESOURCES Kenya has a number of species of shellfish, dominating commercial and recreational shellfishing

Crustaceans- About 343 species crustaceans have been recorded in Kenya but few have been archived in the scientific collection. They include the following groups:

Crabs True mangrove crabs and mangrove associate crabs such as the hermit crabs comprises 36 species These are common in Gazi-Bay, Mida creek, Sabaki river estuary/mouth and Tana river delta. Crab species that are important in fisheries include 1. Blue swimming crabs eg Portunus pelagicus, 2. Thalamita crenata 3. Charybdis edwardsi 4. Charybdis natator 5. Mangrove mud crab Scylla serrata. The Coconut crab (Birgus latro) one of the largest of the terrestrial crabs and only found at Kisite/Mpunguti Marine Park in Kenya. Crabs of the coral reefs, seagrass beds, rocky shore and sandy beach comprise 19 species.

Plate 1. Uca vocans (Mangrove crab) (© Kochey, 2011) and Penaeus monodon (Giant tiger prawn) (http://www.google.co.ke)

Prawns Important prawn species which are harvested as food sources for local and export market include five penaeid species; Penaeus monodon, P. indicus, P .japonicus, P. semisulcatus and Metapenaeus monoceros commonly caught within the shallow continental shelf in the fishing grounds of Malindi and Ungwana Bay by commercial prawn trawlers and also in estuaries and deltas by artisanal fishermen. The caridean shrimps Nematopalaemon tenuipes are caught alongside the penaeid prawns by trawlers in shallow areas. The prawn juveniles utilize estuaries and deltas colonized by mangroves trees. The deep sea prawn Penaeus marginatus are caught by commercial trawlers in deep sea waters of up to 200m deep off Malindi although there are no available catch records of this species to monitor their population trends.

Lobsters The spiny lobsters (palinurid species) are important food items and include five common species; Palinurus ornatus (most common), P. homarus, P. versicolor, P. longipes longipes and P .penicillatus caught in shallow coral reefs areas by artisanal fishermen and also by prawn trawlers although in low quantities. There was evidence these commercial lobsters have showed a sharp decline (FAO, 2000). Currently a lobster management plan is still being prepared and is yet to be effected. Collection localities: Shimoni, Malindi, Kilifi, Kipini-Ungwana bay.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

The deep sea lobsters caught by commercial vessels off Malindi deep sea up to 400m as food sources include Puerulus angulatus, Puerulus sewelli and Nephrops (metanephrops) andamanicus. However no current information on the catch records of these species crucial in monitoring their population trends.

The edible slipper or shovel-nose lobsters caught within our waters although of low market value include; Thenus orientalis, Scyllarides squammosus, Ibacus novemdentatus and Parribacus antarctitus. The collection localities include Mombasa and Gazi-Bay.

Plate 1. (a)Cooked mud crab Scylla serrata and flathead locust lobster Thenus orientalis (©Kochey, 2011) and (b) painted Panulirius versicolor (©Midori, 2012

(B) MOLLUSCS- 297 species of molluscs have been recorded in Kenya. The edible mollusc species include Sephia pharaonis (cuttlefish), Loligo duvaucelli (squids), Octopus cyanea (octopus), Tridacna maxima (giant clams), Tridacna squamosa (giant clams), , Saccostrea cucculata (oysters), Haliotis pustulata (abalones), Pinctada spp (true pearl oysters). Collection localities : Gazi-bay, Malindi fishing ground, Shelly beach lagoon Mombasa, Kikambala-Kanamai lagoon Mtwapa, Sii Island South coast, Shanzu Beach lagoon Mombasa. Mangrove molluscs comprises 9 species and are important in mangrove ecosystem functioning including nutrient recycling. Important ornamental shell/Curio trade mollusks comprises 45 species collected in lagoons, sea grass beds, coral reefs and deep sea fishing grounds included in the present list/databased (although there many more in the scientific collection which have not been databased). Molluscs used in shell trade listed in CITES Appendix II include the Giant clams Tridacna maxima and Tridacna squamosa Dangerous mollusk species which can cause harm to humans in ocean lagoons include species of the cone shells eg Conus geographus and Conus textile.

Plate 2. Tridacna maxima (giant clams) (©Midori, 2012

(D) HOLOTHURIANS (SEA CUCUMBERS) The sea cucumber fishery commonly called Beche der mer has been active in Kenya for decades and generate foreign exchange and a livelihood for many coastal communities. 44 species have been reported in Kenyan waters (Muthiga et al., 2007). Among the important holothurians used as

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

food in our collection include about 5 species only out of 17 species of commercial sea cucumbers traded along the Kenyan coast. Most of these species have not been evaluated for listing in the IUCN redlist. Collection localities: The geo-referenced sites include Shelly beach lagoon, Kikambala-Kanamai lagoon and Gazi-bay lagoon.

(E) SEA URCHINS-ECHINODEA 10 species of sea urchins have been databased and were collected at Shelly beach lagoon, Gazi- bay, Kanamai lagoon. They are important in ecosystem functioning; ecological role in food-webs, nutrient recycling, some are used as fish bait and potential human food source particular in big hotels at Kenya coast eg Tripneustes grattila (see plate 5 (a)). They are also important as in research purposes as model organisms in developmental biology. Collection sites: Gazi-bay lagoon, Shelly beach lagoon Mombasa, Kikambala-Kanamai lagoon Mtwapa.

Plate 3.Tripneustes gratilla and Astropyga radiata sea urchins at Shelly beach lagoon (©Kochey, 2008)

Marine Mammals

There are five main types of marine mammals.

• Cetaceans include toothed whales (Suborder Odontoceti), such as the Sperm Whale, dolphins, and porpoises such as the Dall's porpoise. Cetaceans also include baleen whales (Suborder Mysticeti), such as the Gray Whale, Humpback Whale, and Blue Whale. • Sirenians include manatees, the Dugong. • Seals (Family Phocidae), sea lions (Family Otariidae - which also include the fur seals), and the Walrus (Family Odobenidae) are all considered pinnipeds. • The Sea Otter is a member of the Family Mustelidae, which includes weasels and badgers.

Marine Mammals

Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises, Seals, Manatees, Dugongs, Otters

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

Marine Reptiles

Reptiles which inhabit or frequent the sea include sea turtles, sea snakes, terrapins, the marine iguana, and the saltwater crocodile. Most extant marine reptiles, except for some sea snakes, are oviparous and need to return to land to lay their eggs. Thus most species, excepting sea turtles, spend most of their lives on or near land rather than in the ocean. Despite their marine adaptations, most sea snakes prefer shallow waters nearby land, around islands, especially waters that are somewhat sheltered, as well as near estuaries.

Birds

Birds adapted to living in the marine environment are often referred to as seabirds. Examples include albatross, penguins, gannets, auks. Gulls also spend most of their lives in the ocean. Some Terns spend some time in the marine environment. Kenyan marine waters extending into the West Indian Ocean and the waters around the Kenyan coast support a number of coastal and seabirds species including the Caspian Tern (LC), Crab Plover (LC), Gull-billed Tern (LC), Lesser Crested Tern (LC), Masked Booby (LC), Roseate Tern (LC), Saunders Tern (LC) and Sooty Gull (LC). Other bird families include Diomedeidae (Albatrosses), Procellariidae (Petrels and shearwaters), Phalacrocoracidae (Cormorants), Hydrobatidae (Storm-petrels), Laridae (Gulls and terns), Anatidae (Ducks, geese and swans), and Greater Flamingoes. Other birds include near-endemic mangrove kingfisher (Halcyon senegaloides), curlew sandpiper (Calidris ferruginea), little stint (Calidris minuta), crab plover (Dromas ardeola), Amani Sunbird, Golden Palm Weaver, Masked Booby, Mombasa Woodpecker, Uluguru Violet backed Sunbird, Tana River Cisticola and Caspian tern (Hydroprogne caspia) among many others. The Tana River Delta and Lamu areas are a hotspot for migratory seabirds from Europe and Asia in the Austral summer. Coastal forests shelter six species of globally threatened birds – Sokoke Scops Owl, Spotted Ground Thrush, East Coast Akalat, Amani Sunbird, Clarke’s Weaver and Sokoke Pipit while the coastal shelters the Malindi Pipit. The invasive species such as the Indian House Crow and Indian manna also are found here. Kenya has six (6) marine IBAs (Sabaki River Mouth, Dakatcha Woodland, Boni National Reserve, Dodori National Reserve, Mombasa Marine Reserve, Marereni Salt Pans). Regional priorities for the designation of marine IBAs in Kenya include the waters around: Kisite Island, Kiunga Marine National Reserve, Mida Creek, Whale Island and the Malindi- watamu coast. Birds

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

SUBSISTENCE AND ECONOMIC EXPLOITATION OF MARINE RESOURCES (WEEK 3) Coastal communities are often highly dependent on marine resources for their livelihood and food Security. The marine fisheries sector plays an important role in the economy by providing employment and income to over 1 million people engaged in fish production and related enterprises. An estimated 14 000 to 14 500 artisanal fishers, using different types of gear including trap, hook and line, seining, gill netting spear fishing and gleaning, are involved. Commercial trawling activities take place off the reefs in deeper waters. The Marine fisheries resources are still largely under-exploited especially in the deep ocean waters. The Kenya Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) which extends up to 200 nautical miles, remains unexploited by artisanal fishermen and continue to be illegally exploited by the Distant Water Fishing Nations (DWFN).

Most of marine fishing in Kenya is small-scale artisanal that operate in the coastal near-shores. The major fishing areas reported along the Kenyan coast are the Kiunga coastline and Lamu islands in the North, Tana River mouth, Ungwana Bay and Malindi area including the offshore North Kenya Bank and Shimoni, Vanga, Funzi Island and coral reef areas on the Southern border. Some of the rich inshore grounds include grounds around the Lamu Archipelago, Ungwana Bay, the North Kenya Bank and the Malindi Bank. The small and medium pelagic fishery mainly consists of sardines (Clupeidae), anchovies (Engraulidae), and scads (Carangidae). The medium sized pelagic are mainly captured outside the immediate inshore areas. Industrial fishing is limited operating within the EEZ. This offshore fisheries zone is mostly exploited by vessels from Distant Water Fishing Nations (DWFNs). Information concerning the status of the Kenyan EEZ is limited in spite of an increase in offshore fisheries in the region from 1990s. The total amount of marine fishery production in Kenya is about 10,000 tons, mostly from inshore waters rather than offshore production. The Northern Kenya fishing area yields good commercial fish types for export and also supports a prawn fishery and a deep-water lobster fishery which fetch very high export prices. At the moment pilot studies and demonstrations are being conducted on better methods to culture oysters and the Brine shrimp (Artemia) at the Kenya coast to enhance economic gains rather than restock the coastal waters with such species. The sports fishing operate from the outer reef out to about 15 nautical miles from the shore along the entire coast. As a recreational activity, it has been taking place all along the Kenyan coast within the confines of various registered tourist clubs and at times on an individual basis. The fishing season normally lasts eight or nine months operating from the outer reef out to about 20 km from the shore targeting tunas and other big game fishes. The main sports fishing areas are Shimoni, Diani, Mombasa, Mtwapa, Kilifi, Watamu, Malindi and Lamu.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

MARINE CAPTURE FISHERY IN KENYA (2013 bulletin) 2016 BULLETIN

The marine capture fishery is composed of coastal and near shore artisanal, semi-industrial and offshore industrial fisheries. Artisanal and semi-industrial fisheries are exploited by the coastal local communities while the industrial fisheries are exploited by foreign fishing companies. During the year under review, the artisanal fishing fleet comprised of 2,913 fishing crafts and 12,915 fishermen (Marine Artisanal Fisheries Frame Survey 2014 report) while the semi-industrial fleet had only one licensed trawlers. The inshore waters which are fishing grounds for artisanal fishermen are over-exploited and degraded. Great potential exists in the exploitation of the Kenyan EEZ where estimates recently estimates indicate potential of 300,000 metric ton (Habib 2003). This fishery is currently exploited by Distant Water Fishing Nations (DWFN) upon payment of access fees to the State Department of Fisheries. The State Department has limited capacity for Monitoring, Control and Surveillance (MCS) to ensure compliance with the established fisheries management standards, besides it is possible that vessels could be accessing our EEZ resources without payment of access fees. However the challenge at hand is large and needs a comprehensive approach in order to establish and deploy a national fisheries enforcement unit. A well trained and a disciplined law enforcement unit is critical toward the management of every fishery particularly when its operation is based on best scientific information.

The artisanal fishing activities are affected by Kenya’s coastal oceanographic conditions which are caused by changes in the monsoon wind system (UNEP, 1998) that results to seasonal reversal process with NE monsoons between November-March and SE monsoons between May-September. These oceanographic processes cause distinct seasonality in the artisanal fishery, with high catches during the NE monsoon than the SE monsoon. These two seasons are referred to as Kazi kazi and Kusi by the locals. During Kazi kazi the sea is calm and there is a lot of fishing activities and fish landings are normally high while during Kusi the winds render the sea rough thus unfavorable to fishing trips.

During the year under review, a total of 9,134 metric tonnes of assorted fish species with an ex- vessel value of Kshs. 1,298,172,000 were landed by the artisanal fishers. This production reflected an increase of 3% from last year’s production of 8,865 metric tonnes with an ex-vessel value of Kshs. 1,207,098,000. The landings were done by 12,915 fishers using 2,913 fishing crafts with different types and sizes of fishing gears. The landings were done at some 197 landing sites distributed all along the whole stretch of the Kenyan Coastline.

Landings from artisanal fishery have been increasing, declining then increasing in cycles while the value of the fish has maintained an upward trend over the years. Fish production from the marine artisanal fishery for the last ten years (2004-2013) has remained fairly constant between 7,000 and 9,000 metric tonnes only showing marginal fluctuations as shown in figure 6 below.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

Quantity in M. tons 10,000 1,400,000

9,000 1,200,000 8,000

7,000 1,000,000

6,000 800,000

5,000 Kshs 600,000 4,000 000

3,000 400,000

2,000 Value in '

Quantity Quantity metric in tons 200,000 1,000

- - 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Year

Figure 1: Trends of marine fish production by quantity and value 2004-2013

In 2013, dermersal fish species category dominated the marine artisanal fish landings by contributing 4,433 metric tonnes (48.5%) of the total marine landings while pelagic fish category contributed 2,362 metric tonnes (25.9%), the sharks, rays and sardines category made up 908 metric tonnes (9.9%) of the landings, crustaceans 762 metric tonnes (8.3%) and molluscs 669 (7.3% ) figure 7. This trend has been the same over a number of years, figures 8.

Sharks/R Molluscs, ays and 669, 7% sadines, Dermersa 908, 10% ls, 4,433 , Crustace 49% ans, 762, 8%

Pelagics, 2,362, 26%

Figure 2: Percentage contribution of marine fish species groups 2013

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

2013 2012 2011

669 Molluscs 649 629

908 Sharks/Rays and sadines 881 884

762 Crustaceans 739 574

2,362 Pelagics 2,297

2,444 Species group Species

4,433 Dermersals 4,300 4,416

- 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 Landing in metric tons

Figure 3: Trends of landings of marine fish species groups 2011-2013 During the year under review, Lamu County contributed the highest quantity of marine artisanal landings of 2,452 metric tonnes (or 26.8% of the total landings) with an ex-vessel value of Kshs 327,628,000 (or 25.2% of the total ex-vessel value). Lamu was followed by Kwale 2,358 metric tonnes (25.8%) with an ex-vessel value of Kshs 299,449,000 (or 23.1%), Kilifi 2,345 metric tonnes (25.7%) with an ex-vessel value of Kshs 366,919,000 (28.3%), Mombasa 1,178 metric tonnes (12.9%) with an ex-vessel value of Kshs 224,869,000 (17.3%), and lastly was Tana river county with a contribution of 803 metric tonnes or 8.8% with an ex-vessel value of Kshs 79,307,000 or 6.1% of the total ex-vessel value of all the marine artisanal landings as shown in figure 9 below.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

Quantity

3,000 400,000

366,919 350,000 2,452 2,500 327,628 2,345 2,358 299,449 300,000

2,000

250,000 Kshs

224,869 000 000 1,500 200,000

1,178 150,000 1,000

803

vessel value' in -

Production metric in tons 100,000 Ex 79,308 500 50,000

- - Lamu Tane river Kilifi Mombasa Kwale County

Figure 4: Marine fish production by Quantity, Value and Counties 2013

The most common fishing gears used by the artisanal fishers were gillnets, traditional traps (usio, malema), seine nets (which include beach, prawn and reef seines), long line hooks, hand lines, cast nets and trammel nets among others.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

Table 1: Marine fish landings by Species, Weight and Value 2011 – 2013

2011 2012 2013 SPECIES M. tons 000 Kshs M. tons 000 Kshs M. tons 000 Kshs DEMERSAL Rabbit fish 791 82,522 645 81,776 794 105,666 Scarvenger 683 63,759 602 71,633 685 81,641 Snapper 346 38,443 432 54,197 347 49,224 Parrot fish 538 42,151 416 44,969 540 53,973 Surgeon fish 94 8,332 104 11,295 94 10,668 Unicorn fish 154 14,692 133 13,680 154 18,812 Grunter 160 14,919 161 19,855 161 19,103 Pouter 164 14,403 168 17,277 165 18,442 Black skin 174 14,146 225 20,890 175 18,114 Goat fishr 115 11,460 125 14,940 115 14,674 Steaker 48 3,224 45 4,186 49 4,128 Rock cod 198 18,861 248 30,391 199 24,151 Cat fish 173 15,444 215 21,833 174 19,776 Mixed dermasal 778 66,211 781 79,531 781 84,780 TOTAL 4,416 408,567 4,300 486,451 4,433 523,153 PELAGICS Cavalla jacks 283 27,005 241 29,096 274 33,108 Mullets 228 22,807 292 31,381 220 27,962 Littla mackerels 339 32,183 329 37,998 328 39,457 Barracudas 327 33,869 260 31,386 317 41,523 Milk fish 63 5,578 79 9,521 61 6,839 King fish 173 20,835 121 17,942 168 25,544 Queen fish 199 20,711 179 20,889 192 25,393 Sail fish 145 17,735 142 21,193 140 21,743 Bonitos/Tunas 302 33,902 201 30,807 292 41,563 Dolphins 18 1,810 61 5,756 17 2,219 Mixed Pelagics 365 36,332 391 52,183 353 44,543 TOTAL 2,444 252,767 2,297 288,152 2,362 309,893 Sharks &Rays 306 31,602 373 46,064 314 46339 Sardines 211 15,238 194 17,449 217 22344 Mixed fish/Others 367 28,690 313 39,468 377 42069 TOTAL 884 75,530 881 102,981 908 110,752 CRUSTACEANS Lobsters 93 80,899 96 94,255 123 114,952 Prawns 275 54,719 408 83,747 365 77,752 Crabs 206 40,922 235 55,251 274 58,146 TOTAL 574 176,539 739 233,253 762 250,851 MISCELLANEOUS Oysters 30 1,903 74 6,942 32 2,179

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

Beche-de-mers 46 30,832 36 18,676 48 35,296 Octopus 419 40,093 394 49,402 446 45,899 Squids 134 17,600 144 21,241 143 20,149 TOTAL 629 90,427 649 96,260 669 103,523 TOTAL ARINE 8,947 1,003,830 8,865 1,207,098 9,134 1,298,172

VIDEO Coral fish in Kenya

Fish of Indian Ocean: Kenya

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

STATE OF MARINE HABITATS AND SPECIES (WEEK 4)

Scientific name Common Distribution IUCN Economic importance name Status Latimeria Coelacanth Malindi CE Fishery of no interest to human. chalumnae Scomberoides Talang Malindi NE Minor commercial and game commersonnian queenfish coral/rock reef fish us Siganus sutor Shoemaker Mayungu , NE Aquaculture spinefoot North coast near and Malindi commercial fishery Lethrinus Smalltooth Jacaranda coral NE Food fish, elongatus emperor reef, North coast And minor commercial near Malindi Sphyraena Great Ngomeni NE Minor commercial fishery, barracuda barracuda seagrass/sand sports fishing and aquariam stone trade Scarus russelii Eclipse Watamu LC Pulverising of coral rocks helps parrotfish sand/stone in sand production Carangoides Coachwhip Jacaranda , NE sport fishing and commercial oblongus trevally North coast near for food Malindi Liza macrolepis Largescale Sabaki mouth, NE Commercially important,sport mullet near Malindi fishing and for bait Terapon jarbua Jarbua terapon Sabaki mouth, LC Aquaculture,minor commercial Near Malindi Echidna zebra Zebra moray Malindi marine NE Aquarium fish, andminor park coral rocks commercial Scomberomorus Narrow- Kilifi creek NT Highly commercial fish and commerson barred entrance sports gamefish Spanish mackerel Antennarius Scarlet NT Important in aquarium coccineus frogfish trade,commercial Epinephelus Halfmoon Nyali bridge LC Minor commercial, subsistence rivulatus grouper sandy bottom fisheries, sport fishing

Amphiprion Twobar Mwipwa, near NE Aquarium trade allardi anemonefish Shimoni/ Wasini island Siganus sutor Shoemaker Mwipwa, near Aquaculture fisheries and spinefoot Shimoni/ commercial fish Wasini island

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

Gerres Longspine Mwarembo, NE Minor commercial macracanthus silverbiddy near Shimoni Scarus sordidus Wasini LC Aquarium and commercial Kipengefu, near Wasini island Acanthurus Daisy Makokokwe at NE Aquarium and commercial triostegus parrotfish Kisite marine park Lutjanus Dory snapper South East of Sii NE Sports and aquarium trade fulviflamma island near Shimoni, South coast. Ostracion Yellow South East of Sii NE aquarium trade and cubicus boxfish island near commercial Shimoni, South coast. Grammistes Goldenstriped South East of Sii NE Aquarium and commercial sexlineatus soapfish island near Shimoni, South coast. Gymnothorax Vagrant South East of Sii NE Fisheries buroensis moray island near Shimoni, South coast.

IUCN Red list Category CE – critically endangered, E – endangered, LC – least concern, NT – near threatened, V – vulnerable, D – data deficient, NE – not evaluated

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

Population Status, Trends, and Threats

Marine Fish

Taxa (species) Trends in abundance Status of the Threat and distribution species (Pressure) status Latimeriachalumnae Declining Critically High-increasing endangered

Scomberoidescommersonnianus Declining Near threatened High- increasing Siganussutor Stable Not evaluated Low- increasing Lethrinuselongatus Stable Not evaluated Low- increasing Sphyraena barracuda Stable Not evaluated Low-increasing

Scarusrusselii Stable Least concern Low- increasing Carangoidesoblongus Stable Not evaluated Low- increasing Liza macrolepis Teraponjarbua Stable Least concern Low- increasing Echidna zebra Stable Not evaluated Low- increasing Scomberomoruscommerson Declining Nearthreatened High-increasing Antennariuscoccineus Declining Near threatened High-increasing Epinephelusrivulatus Stable Least concern Low- increasing

Amphiprionallardi Stable Not evaluated Low- increasing

Gerresmacracanthus Declining Near threatened High increasing Scarussordidus Stable Least concern Low-increasing Acanthurustriostegus Stable Least concern Medium- increasing Lutjanusfulviflamma Stable Not evaluated Medium- increasing Ostracioncubicus Declining Not evaluated High-increasing Grammistessexlineatus Stable Not evaluated Low-increasing Gymnothoraxburoensis Declining Not evaluated High-increasing NB: status, trends and threats can be either: 1. Trends in abundance and distribution (Declining, or Stable, or Increasing) 2. Status of the species (Poor, or Moderate or Good as well as whether Critically threatened, Endangered, Vulnerable, Near-threatened, Not threatened). 3. Threat (Pressure) Status (High & increasing/deceasing or Medium increasing/deceasing, or Low & increasing/deceasing).

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

CITES LISTED FISH SPECIES IN KENYA

Family Rhincodon typus Whale shark II

Carcharodon carcharias Great white shark III

Carcharhinus longimanus Oceanic whitetip shark II Sphyrna lewini Scalloped hammerhead II Sphyrna mokarran Great hammerhead II Fish Pristis pectinata Smalltooth sawfish I (Pristidae) Pristis perotteti Large-tooth sawfish Pristis zijsron (Bleeker,1851) Green sawfish Lethrinidae Lethrinus harak Blackspot emperor Acanthuridae Acanthurus triostegus Surgeonfish Mullidae Parupeneus macronema Goatfish Carangidae Carangoides fulvoguttatus Yellowspotted kingfish Scaridae Scarus ghobban Blue barred Parrotfish Siganidae Siganus sutor Blue spotted rabbitfish

Anguillidae Anguilla anguilla European eel II

Syngnathidae Hippocampus kuda Spotted Seahorse II Latimeriidae Latimeria chalumnae Coelacanth I Labridae Cheilinus undulatus Humphead wrass II Lamna nasus Porbeagle II Manta birostris Giant manta II Kogia breviceps (Blainville, Pygmy Sperm Whale II

1838) Physeter macrocephalus Sperm Whale; I

Linnaeus, 1758 Spermacet Whale Eubalaena australis Southern Right Whale I

(Desmoulins, 1822) Charonics tritonis Giant Triton Shell Turbo marmoratus Great Green Turban Cassis cornuta Helemet Shell

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

THREATS TO MARINE RESOURCES: ANTHROPOGENIC AND NATURAL THREATS, CLIMATE CHANGE (WEEK 5) ANTHROPOGENIC THREATS Most of the threats to marine resources in the coastal zone are a direct result of human population and demographic trends. Humans depend on marine resources for important and valuable goods and services, but human use has also altered the marine resources through direct and indirect means. Land-based activities affect the runoff of pollutants and nutrients into coastal waters and remove, alter, or destroy natural marine habitat. Ocean-based activities extract resources, add pollution, and change marine species composition. These human activities vary in their intensity of impact on the ecological condition of communities and in their spatial distribution across the Kenyan coast. The most menacing direct impact that humans have exerted on the marine ecosystem has been the urbanization of coastal areas. Others myriad ways that humans indirectly impact marine biological diversity and the ecosystems that sustain it include pollutant release, runoff of toxics, excessive fertilization of near shore waters from agricultural runoff, release of alien species, changes in hydrology in river systems all which cause dramatic changes to the ecology of near shore and, in some cases, offshore ecosystems. To sustain a future in which human societies and healthy oceans live together, people’s values, perceptions and uses of marine biodiversity must be recognized as intrinsic components of management plans for marine resources.

NATURAL THREATS Habitat degradation, fragmentation and loss Complete loss of habitat is the most serious threat to marine resources. The loss of the reefs is due to increased sedimentation, overexploitation by dynamite and chemical fishing and by sewage pollution.

The losses of coral reefs and mangrove habitats are probably the most significant in terms of losses of biodiversity. However, other critical coastal habitats are also disappearing. Wetland areas, estuaries and seagrass beds are known to be key nursery areas for coastal fisheries and yet are being destroyed rapidly without there being full ecological and economical appraisal of the consequences. Estuaries pose particular problems globally since there are often

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conflicting interests such as industrial development, shipping and associated harbour development, fishing, tourism and the needs for conservation.

Habitat Degradation: Biodiversity will also be lost if habitats become degraded so that species can no longer survive.

Habitat Fragmentation: Another severe problem is that, while habitats may be ostensibly maintained, they become divided into small fragments (`habitat islands'). Small `habitat islands' that are remote from the main pool of species have higher rates of species extinctions and lower immigration rates than larger `habitat islands' or `habitat islands' that are nearer the main pool of species (MacArthur and Wilson, 1967; Williamson, 1983, Huston 1994). Fragmentation of habitats is expected to lead to losses of species diversity.

THE THEORY OF ISLAND BIOGEOGRAPHY The theory of island biogeography illustrates a basic principle that large areas usually contain more species than smaller areas with similar habitat because they can support larger and more viable populations. The theory holds that the number of species on an island is determined by two factors: the distance from the mainland and island size. These would affect the rate of extinction on the islands and the level of immigration. Other factors being similar (including distance to the mainland), on smaller islands the chance of extinction is greater than on larger ones. In the context of applying the theory more broadly, the “island” can be any area of habitat surrounded by areas unsuitable for the species on the island. Therefore a system of areas conserved for biodiversity that includes large areas can effectively support more viable populations.

Effects of fishing and other forms of overexploitation Nearly all the world's fish resources are overexploited (FAO, 1991). The consequences of heavy fishing pressure on commercial species is that the size distribution changes and this leads to loss of genetic diversity. There is also dramatic changes in the composition of fish stocks as a consequence of fishing (e.g. highly important commercial species (e.g. herring and cod) will decline and other less valuable species will increase (e.g. sandeels and sharks). Several studies show that changes in fish species composition have dramatic effects on other species

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

dependent on fish such as sea birds and mammals. Over exploitation of fish resources can lead to local or regional species extinctions. Fishing using explosives on coral reefs occurs globally in areas where reefs are not properly protected. The ensuing destruction of the reef habitat, which sustains not only the fish but all other species dependent on the reef, has catastrophic consequences for biodiversity. The dragging of heavy gear such as trawls over soft sea bed destroys the sea life on the sea bed and disrupts ecological processes that are critical to maintaining marine productivity and diversity.

Other threats: These threats in addition to habitat loss; overexploitation include pollution (including direct and indirect effects of inorganic and organic chemicals; eutrophication and related problems such as pathogenic bacteria and algal toxins; radionuclides); species introductions/invasions; water-shed alteration and physical alterations of coasts; tourism; marine litter; and the fact that humans have little perception of the oceans and their marine life. The threats are frequently interlinked.

CLIMATE CHANGE THREATS • Temperature changes in coastal and marine ecosystems will influence organism metabolism and alter ecological processes such as productivity and species interactions. Species are adapted to specific ranges of environmental temperature. As temperatures change, species’ geographic distributions will expand or contract, creating new combinations of species that will interact in unpredictable ways. Species that are unable to migrate or compete with other species for resources may face local or global extinction.

• Changes in precipitation and sea-level rise will have important consequences for the water balance of coastal ecosystems. Increases or decreases in precipitation and runoff may respectively increase the risk of coastal flooding or drought. Meanwhile, sea- level rise will gradually flood coastal lands. Coastal wetlands may migrate inland with rising sea levels, but only if they are not obstructed by human development.

• Open ocean productivity is also affected by natural interannual climate variability associated with large-scale climate phenomena such as the El Niño Oscillation. Climate- driven changes in the intensity or timing of any of these phenomena could lead to marked changes in water column mixing and stratification and, ultimately, a reorganization of the ecosystems involved, for better or worse.

• Climate change is likely to alter patterns of wind and water circulation in the ocean environment. Such changes may influence the vertical movement of ocean waters (i.e., upwelling and downwelling), increasing or decreasing the availability of essential nutrients and oxygen to marine organisms. Changes in ocean circulation patterns can also cause substantial changes in regional ocean and land temperatures and the geographic distributions of marine species.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

• Critical coastal ecosystems such as wetlands, estuaries, and coral reefs are particularly vulnerable to climate change. Such ecosystems are among the most biologically productive environments in the world. Their existence at the interface between the terrestrial and marine environment exposes them to a wide variety of human and natural stressors. The added burden of climate change may further degrade these valuable ecosystems, threatening their ecological sustainability and the flow of goods and services they provide to human populations.

• Increased CO2 concentrations lower ocean pH, which in turn changes ocean carbonate chemistry. This may have negative effects on the myriad planktonic organisms that use calcium carbonate to build their skeletons. Some of these organisms appear to play important roles in ocean-atmosphere interactions, but we cannot yet predict any effects that might arise from their diminishment.

• Changes in seawater chemistry, temperature increase, and sea-level rise on Coral reefs, which are already threatened by multiple stressors such as abusive fishing practices, pollution, increased disease outbreaks, and invasive species, would also be at risk from changes in seawater chemistry, temperature increase, and sea-level rise. Lower ocean pH and changed carbonate chemistry would decrease the calcification necessary for building coral reef material. Increased warming would lead to coral bleaching, the breakdown in the symbiotic relationship between the coral animal and the unicellular algae (zooxanthellae) that live within coral tissues and allow corals to thrive in nutrient-poor waters and to secrete massive calcium carbonate accumulations. If sea levels were to rise at a pace faster than corals could build their reefs upward, eventually light conditions would be too low for the zooxanthellae to continue photosynthesis. On reefs near low- lying coastal areas, sea-level rise would likely increase coastal erosion rates, thus degrading water quality and reducing light penetration necessary for photosynthesis and increasing sedimentation that smothers and stresses coral animals. Losses of coral reefs would mean losses in the high biodiversity of these systems as well as the fisheries and recreational opportunities they provide.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION STRATEGIES (WEEK 6)

MARINE PROTECTED AREAS (MPAs) Kenya adapted the use of marine protected areas (MPAs) as one of the management strategies to ensure marine ecosystems remain ecologically and economically viable. There are many ‘types’ of MPAs (e.g. community, multiple use, World Heritage Sites and Biosphere Reserves), managed for different purposes and in diverse ways.

IUCN defines an MPA as: Any area of intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed environment, and includes protected areas differing in purpose, design, management approach, and name (e.g. marine reserve, sanctuary, marine park). In Kenya, National Marine Parks prohibit extraction, while National Marine Reserves allow it.

International designations Some MPAs have, in addition to their national designation, international status as a protected area. This is binding if the designation is made through an international agreement that the country has acceded to or ratified. World Heritage (WH) Sites are established under the World Heritage Convention (http://whc.unesco.org), which was drawn up to conserve the world’s cultural and natural heritage. At present there are no Marine WH site in Kenya but some MPAs potentially meet the criteria for nomination. Biosphere Reserves are established under UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme. They make up a network of protected areas with a key aim of reconciling conservation and sustainable use with socio-economic development and maintenance of cultural values. Biosphere reserves in the WIO with marine components include Kiunga and Malindi-Watamu in Kenya. Details at www.unesco.org/mab. Ramsar Sites are established under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (www.ramsar.org), which defines a wetland to include “areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed 6m”. Ramsar Sites do not require formal legal protection as the focus is on ‘wise use’, and so they are often not part of a national protected area system. There are few coastal and marine Ramsar sites in the WIO, including the Tana River Delta.

Kenya has already established a fairly unified network of MPAs, under the management of Kenya Wildlife Service in collaboration with key stakeholders, including government institutions, local communities, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), the private sector, community-based organizations (CBOs), and interested individuals.

Kenya’s MPAs were established to protect and conserve the marine and coastal biodiversity and related ecotones for posterity in order to enhance regeneration and ecological balance of coral reefs, seagrass beds, sand dunes and beaches, and mangroves. Additionally, they are established to promote sustainable development, scientific research, education, recreation, and any other resource utilization. The goals include: 1. Preservation and conservation of marine biodiversity for poverty alleviation; 2. Provision of ecologically sustainable use of the marine resources for cultural and economic benefits; and

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3. Promotion of applied research for educational awareness programs, community participation and capacity-building.

Figure 1. Kenya’s marine protected areas network

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

Table 1. Kenya’s marine protected areas.

Adaptive resource management of MPAs. KWS uses the adaptive management strategy to manage its marine resources. The strategy involves setting clear and measurable objectives to assess the success of management efforts. Biological parameters and human use patterns in parks are monitored to determine if objectives are being met. The key feature of adaptive management is strong feedback between monitoring (data) and decision-making in a process of “learning by doing.”

Issues addressed by MPAs in Kenya Conservation of reef systems and fisheries. An important function of MPAs is to mainly enhance marine biodiversity, and in particular enhance sustainable fisheries associated with the coral reef ecosystem. MPAs have mainly protected the “fragile benthic habitat-forming organisms” from the direct physical impacts of fishing. This has subsequently improved the habitat quality within the MPA, enhancing overall coral reef ecosystem structure and function.

There are indications that the degradation of reef ecosystems, and in particular fisheries, has been checked or at least reduced along those stretches of coast where MPAs have been established (FAO 2001).

Monitoring in Kenya’s MPAs has shown that protection from resource use has significantly changed the ecology of coral reefs.

MPAs have improved coral reef habitat quality over the years with active management. The improved coral reef ecosystem has provided an important breeding ground for fish.

This has generally improved fisheries, mainly through enhanced fish biomass and a “spillover phenomenon” associated with the movement of fish assemblages from the marine park into the reserve, enhancing adjacent artisanal fisheries. All MPAs in Kenya serve as important tourist attractions. Many dive operators in Kenya conduct most of their business within MPAs.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

The total number of visitors in Kenyan MPAs has been ranging from 70,000 to 160,000 visitors annually from 1997 to 2018. The revenues generated from MPAs entry fees are above US$1.5 million annually (KWS, unpublished reports).

The MPAs support close to 2,000 local boat operators who conduct marine park tours and excursions.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION Ecological restoration: ‘the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed.

Ecosystem restoration has its goal as the restoration of degraded ecosystems to emulate more closely, although not necessarily duplicate, conditions which prevailed before disruption of natural structures and processes, i.e., environmental conditions which have influenced native communities over recent evolutionary time.

Ecological restoration involves management actions designed to accelerate recovery of degraded ecosystems by complementing or reinforcing natural processes.

A central premise of ecological restoration is that restoration of natural systems to conditions consistent with their recent evolutionary environments will prevent their further degradation while simultaneously conserving their native plants and animals.

Ecological restoration takes an ‘ecosystem approach’ to management and can have multiple goals that encompass the simultaneous recovery of ecological, cultural and socio-economic values of the system.

Ecosystem restoration is founded upon fundamental ecological and conservation principles and involves management actions designed to facilitate the recovery or re-establishment of native ecosystems.

The principles of the ecosystem approach from the CBD3 provide guidance on broader ecosystem management approach that supports biodiversity, sustainable use and fair and equitable benefit sharing.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

PRINCIPLES AND GUIDELINES OF RESTORATION FOR MARINE RESOURCES

Effective ecological restoration for marine resources is restoration that re-establishes and maintains the values of a marine resources. 1. ‘Do no harm’ by first identifying when restoration is the best option 2. Re-establish ecosystem structure, function and composition 3. Maximize the contribution of restoration actions to enhancing resilience (e.g., to climate change). 4. Restore connectivity within and beyond the boundaries of marine resources areas. 5. Encourage and re-establish traditional cultural values and practices that contribute to the ecological, social and cultural sustainability of the marine resources area and its surroundings. 6. Use research and monitoring, including from traditional ecological knowledge, to maximize restoration success.

Efficient ecological restoration for marine resources areas is restoration that maximizes beneficial outcomes while minimizing costs in time, resources and effort 1. Consider restoration goals and objectives from system-wide to local scales 2. Ensure long-term capacity and support for maintenance and monitoring of restoration 3. Enhance natural capital and ecosystem services from protected areas while contributing to nature conservation goals 4. Contribute to sustainable livelihoods for indigenous peoples and local communities dependent on the protected areas 5. Integrate and coordinate with international development policies and programming.

Engaging ecological restoration for protected areas is restoration that collaborates with partners and stakeholders, promotes participation and enhances visitor experience 1. Collaborate with indigenous and local communities, neighbouring landowners, corporations, scientists and other partners and stakeholders in planning, implementation, and evaluation. 2. Learn collaboratively and build capacity in support of continued engagement in ecological restoration initiatives. 3. Communicate effectively to support the overall ecological restoration process 4. Provide rich experiential opportunities, through ecological restoration and as a result of restoration, that encourage a sense of connection with and stewardship of protected areas.

Restoration Processes for Marine Resources 1. Phase 1: Define the problem and engage stakeholders 2. Phase 2: Assess the problem 3. Phase 3: Develop goals 4. Phase 4: Develop ecological restoration objectives 5. Phase 5: Design restoration approach 6. Phase 6: Implement ecological restoration approach 7. Phase 7: Implement adaptive management

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

ECOSYSTEM-BASED MANAGEMENT (EBM) APPROACH

Defining EBM Ecosystem-based management, or EBM, is an approach that goes beyond examining single issues, species, or ecosystem functions in isolation. Instead it recognizes our coasts and oceans for what they are: a rich mix of elements that interact with each other in important ways. A single commercially valuable fish species, for example, may depend on a range of habitats over its life, depending on if it is young or adult, feeding or spawning. It needs access to each habitat at the right time, as well as ample food, clean water and shelter. Because humans depend on an array of ocean functions for our well-being — including the fish for food — EBM recognizes that our welfare and the health of the environment are linked. Put another way, marine and coastal systems provide valuable natural services — or “ecosystem services” — for human communities. To ensure our own health, therefore, we need to make sure ocean functions are sustained and protected. This means managing them in a way that acknowledges the complexity of marine ecosystems, the connections among them, and their links with land and freshwater as well. One of the most important aspects of EBM is that it is fundamentally a place-based approach. That is, it aims to restore and protect the health, function and resilience of an entire ecosystem and the benefits it provides. This means managing ocean uses on scales that encompass marine ecosystem function, rather than on scales defined by jurisdictional boundaries. EBM does not require managing all aspects of a system at once. Instead, an EBM initiative is founded on good knowledge and understanding of the system, allowing for thoughtful prioritization of the most important management actions and activities.

CORE CONCEPTS of an Ecosystem-based management (EBM) process 1. Recognizing connections across the ecosystem 2. Utilizing an ecosystem services perspective 3. Addressing cumulative impacts 4. Managing for multiple objectives 5. Embracing change, learning and adapting Taken together, these core concepts set EBM apart from traditional management.

Core Element 1: Recognizing connections across the ecosystem When any part of an ecosystem changes — the presence of a particular species, the structure of a habitat, the occurrence of natural processes — it can directly or indirectly affect many other aspects of the ecosystem. It is especially important to consider linkages between marine, coastal and terrestrial systems. Management of these systems is often under control of different agencies or

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different sectors, which often do not communicate with one another. This disconnect can significantly undermine progress toward conservation goals. EBM practitioners should assess ecological linkages from the start, build sectoral integration and communication, and continue to learn and update knowledge through scientific advice and monitoring.

Core Element 2: Utilizing an ecosystem services perspective Ecosystem services are critical to the functioning of coastal and marine systems and also contribute significantly to human well-being. Substantial positive economic values can be attached to many of these services, which include providing food, maintaining hydrological balance, storing carbon, buffering land from storms, offering recreational opportunities, and providing space for shipping. Developing an ecosystem services perspective allows planners and managers to establish priorities for management. Priorities can be determined by focusing on the areas and habitats that deliver the greatest amount of ecosystem services, or the ecosystem services of highest value. Alternatively, priorities can be based on the most critical threats to the delivery of ecosystem services or to highly valuable areas.

Core Element 3: Understanding and addressing cumulative impacts The human activities taking place within an ecosystem often overlap, and their impacts can be intensified as a result. Examining cumulative impacts makes it possible to assess the total effects of disparate actions on an ecosystem and its ability to sustain the delivery of desired services. It is often necessary to make trade-offs between conflicting uses. Practitioners often use spatial analysis to predict overlapping threats and a better understanding of the effects and interactions of multiple stressors. To account for cumulative impacts, practitioners need to begin to build regulatory mechanisms that encourage or require goal-setting and evaluation across sectors.

Core Element 4: Managing for multiple objectives EBM focuses on the diverse benefits provided by marine systems, rather than on single ecosystem services. Such benefits or services include vibrant commercial and recreational fisheries, biodiversity conservation, renewable energy from wind or waves, coastal protection, and recreation. Fundamentally, the primary goal of any EBM project is to secure the long-term delivery of a diversity of ecosystem services that support human well-being by sustaining critical ecosystem structures, functions, and processes. EBM must not only determine what individual objectives are desirable – a tricky task when objectives are viewed as potentially incompatible. It must also figure out a harmonized management system that can guarantee those objectives

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are met over time. Managers will have to accept that progress toward objectives will not be uniform, and meeting some objectives may take time.

Core Element 5: Embracing change, learning, and adapting Neither ecological nor social knowledge will be complete at the start of any EBM initiative, and change is constantly occurring within any ecosystem. Therefore, it is essential that practitioners continuously collect information and monitor the effects of management decisions, and that they encourage communities to engage in the processes of information collection, learning, and sharing. At regular intervals, strategies should be evaluated and adapted to new learning and new conditions. Experimentation, innovation, learning, and change should be an accepted aspect of any EBM initiative. The mechanisms for making management as responsive to changing conditions as possible will vary from place to place. Nonetheless it will be important to establish those mechanisms formally as an ecosystem approach is adopted. In other words, it is not enough to say that management will be revised as time goes on. The processes by which information is gathered, fed into the management appraisal process, and used to amend management must be articulated – preferably with a clear timetable.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

INTEGRATED COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT (ICZM) (WEEK7)

Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) brings all stakeholders involved in the development, management and use of the coastal zone within a framework that facilitates coordination and integration of activities and decision-making process with a view to promoting sustainable development.

ICZM involves comprehensive assessment, setting of objectives, planning and management of coastal ecosystems and resources while taking into account traditional, cultural and historical perspectives and conflicting interests and uses all within the limits set by natural dynamics. It is a continuous and evolutionary process for achieving sustainable development in the coastal and marine environment and covers the full cycle of information collection, planning, decision-making, management and monitoring of implementation. It is a process by which interventions (policy, laws, regulations, programs, plans) are devised and implemented to change the way people use and interact with coastal ecosystems and their resources in order to attain the highest possible flow of benefits over time without preventing future generations from enjoying similar benefits. ICZM uses the informed participation and cooperation of all stakeholders to assess the societal goals in a given coastal area, and to take action towards meeting these objectives. “Integrated” in ICZM refers not only to the integration of objectives, but also the integration of all relevant policy areas, sectors and levels of administration. It also means integration of the terrestrial and marine components of the target territory, in both time and space with the main objective of maximizing net social benefits society can obtain from coastal and marine resources and ecosystems for eternity subject to sustainable development, equitable distribution of benefits and rational use of the resources (UNESCO, 2006). ICZM is important because it helps those managing the coastal and marine environment and its resources obtain answers to questions like: 1. What is the best way to manage coastal and marine areas and their resources, while maintaining the resilience of their systems? 2. How can coastal and marine areas and resources be best developed to provide desired products and services to meet human needs, while maintaining viable and diverse ecosystems?

Purpose of the ICZM Action Plan The purpose of the ICZM Action Plan is to elaborate the actions required to address numerous issues and resource management challenges facing the coastal and marine environment.

Geographical Scope The geographical extent of the coastal zone which the Action Plan covers is defined by the administrative boundaries of districts bordering the Indian Ocean while the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is the seaward boundary. However, the ecosystem approach will be

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applied in the management of the resources as some of the pressures affecting the coastal environment are external to the coastal zone such as river catchment areas. Achieving successful implementation of the plan will require close cross-sectoral coordination, consideration and integration of environmental consideration into sectoral plans and policies and use of participatory approach in designing and implementation of programmes, which is the spirit of the ICZM concept.

Action Plan formulation process The ICZM Action plan is a product of an extensive and highly participatory process involving stakeholders from the government, NGO and private sectors, experts and local community groups. NEMA jointly with the ICZM Steering Committee spearhead development of the action plan. Stakeholders contributes towards the action plan formulation through expert group working sessions, one-on-one consultation with government lead institutions and NGOs, and a series of stakeholder workshops.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

RELEVANT LEGISLATION AND CONVENTIONS ON MARINE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION (WEEK 8)

1. Environmental Management and Coordination Act – 1999 (EMCA 99), The National Environment Council (NEC) was established by Section 4(1) of EMCA. The NEC’s primary function is policy formulation and direction for the purposes of EMCA. EMCA provides for an appropriate legal and institutional framework for the management of Kenya’s environment and matters connected to the protection of the environment. Section 7 (1) established National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) as the principal instrument of government in the implementation of all policies relating to the environment. NEMA became operational in 2002. Section 55, of EMCA acknowledges the central role of ICZM in the protection of marine and coastal systems. Section 71(d) of the Act stipulates that the Standards and Enforcement Review Committee, in consultation with relevant lead agencies, shall prepare and recommend to the Director-General guidelines or regulations for the preservation of fishing areas, aquatic areas, water sources and reservoirs and other areas where water may need special protection.

2. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES), International commercial trade in Fauna and Flora is directly responsible for the plight of a large number of species currently in danger of extinction. In 1963, members of the world conservation union (IUCN), drafted the original text of a historical document finally ratified as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES). This international agreement, to which 150 countries now voluntarily subscribe, binds participating parties to monitor, regulate, or prohibit the import and export of species that the group deems worthy of global protection. The legal framework for enforcement within each country is provided by domestic laws. The heart of CITES lies in three appendices constituting the list of species for which international trade is restricted. Appendix I includes the most endangered species, for which all commercial trade is strictly prohibited and special import/export permits are required for scientific transport. Appendix II lists species not in immediate danger of extinction, but which could become so if trade is not regulated (for example, all parrots, hawks, and falcons not in Appendix I). Species may be added to or removed from Appendices I and II, or moved between them, only via discussion and vote at periodic CITES conferences. Appendix Ill lists species added by individual countries that, for any reason, request international assistance in regulating their trade. CITES has certainly helped to stem the tide of extinction.

3. United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and other Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs). The UN's Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III 1982), which came into force in November 1994, is of major significance in relation to biodiversity. IUCN has recently produced a comprehensive analysis of the Law of the Sea and other legal issues relating to

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

marine conservation. UNCLOS establishes a comprehensive legal framework for use, management and conservation of the ocean and its marine resources. It establishes maritime zones and boundaries, including the territorial waters (12 nautical miles from the baseline) and Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) (200 nautical miles from the baseline). Kenya signed the 1982 UN Convention on the law of the sea (UNCLOS) on 10th Dec. 1982. It then ratified accepted and acceded UNCLOS on 2nd March 1989.

4. International Convention for Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) MARPOL - International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships Amended by Resolution MEPC.111 (50) Amended by Resolution MEPC.115 (51) Amended by Resolution MEPC.116 (51) - Articles of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973.

JFA 304 Marine Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation

PRACTICAL (WEEK 10) 1. Visit to the Coast 2. Visit to the National Museums of Kenya, Zoology Department/Ichthyology Section