Review of Species Selected on the Basis of the Analysis of 2015 CITES Export Quotas

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UNEP-WCMC technical report

Review of species selected on the basis of the Analysis of 2015

CITES export quotas

(Version edited for public release)

Review of species selected on the basis of the Analysis of 2015 CITES export quotas

Prepared for The European Commission, Directorate General Environment, Directorate E - Global & Regional Challenges, LIFE ENV.E.2. – Global Sustainability, Trade & Multilateral Agreements, Brussels, Belgium

Prepared November 2015

UNEP-WCMC. 2015. Review of species selected on the basis of the Analysis of 2015 CITES export quotas. UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge.

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Introduction and summary ...... 2 Varanus spp...... 4 Overview of status and management of corals in Fiji ...... 13 Astreopora spp...... 19 Leptoseris spp...... 21 Pachyseris rugosa ...... 23 Catalaphyllia jardinei ...... 26 Euphyllia paraancora ...... 28 Tubastraea faulkneri ...... 30 Tubastraea micranthus ...... 31 Diploastrea heliopora ...... 33 Favia spp...... 35 Goniastrea spp...... 38 Leptastrea spp...... 41 Acanthastrea spp...... 43 Symphyllia spp...... 45 Acrhelia spp...... 47 Galaxea fascicularis ...... 49 Echinophyllia spp...... 52 Oxypora spp...... 56 Pectinia spp...... 58 Psammocora spp...... 60 Overview of status and management of corals in Malaysia ...... 68 Appendix ...... 77

1 Introduction and summary

This report presents a review and overviews or overviews of 73 taxa selected on the basis of the Analysis of 2015 CITES export quotas and provides an update of new and increased 2015 CITES export quotas published since the production of this Analysis.

National export quotas for CITES listed taxa are an important tool to manage and monitor wildlife trade. The establishment or revision of an export quota should be based on a non-detriment finding (NDF) by the Scientific Authority of the exporting country and the NDF should be reviewed annually (Resolution Conf. 14.7 (Rev. CoP15)). Once such annual quotas are established, the need for a NDF for each individual shipment of the species concerned is eliminated.

The EU, through stricter measures outlined in the Wildlife Trade Regulations, requires an NDF by importing Member States and therefore monitors newly established quotas and changes to previous quota levels to assess the situation where necessary, or to reassess SRG opinions or EU decisions. Similarly, by assessing the new quotas early each year, the SRG can advise on the treatment of anticipated import applications within the EU.

Export quotas are usually established by each Party to CITES unilaterally on a voluntary basis, but they can also be set by the Conference of the Parties, or result from recommendations of the Animals and Plants Committees. To ensure that national quotas are effectively communicated and implemented on permits and certificates, countries should inform the CITES Secretariat when they establish national export quotas for CITES species (Resolution Conf. 12.3 (Rev. CoP16)). In turn, the Secretariat informs the Parties by publishing a list of national export quotas of which it has been informed (www.cites.org/eng/resources/quotas/index.php).

In 2015, quotas were published on the CITES website (www.cites.org) on 02/02/2015 and were updated 31/03/2015, 30/04/2015, 01/06/2015, 01/07/2015, 14/07/2015, 21/08/2015, 31/08/2015 and 01/10/2015.

Based on the quotas that were available on 29/05/2015, UNEP-WCMC analysed the 2015 CITES export quotas to identify:

a) Quotas that were newly established in 2015 (i.e. 2014 quotas for particular species/country/term/source combinations that have not previously been subject to a quota, or have not been subject to a quota for at least the last 5 years); b) Quotas that increased or decreased in 2015 compared with 2014 quotas (or compared with 2013 quotas if no quota was published in 2014).

A list of 73 taxa/country combinations that may warrant review was presented and the following taxon/country combinations are reviewed in this report:

 Five species and eight genera of corals from Fiji (new quotas)  One species and four genera of corals from Fiji (increased quotas)  Echinophyllia spp./Indonesia (new quota, 1500 live)  Varanus spp./Malaysia (Sabah) (new quota, 3000 all [terms])  Seven species and 46 genera of corals from Malaysia (new quotas)

Update since Analysis of 2015 CITES export quotas

Since the publication of the Analysis of 2015 export quotas, additional CITES export quotas have been published on the CITES website. Of these, the following relate to increased quotas for wild sourced specimens: an increase in Strombus gigas meat from Jamaica from 400 000 kg in 2014 to 450 000 kg meat in 2015; an increase in Panthera leo trophies from Mozambique from 53 in 2014 to 60 in 2015; an increase in Papio cynocephalus trophies from 616 in 2014 to 658 in 2015 and an increase in individuals of Crocodylus niloticus from 347 to 1800. While the increase in the quota for wild-sourced C. niloticus from Mozambique might initially appear to warrant review, this species is categorised as Least Concern by the IUCN and wild-sourced EU imports of this species from Mozambique over the period 2004-2013 have been minimal (Table 1). Therefore, this species/country combination was not considered a priority for further review.

Table 1: Direct exports of Crocodylus niloticus from Mozambique to the EU-28, 2004-2013.

Term Purpose Source Reported by 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Total bodies H R Importer Exporter 100 100 T R Importer Exporter 100 100 leather products T R Importer 2 2 (small) Exporter live T R Importer Exporter 200 200 skin pieces H W Importer Exporter 1 5 6 skins H R Importer Exporter 3553 3553 W Importer 2 2 1 5 Exporter 7 10 29 26 15 87 T R Importer 63 20 83 Exporter 63 4 20 87 W Importer 21 21 Exporter 21 21 skulls H W Importer 1 2 3 Exporter 1 4 26 17 15 63 teeth H W Importer 15 15 Exporter trophies H W Importer 7 12 10 16 9 5 7 2 15 5 88 Exporter 16 36 20 20 14 22 23 151 P W Importer 3 1 4 Exporter Source: CITES Trade Database, UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK, downloaded on 13/11/20

3 REPTILIA: VARANIDAE Varanus spp. II/B

UNDER REVIEW: Malaysia

SPECIES (IUCN): Varanus dumerilii: not yet assessed Varanus indicus: LC Varanus rudicollis: not yet assessed Varanus salvator: LC EU DECISIONS Current positive opinion for wild specimens of Varanus salvator from Malaysia (MALAYSIA): formed on 05/09/2002 and last confirmed on 02/12/2011.

Taxonomic note Due to morphological similarities, it has been noted that there was a risk of misidentifying V. rudicollis as either V. dumerilii (Sprackland, 1993) or V. salvator (Koch et al., 2007).

V. salvator was considered a species complex (Böhme, 2003 – CITES Standard Reference), comprising of a number of subspecies, with estimates that have ranged from four subspecies (Koch et al., 2007), seven (Gaulke and Horn, 2004) to eight (Böhme, 2003). Four subspecies from the Philippines, cumingi, marmoratus, nuchalis, and togianus, were later elevated to species level and the Southeast Asian V. salvator macromaculatus revalidated (Koch et al., 2010a).

A V. salvator subspecies, V. s. scutigerulus, was reported to have been erroneously classified, based on a melanistic specimen of V. rudicollis (Koch et al., 2007 – CITES Standard Reference). Trade patterns Varanus spp. was listed in CITES Appendix II on 01/07/1975, and in Annex B of the EU Wildlife Trade Regulations on 01/06/1997. Malaysia have submitted annual reports for all years 2004-2013.

Malaysia published export quotas for V. salvator for 15 000 ‘all’ from Sabah for the years 2011 and 2012, and for live specimens and skins from Peninsular Malaysia for 2013 and 2014 (Table 1). In 2015 an export quota of 3000 ‘all’ was published at the genus level for Sabah only. The quota was reported to have been set at the genus level to “quantify all types of Varanus species found in Sabah, Malaysia” (CITES Authority of Sabah, Malaysia, pers. comm., to UNEP-WCMC, 2015). While all quotas of this genus apply to specific regions, trade data is captured at the national level and therefore it is not possible to determine the origin region of the trade. The full dataset is available here: https://db.tt/YZusKGJH.

Table 1. Export quotas published by Malaysia for Varanus 2011-2015 and trade levels 2011-2013; 2014 data is incomplete. Reported by 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Varanus salvator Quota all (Sabah only) 15000 15000 Quota live (Peninsular Malaysia) 18000 18000 Trade live (Malaysia) Importer 6843 6117 4816 Exporter 7023 6632 829 Quota skins (Peninsular Malaysia) 166500 165000 Trade skins (Malaysia) Importer 90695 84127 31216 Exporter 79733 85127 9344 Varanus spp. Quota all (Sabah only) 3000

All direct exports of Varanus spp. from Malaysia to the EU-28 2004-2013 comprised V. salvator, the vast majority of which consisted of high levels of trade in wild-sourced skins for commercial purposes (Table 2). Trade in wild-sourced skins peaked in 2011 at over 16 000 skins according to exporters and 29 000 skins according to importers, and subsequently declined to below 6 000 skins in 2013.

Varanus salvator also accounted for the vast majority of direct exports of Varanus spp. from Malaysia to the rest of the world 2004-2013. A very high level of wild-sourced commercial trade in skins and high levels of trade in meat (reported by weight) and live animals was reported 2004-2013. In addition, one scientific specimen of V. rudicollis and two skins reported as ‘Varanus spp.’ were reported in 2005 and 2009, respectively.

Indirect trade in Varanus originating in Malaysia to the EU-28 2004-2013 primarily comprised very high levels of wild-sourced skins for commercial purposes, the vast majority of which were re-exported via Singapore (Table 3). The EU-28 also imported a high levels wild-sourced small leather products originating in Malaysia, which were also traded for commercial purposes (Table 3).

5 Table 2: Direct exports of Varanus salvator from Malaysia to the EU-28 (EU) and the rest of the world (RoW), 2004-2013. Very small amounts of wild-sourced trade in gall, gall bladders and leather products for commercial purposes and wild-sourced and source I specimens for commercial and scientific purposes have been excluded.

Importer Term (unit) Purpose Source Reported by 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Total EU small leather products T W Importer 1 1 Exporter live T W Importer 30 45 113 70 25 25 20 328 Exporter 30 97 107 101 35 20 390 skins T W Importer 7000 3000 4400 200 50 3000 29500 9500 5200 61850 Exporter 7000 3000 4400 250 16000 16500 11500 3200 61850 RoW live Q W Importer 65 2 4 8 4 83 Exporter 30 2 32 T C Importer Exporter 30 400 11 14 10 465 W Importer 7215 18952 19475 13506 14590 15098 14353 6843 6097 4816 120945 Exporter 12406 22825 19074 13677 16177 17737 13273 7023 6612 829 129633 Z W Importer 20 15 60 95 Exporter 10 15 25 meat (kg) T W Importer 50460 40288 43798 24796 17350 10488 4932 8897 4200 2600 207809 Exporter 52524 40254 42393 10338 2850 10688 1230 9500 169777 meat T W Importer Exporter 3 4738 397 4200 9338 skin pieces T W Importer 600 600 Exporter skins P W Importer Exporter 5000 5000 S W Importer 8 8 Exporter - Importer Exporter 8 8 T W Importer 208009 232671 164087 97975 105649 76915 66173 61187 74627 26016 1113309 Exporter 213442 161444 152112 75331 104474 67165 59562 63225 73627 6144 976526 - W Importer Exporter 152 2000 2152 Source: CITES Trade Database, UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK, downloaded on 28/09/2015 6

Table 3: Indirect exports of Varanus originating in Malaysia to the EU-28, 2004-2013.

Taxon Term Purpose Source Reported by 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Total Varanus niloticus leather products (small) T W Importer 7 8 31 46 Exporter 1 1 Varanus salvadorii leather products (small) T W Importer 30 30 Exporter Varanus salvator cloth T W Importer Exporter 2 2 derivatives T W Importer Exporter 14 14 garments T W Importer 6 3 2 10 1 2 6 2 32 Exporter 7 4 10 2 1 24 leather products (large) T C Importer Exporter 1 1 W Importer 70 13 363 2 4 1 3 456 Exporter 6 19 27 7 1 1 6 67 - Importer 2 2 Exporter leather products (small) E W Importer Exporter 2 2 P W Importer 1 1 Exporter 5 5 2 1 13 T C Importer 52 12 14 17 8 4 107 Exporter 1 1 7 8 5 22 I Importer 16 16 Exporter 1 1 O Importer Exporter 1 1 W Importer 85 3756 7455 10295 9746 2872 4714 5874.5 6381 7170 58348.5 Exporter 150 46 2097 1205 5045 2343 934 3354 2790 638 18602 - W Importer Exporter 45 1828 1873 - Importer 600 600 Exporter

7 Taxon Term Purpose Source Reported by 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Total Varanus salvator (cont.) live Q W Importer Exporter 1 1 T W Importer 1 1 Exporter skin pieces E W Importer Exporter 1 1 T W Importer 3174 1 2 8 3185 Exporter 10 4002 4 6 4022 - Importer Exporter 14000 14000 skins Q W Importer 1 1 Exporter T I Importer Exporter 21 21 W Importer 20621 81319 50965 53260 38903 17850 36230 33781 36201 5806 374936 Exporter 76007 70324 29063 73668 33801 16305 30599 43631 33282 4345 411025 Varanus spp. skins E W Importer Exporter 1 1 Source: CITES Trade Database, UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK, downloaded on 28/09/2015

Conservation status The genus Varanus had a widespread native range across Africa, central and southern Asia and Australia (Pianka et al., 2004), and five species, V. exanthematicus, V. indicus, V. niloticus, V. salvator and V. teguixin, were also reported to have been introduced to North America (Witmer and Fuller, 2011). Species in this genus range in length from 0.2 m to over 3 m, have been reported as terrestrial, arboreal, or semi-aquatic (Pianka, 1995), and have been found in a diverse range of habitats encompassing desert, savannah, and tropical forests (Losos and Greene, 1988). Varanus was considered an ecologically diverse genus (Pianka et al., 2004).

The genus Varanus comprises 73 species (UNEP-WCMC, 2012), five of which were recorded in Malaysia (UNEP-WCMC, 2012; Zakaria and Rajpar, 2015). Four of these, V. dumerilii, V. indicus, V. rudicollis, and V. salvator, were confirmed present in Sabah (Pianka et al., 2004; Zakaria and Rajpar, 2015). No further information on the distribution of these species within Sabah was identified and the CITES Authority of Sabah, Malaysia (pers. comm., to UNEP-WCMC, 2015) confirmed that no details on their distribution was available.

The CITES Authority of Sabah, Malaysia (pers. comm., to UNEP-WCMC, 2015) confirmed that the 2015 quota was based on a Non-detriment-finding (NDF) completed in 2013, but no further details in relation to this NDF were provided upon further clarification being sought. No information on population monitoring was identified. The CITES Authority of Sabah, Malaysia (pers. comm., to UNEP-WCMC, 2015) noted that no information was available on population monitoring and the impact of trade, but noted that they had neither issued any permits in 2015 nor used any of the 2015 quota, as no trading partners had expressed any interest to date.

Except for noting very low levels of domestic trade, the CITES Authority of Sabah (Malaysia, pers. comm., to UNEP-WCMC, 2015) reported that they had no information on illegal trade in Varanus spp. Varanus dumerilii V. dumerilii was reported to have a global range across Burma [Myanmar], Thailand, the Malay Peninsula and the islands of Sumatra and Borneo (Bennett, 2004a). It was thought to mainly inhabit coastal mangroves and inland forests (Bennett, 2004a), and has been found in both primary and secondary forests (Bennett and Liat, 1995). Although it has also been recorded in degraded and agricultural areas, it was rarely observed in areas with high human populations (Bennett, 2004a).

This species has not yet been assessed by the IUCN (IUCN, 2015), but anecdotal evidence from the 1990s noted it as uncommon (Bennett and Liat, 1995). The reported reliance of this species on primary and secondary forest habitat was believed to indicate that it may be sensitive to deforestation and degradation (Bennett and Liat, 1995).

Due to morphological similarities it was noted that V. dumerilii may be misidentified as V. rudicollis, and previous cases of specimen misclassification have been reported for these two species (Sprackland, 1993).

Malaysia (Sabah): This species was reported as present in Sabah (Bennett, 2004a), although no records have been reported from surveys of specific sites, or from areas where other Varanus species were confirmed (Boonratana, 1997; Robbins et al., 2006; Zakaria and Rajpar, 2015). No information on the population size, distribution, conservation status and trends was identified for Malaysia. No details of population monitoring or assessment were available (CITES Authority of Sabah, Malaysia, pers. comm., to UNEP-WCMC, 2015).

9 Varanus indicus V. indicus was reported to have the second largest global distribution of all Varanus species (Koch et al., 2013), ranging across northern Australia, and from eastern Indonesia up to Japan, including Papua New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago, and the Solomon Islands (Dryden and Ziegler, 2004; Bennett et al., 2010; Koch et al., 2013). It was also reported to have been introduced into North America (Witmer and Fuller, 2011).

V. indicus was considered abundant across much of its range (Koch et al., 2013), where it was reported to primarily inhabit the intertidal zone in tropical swamps and mangroves (Dryden and Ziegler, 2004), but had also been reported in areas of human habitation and agriculture (Wiles et al., 1990).

V. indicus was categorised as Least Concern by the IUCN because of its large range and abundance (Bennett and Sweet, 2010). This species is widespread at the global level, however was reported to be widely traded (Pernetta, 2009), and Koch et al. (2013) noted that there was little information about the potential effects of this trade on local populations. The potential for some V. indicus subspecies to be reclassified as species has also been identified as a potential future concern for the conservation status of this species, particularly as some may be island endemics (Bennett and Sweet, 2010).

Malaysia (Sabah): This species was recorded as present in Sabah, based on a record from Marudu Bay in the north of the region (Zakaria and Rajpar, 2015). No information on the population size, distribution, conservation status and trends was identified for Malaysia. Varanus rudicollis V. rudicollis was reported to have a global range across southern Burma [Myanmar] and Thailand, the Malay Peninsula, and the islands of Sumatra and Borneo (Bennett, 2004b). This species was thought to exclusively inhabit mangrove and evergreen forest throughout its range (Bennett, 2004b), and had been recorded in both primary and secondary forests (Bennett and Liat, 1995).

V. rudicollis has not yet been assessed by the IUCN (IUCN, 2015), although anecdotal evidence considered this species to be uncommon (Bennett and Liat, 1995).

This species was considered at risk from deforestation and degradation due to its reliance on specific forest habitats (Bennett and Liat, 1995).

Malaysia (Sabah): This species was recorded as present across Sabah (Bennett, 2004b), with records confirmed from the east of the region in the Danum Valley (Boonratana, 1997), Malua (Boonratana, 1997), and Tawai (Wong, 2008). The species was however found at only one of seven study sites in the Danum Valley (Boonratana, 1997). No information on the population size, distribution, conservation status and trends was identified for Malaysia. Varanus salvator V. salvator was reported to have a widespread global distribution from eastern India across to southern China and down to the south of the Malay Peninsula on the mainland, as well as reported presence on Sri Lanka (endemic subspecies S. s. salvator, Gaulke and Horn, 2004), the Andaman Islands (endemic subspecies V. s. andamanensis, Gaulke and Horn, 2004), the Philippines (subspecies V. s. cumingi, V. s. marmoratus, and V. s. nuchalis, Gaulke and Horn, 2004), and many other islands in the Indo- Australian Archipelago including Sumatra and Borneo (Gaulke and Horn, 2004; Koch et al., 2010a). It was also reported to have been introduced into North America (Witmer and Fuller, 2011).

Across its global range, V. salvator was noted to favour mangrove swamps and wetlands (Gaulke and Horn, 2004), but had also been recorded in primary forests (Gaulke and Horn, 2004), flood plains (Cota et al., 2009), upland forests and riparian habitats (Weijola and Sweet, 2010), as well as in areas with high human disturbance (Gaulke et al., 1999) and habitation (Stanner, 2010).

V. salvator was categorised as Least Concern by the IUCN (Bennett et al., 2010). The species was considered widespread and abundant (Koch et al., 2013), although anecdotal reports suggested that local populations may have declined in some areas as a result of harvesting for trade (Gaulke, 1992). The species was considered to be the more abundant and commonly traded sister taxon of the other Varanus species (Ast, 2001).

Whilst extensively traded from wild sources, mainly live or as skins (Pernetta, 2009), it had been argued that its high reproductive rate, generalist diet, and flexible ecology meant that V. salvator could sustain high levels of wild harvest (Shine et al., 1996). Taxonomic uncertainty, and the potential for some subspecies to be reclassified as species (Koch et al., 2010b), has also been identified as a potential future concern for the conservation status of this species complex (Bennett et al., 2010), particularly as some recognised subspecies are island endemics (e.g. V. s. andamanensis and S. s. salvator, Gaulke and Horn, 2004).

Malaysia (Sabah): This species was recorded as present across Sabah (Gaulke and Horn, 2004), with records confirmed from eastern Sabah in the Danum Valley (Boonratana, 1997) and Malua (Boonratana, 1997), from Marudu Bay (Zakaria and Rajpar, 2015) in the north, and from an unspecified locality (Robbins et al., 2006). In the 1990s, the species was found in over 70% of study sites (five of seven) surveyed in the Danum Valley (Boonratana, 1997). At the SAFE (Stability of Altered Forest Ecosystems) research sites along the southern edge of the Maliau Basin Conservation Area, V. salvator was considered “commonly seen” (SAFE, 2015), and was reported as present at 83% sites (five of six) surveyed (Twining, 2015). This species was recorded as particularly prevalent in more human disturbed habitats, such as oil palm plantations (Twining, 2015). References Ast, J.C. 2001. Mitochondrial DNA evidence and evolution in Varanoidea (Squamata). Cladistics, 17(3): 211–226. Bennett, D. 2004a. Varanus dumerilii. In: Pianka, E.R., King, D.R. and King, R.A. (Eds.). Varanoid Lizards of the World. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, USA. 172–175. Bennett, D. 2004b. Varanus rudicollis. In: Pianka, E., King, D. and King, R. (Eds.). Varanoid Lizards of the World. Indiana University Press, Indiana. 230–233. Bennett, D., Gaulke, M., Pianka, E.R., Somaweera, R. and Sweet, S. 2010. Varanus salvator. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2010. Version 2015.3. Available at: www.iucnredlist.org. [Accessed: 9/09/2015]. Bennett, D. and Liat, L.B. 1995. A note on the distribution of Varanus dumerilii and V. rudicollis in Peninsular Malaysia. Malayan Nature Journal, 49: 113–116. Bennett, D. and Sweet, S. 2010. Varanus indicus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2010. Version 2015.3. Available at: http://www.iucnredlist.org/. [Accessed: 10/09/2015]. Böhme, W. 2003. Checklist of the living monitor lizards of the world (family Varanidae) – Zoologische Verhandelingen. Leiden, 341: 1-43. Boonratana, R. 1997. A Statewide Survey to Estimate the Distribution and Density of the Sumatran Rhinoceros, Asian Elephant and Banteng in Sabah, Malaysia. CITES Authority of Sabah, Malaysia. 2015. Siti Nur’ain Ampuan Acheh, pers. comm. to UNEP-WCMC, 23/09/2015. Cota, M., Chan-Ard, T. and Makchai, S. 2009. Geographical distribution and regional variation of Varanus salvator macromaculatus in Thailand. Biawak, 3(4): 134–143. Dryden, G. and Ziegler, T. 2004. Varanus indicus. In: Pianka, E., King, D. and King, R. (Eds.). Varanoid Lizards of the World. Indiana University Press, Indiana. 184–188.

11 Gaulke, M. 1992. Distribution, population density, and exploitation of the water monitor (Varanus salvator) in the Philippines. Hamadryad, 17: 21–27. Gaulke, M., Erdelen, W. and Abel, F. 1999. A radiotelemetric study of the water monitor lizard (Varanus salvator) in North Sumatra, Indonesia. Mertensiella, 11: 63–78. Gaulke, M. and Horn, H. 2004. Varanus salvator (Nominate Form). In: Pianka, E.R., King, D. and King, R. (Eds.). Varanoid Lizards of the World. Indiana University Press, Indiana. 244–257. IUCN 2015. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2015.2. Available at: www.iucnredlist.org. [Accessed: 7/09/2015]. Koch, A., Auliya, M., Schmitz, A., Kuch, U. and Böhme, W. 2007. Morphological studies on the systematics of South East Asian water monitors (Varanus salvator complex): nominotypic populations and taxonomic overview. Mertensiella, 16: 109–180. Koch, A., Auliya, M. and Ziegler, T. 2010a. Updated checklist of the living monitor lizards of the world (Squamata: Varanidae). Bonn Zoological Bulletin, 57(2): 127–136. Koch, A., Gaulke, M. and Böhme, W. 2010b. Unravelling the underestimated diversity of Philippine water monitor lizards (Squamata: Varanus salvator complex), with the description of two new species and a new subspecies. Zootaxa, 2446: 1–54. Koch, A., Ziegler, T., Bohme, W., Arida, E. and Auliya, M. 2013. Pressing problems: distribution, threats and conservation status of the monitor lizards (Varanidae: Varanus spp.) of Southeast Asia and the Indo-Australian Archipelago. Herpelogical Conservation and Biology, 8(3): 1–62. Losos, J.B. and Greene, H. 1988. Ecological and evolutionary implications of diet in monitor lizards. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 35: 379–407. Pernetta, A.P. 2009. Monitoring the trade: using the CITES database to examine the global trade in live monitor lizards (Varanus spp.). Biawak, 3(2): 37–45. Pianka, E.R. 1995. Evolution of body size: varanid lizards as a model system. American Naturalist, 146(3): 398–414. Pianka, E.R., King, D.R. and King, R.A. 2004. Varanoid lizards of the world. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, USA. Robbins, R.G., Phong, B.D., McCormack, T., Behler, J.L., Zwartepoorte, H.A., Hendrie, D.B. and Calle, P.P. 2006. Four new host records for Amblyomma geoemydae (Cantor) (Acari: Ixodida: Ixodidae) from captive tortoises and freshwater turtles (Reptilia: Testudines) in the Turtle Conservation Center, Cuc Phuong National Park, Vietnam. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington, 108: 726–729. SAFE 2015. Water monitor lizard (Varanus salvator). Available at: http://www.safeproject.net/animal- sightings/water-monitor-lizard-varanus-salvator/. [Accessed: 6/11/2015]. Shine, R., Harlow, P.S. and Keogh, J.S. 1996. Commercial harvesting of giant lizards: The biology of water monitors Varanus salvator in southern Sumatra. Biological Conservation, 77(2-3): 125–134. Sprackland, R.G. 1993. The taxonomic status of the monitor lizard. The Sarawak Museum Journal, 44: 113–121. Stanner, M. 2010. Mammal-like feeding behavior of Varanus salvator and its conservational implications. Biawak, 4(4): 128–131. Twining, J. 2015. Investigating the ecology of a large squamate (Varanus salvator macromaculatus) in altered forest ecosystems, Sabah, Borneo, Malaysia. Imperial College London. UNEP-WCMC 2012. Taxonomic Checklist of all CITES-listed Coral Species, based on information compiled by UNEP-WCMC 2012. UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK. Weijola, V. and Sweet, S. 2010. A new melanistic species of monitor lizard (Reptilia: Squamata: Varanidae) from Sanana Island, Indonesia. Zootaxa, 32: 17–32. Wiles, G., Rodda, G., Fritts, T.H. and Taisacan, E.M. 1990. Abundance and habitat use of reptiles on Rota, Mariana Islands. Micronesica, 23(2): 153–166. Witmer, G. and Fuller, P. 2011. Vertebrate species introduction in the United States and its territories. Current Zoology, 57: 559–567. Wong, T. 2008. Varanus rudicollis (Rough-necked monitor) occurrence. Biawak, 2(4): 171–172. Zakaria, M. and Rajpar, M. 2015. Assessing the Fauna Diversity of Marudu Bay Mangrove Forest, Sabah, Malaysia, for Future Conservation. Diversity, 7(2): 137–148.

Overview of status and management of corals in Fiji

Fiji is a biodiversity hotspot for corals within the South West Pacific, and is the second largest exporter of corals globally. This section provides background information on the status and trends of corals within the country, the threats affecting corals, and management actions taken to ensure sustainability of the trade. This section has previously been presented here and is provided here in full, for ease of reference. Status and trends The Fiji Island Archipelago includes 320 islands and over 500 islets and cays and over 1000 reefs (Quinn and Kojis, 2008) within a coral reef area of over 10 000 km2 (Morris and Mackay, 2008). The two largest islands are Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, with the largest continuous reef of 100 km occurring along the Coral Coast of the southern shore of Viti Levu (Spalding et al., 2001). Fiji’s reefs are diverse, including fringing, barrier, platform, oceanic, ribbon and drowned reefs (Sykes and Morris, 2009) and contain high coral biodiversity of over 350 species (Lovell and McLardy, 2008). Fiji was reported to account for approximately 10% of corals in international trade over the period 2000-2010 (Wood et al., 2012), and is the largest coral exporter in the Pacific region (Cumming et al., 2002).

Coral reefs in the South West Pacific were generally considered to be in good condition (Wilkinson, 2004). The status of coral reefs in Fiji is relatively well documented; monitoring has taken place since 2000 through the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN), coordinated by the University of the South Pacific (Sykes and Morris, 2009). A volunteer network including the Fiji Locally Managed Marine Area Network (FLMMA) was reported to undertake annual point intercept and belt transects at 13 core locations and other sites opportunistically (Sykes and Morris, 2009). Monitoring between 1997 and 2007 showed considerable variability in coral cover, reflecting the diversity of reefs between areas; whilst signs of decline in coral cover between 1999 and 2001 were apparent at all sites surveyed, this was reported to be followed by rapid recovery to 2007 (Sykes and Morris, 2009). Live coral cover was reported to have increased at Rotuma Island (465 km north of the main Fiji Islands) between 2004 and 2006 (Mckay, 2007). Cumming et al. (2002) reported that reefs in Fiji were in relatively good condition.

Fiji’s reefs were reported to have an average live coral cover of 45% (range 8-60%) and be able to cope reasonably well with natural and human stressors (Morris and Mackay, 2008). Sykes and Lovell (2009) reported that Fiji’s reefs were remarkably resilient to sudden catastrophic events. The general status of Fiji’s coral reefs was considered be stable, with reefs recovering following disturbance events, and with little evidence of widespread and prolonged stress, damage or loss of coral cover (Chin et al., 2011). The Great Astrolabe Reef, south of Viti Levu was considered to remain relatively pristine and minimally impacted (Shah, 2008). However, whilst reefs were found to show strong resilience, some coastal fringing reefs were reported to exhibit signs of degradation (Chin et al., 2011). Beqa Barrier Reef was shown to have a particularly slow recovery rate (Lovell et al., 2004). Threats Key threats to coral reefs near urban centres were identified as pollution, eutrophication and coastal development (Cumming et al., 2002; Chin et al., 2011). Ninety percent of Fiji’s population were reported to live on Viti Levu and Vanua Levu (Cumming et al., 2002) and the Coral Coast of Viti Levu was reported to be an area of major tourist activity (Shah, 2008). At all reef sites of Viti Levu, overfishing and sediment damage were assessed as a high threat (Sykes and Morris, 2009).

13 Two thirds of Fiji’s reefs were assessed as being threatened by local activities, with 34% of reefs at medium threat, 21% at high threat and 10% at very high threat; reefs sites around Viti Levu, especially around Suva city were considered most at risk (Sykes and Morris, 2009; Chin et al., 2011). Vuki et al. (2000) reported that the most acutely disturbed areas were Suva Harbour and Laucala Bay (pollution, euthophication, loss of habitat due to reclamation, overfishing and outbreak of Crown of thorns seastars (Acanthaster planci) (COTS); Lautoka Harbour and Nadi Bay were noted to be similarly disturbed.

Most of the reefs in Fiji were reported to be moderately heavily fished (Vuki et al., 2000). Although destructive fishing methods, such as the use of poisons and dynamite were reported to be prohibited by law (Lovell, 2001), these practices were considered a possible threat to coral reefs (Nair et al., 2003). Dynamiting was reported common in western Viti Levu (Vuki et al., 2000) and this practise had reportedly caused serious damage in some parts of Fiji (Vuki, et al., 2000; Cumming et al., 2002). However, in a later report, Sykes and Morris (2009) stated that that such practises were rarely used.

Coral harvesting for the curio trade (dead coral skeletons) and for the live aquarium trade was also reported a threat (Cumming et al., 2002). The selling of ornamental corals was reported to continue at local handicrafts stalls in Fiji despite a ban on this trade (Cumming et al., 2002). Lal and Cerelala (2005) reported to growing international concern relating to the environmental effects of coral harvest. The collection of reef resources for the aquarium trade was thought to be of potential concern (Chin et al., 2011). Teh et al. (2007, 2008) stated that international trade in Fiji's coral reef resources was likely exacerbating overexploitation of already stressed reef ecosystems.

Fiji’s reefs are also affected by natural degradation, including cyclones, coral bleaching and predator outbreaks (Cumming et al., 2002). Mass bleaching was experienced in 2000 in all regions except from the far north, with 64% of all colonies surveyed bleached and around 10-40% coral mortality (Cumming et al., 2000). Climate change induced bleaching was noted as the main threat to the Great Astrolabe Reef and North Astrolabe Reef (Obura and Mangubhai, 2003). However, mass bleaching events had not affected the entire country’s reef system and some areas and habitats were reported to have elements which minimize bleaching effects allowing repopulation of affected areas (Lovell and Sykes, 2008). It was reported that Fijian reefs had strong resilience and recovery potential after coral bleaching (Lovell and Sykes, 2008; Sykes and Morris, 2009). Predation by COTS and Drupella snails were reported (Chin et al., 2011); COTS were reported to have significantly degraded reefs off Suva (Vuki et al., 2000). Prasad (2010) reported that permanent monitoring sites had been established in Makogai for coral bleaching and disease monitoring.

Burke et al. (2011) considered integrated local threats to Fijian coral reefs to be low for 34% of reefs; with medium threat levels facing 34% of reefs, a high level of threat for 21% of reefs and very high threat level for 10% of reefs. In socio-economic terms, Fiji was identified as one of nine countries that globally are most vulnerable to the effects of coral reef degradation, due to high threat exposure, high reef dependence to low adaptive capacity with high priority needed to reduce reef threats (Burke et al., 2011). Protection and management Regulatory background Relevant legislative measures in Fiji include the Endangered and Protected Species Act (2003), in addition to the Fisheries Act (1992) and the Environmental Management Act (2005) which are administered by the Departments of Fisheries and Environment, respectively (Sykes and Morris, 2009). The Fisheries Act does not specifically refer to coral collection, and a lack of empowerment of the Fisheries Division within the Fisheries Act to regulate the industry through punitive powers was previously identified as a problem (Lovell, 2001). Updating of the Act was called for by Lovell and Whippy-Morris (2008). Management of the aquarium trade was reportedly achieved through the setting of policy and guidelines within the broader 14

Fisheries Act (Lovell and Whippy-Morris, 2008). The aquarium trade must also comply with the Endangered and Protected Species Act (2002) (Lovell and Whippy-Morris, 2008) which lays down the requirements of permits for CITES listed species.

The coastal governance system in Fiji is a Dual Tenure System, with responsibilities for the management of aquarium products residing with both the Fisheries Division and the customary marine tenure of the i qoliqoli (Lovell, 2001). This system acknowledges that villagers have exclusive fishing rights to specified inshore areas that have traditionally belonged to them, although it was unclear whether the Fisheries Division had a legal right to prevent collection in the i qoliqoli (Lovell, 2001).

Most coral reef management in Fiji was reported to be at the community level (Chin et al., 2011). Customary law determines access to collection areas, as well as benefit sharing and enforcement. The requirement to revise the legislative basis to govern trade in corals and other marine products for the aquarium trade was highlighted by Manoa (2008). Protected areas Reef management in Fiji is largely driven by traditional communities establishing their own marine protected areas (Cumming et al., 2002; Burke et al., 2011; Chin et al., 2011). There were reportedly 205 Locally Managed Marine Areas (FLLMAs) with varying degrees of protection, and although full government gazetting had reportedly been slow, they were recognized at provincial council level (Sykes and Morris, 2009). FLLMA protection was reported to range from ‘no-take’ to collection for a limited duration or specific species only (Sykes and Morris, 2009). Whilst FLLMAs were not considered supported through legislation (Chin et al., 2011 171 were reported to have management plans (Govan, 2009).

Around a third of Fiji’s reef area was reported to be included within marine protected areas (MPAs), however management was reportedly effective for 0.3% of reefs; partially effective for 21%, not effective for 0.2% and of unknown effectiveness for 11% (Chin et al., 2011). A commitment to include 30% of the marine environment within a comprehensive and ecologically representative network of MPAs by 2020 was made in 2008 (Sykes and Morris, 2009; Govan, 2009), and it was considered that a large part of this commitment would be met through government support of FLMMAs (Sykes and Morris, 2009). Altogether, Fiji’s LMMAs have 10 800 km2 under management and almost 600 km2 protected as no-take zones (Govan, 2009). Coral reef management actions

The aquarium fishery in Fiji is co-managed by the Departments of Fisheries and Environment with the CITES Scientific Council (Scientific Authority) and Management Authority situated within the Department of Environment (Lovell and Whippy-Morris, 2008). Lovell (2001) reported that management actions in Fiji were a partnership between central Government and traditional custodians of the reef areas; although the legal status of the relationship was unclear. However, coral harvesting guidelines had been set by the Fisheries Division and control of the fishery was based on adherence to these guidelines (Lovell, 2001). According to Lovell (2001), they included measures for all types of coral extraction, such as:

1. required written approval by the legal authority (i qoliqoli) endorsed by the provincial administration and sent to the Fisheries Division;

15 2. a map of demarcated reef is allocated to licensed divers for coral harvest;

3. concentration of collection in areas of good growth, preferably on barrier reefs not shoreline reefs;

4. actual (continuation of) coral harvesting will be dependent on the favourable outcome of a survey report. Periodic monitoring will determine whether harvest is sustainable;

5. the Fisheries Division should be notified of new collection areas prior to harvesting so that surveys can be carried out to assess the total allowable harvest;

6. Fisheries Division will consult with collectors in management measures and give notice of overexploitation, if it occurs;

7. Export Permits from the Fisheries Division will be issued upon presentation of a list of corals and following inspection of the consignment.

Under the management arrangements, a restriction of the number of companies permitted to harvest live corals was in place; this was limited to two (Lovell and Whippy-Morris, 2008). Fiji was reported to have limited one aquarium company to each collection area to promote effective conservation (Lovell and Whippy-Morris, 2008). Additional measures included collecting only approved species and quantities outlined in the national quotas, not damaging other corals or invertebrates, minimising mortality through best practise collection techniques and propagating corals through mariculture (Lovell and Whippy-Morris, 2008).

Using the Marine Aquarium Council (MAC) criteria, efforts to develop ‘Collection Area Management Plans’ for certification by MAC had been underway (Lovell, 2003b). Whilst the two live coral exporters were previously MAC certified, it was reported that the Marine Aquarium Council no longer exists (Lovell, pers. comm. to UNEP-WCMC, 2014).

Progress in implementing management plans for the marine aquarium fishery in Fiji were previously reported to have been very slow (Hand et al., 2005). Vuki et al (2000) reported that the Fiji Fish Division was not able to effectively monitor coral harvesting activities because of limited resources, and noted concerns relating to coral harvest on reefs. Similar concerns about the ability of the government to monitor the harvesting and trade of coral due to low capacity and inadequate financial resources were noted by Lovell (2001). More recently, Chin et al. (2011) indicated that further information would be needed to assess the effectiveness of management efforts in Fiji. Coral harvest The main coral collection sites in Fiji were reported to be located off the coasts of Viti Levu: offshore from Lautoka in the north, with collection mainly between the islands of Naviti and Waya and the fringing reefs of Vatukarasa and Namada villages adjacent to Sovi and Tamanua Bay, and Namoli for the Walt Smith International (WSI) company (Lovell, 2003b). In addition, the collection area for the Aquarium Fish Fiji (AFF) Company is offshore from Deuba in the Beqa lagoon in the south (Lovell, 2001; Nand, 2008). Collection areas were reported to have been divided into zones for active collection and areas for which rights have been obtained but collection is not active; the area including the east and west Motunikeasulua Reefs was reported to be subject to highest collection levels (Lovell, 2003b).

The proportion of harvest of coral species from collection areas was believed to range from 0-3%, depending on the species characteristics, abundance and size of the site (Parry-Jones, 2004). Total coral numbers for the WSI and AFF collection sites were estimated as 586 million and 41 million respectively, with the number of eligible corals for collection (due to size and appearance) estimated as 31 million and 16

8 million for WSI and AFF respectively (Lovell and McLardy, 2008). In 2006, the removal rate of over 48 000 coral pieces at the Aquarium Fish Fiji site was estimated at 0.12% of all corals within the collection area (or 1.2 corals in 1000) (Lovell and McLardy, 2008). Similarly for the Walt Smith International collection site, the removal rate for export was estimated at about 0.01% in 2006 (Lovell and McLardy, 2008).

Nand (2008) reported that there had been no research undertaken on natural coral stocks since the establishment of the aquarium trade in 1984 and non-detriment findings for coral harvest were required. Coral export quotas are set by the CITES Scientific Council working with the Fisheries Department (Manoa, 2008). Quotas were initially introduced in 2004 to provide limits on harvesting and trade, but they were reported to have been derived arbitrarily (Manoa, 2008). While a scheme for quota setting based on abandance of taxa had been developed for Fiji based on size of the collecting area, state of luxuriance, colony form, growth rate, reproductive mode, relative community abundance and vulnerability (Parry-Jones, 2004), quotas had not been rationalized with regard to resource assessment (Lovell and Whippy-Morris, 2008). In 2007, a 25% reduction of export quotas for live coral was recommended by the Scientific Council (Nand, 2008; Lovell and McLardy, 2008).

Figure 1. Map of the Fiji Islands (Source: Institute of Applied Science, University of the South Pacific, Fiji). From Lovell and McLardy (2008).

Preliminary results for coral stock assessments in relation to non-detriment findings were reported by Nand (2008) through work undertaken by the Fiji Department of Fisheries and the Institue of Marine Resources of the University of the South Pacific. Coral surveys were based in the two main collection sites and covered Beqa, Yanuca, Pacific Habour and Serua reefs in the southern part of Fiji (Aquarium Fish Fiji) and Lautoka to the Yasawa group of islands in the western part of Fiji (Walt Smith International) (Nand, 2008), and the methodology was reported to be approved by the Fijian CITES Authorities (Lovell and Whippy-Morris, 2008).

AFF sites showed little variability and species were similar, although WSI sites were reported to cover different reef types and coral species composition (Nand, 2008). Coral belt transects were used to obtain coral abundance estimates and these were extrapolated across similar sites (Nand, 2008). On the basis that greater coral abundance was found at collection sites than non-collection sites for 60% and 80% of AFF and WSI sites respectively, Nand (2008) concluded that the impact of the aquarium industry appeared to be non-detrimental to coral stocks in Fiji. However, the author recommended further study of other collection sites, long-term monitoring and improvement of the survey methods would be required to confirm preliminary results (Nand, 2008).

17 Quotas were reviewed in 2009 by the Fiji Department of Fisheries and the University of the South Pacific’s Institute of Marine Resources (IMR) by undertaking coral assessments at WSI and AFF sites using survey methods approved by the Fijian Scientific Authority (Kinch et al., 2011). Densities based on corals counted along belt transects (by genus or species category) were extrapolated to the wider collection area for the reef flat habitat and compared to percentage of corals collected by AFF in 2007 (Kinch et al., 2011). A further 25% reduction in export quotas was imposed in 2009 (Kinch et al., 2011).

Similarly, Lovell and Whippy-Morris (2008) reported that the percentage removal of coral colonies for the aquarium trade was 0.00085% of the total estimated colonies on the reef flat, or 0.0014% reduction in living coral of the reef flat. It was concluded coral extraction impact was minimal in terms of reduction of species, reduction in coral cover and impact on ecosystems (Lovell and Whippy-Morris, 2008). Elements of the fishery which were thought to “promote sustainability” were: the small size of corals exported (3-15 cm diameter) making the removal of coral cover small, large coral reef collection areas to minimize overall impact, high diversity of reefs within collection areas, large areas of uncollected coral reef area to ensure recruitment and customary fishing right areas (Lovell and Whippy-Morris, 2008). However, Dee et al. (2014) considered that whilst Fiji had implemented quotas for individual coral species, no stock assessments for marine ornamentals, including corals had been undertaken.

Mariculture Cultivation of live coral was reported to have been successfully initiated in Fiji, with two farms located at Vunaqiliqili and Cakauvaka-I-Yata Reefs where cultivation of coral fragments had taken place (Lovell, 2003a). Lal and Cerelala (2005) reported that coral mariculture in Fiji was not well developed, and though exports of six-month cultured corals had taken place, it was considered that price increases for cultured corals would need to be assured before mariculture became financially viable. Only WSI was reported to have exported cultured corals from Fiji (Lal and Cerelala, 2005). Reviews of corals from Fiji

This section provides an overview of the status of, and trade in, seven species and 12 genera from Fiji: Astreopora, Leptoseris, Leptastrea, Acanthastrea, Symphyllia, Echinophyllia, Oxypora, Psammocora, Acrhelia, Favia, Goniastrea, Pectinia and the species Galaxea fascicularis, Pachyseris rugosa, Catalaphyllia jardinei; Euphyllia paraancora, Tubastraea faulkneri, Tubastraea micranthus and Diploastrea heliopora.

In order to assess overall trade volumes in these genera, a number of conversions have been run on the data. For all trade tables, sources have been combined (‘mariculture’ contains sources C, F and R; source W contains sources W, U and unspecified; see (Wood et al., 2012)). Purposes other than purpose T have also been combined as ‘other’. Trade reported at both the genus and species level for each genus has been aggregated. For genera included within this review, the majority of trade was reported at the genus level.

The full dataset is available here: https://db.tt/ifdhKehs.

SCLERACTINIA: ACROPORIDAE Astreopora spp. II/B

UNDER REVIEW: Fiji

SPECIES (IUCN): Fiji: Six species: one VU and five LC.

EU DECISIONS No current or previous decisions. (FIJI):

Taxonomic note

Astreopora elliptica has been reported from Fiji, however, the species was not recognised by Veron (2000) and its taxonomic status was considered uncertain (IUCN, 2015). The species is treated as a synonym of A. myriophthalma in the CITES Standard Reference (UNEP-WCMC, 2012). Trade patterns

In 2015 Fiji published an export quota for 2065 live or dead corals. No direct trade in Astreopora spp. from Fiji to the EU-28 was reported 2004-2013. Direct trade in Astreopora spp. from Fiji to countries other than the EU-28 2004-2013 comprised one live source ‘I’ coral traded for commercial purposes in 2009, as reported by importers.

No indirect trade in Astreopora spp. originating in Fiji to the EU-28 was reported 2004-2013. Conservation status

Astreopora are zooxanthellate1 colonies and colonies are massive, laminar or encrusting (Veron, 2000). The genus is comprised of 14 species (UNEP-WCMC, 2012), by far the most common of which was reported to be A. myriophthalma (Veron, 2000). The genus Astreopora was reported to occur from the Indo-Pacific, eastern Australia, Eastern China Sea and Japan Sea (Veron, 2000)2.

The IUCN Red List classified one of the Fijian species, A. cucullata, as Vulnerable, five as Least Concern (IUCN, 2015).

General threats to species of the genus Astreopora were reported to include: bleaching, coral diseases, ocean acidification, strengthening of El Niño Southern Oscillation events and storms, and a range of localized threats such as fisheries, development, pollution, sedimentation, invasive species, tourism, and changes in native species dynamics (IUCN, 2015). It was reported that members of Astreopora, with the exception of A. randalli, have a low resistance and low tolerance to bleaching and disease, and are slow to recover (IUCN, 2015). Observations in the Gulf of Oman during 2002 indicated that Astreopora inhabiting shallow water were particularly affected by bleaching, although little or no coral mortality resulted (Wilkinson, 2004). It was reported that A. cucullata may not be particularly susceptible to

1 Not symbiotic with microalgae. 2 Global distribution information for all genera is sourced from Veron (2000) who provided distribution maps as a guide only; the species may be found outside of the reported range. 19 crown-of-thorns starfish or the aquarium trade, while the susceptibility of A. gracilis, A. listeri, A. randalli and A. suggesta to the same threats is unknown (IUCN, 2015).

Fiji: Six species have been reported from Fiji (Lovell and McLardy, 2008; UNEP-WCMC, 2012). Four additional species, A. expansa, A. macrostoma, A. ocellata and A. scabra, were predicted to occur in Fiji by Veron (2000), but their occurrence was considered not confirmed by Lovell and McLardy (2008); the occurrence of two of these species, A. ocellata and A. scabra, in Fiji was considered doubtful due to the lack of records from Fiji or surrounding islands (Lovell and McLardy, 2008).

Three species of Astreopora that occur in Fiji were reported to inhabit shallow reef environments (A. cucullata, A. randalli and A. suggesta); two species inhabit a wide range of environments (A. gracilis, A. listeri), and one species (A. myriophthalma) inhabits most reef habitats, with the exception of very turbid water (Veron, 2000).

Koven and Paulay (1997) reported the occurrence of three (probably four) Astreopora species in the Great Astrolabe Reefs. During surveys in the Great Astrolabe Reef and North Astrolabe Reefs on the northeast and northern end of the Kadavu island group (70 km south of Viti Levu) in 2001, two species of Astreopora (A. listeri and A. myriophthalma) were recorded (Obura and Mangubhai, 2003). In the Great Sea Reef (Cakaulevu), to the north of Vanua Levu, A. gracilis, A. listeri, A. myriophthalma and A. suggesta were recorded (Jenkins, 2004). Astreopora was confirmed from the Volivoli Beach area near Rakiraki, northern Veri Levu with four species reported; they were found to be uncommon to rare (Fenner, 2006b). The genus was also reported to occur in the Mamanuca Islands, with four species recorded (A. listeri, A. myrioph [A. myriophthalma], A. randalli and A. suggesta) and the Coral Coast, with three species recorded (A. elliptica, [A. myriophthalma], A. myrioph [A. myriophthalma], A. randalli and A. suggesta); all were assessed as uncommon or rare (Fenner, 2006a).

Based on global assessments in Veron (2000), it could be inferred that two species of Astreopora that occur in Fiji are common or sometimes common, three are uncommon and one is rare. The IUCN (2015) considered one species to be globally common, three species to be globally uncommon, one species to be globally rare and the status of one species unknown. Of the Fijian species that have been assessed, the global population trend was reported to be decreasing for all (IUCN, 2015).

SCLERACTINIA: AGARICIIDAE Leptoseris spp. II/B

UNDER REVIEW: Fiji

SPECIES (IUCN): Fiji: Nine species: two VU, six LC and one not assessed.

EU DECISIONS No current or previous decisions. (FIJI):

Trade patterns

Fiji published zero export quotas for live and dead pieces of Leptoseris spp. in 2004 and 2005. In 2015, an export quota was published for 602 live or dead coral pieces. No direct or indirect trade in Leptoseris spp. from Fiji to the EU-28 or the rest of the world was reported for the period 2004-2013. Conservation status

Leptoseris are zooxanthellate corals and colonies are laminar or encrusting (Veron, 2000). The genus is comprised of 16 species (UNEP-WCMC, 2012), most being widespread, but showing substantial geographic and environmental variation (Veron, 2000). Leptoseris species were reported to appear to show a preference for poorly illuminated environments (Hoeksema, 2012). The genus Leptoseris was reported to occur from the Indo-Pacific, East Africa, eastern Australia, Eastern China Sea, Japan Sea, South Pacific Ocean, Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico (Veron, 2000).

The IUCN (2015) classifies two of the Fijian species, L. incrustans and L. yabei, as Vulnerable and six as Least Concern; one species had not been assessed. General threats to species of the genus Leptoseris were reported to include: bleaching, coral diseases, ocean acidification, strengthening of El Niño Southern Oscillation events and storms, and a range of localized threats such as fisheries, development, pollution, sedimentation, invasive species, tourism, and changes in native species dynamics (IUCN, 2015).

Fiji: Nine species of Leptoseris have been recorded from Fiji (Lovell and McLardy, 2008). One species, L. papyracea, was predicted to occur in Fiji by Veron (2000), but its occurrence was considered not confirmed by Lovell and McLardy (2008).

Two species were reported to inhabit reef slopes (L. mycetoseroides and L. solida) and two species lower reef slopes (L. explanata and L. gardineri); L. incrustans was reported to inhabit shallow reef environments, while L. scabra occurs in deeper water, L. yabei is usually found on flat substrates and L. hawaiiensis is usually found on vertical or overhanging walls (Veron, 2000). No information on the habitat preferences of L. tenuis was identified.

Koven and Paulay (1997) reported the occurrence of six Leptoseris species in the Great Astrolabe Reefs. During surveys in the Great Astrolabe Reef and North Astrolabe Reefs on the northeast and northern end of the Kadavu island group (70 km south of Viti Levu) in 2001, three species of Leptoseris (L. incrustans, L. mycetoseroides and L. scabra) were recorded (Obura and Mangubhai, 2003). Leptoseris was reported from the Great Sea Reef (Cakaulevu) with L. incrustans, L. scabra and L. yabei recorded to occur (Jenkins, 2004). Leptoseris was confirmed from the Volivoli Beach area near Rakiraki, northern

21 Veri Levu with three species reported; they were found to be uncommon to rare (Fenner, 2006b). Two species of the genus were recorded in the Mamanuca Islands and Coral Coast (L. mycetoseroides and L. scabra) and a further two species were recorded in the Coral Coast only (L. explanata and L. yabei); all were assessed as uncommon or rare (Fenner, 2006a).

Based on global assessments by Veron (2000), it could be inferred that one species of Leptoseris that occurs in Fiji may be sometimes common and seven may be uncommon (one was not assessed). The IUCN (2015) considered three species to be globally common and five species globally uncommon. Globally, the population trends of all the Leptoseris spp. that occur in Fiji are considered unknown (IUCN, 2015).

SCLERACTINIA: AGARICIIDAE Pachyseris rugosa II/B

COMMON NAMES: Castle Coral (EN)

SYNONYMS: Agaricia rugosa, Pachyseris carinata, Pachyseris monticulosa, Pachyseris torresiana, Pachyseris valenciennesi

RANGE STATES: American Samoa, Australia, British Indian Ocean Territory (United Kingdom), China, Egypt, Fiji, Guam, India, Indonesia, Israel, Japan, Madagascar, Malaysia, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mauritius, Micronesia (Federated States of), New Caledonia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Réunion, Samoa, Seychelles, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Province of China, Thailand, Tonga, Vanuatu, Viet Nam

UNDER REVIEW: Fiji EU DECISIONS: Current positive opinion for wild-sourced specimens from Fiji first formed on 14/09/2010 and last confirmed on 07/11/2014.

IUCN: Vulnerable

Trade patterns

Fiji published CITES export quotas (in number of pieces) for live and dead wild-sourced Pachyseris rugosa for every year 2004-2015 with the exception of 2006. Quotas for Pachyseris rugosa may have been exceeded in 2008-2010 according to data reported by Fiji (Table 1).

Table 1: CITES export quotas for wild live and dead Pachyseris rugosa (in number of pieces) from Fiji, 2004-2015, and global direct exports as reported by the countries of import and Fiji 2004-2013. Fiji has not yet submitted annual reports for the years 2012 or 2013. Trade data for 2014-2015 are not yet available.

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Quota 170 340 - 340 255 255 985 985 985 985 985 1500 Importer 168 249 208 117 100 237 525 672 450 419 - - Exporter 73 167 229 100 2484 1465 2527 27 - -

Direct exports of P. rugosa from Fiji to the EU-28 2004-2013 comprised primarily of relatively low levels of trade in live wild-sourced coral pieces for commercial purposes (Table 2). Trade to the rest of the world principally consisted primarily of moderate levels of trade in live wild-sourced corals, for commercial purposes. In addition, notable levels of direct exports of wild-sourced raw corals were reported to the rest of the world, the majority of which were for commercial purposes.

Indirect trade in P. rugosa originating in Fiji to the EU-28 consisted of seven live, wild-sourced corals re- exported via the United States in 2007 for commercial purposes.

23 Table 2: Direct exports of Pachyseris rugosa from Fiji to the EU-28 (EU) and the rest of the world (RoW), 2004-2013. All trade was wild-sourced.

Importer Term Purpose Reported by 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Total EU live T Importer 7 10 102 77 34 62 90 382 Exporter 1 50 355 850 3 1259 raw corals T Importer 2 2 Exporter RoW live T Importer 168 212 208 117 90 30 285 506 130 63 1809 Exporter 73 166 229 100 2434 1110 1677 24 5813 raw corals (kg) T Importer 30 30 Exporter raw corals P Importer 30 30 Exporter T Importer 30 105 163 132 256 236 922 Exporter Source: CITES Trade Database, UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK, downloaded on 28/09/2015 Conservation status

Pachyseris rugosa is a zooxanthellate coral which forms colonies that are commonly over 1 m across (Veron, 2000). P. rugosa was reported from the Indo-West Pacific [from the Red Sea to the South West and Central Indian Ocean], the Central Indo-Pacific, tropical Australia, southern Japan and South China Sea, and West Pacific Ocean (Hoeksema et al., 2014a). It has also been reported from American Samoa (Green et al., 2005).

Within shallow water, P. rugosa was reported to develop large “mound-shaped colonies”, but within other habitats, including areas exposed to strong waves, it forms smaller colonies (Veron, 2000). P. rugosa was reported to be found at depths of 5-20 m (Hoeksema et al., 2014a). In the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam, the species was reported to be commonly found from 9-20 m (Titlyanov and Titlyanova, 2002).

P. rugosa was described as common (Veron, 2000; Hoeksema et al., 2014a) and widespread throughout its range, although no information on population estimates was available (Hoeksema et al., 2014a).

This species was classified as globally Vulnerable by the IUCN (Hoeksema et al., 2014a). Although the population trend for this species was reported to be unknown (Hoeksema et al., 2014a), the decline of the quality of habitats within the species’ range was estimated and based on this estimate, a reduction in population size was inferred (Wilkinson, 2004).

The major threats facing coral species was considered to be global climate change, resulting in increased storm and ENSO severity, ocean acidification and, of particular threat, temperature extremes, which leads to coral bleaching and disease (Hoeksema et al., 2014a). Coral disease was reported as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide (Weil, 2006 in Hoeksema et al., 2014a). P. rugosa was reported to be particularly susceptible to bleaching, loss of coral reef habitat and harvesting for trade (Hoeksema et al., 2014a).

Fiji: Veron (2000) reported the occurrence of the species in the country. P. rugosa has been recorded in Cakaulevu Reef [located off northern shore of Vanua Levu] (Jenkins, 2004) and north Vanua, Yadua and Yadua Taba [outlier to the northern island of Vanua Levu] (Wallace, 1999, Taylor et al., 2002 in Lovell and McLardy, 2008), Great Astrolabe Reef [surrounds Kadavu Island] (Koven and Paulay, 1997, Mamanuca Islands [west of Viti Levu] and the Coral Cast [south and west coast of Viti Levu between 24

Nadi and Suva] (Fenner, 2006a) and Vuta village [south coast of Viti Levu] (Bonito, n.d. in Lovell and McLardy, 2008).

No population estimates were identified for the Fijian population of P. rugosa.

In a study focussing on Non-detriment findings for corals in Fiji, Nand (2008), indicated that out of 29 CITES-listed corals found during surveys (mostly only identified to genus level), no Pachyseris species were found at the sites of Aquarium Fish Fiji (AFF) (Beqa, Yanunca, Navua, Pacific Harbour and Serua) and Walt Smith International (WSI) (Lautoka to the Yasawa group of Islands).

25 SCLERACTINIA: CARYOPHYLLIIDAE Catalaphyllia jardinei II/B

COMMON NAMES: Elegant Coral (EN)

SYNONYMS: Pectinia jardinei RANGE STATES: Australia, Fiji, Indonesia, Japan, Madagascar, Malaysia, Maldives, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Viet Nam UNDER REVIEW: Fiji EU DECISIONS: Current negative opinion for wild specimens (excluding maricultured specimens) from Indonesia formed on 08/12/2014 and last confirmed on 02/07/2015. Previous Article 4.6(b) import restriction for wild specimens first applied on 19/09/1999 and last confirmed on 04/09/2014. The suspension has excluded maricultured specimens since 18/02/2005.

Current positive opinion for wild specimens from Australia formed on 03/12/2010 and confirmed on 02/12/2011.

Current no opinion for Fiji formed on 15/01/2004 replacing negative opinion formed on 22/05/2003.

Current Article 4.6(b) import restriction for wild specimens from Solomon Islands first applied on 10/05/2006 and last confirmed on 28/05/2015. Previous negative opinion formed on 09/10/2003.

Negative opinion for wild specimens from Tonga formed on 22/04/2005 and removed on 12/06/2006.

IUCN: Vulnerable

Trade patterns

Fiji published a zero export quota for live or dead C. jardinei pieces in 2004 and 2005. In 2015 an export quota for 875 live or dead pieces was published.

No direct trade or indirect exports of C. jardinei from or originating in Fiji to the EU-28 or the rest of the world was reported between 2004 and 2013. Conservation status

Catalaphyllia jardinei is zooxanthellate (Veron, 2000) and ahermatypic3 (Atkinson et al., 2008b). Colonies are either free living or attached (Borneman, 2002) and mature colonies can reach 100 cm in diameter (Wood, 1983). C. jardinei was reported to occur in the South West and Northern Indian Ocean, the Central Indo-Pacific, Australia, Southeast Asia, Japan and the East China Sea and the oceanic West

3 Not a main contributor to the reef matrix. 26

Pacific and Fiji (Lovell pers. comm. in Turak et al., 2008). The species was reported to occur in protected, preferably turbid water (Veron, 2000).

The depth range of the species was reported to be 0-40 m (Turak et al., 2008). Some authors considered C. jardinei to be a habitat specialist (Atkinson et al., 2008a; Roelofs and Silcock, 2008), preferring soft bottom habitats such as seagrass beds, algal flats and sandy or muddy substrates (Suharsano and Bruckner, 2008; Bruckner and Borneman, 2006) and at areas at river mouths (Lilley, 2001). Turak et al. (2008) reported that the species occurred in a variety of reef biotypes, although being especially common on soft substrates, rather than in areas of dense coral growth.

C. jardinei is gonochorous4 (Wabnitz et al., 2003). The age at sexual maturity was assumed to be three to eight years (Turak et al., 2008), based on most reef building corals having been reported to reach maturity at that age (Wallace, 1999). The average generation length was assumed to be 10 years (Turak et al., 2008). C. jardinei was observed to be slow growing, with linear growth rate estimates of 0.8-15.2 cm per year (Green and Shirley, 1999).

C. jardinei was assessed as Vulnerable by the IUCN (Turak et al., 2008). Population reductions of 36% over three generation lengths (30 years) were inferred, based on estimated habitat degradation and population loss, and given the susceptibility of the species to threats, it was considered more likely to be lost “within one generation in the future from reefs at a critical stage” (Turak et al., 2008).

C. jardinei was described as widespread (Turak et al., 2008) and conspicuous, although seldom common (Veron, 2000). Turak et al. (2008) considered the species to be rare throughout its range, while Veron (2000) reported it rare in the Western Indian Ocean. A survey of the Spermonde Archipelago, Sulawesi, Indonesia found the species at a low abundance (0.05 per m2) on a reef in shallow water (3-6 m) and it was reported that the colonies were highly aggregated (Bruckner, 2001a). Specific population trends were reported to be unknown, but reductions in population were inferred from declines in habitat quality (Wilkinson, 2004 in Turak et al., 2008).

Harvesting for the aquarium trade was reported as a principal threat for the species (Turak et al., 2008). C. jardinei was reported to be one of the taxa of live coral most readily available to hobbyist for aquariums (Bruckner, 2001b). Other threats to coral in general were reported to include climate change, particularly due to increased sea temperatures, causing coral bleaching, as well as increased severity of El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events, storms and ocean acidification (Turak et al., 2008). Compared with other coral species, C. jardinei was reported to have low susceptibility to coral bleaching (Roelofs and Silcock, 2008).

Fiji: The only occurrence of C. jardinei in Fiji was reported by Lovell and McLardy (2008), based on the University of the South Pacific coral collection, which was initiated in 1972. The species was not recorded during surveys of the Mamanuca Islands in the west of Fiji, Volivoli (Mani) in the north of the main Fijian island, Viti Levu or two sites surveyed on the Coral Coast (Fenner, 2006a) or a survey of Volivoli beach area near Rakiraki, Vetu Levu (Fenner, 2006b).

According to Lovell and McLardy (2008), the export of C. jardinei was not permitted at that time, and a zero quota had been allocated. No information on the population trend and status in Fiji could be located.

4 individuals are unisexual 27 SCLERACTINIA: CARYOPHYLLIIDAE Euphyllia paraancora II/B

COMMON NAMES: Branching Anchor Coral

RANGE STATES: Australia, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Solomon Islands UNDER REVIEW: Fiji EU DECISIONS: Current positive opinion for wild-sourced raw corals [genus-level decision] from Australia formed on 07/11/2014.

Current Article 4.6(b) import suspension for wild-sourced live corals (except maricultured specimens) from Indonesia first applied on 10/09/2012 and last confirmed on 28/05/2015. Previous negative opinion first applied on 11/07/2000.

Current no opinion i) for wild-sourced raw corals [genus-level decision] from Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines and Solomon Islands formed on 07/11/2014.

IUCN: Vulnerable

Trade patterns

In 2015, Fiji published an export quota of 1575 live or dead coral pieces. No direct exports of E. paraancora to the EU-28 from Fiji was reported 2004-2013, whilst direct exports of countries other than the EU-28 comprised 10 live wild-sourced corals reported in 2011 and 13 live corals reported as ‘seized or confiscated’ in 2012. All direct trade was for commercial purposes and reported by the importer only. No indirect exports of E. paraancora originating in Fiji to the EU-28 were reported 2004- 2013. Conservation status

Euphyllia paraancora was reported to be distributed in the Central Indo-Pacific, central/eastern/western Indian Ocean and the oceanic West Pacific, northwest and western Central Pacific (Turak et al., 2014).

The species was reported to occur in habitats protected from waves, from shallow to deep reef environments (Veron, 2000), with a reported lower depth limit of 30 m and an upper depth limit of 3 m (Turak et al., 2014).

The species was reported to be widespread but uncommon throughout its range (Turak et al., 2014; Veron, 2000), although no data on the population or population trends of this species were known (Turak et al., 2014).

E. paraancora was assessed as Vulnerable by the IUCN (Turak et al., 2014). No data on population trends were known but it was reported that a reduction in the population size was inferred from declines in habitat quality within the species range (Wilkinson, 2004). 28

The species was reported to be heavily harvested for the aquarium trade (Turak et al., 2014). Other threats to corals in general were reported to include global climate change, in particular temperature extremes leading to bleaching, increase severity of El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events and storms and ocean acidification (Turak et al., 2014).

Fiji: The distribution map shown in (Veron, 2000) indicates that the species occurs close to the west of Fiji, although the country was not specifically mentioned as a range state. The species was not recorded during surveys of the Mamanuca Islands in the west of Fiji, Volivoli (Mani) in the north of the main Fijian island, Viti Levu or two sites surveyed on the Coral Coast (Fenner, 2006a) or a survey of Volivoli beach area near Rakiraki, Vetu Levu (Fenner, 2006b).

No information on the population or conservation status of the species in Fiji was identified.

29 SCLERACTINIA: DENDROPHYLLIIDAE Tubastraea faulkneri II/B

COMMON NAMES: Orange Turret Coral (EN)

RANGE STATES: Australia, Ecuador, Indonesia, Palau, Philippines UNDER REVIEW: Fiji EU DECISIONS: Current positive opinion for wild-sourced corals [genus-level decision] from Australia formed on 07/11/2014.

Current positive opinion for wild-sourced corals [genus-level decision] from Indonesia formed on 0812/2014 and last confirmed on 09/04/2015.

Current no opinion i) for wild-sourced corals [genus-level decision] from Ecuador and the Philippines formed on 07/11/2014.

IUCN: Not yet assessed

Trade patterns

In 2015 Fiji published an export quota for 840 live or dead coral pieces. No direct exports of T. faulkneri from Fiji were reported to the EU-28 or the rest of the world 2004-2013. No indirect exports of T. faulkneri originating in Fiji to the EU-28 were reported 2004-2013. Conservation status

Tubastraea faulkneri is an ahermatypic azooxanthellate5 coral (Veron, 2000), with colony sizes between 40 – 80 mm (Lam et al., 2008). Based on other Tubastraea species, T. faulkneri was expected to reach sexual maturity at approximately 18 months old (D. Stettler, pers. comm. in Fenner and Banks, 2004). It was reported to reproduce through brooding (internal fertilisation) (Babcock et al., 1986).

Its distribution was reported to span the Pacific Ocean, from Hong Kong, Indonesia, northern Australia, and the Philippines in the west, to the Galapagos Islands and the coasts of Ecuador and Nicaragua to the east (Cairns, 1991; Lam et al., 2008; MacDonald, 2010; Zuniga, 2010). Although few direct surveys have been reported, it was considered common in parts of its distribution (Schlacher-Hoenlinger et al., 2009).

The IUCN has not yet assessed T. faulkneri (IUCN, 2015) and Veron (2000; 2013) does not provide global assessment information for this species. In the 1990s, the genus was found to have very high mortality rates in home aquaria (Baquero, 1991; in: Wabnitz et al., 2003). More recently, the genus was however said to reproduce readily in aquaria under suitable conditions (Riddle, 2008).

Fiji: T. faulkneri was not recorded in any of the six Fijian studies reported by Lovell and McLardy (2008), neither was it reported by Fenner (2006b) in a survey of Volivoli Beach in Veti Levu.

No information on the population or conservation status of the species in Fiji could be located.

5 Not symbiotic with microalgae. 30

SCLERACTINIA: DENDROPHYLLIIDAE Tubastraea micranthus II/B

COMMON NAMES: Tree Coral (EN), Black Turret Coral (EN)

SYNONYMS: Coenopsammia aequiserialis, Coenopsammia ramiculosa, Coenopsammia viridis, Dendrophyllia micranthus, Dendrophyllia nigrescens, Enallopsammia micranthus, Oculina micranthus

RANGE STATES: Australia, British Indian Ocean Territory (United Kingdom), Cabo Verde, Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Fiji, Hong Kong, SAR, India, Indonesia, Israel, Japan, Kenya, Kiribati, Madagascar, Malaysia, Maldives, Mauritius, Mozambique, New Caledonia, Palau, Philippines, Republic of Korea, Saudi Arabia, Seychelles, Singapore, South Africa, Sudan, Taiwan, Province of China, Tonga, Viet Nam

UNDER REVIEW: Fiji EU DECISIONS: Current no opinion i) for wild-sourced corals [genus-level decision] from Australia formed on 07/11/2014.

Current no opinion i) for wild-sourced corals [genus-level decision] from Australia, British Indian Ocean Territory, Cabo Verde, Djibouti, Egypt, Fiji, Hong Kong SAR, India, Japan, Kenya, Kiribati, Madagascar, Malaysia, Maldives, Mauritius, Mozambique, New Caledonia, Philippines, Republic of Korea, Saudi Arabia, Seychelles, Singapore Taiwan PoC and Viet Nam formed on 07/11/2014.

Current positive opinion for wild-sourced corals [genus-level decision] from Indonesia formed on 08/12/2014 and last confirmed on 09/04/2015.

IUCN: Not yet assessed

Taxonomic note

Tubastraea micranthus was noted often to be incorrectly referred to as T. micrantha (Veron, 2000). Trade patterns

In 2015 Fiji published an export quota for 1750 live or dead coral pieces. No direct exports of T. micranthus to the EU-28 were reported 2004-2013. Direct exports to the rest of the world comprised 10 live, wild-sourced corals exported in 2005. No indirect exports originating in Fiji to the EU-28 were reported 2004-2013. Conservation status

Tubastraea micranthus is an azooxanthellate coral (Veron, 2000). Colonies of this species have been reported to grow as large as 1-1.5 m in diameter (Jenkins, 2004) and, uncommon for this type of coral, may play an important role in building reef-like structures in some areas of the Pacific (Roberts et al., 2009). Based on other Tubastraea species, T. micranthus was expected to reach sexual maturity at approximately 18 months old (D. Stettler, pers. comm. in Fenner and Banks, 2004). 31 This species has a widespread global distribution, with its native range extending from the east coast of Africa, the Red Sea and Madagascar, across the Indo-Pacific to northern Australia, Indonesia and Southern Asia (Sammarco et al., 2013). It was also reportedly a successful invasive species in the Atlantic Ocean, particularly in the waters around Mexico (Sammarco et al., 2013). T. micranthus was most commonly found in shallow waters (Sammarco et al., 2010), and was reported to be particularly common in reefs with strong currents (Veron, 2000).

The IUCN has not yet assessed T. micranthus (IUCN, 2015) and Veron (2000; 2013) does not provide global assessment information for this species. In the 1990s, the genus was found to have very high mortality rates in home aquaria (Baquero, 1991; in: Wabnitz et al., 2003). More recently, the genus was said to reproduce readily in aquaria under suitable conditions (Riddle, 2008).

Fiji: T. micranthus appears to have a widespread distribution across the Fijian islands, with records confirmed for five out of six surveys included in Lovell and McLardy (2008). T. micranthus has been recorded at the local level during a number of surveys:

 In Cakaulevu (the Great Sea Reef) and associated coastal habitats off northern Vanua Levu T. micranthus was found at 13% sites (three out of 23) surveyed, and was reported to be in “large abundance” at one of these (Jenkins, 2004).

 Around the Mamanuca Islands and the Coral Coast [south coast of Viti Levu], T. micranthus was recorded at 27% of sites (seven out of 26) surveyed (Fenner, 2006a). It was considered “uncommon” in one of these sites (which was also within a suggested MPA) and “rare” in the remaining six sites (three of which fell within suggested MPAs) (Fenner, 2006a).

 At Volivoli Beach [near Rakivaki in northern Viti Levu] this species was reported at 75% of sites (three out of four) surveyed, and classified as “uncommon” at all three (Fenner, 2006b).

 It was also recorded around Yadua and Yadua Taba Islands [west of Vanu Levu] (Taylor et al., 2002), and in the Great Astrolabe Reef around Kadavu Island [west of Viti Levu] (Koven and Paulay, 1997; Obura and Mangubhai, 2003).

T. micranthus was considered a commercial species by Lovell and Tumuri (1999), although none of the confirmed T. micranthus sites overlapped with the commercial coral harvesting waters they reported. One proposed soft coral collection site was identified in Mamanuca waters, where T. micranthus [a hard coral species] had been recorded as uncommon/rare (Fenner, 2006a). The main coral collection areas in Fiji were reported to be located primarily along the Coral Coast off the south coastline of Viti Levu in Lautoka, Naviti and Waya Islands, around Sovi and Tamanua Bay, Namoli, and in the Beqa lagoon (Lovell, 2001, 2003; Nand, 2008). Although there were no confirmed survey records of T. micranthus at these sites, it has been recorded at other sites along the Coral Coast, where its reported abundance ranged from uncommon to rare (Fenner, 2006a).

SCLERACTINIA: FAVIIDAE Diploastrea heliopora II/B

SYNONYMS: Astrea glaucopsis, Astrea heliopora, Astrea patula, Diploastrea glaucopsis, Diploastrea patula, Heliastrea heliopora, Orbicella heliopora, Orbicella minikoiensis

RANGE STATES: American Samoa, Australia, British Indian Ocean Territory (United Kingdom), China, Djibouti, Egypt, Fiji, Guam, India, Indonesia, Japan, Kenya, Madagascar, Malaysia, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Micronesia (Federated States of), New Caledonia, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Seychelles, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Sudan, Taiwan, Province of China, Thailand, Tonga, Tuvalu, United Republic of Tanzania, Vanuatu, Viet Nam

UNDER REVIEW: Fiji EU DECISIONS: No current or previous decisions.

IUCN: Near Threatened

Trade patterns

In 2015 Fiji published an export quota for 1899 live or dead coral pieces. No direct or indirect trade in D. heliopora from or originating in Fiji has been reported to the EU-28 or the rest of the world for the period 2004-2013. Conservation status

Diploastrea heliopora is a zooxanthellate coral (Veron, 2000). It forms large, domed colonies which have been recorded up to 2 m high and over 10 m across (Veron, 2000; Huete et al., 2006). The species has been found at depths of up to 30 m (DeVantier et al., 2014).

Globally, D. heliopora has been reported to have a widespread distribution, which ranges from the Red Sea and the coasts of eastern Africa and Madagascar in the west, across the Indio-Pacific to the coasts of northern Australia, Indonesia and Southern Asia to the east (DeVantier et al., 2014).

No population information at the species level was thought to be available (DeVantier et al., 2014). However, the species has been recorded as abundant and ubiquitous across much of its range (Guest et al., 2012; DeVantier et al., 2014), varying locally from uncommon to very common (DeVantier et al., 2014).

The species was classified as Near Threatened by the IUCN (DeVantier et al., 2014). The population trend for this species was believed to be decreasing, and a reduction of about 20% coverage was inferred from a corresponding decline in this species’ habitat (Wilkinson, 2004; DeVantier et al., 2014).

Whilst considered to be fairly resilient to habitat degeneration (Wilkinson, 2004), D. heliopora was noted to be threatened by rising temperatures (growth is retarded >30.5° C: Cantin et al., 2010),

33 bleaching (Lovell, 2000), ocean acidification, over-fishing, sedimentation, pollution, and harvesting for the aquarium trade (DeVantier et al., 2014).

Fiji: D. heliopora has been widely recorded across the Fijian islands, with records confirmed from all six surveys included in Lovell and McLardy (2008). D. heliopora has been recorded at the local level during a number of surveys:

 In Cakaulevu (the Great Sea Reef) along northern Vanu Levu, D. heliopora was found at 26% sites (six out of 23) surveyed, and was considered common or abundant at two of these locations (Jenkins, 2004).

 It was found at all 26 sites surveyed around the Mamanuca Islands and the Coral Coast [south coast of Viti Levu], was considered “common” in 42% (11 out of 26) of these (including in five out of nine of the suggested MPAs) and “uncommon” in the remaining 58% (15 out of 26) (including in the remaining four out of nine suggested MPAs) (Fenner, 2006a). It was also specifically recorded at the Coral Coast around Votua Village (Bonito, n.d.).

 At Volivoli Beach [near Rakivaki in northern Vitu Levu], Fenner (2006b) found D. heliopora at all four sites surveyed, classifying it as “common” at two of these sites, and “rare” at the other two.

 It was also recorded as present in the Great Astrolabe Reef around Kadavu Island [west of Vitu Levu] (Koven and Paulay, 1997; Obura and Mangubhai, 2003).

None of these confirmed D. heliopora sites appear to overlap with the commercial coral harvesting waters identified in Lovell and Tumuri (1999). One proposed soft coral collection site was identified in Mamanuca waters (Lovell and Tumuri, 1999) where D. heliopora [a hard coral species] had been recorded as both common and uncommon at local sites (Fenner, 2006a). The main coral collection areas in Fiji were reported to be located primarily along the Coral Coast off the south coastline of Viti Levu in Lautoka, Naviti and Waya Islands, around Sovi and Tamanua Bay, Namoli, and in the Beqa lagoon (Lovell, 2001, 2003; Nand, 2008). Although there were no confirmed survey records of D. heliopora at these sites, it has been recorded at other sites along the south coast of Viti Levu (Fenner, 2006a; Bonito, n.d.), where its reported abundance ranged from common to uncommon (Fenner, 2006a).

SCLERACTINIA: FAVIIDAE Favia spp. II/B

UNDER REVIEW: Fiji

SPECIES (IUCN): Fiji: Seven species: four NT and three LC.

EU DECISIONS No current or previous decisions. (FIJI):

Trade patterns

Fiji published CITES export quotas (in number of pieces) for live and dead wild-sourced Favia for every year 2004-2015 with the exception of 2006. Quotas for Favia may have been exceeded in 2004, 2008 and 2009 according to importer reported trade data, and in 2008-2010 according to data reported by Fiji (Table 1).

Table 1: CITES export quotas for wild live and dead Favia (in number of pieces) from Fiji, 2004- 2015, and wild-sourced global direct exports as reported by the countries of import and Fiji 2004-2013. Fiji has not yet submitted annual reports for the years 2012 or 2013. Trade data for 2014-2015 are not yet available.

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Quota 1063 2126 - 2126 1594 1594 4800 4800 4800 4800 4800 5600 Importer 1259 1934 2577 1915 1700 2532 3781 3614 2810 3112 - - Exporter 957 1339 2087 1034 6222 4272 6602 874 - -

Direct trade in Favia spp. 2004-2013 comprised moderate levels of trade to the EU-28 and high levels of trade to the rest of the world 2004-2013, mainly in live wild-sourced individuals exported for commercial purposes (Table 2).

Indirect trade in Favia spp. to the EU-28 originating in Fiji 2004-2013 consisted of five wild-sourced live individuals re-exported via Singapore in 2006 and six re-exported via Indonesia in 2011, all for commercial purposes.

Table 2: Direct exports of Favia from Fiji to the EU-28 (EU) and the rest of the world (RoW), 2004-2013.

Importer Term Source Purpose Reported by 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Total EU live W T Importer 127 272 400 885 434 554 504 471 495 582 4724 Exporter 88 236 185 907 1000 1690 111 4217 raw corals W T Importer 7 7 Exporter RoW live I T Importer 1 82 4 4 3 1 95 Exporter W P Importer 1 1 Exporter T Importer 1122 1492 2176 1030 1256 1532 3132 3052 2128 2159 19079 Exporter 957 1251 1851 849 5315 3272 4912 763 19170

35 Importer Term Source Purpose Reported by 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Total live (kg) W T Importer 7 7 Exporter raw corals I P Importer 2 2 Exporter T Importer 2 2 Exporter W P Importer 60 60 Exporter S Importer 11 11 Exporter T Importer 10 170 10 446 145 80 180 311 1352 Exporter raw corals (kg) W T Importer 60 60 Exporter Source: CITES Trade Database, UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK, downloaded on 28/09/2015 Conservation status

Favia colonies are usually massive, flat or dome shaped, with considerable variation in growth form, depending on the depth, environment and conditions in different countries (Veron, 2000). The genus is comprised of 25 species (UNEP-WCMC, 2012) and was reported to be one of the most widespread coral genera (Veron, 2000). Favia species were reported to inhabit a range of reef environments (Veron, 2000). The genus Favia was reported to occur from the Indo-Pacific, East Africa, west and east Australia, Eastern China Sea, Japan Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, South Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Guinea (Veron, 2000).

The IUCN classified four of the Fijian species as Near Threatened and three as Least Concern (IUCN 2015). General threats to species of the genus Favia were reported to include coral diseases, ocean acidification, strengthening of El Niño Southern Oscillation events and storms, and a range of localized threats such as fisheries, development, pollution, sedimentation, invasive species and tourism, and changes in native species dynamics (IUCN, 2015). Although bleaching was noted to be a threat to Favia species, the species within this genus were considered relatively resistant to bleaching (IUCN, 2015).

Fiji: Seven species have been reported from Fiji (Lovell and McLardy, 2008). The occurrence of two additional species, F. favus and F. laxa, in Fiji was considered uncertain by Lovell and McLardy (2008); F. favus was predicted to occur in Fiji by Veron (2000), while F. laxa was not considered to occur in Fiji. Four additional species, F. danae, F. helianthoides, F. lizardensis and F. veroni, were predicted to occur in Fiji by Veron (2000), but their occurrence was considered not confirmed by Lovell and McLardy (2008); the occurrence of one of these species, F. danae, in Fiji was considered doubtful due to the lack of records from Fiji or surrounding islands (Lovell and McLardy, 2008).

Koven and Paulay (1997) reported the occurrence of five Favia (probably nine) species in the Great Astrolabe Reefs. During surveys in the Great Astrolabe Reef and North Astrolabe Reefs on the northeast and northern end of the Kadavu island group (70 km south of Viti Levu) in 2001, six species of Favia were recorded, although only five species (F. matthaii, F. maxima, F. pallida, F. rotundata and F. stelligera) were reported confirmed (Obura and Mangubhai, 2003). Favia was reported from the Great Sea Reef (Cakaulevu); it was specifically noted from around Nananu Islet (F. pallida and F. rotundata), Mali Passage (F. pallida and F. stelligera), Raviravi Back Reef and Motuli Bawa Reef (F. pallida) (Jenkins, 2004). Favia was confirmed from the Volivoli Beach area near Rakiraki, northern Veri Levu with two species reported; both were rare (Fenner, 2006b). The genus was recorded to occur in the Mamanuca 36

Islands, with four species recorded (F. matthai, F. maxima, F. pallida and F. stelligera); they were assessed as uncommon or rare (Fenner, 2006a). Four species of the genus (F. matthai, F. pallida, F. rotundata and F. stelligera) were also recorded on the Coral Coast; assessed as uncommon or rare (Fenner, 2006a).

The occurrence of Favia colonies that would qualify for collection were recorded from the centre of the Walt Smith International collection site; seven colonies each from the East and West Motunikeasulua Reefs respectively, four from the Cakauvakababa-i-Yata Reef, one from the Nakuba Reef, and three from the Yakauke Reef (Lovell, 2003). Favia spp. was identified as one of the top 15 most common coral genera at both of the two main collection sites in Fiji (Nand, 2008). At the Aquarium Fish Fiji (AFF) collection site, Favia was recorded as an abundant genus with an estimated 7.8 million colonies, of which 0.014% was calculated to have been exported, based on the 2007 export levels (Lovell and Whippy-Morris, 2008). At the Aquarium Fish Fiji (AFF) collection sites (including Beqa, Yanuca, Pacific Harbour and Serua reefs in the southern part of Fiji), the area of Favia cover was reported to be 418 983 m2 [0.418983 km2] (Nand, 2008). Relative percentage composition of Favia at the WSI collection area was calculated as 2.8% (Lovell and McLardy, 2008). Area of Favia cover at the Walt Smith International collection site (Lautoka to the Yasawa group of islands in the western part of Fiji) was estimated at 4 154 599 m2 [4.154599 km2] (Nand, 2008). According to Lovell and McLardy (2008), Fiji’s quota for Favia spp. for 2007 and 2008 included nine species.

Based on global assessments in Veron (2000), it could be inferred that five species of Favia that occur in Fiji are common or sometimes common, one uncommon, and one rare. The IUCN (2015) considered four species to be globally common and three species as globally uncommon. Globally, populations of all the Favia spp. that occur in Fiji were considered to be decreasing (IUCN, 2015).

37 SCLERACTINIA: FAVIIDAE Goniastrea spp. II/B

UNDER REVIEW: Fiji

SPECIES (IUCN): Fiji: Seven species: two NT and five LC.

EU DECISIONS No current or previous decisions. (FIJI):

Trade patterns

Fiji published CITES export quotas (in number of pieces) for live and dead wild-sourced Goniastrea every year 2004-2015, with the exception of 2006. Quotas for Goniastrea may have been exceeded in 2008-2010 according to data reported by Fiji (Table 1).

Table 1: CITES export quotas for wild live and dead Goniastrea (in number of pieces) from Fiji, 2004-2015, and global direct exports as reported by the countries of import and Fiji 2004-2013. Fiji has not yet submitted annual reports for the years 2012 or 2013. Trade data for 2014-2015 are not yet available.

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Quota 1801 3602 - 3602 2701 2701 2701 2701 2701 2701 2701 3500 Importer 756 592 597 508 939 1708 1796 2396 1785 1949 - - Exporter 569 475 537 433 3840 4185 4488 427 - -

Direct trade in Goniastrea spp. comprised low levels of trade to the EU-28 and moderately high levels to the rest of the world 2004-2013, mainly in live wild-sourced individuals exported for commercial purposes (Table 2).

No indirect trade in Goniastrea spp. originating in Fiji to the EU-28 was reported 2004-2013.

Table 2: Direct exports of Goniastrea from Fiji to the EU-28 (EU) and the rest of the world (RoW), 2004-2013.

Importer Term Source Purpose Reported by 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Total EU live W T Importer 23 20 75 75 29 141 251 614 Exporter 3 80 485 365 29 962 RoW live I T Importer 1 4 5 Exporter W T Importer 733 542 597 508 839 1076 1501 2208 1399 1216 10619 Exporter 569 472 537 433 3760 3700 4123 398 13992 raw corals I P Importer 1 1 Exporter W P Importer 80 80 Exporter S Importer 9 9 Exporter T Importer 30 100 557 220 150 245 402 1704 38

Importer Term Source Purpose Reported by 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Total Exporter raw corals (kg) W T Importer 80 80 Exporter Source: CITES Trade Database, UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK, downloaded on 28/09/2015 Conservation status

Goniastrea are zooxanthellate corals and colonies are massive and usually spherical or flat (Veron, 2000). The genus was reported to be widespread in the Indo-West Pacific (Veron, 2000) and is comprised of 12 species (UNEP-WCMC, 2012). The genus was considered among the hardiest and includes some of the most tolerant of all coral species to aerial exposure (Veron, 2000); Goniastrea species often dominate intertidal communities (Veron, 2000). The genus Goniastrea was reported to occur from the Indo-Pacific, East Africa, west and east Australia, Eastern China Sea and Japan Sea (Veron, 2000).

The IUCN classified two of the Fijian species as Near Threatened and five as Least Concern (IUCN 2015). General threats to species of the genus Goniastrea were reported to include bleaching, predation, coral diseases, ocean acidification, and a range of localized anthropogenic threats such as harvesting, fisheries, development, pollution, sedimentation, invasive species and tourism, as well as natural phenomena such as strengthening of El Niño Southern Oscillation and storms and changes in native species dynamics (IUCN, 2015).

Fiji: Seven species of Goniastrea have been recorded from Fiji according to Lovell and McLardy (2008). One additional species, G. palauensis, was predicted to occur in Fiji by Veron (2000), but its occurrence in Fiji was considered doubtful by Lovell and McLardy (2008) due to the lack of records from Fiji or surrounding islands.

Koven and Paulay (1997) reported the occurrence of three (probably six) Goniastrea species in the Great Astrolabe Reefs. During surveys in the Great Astrolabe Reef and North Astrolabe Reefs on the northeast and northern end of the Kadavu island group (70 km south of Viti Levu) in 2001, two species of Goniastrea (G. aspera and G. retiformis) were recorded (Obura and Mangubhai, 2003). Goniastrea was reported from the Great Sea Reef (Cakaulevu), with G. edwardsi noted from around Cakaulevu Reef, Vatia islet, the Mali Passage and Tilagica Island; G. retiformis reported from Nadogo island, the Sausau Passage, Nukuvadra Island and Raviravi Back Reef; G. aspera from Raviravi Back Reef, Nananu islet and an unnamed channel opposite Nadogo Island; and G. minuta was recorded from Nananu islet and Mali Passage (Jenkins, 2004). Goniastrea was confirmed from the Volivoli Beach area near Rakiraki, northern Veri Levu with two species reported; they were found to be uncommon to rare (Fenner, 2006b). G. minuta and G. pectinata were recorded from multiple sites in the Mamanuca Islands and on the Coral Coast; they were assessed as common to rare. G. edwardsi and G. retiformis were also reported from the Mamanuca Islands and were assessed as uncommon or rare (Fenner, 2006a).

At the Aquarium Fish Fiji collection site, Goniastrea was recorded as an abundant genus with an estimated 6 million colonies, of which 0.017% was calculated to have been exported based on the 2007 export levels (Lovell and Whippy-Morris, 2008). The occurrence of Goniastrea colonies that would qualify for collection were recorded from the centre of the Walt Smith International collection site: one and eight colonies from the East and West Motunikeasulua Reefs, respectively, one from the Cakauvakababa-i-Yata Reef, and one from the Yakauke Reef (Lovell, 2003).

A large harvest of G. aspera and G. australensis in Fiji was reported, and probably some harvest of G. favulus and G. minuta, although it was reported that these species were not targeted (IUCN, 2015). It was reported that there is a harvest quota for G. edwardsi and export quotas for G. pectinata and 39 G. retiformis in Fiji (IUCN, 2015). According to Lovell and McLardy (2008), Fiji’s quota for Goniastrea spp. for 2007 and 2008 included five species.

Based on global assessments in Veron (2000), it could be inferred that five species of Goniastrea that occur in Fiji are common or sometimes common and two are uncommon. The IUCN (2015) considered four species to be globally common, one species uncommon, but sometimes locally common, and two species as globally uncommon. Globally, populations of all the Goniastrea species that occur in Fiji are considered to be decreasing (IUCN, 2015).

SCLERACTINIA: FAVIIDAE Leptastrea spp. II/B

UNDER REVIEW: Fiji

SPECIES (IUCN): Fiji: Four species: one NT and three LC.

EU DECISIONS No current or previous decisions. (FIJI):

Trade patterns

Fiji published zero export quotas for live and dead pieces of Leptastrea spp. in 2004 and 2005. In 2015 an export quota for 100 live or dead coral pieces was published. There was no reported direct trade in Leptastrea spp. from Fiji to the EU-28 or the rest of the world for the period 2004-2013.

No indirect trade in Leptastrea spp. originating in Fiji to the EU-28 was reported 2004-2013. Conservation status

Leptastrea are zooxanthellate corals, and colonies are massive and usually flat or dome-shaped (Veron, 2000). The genus Leptastrea comprises seven species (UNEP-WCMC, 2012) that have been reported to occur from the Indo-Pacific, South Africa, eastern Australia, Eastern China Sea and Japan Sea (Veron, 2000).

The IUCN (2015) classified one of the Fijian species as Near Threatened and three as Least Concern. General threats to species of the genus Leptastrea were reported to include: bleaching, coral diseases, ocean acidification, strengthening of El Niño Southern Oscillation events and storms, and a range of localized threats such as fisheries, development, pollution, sedimentation, invasive species, tourism, and changes in native species dynamics (IUCN, 2015).

Fiji: Four species were reported to occur in Fiji (Lovell and McLardy, 2008). Two additional species, L. bottae and L. inaequalis, were predicted to occur in Fiji by Veron (2000), but their occurrence was considered not confirmed by Lovell and McLardy (2008); the occurrence of one of these species, L. bottae, in Fiji was considered doubtful due to the lack of records from Fiji or surrounding islands (Lovell and McLardy, 2008).

Two species (L. purpurea and L. transversa) that occur in Fiji were reported to inhabit a wide range of reef environments; one species (L. pruinosa) was reported to inhabit shallow clear water, and one species (L. bewickensis) was reported to inhabit sheltered reef environments (Veron, 2000).

Koven and Paulay (1997) reported the occurrence of one (probably two) Leptastrea species in the Great Astrolabe Reefs. During surveys in the Great Astrolabe Reef and North Astrolabe Reefs on the northeast and northern end of the Kadavu island group (70 km south of Viti Levu) in 2001, two species of Leptastrea (L. purpurea and L. transversa) were recorded (Obura and Mangubhai, 2003). In the Great Sea Reef (Cakaulevu), Leptastrea spp. were found to be common around Motuli Bawa reef; L. purpurea was recorded on Nananu Islet (off Mali Island) and L. pruinosa was noted on Tilagica Island (Jenkins, 2004). L. purpurea was reported from the Volivoli Beach area near Rakiraki, northern Veri Levu where it was

41 found to be rare (Fenner, 2006b). The genus was recorded to occur in the Mamanuca Islands, with three species (L. pruinosa, L. purpurea and L. transversa) recorded from multiple locations; all were assessed as uncommon or rare. The species L. purpurea and L. transversa were also recorded as uncommon or rare from sites on the Coral Coast (Fenner, 2006a). At the Aquarium Fish Fiji (AFF) collection site, Lovell and Whippy-Morris (2008) estimated 1 million colonies of Leptastrea spp., of which none were reportedly exported in 2007.

Based on global assessments in Veron (2000), it could be inferred that two species (L. pruinosa and L. transversa) may be uncommon in Fiji, one common (L. purpurea), and one may be locally abundant (L. bewickensis). The IUCN (2015) considered two species to be globally common, one species to be locally abundant, and one species to be uncommon and sometimes locally abundant. Globally, populations of all the Leptastrea spp. that occur in Fiji are considered to be decreasing (IUCN, 2015).

SCLERACTINIA: MUSSIDAE Acanthastrea spp. II/B

UNDER REVIEW: Fiji

SPECIES (IUCN): Fiji: Six species: three VU, two NT and one LC.

EU DECISIONS No current or previous decisions. (FIJI):

Trade patterns

In 2015 Fiji published an export quota for 2436 live or dead Acanthastrea pieces. No direct trade in Acanthastrea spp. from Fiji to the EU-28 was reported 2004-2013. Direct trade in Acanthastrea spp. to countries other than the EU-28 2004-2013 comprised two wild-sourced live corals and one live source coral reported as ‘seized or confiscated’ traded for commercial purposes in 2007 and 2008 respectively. This trade was reported by importers only.

No indirect trade in Acanthastrea spp. originating in Fiji to the EU-28 was reported over the period 2004-2013. Conservation status

Acanthastrea are colonial, zooxanthellate corals with massive or encrusting colonies (Veron, 2000). The genus is widespread in the Indo-Pacific (Veron, 2000) and is comprised of 14 species (UNEP-WCMC, 2012). The genus Acanthastrea was reported to occur from the Indo-Pacific, East Africa, eastern Australia, Eastern China Sea and Japan Sea (Veron, 2000).

The IUCN (2015) classified three of the Fijian species, A. brevis, A. hemprichii and A. ishigakiensis, as Vulnerable, two as Near Threatened and one as Least Concern. General threats to species of Acanthastrea were reported to include bleaching, coral diseases, ocean acidification, strengthening of El Niño Southern Oscillation events and storms, and a range of localized threats such as fisheries, development, pollution, sedimentation, invasive species, tourism, and changes in native species dynamics (IUCN, 2015). A. echinata was also noted to be targeted for the aquarium trade (IUCN, 2015).

Fiji: Six species of Acanthastrea have been recorded from Fiji (Lovell and McLardy, 2008). One additional species, A. bowerbanki, was predicted to occur in Fiji by Veron (2000), but its occurrence was considered not confirmed by Lovell and McLardy (2008).

Five of the species occurring in Fiji were reported to inhabit shallow reef environments (Veron, 2000). The remaining two species (A. echinata and A. hemprichii) were reported to occur in most reef environments (Veron, 2000).

Koven and Paulay (1997) reported the occurrence of two Acanthastrea species in the Great Astrolabe Reefs. During surveys in the Great Astrolabe Reef and North Astrolabe Reefs on the northeast and northern end of the Kadavu island group (70 km south of Viti Levu) in 2001, three species of Acanthastrea (A. brevis, A. echinata and A. ishigakiensis) were recorded (Obura and Mangubhai, 2003). Acanthastrea was confirmed from the Volivoli Beach area near Rakiraki, northern Veri Levu, with two

43 species reported; they were found to be uncommon to rare (Fenner, 2006b). Three species of the genus were recorded in the Mamanuca Islands (A. brevis, A. echinata and A. subechinata); with the exception of at one site, all were assessed as rare. Three species (A. echinata, A. hemprichii and A. ishigakiensis) were also recorded from sites on the Coral Coast; they were assessed as uncommon or rare (Fenner, 2006a).

Based on global assessments in Veron (2000), it could be inferred that five species of Acanthastrea that occur in Fiji are uncommon, although one species (A. echinata) was reported to be “usually uncommon, but by far the most common Acanthastrea on tropical reefs", and one species (A. hillae) was considered common but only in high latitudes (Veron, 2000). The IUCN (2015) considered two species to be globally common, one species locally common and three species as globally uncommon. Globally, population trends of all the Acanthastrea spp. that occur in Fiji were considered unknown (IUCN, 2015).

SCLERACTINIA: MUSSIDAE Symphyllia spp. II/B

UNDER REVIEW: Fiji

SPECIES (IUCN): Fiji: Five species: one VU and four LC.

EU DECISIONS No current or previous decisions. (FIJI):

Trade patterns

Fiji published zero export quotas for live and dead pieces for 2004-2005 and 2007-2009. In 2015 Fiji published an export quota for 2303 live or dead pieces. No direct trade in Symphyllia spp. from Fiji to the EU-28 was reported for the period 2004-2013. Direct trade in Symphyllia spp. to the rest of the world 2004-2013 comprised 12 wild-sourced live corals exported in 2005 and one live source ‘I’ coral exported in 2011, all for commercial purposes.

No indirect trade in Symphyllia spp. originating in Fiji to the EU-28 was reported for the period 2004- 2013. Conservation status

Symphyllia are zooxanthellate corals and colonies are meandroid (Veron, 2000); the genus is comprised of seven species (UNEP-WCMC, 2012). The genus was reported to occur in the Indo-Pacific, East Africa, west, east and south Australia, Eastern China Sea and Japan Sea (Veron, 2000).

The IUCN (2015) classified one of the Fijian species, S. hassi, as Vulnerable and four as Least Concern (IUCN 2015). General threats to species of the genus Symphyllia were reported to include bleaching, coral diseases, ocean acidification, strengthening of El Niño Southern Oscillation events and storms, and a range of localized threats such as fisheries, development, pollution, sedimentation, invasive species, tourism, and changes in native species dynamics (IUCN, 2015). Threats to specific species within the genus have also been reported: S. agaricia was noted to be targeted for the aquarium trade and S. hassi was found to be “susceptible to bleaching and disease due to a narrow depth range and has suffered extensive reduction of coral reef habitat due to a combination of threats” (IUCN, 2015).

Fiji: Five species have been reported from Fiji (Lovell and McLardy, 2008). Fijian species were reported to inhabit exposed upper reef slopes and reef flats (S. hassi), exposed upper reef slopes (S. agaricia), upper reef slopes and fringing reefs (S. recta and S. radians), and lower reef slopes protected from wave action and rocky foreshores of subtropical locations (S. valenciennesii) (Veron, 2000).

Koven and Paulay (1997) reported the occurrence of three Symphyllia species in the Great Astrolabe Reefs. During surveys in the Great Astrolabe Reef and North Astrolabe Reefs (NAR) on the northeast and northern end of the Kadavu island group (70 km south of Viti Levu) in 2001, two species of Symphyllia (S. radians and S. recta) were recorded. Symphyllia was reported present at NAR Patch Reef and South Lagoon (Obura and Mangubhai, 2003). Symphyllia species were reported in Fiji from the Great Sea Reef (Cakaulevu) from Tilagica Island, Timeless Outer Barrier Reef, Namotu Passage, Nukuvadra Island and Nananu Islet (S. recta) (Jenkins, 2004). S. hassi was reported from the Volivoli

45 Beach area near Rakiraki, northern Veri Levu where it was found to be rare (Fenner, 2006b). The genus was recorded to occur in the Mamanuca Islands, with four species recorded (S. agaricia, S. hassi, S. radians and S. recta), and the Coral Coast, with four species recorded (S. agaricia, S. radians, S. recta and S. valenciennesii); all were assessed as uncommon or rare (Fenner, 2006a).

The relative percentage composition of Symphyllia at the Walt Smith International (WSI) collection area was calculated as 1.6% (Lovell and McLardy, 2008). The occurrence of Symphyllia colonies that would qualify for collection were recorded from the centre of the Walt Smith International collection site; one colony each from the East and West Motunikeasulua Reefs respectively, and one from the Nakuba Reef (Lovell, 2003). At the Aquarium Fish Fiji (AFF) collection site, Lovell and Whippy-Morris (2008) estimated 1.5 million colonies of Symphyllia spp., of which none were reportedly exported in 2007. According to Lovell and McLardy (2008), the export of Symphyllia was not permitted at that time, and a zero quota had been allocated.

Based on global assessments in Veron (2000), it could be inferred that three species of Symphyllia that occur in Fiji are uncommon and two species are common. The IUCN (2015) considered four species to be globally common and one as globally uncommon. Globally, population trends of all the Symphyllia spp. that occur in Fiji were considered to be unknown (IUCN, 2015).

SCLERACTINIA: OCULINIDAE Acrhelia spp. II/B

SYNONYMS: Galaxea acrhelia

UNDER REVIEW: Fiji

SPECIES (IUCN): Fiji: One species: Least Concern [assessed as Galaxea horrescens]

EU DECISIONS No current or previous decisions. (FIJI):

Taxonomic note

Acrhelia horrescens is the only species of the genus Acrhelia (UNEP-WCMC, 2012) and the species is often referred to in the literature as Galaxea horrescens (e.g. Veron, 2000). The genus Acrhelia was considered to be synonymous with the genus Galaxea by Veron (2000). Trade patterns

Fiji published CITES export quotas (in number of pieces) for live and dead wild-sourced Acrhelia for every year 2004-2015 with the exception of 2006. Quotas were not exceeded in any year between 2004 and 2013 (Table 1).

Table 1: CITES export quotas for wild live and dead Acrhelia (in number of pieces) from Fiji, 2004-2015, and global direct exports as reported by the countries of import and Fiji 2004-2013. Fiji has not yet submitted annual reports for the years 2012 or 2013. Trade data for 2014-2015 are not yet available.

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Quota a 14 28 - 28 21 21 600 600 600 600 600 1300 Importer - - Exporter 6 25 - - a Quotas were published at the species-level (Acrhelia horrescens, the only species in this genus) in 2004-2014, and at the genus level (Acrhelia) in 2015.

No direct trade in Acrhelia spp. from Fiji to the EU-28 was reported 2004-2013. Direct trade in Acrhelia spp. from Fiji to countries other than the EU-28 2004-2013 comprised wild-sourced live corals traded for commercial purposes in 2010 (six) and in 2011 (25), as reported by exporters. This trade was not reported by importers.

No indirect trade in Acrhelia spp. originating in Fiji to the EU-28 was reported 2004-2013. Conservation status

Acrhelia [Galaxea] are zooxanthellate corals (Veron, 2000). Acrhelia horrescens is the only species of the genus Acrhelia (UNEP-WCMC, 2012) and it [G. horrescens] usually inhabits reef areas with good water circulation and light availability (Veron, 2000). A. horrescens [G. horrescens] was reported to occur from

47 the central Indo-Pacific, west and east Australia and West Pacific, and was considered to be uncommon overall (Veron, 2000).

Threats to the species were reported to include bleaching, coral diseases, ocean acidification, strengthening of El Niño Southern Oscillation events and storms, and a range of localized threats such as fisheries, development, pollution, sedimentation, invasive species and tourism, and changes in native species dynamics (IUCN, 2015).

Fiji: A. horrescens was reported to occur in Fiji (Lovell and McLardy, 2008) and Koven and Paulay (1997) reported the occurrence of Acrhelia horrescens in the Great Astrolabe Reefs. Galaxea horrescens [A. horrescens] was confirmed from the Volivoli Beach area near Rakiraki, northern Veri Levu where it was considered common (Fenner, 2006b). The species was also reported from the Mamanuca Islands where it was recorded from multiple sites as uncommon or rare (Fenner, 2006a).

The IUCN classified Galaxea horrescens [A. horrescens] as Least Concern and described the species as common globally; the global population trend was unknown (Hoeksema et al., 2014c). Based on global assessments in Veron (2000), it could be inferred that the species may be uncommon in Fiji.

SCLERACTINIA: OCULINIDAE Galaxea fascicularis II/B

COMMON NAMES: Starburst Coral (EN)

SYNONYMS: Anthophyllum hystrix, Galaxea aspera, Galaxea cespitosa, Galaxea hexagonalis, Galaxea hystrix, Galaxea lawisiana, Madrepora cuspidate, Madrepora divergens, Madrepora fascicularis, Madrepora organum, Sarcinula ellisii, Sarcinula fascicularis, Sarcinula hexagonalis, Sarcinula irregularis

RANGE STATES: American Samoa, Australia, Bangladesh, British Indian Ocean Territory (United Kingdom), China, Christmas Island, Cook Islands, Djibouti, Egypt, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, Hong Kong, SAR, India, Indonesia, Israel, Japan, Jordan, Kenya, Madagascar, Malaysia, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mauritius, Mozambique, Myanmar, New Caledonia, Northern Mariana Islands, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Réunion, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Seychelles, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Taiwan, Province of China, Thailand, Tonga, Vanuatu, Viet Nam UNDER REVIEW: Fiji EU DECISIONS: Previous positive opinion for Indonesia formed on 14/09/2007.

IUCN: Near Threatened

Trade patterns

Fiji published CITES export quotas (in number of pieces) for live and dead wild-sourced Galaxea fascicularis for every year 2004-2015 with the exception of 2006. Quotas for Galaxea fascicularis may have been exceeded in 2004 according to data reported by importers, and in 2008-2010 according to data reported by Fiji (Table 1).

Table 1: CITES export quotas for wild live and dead Galaxea fascicularis (in number of pieces) from Fiji, 2004-2015, and global direct exports as reported by the countries of import and Fiji 2004-2013. Fiji has not yet submitted annual reports for the years 2012 or 2013. Trade data for 2014-2015 are not yet available.

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Quota 800 1600 - 1600 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 1200 2250 Importer 978 1073 833 1428 648 619 992 1156 914 958 - - Exporter 699 593 477 377 4450 3280 4665 251 - -

Direct exports in G. fascicularis from Fiji comprised moderate levels of trade to the EU-28 and moderately high levels of trade to the rest of the world 2004-2013, primarily in wild-sourced live corals traded for commercial purposes (Table 2).

Indirect trade in G. fascicularis originating in Fiji to the EU-28 2004-2013 comprised seven wild-sourced live corals re-exported via Indonesia in 2011 for commercial purposes.

49 Table 2: Direct exports of Galaxea fascicularis from Fiji to the EU-28 (EU) and the rest of the world (RoW), 2004-2013. All trade was wild-sourced.

Importer Term Purpose Reported by 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Total EU live T Importer 437 455 288 1041 267 234 305 175 161 229 3592 Exporter 83 106 61 1160 1235 1534 33 4212 raw corals T Importer 6 6 Exporter RoW live T Importer 541 588 545 387 376 235 617 981 672 569 5511 Exporter 699 510 371 316 3290 2045 3131 218 10580 raw corals (kg) T Importer 25 25 Exporter raw corals P Importer 25 25 Exporter T Importer 30 5 150 70 75 135 465 Exporter Source: CITES Trade Database, UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK, downloaded on 28/09/2015 Conservation status

Galaxea fascicularis, a zooxanthellate coral, forms dome or irregular colonies, as well as larger colonies of over 5 m across (Veron, 2000). The species was reported to have a relatively wide distribution (Veron, 2000), occurring in the Western Central Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean (Cairns et al., 1999). It was reported to occur in protected reef habitats and inshore fringing reefs (Veron, 2000).

G. fascicularis was reported to be a relatively common species (Veron, 2000), which may dominate on inshore fringing reefs (Veron, 2000; Hoeksema et al., 2014b). Whilst noting that no information on the population of this species was available, Hoeksema et al. (2014b) reported that the species was common in many habitats.

The species was categorized as Near Threatened by the IUCN (Hoeksema et al., 2014b). The population trend of the species was noted to be unknown (Hoeksema et al., 2014b), but a reduction in the population size was inferred from estimated habitat loss (Wilkinson, 2004). The population reduction estimate was close to the threatened threshold and, as the species was considered moderately susceptible to a number of threats, it was believed likely to be one of the species lost on some reefs currently at the critical stage of degradation (Wilkinson, 2004).

The major threats to this species were reported to be habitat loss, the aquarium trade with global climate change and ocean acidification considered predicted future threats. G. fascicularis was reported as relatively resilient to stress from bleaching (Marshall and Baird, 2000; Guest et al., 2014) and the genus Galaxea reported as resilient to stress from sedimentation (Wesseling et al., 1999). The species was also reported to be able to adapt to varying light regimes along depth and sedimentation gradients (Crabbe and Smith, 2006). G. fascicularis was suggested to be more resilient to habitat loss and degradation as it is common and widespread throughout its range (Hoeksema et al., 2014b).

Fiji: G. fascicularis was recorded in Cakaulevu Reef [located off northern shore of Vanua Levu] (Jenkins, 2004) and north Vanua, Yadua and Yadua Taba [outlier to the northern island of Vanua Levu] (Wallace, 1999, Taylor et al., 2002 in Lovell and McLardy, 2008), Great Astrolabe Reefs [surrounds Kadavu Island] (Koven and Paulay, 1997 Mamanuca Islands [west of Viti Levu] and the Coral Coast [south and west coast of Viti Levu between Nadi and Suva] (Fenner, 2006a) and Vuta Village [south coast of Viti Levu] (Bonito, n.d. in Lovell and McLardy, 2008).

The export quota for Fiji was reduced by 25% in 2008 until a formal non-detriment finding could take place (Lovell and McLardy, 2008). However, no additional information on the population, conservation status or management of the species was identified for Fiji.

51 SCLERACTINIA: PECTINIIDAE Echinophyllia spp. II/B

UNDER REVIEW: Fiji, Indonesia

SPECIES (IUCN): Fiji: Five species: one NT and four LC.

Indonesia: 11 species: 5 LC, 2 NT, 1 VU, 1 DD and 2 not yet assessed

EU DECISIONS No current or previous decisions. (FIJI, INDONESIA):

Trade patterns

Fiji: In 2015 Fiji published an export quota for 3350 live or dead coral pieces. No direct trade in Echinophyllia spp. from Fiji to the EU-28 was reported for the period 2004-2013. Direct trade in Echinophyllia spp. from Fiji to countries other than the EU-28 2004-2013 consisted of three live wild- sourced corals and one source ‘I’ coral reported by importers in 2011 and two source ‘I’ corals reported by importers in 2012, all of which were for commercial purposes.

No indirect trade in Echinophyllia spp. originating in Fiji to the EU-28 was reported for the period 2004- 2013.

Indonesia: Indonesia have published a zero export quota at the species level for Echinophyllia aspera in 2007 and 2008 and a quota for 870 corals from mariculture in 2007. In 2015, Indonesia published a quota at the genus level for 1500 live corals. Indonesia have submitted annual reports for all years 2004- 2013.

Direct exports of Echinophyllia from Indonesia to the EU-28 and the rest of the world over the period 2004-2013 comprised primarily of live corals sourced from mariculture (Table 1). All direct trade to the EU-28 and the rest of the world was for commercial purposes, with the exception of three wild-sourced raw corals exported to Australia in 2007.

No indirect trade in Echinophyllia originating in Indonesia was reported to the EU-28 over the period 2004-2013.

The full dataset is available here: https://db.tt/lApcgExH.

Table 1: Direct exports of Echinophyllia from Indonesia to the EU-28 (EU) and the rest of the world (RoW), 2004-2013. Very low levels of trade for non-commercial purposes have been excluded from the table. (Source ‘mariculture’ is primarily source F but also includes trade reported as source C; source ‘W’ includes source W, U and unspecified). No trade was reported in 2004.

Importer Term Source Reported by 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Total EU live mariculture Importer 136 397 324 762 799 1535 3953 Exporter 252 727 1638 1375 1374 1143 4705 11214 W Importer 45 20 79 144 Exporter raw corals mariculture Importer 25 25 Exporter RoW live I Importer 9 6 15 56 48 15 93 135 377 Exporter mariculture Importer 136 147 1372 1070 2809 5873 11407 Exporter 468 2703 6700 7992 5983 8155 21198 53199 W Importer 3 183 781 1335 3130 2459 884 1125 9900 Exporter raw corals mariculture Importer 20 185 91 20 57 373 Exporter W Importer 100 100 Exporter Source: CITES Trade Database, UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK, downloaded on 28/09/2015 Conservation status

Echinophyllia are zooxanthellate encrusting or laminar corals (Veron, 2000). Based on evidence from other reef building corals, Echinophyllia species are likely to reach sexual maturity at 3-8 years (Wallace, 1999), and have been found to form colonies exceeding half a meter in diameter (Goh and Chou, 1993). This genus has been considered amongst the more robust and shade-tolerant reef-forming corals (Dinesen, 1983), and has been recorded on reef slopes up to 90 m deep (Sheppard, 1982; Beaman et al., 2012) and in fringing reefs (Benzoni, 2013; Veron, 2000).

The genus Echinophyllia comprises 11 species (UNEP-WCMC, 2012) and was reported to be distributed across the Indo-Pacific, from the Indian Ocean (Obura, 2012) and the western Pacific Ocean (Veron, 2000) to French Polynesia (Glynn et al., 2007).

Of the nine Echinophyllia species assessed by the IUCN, one was classified as Vulnerable (E. costata), two as Near Threatened (E. nishihirai, E. taylorae), five as Least Concern (E. aspera, E. echinata, E. echinoporoides, E. orpheensis, E. patula) and one was Data Deficient (E. pectinata) (IUCN, 2015).

Whilst most Echinophyllia species were indicated to have widespread distributions, many were considered uncommon or rare at the local level (Veron, 2000). The exception to this was E. aspera, which was considered a common species (Veron, 2000), and has been recorded amongst the more dominant corals at a number of sites globally (Dai, 1993; Riegl and Piller, 1997).

Whilst Echinophyllia species were reported to be able to survive in coral reefs at the critical stage of degradation (Wilkinson, 2004), some species in the genus, such as E. aspera, were also considered highly specialised to the low light conditions of the deeper reef slope, which may prevent them from migrating to shallower waters, should conditions in the deeper reef change (Abo-Hegab et al., 1999).

The main threat to corals overall was considered to be climate change (IUCN, 2015), particularly ocean acidification and changes in temperature leading to bleaching (McClanahan et al., 2007) and increased

53 risk of disease (Sutherland et al., 2004). It was noted that there was little evidence to suggest individuals of this genus were collected for the aquarium trade (IUCN, 2015).

Fiji: Five species have been reported from Fiji (Lovell and McLardy, 2008). One species, E. echinoporoides, was reported to occur in Fiji by Fenner (2007), but this was considered an unsubstantiated record from a rapid survey assessment by Lovell and McLardy (2008).

Of the five Echinophyllia species occurring in Fiji (Lovell and McLardy, 2008; UNEP-WCMC, 2012), E. orpheensis was reported to inhabit most reef environments, E. patula was reported on vertical substrates in clear water and E. echinata from protected reef environments. E. aspera and E. nishihirai [previously of the genus Echinomorpha] were reported to inhabit lower reef slopes protected from waves, and in crevices (Veron, 2000).

Koven and Paulay (1997) reported the occurrence of two Echinophyllia species in the Great Astrolabe Reefs. During surveys in the Great Astrolabe Reef and North Astrolabe Reefs on the northeast and northern end of the Kadavu island group (70 km south of Viti Levu) in 2001, three species of Echinophyllia were recorded, although only two species (E. aspera and E. echinata) were reported confirmed (Obura and Mangubhai, 2003). The genera Echinophyllia was reported to be common in channels with strong tidal currents in the Great Sea Reef (GSR) (Cakaulevu); E. aspera was reported to occur around Timeless outer barrier reef, the Mali Passage and in the Tilagica Passage; E. orpheensis was reported from the Mali Passage; and the occurrence of E. echinata was reported from around Nananu Islet and Nukuvadra Island. E. nishihirai [Echinomorpha nishihirai] was also reported from the GSR, representing an extension of its recorded range to Fiji (Jenkins, 2004).

Echinophyllia was confirmed from the Volivoli Beach area near Rakiraki, northern Veri Levu with two species reported; they were found to be uncommon to rare (Fenner, 2006b). The genus was recorded to occur in the Mamanuca Islands, with four species recorded (E. nishihirai [Echinomorpha nishihirai], E. aspera, E. echinata and E. patula); the latter three were each recorded from a single sites, where they were assessed as rare. The species E. orpheensis was also recorded during the study, but no details on the site (either in the Mamanuca Islands or on the Coral Coast) or species’ status were provided (Fenner, 2006a). Echinophyllia spp. was not considered in the non-detrimental finding (NDF) study for coral exports from Fiji (Nand, 2008).

The IUCN Red List classified one of the Fijian species as Near Threatened and four as Least Concern (IUCN 2015). Based on global assessments in Veron (2000), it could be inferred that three species of Echinophyllia that occur in Fiji are common or sometimes common, and two are rare. According to the Australian Institute of Marine Science (2013), three species (E. aspera, E. echinata and E. [Echinomorpha] nishihirai) are rare, E. orpheensis uncommon, and E. patula sometimes common. The IUCN (2015) considered one species to be globally common, two species as globally uncommon and one as globally rare. One species (E. nishihirai) was considered rare, but more common in Fiji (Fenner pers. comm. to IUCN, 2015). Globally, population trends of all the Echinophyllia spp. that occur in Fiji were considered unknown (IUCN, 2015).

Indonesia: Echinophyllia was reported to be distributed throughout Indonesia (Suharsono, 2008), with all 11 species in this genus confirmed to occur in the country (McKenna et al., 2002). One of these species, E. costata, was reported to be an Indonesian endemic (McKenna et al., 2002). Individual Echinophyllia species were recorded at the local level during a number of surveys:

 Six species, E. aspera, E. costata, E. echinata, E. echinoporoides, E. patula, and E. taylorae, were recorded around Pulisan [North Sulawesi] (Scaps et al., 2007). 54

 Six species, E. aspera, E. costata, E. echinata, E. echinoporoides, E. orpheensis, and E. patula, were recorded at the Togean and Banggai Islands [Sulawesi] (Allen and McKenna, 2001). At least one of the Echinophyllia species was present at 51% of sites surveyed, although of these species, half were found at less than 7% of surveyed sites each (Allen and McKenna, 2001). A smaller survey of Banggai waters reported only one species (E. aspera) present, although the species was recorded at 89% of sites surveyed (Siringoringo and Hadi, 2013).

 Four species, E. aspera, E. costata, E. echinata, and E. echinoporoides, were recorded at Bunaken NP [North Sulawesi], where at least one species was present in over half of sites surveyed (Turak and DeVantier, 2003). At least two of the four species recorded at Bunaken NP had locally restricted distributions, which may have prevented the formation of locally-reproductive populations (Turak and DeVantier, 2003).

 Four species, E. aspera, E. echinata, E. echinoporoides, and E. orpheensis, were recorded at Derewan Island [East Kalimantan] (Turak, 2005; in: Turak and DeVantier, 2011).

 Four species, E. aspera, E. echinata, E. echinoporoides, and E. orpheensis, were recorded at Wakatobi [South East Sulawesi] (Turak, 2004; in: Turak and DeVantier, 2011).

 Three species, E. aspera, E. echinata, and E. echinoporoides, were recorded in Bali (Turak and DeVantier, 2011); during a survey in 2013, this genus was found at <1% of sample points, and covered 0.2% of the overall sites surveyed (Lazuardi et al., 2013).

 Three species, E. aspera, E. echinata, and E. echinoporoides, were recorded at the Banda Isles [Maluku], where at least one species was present in 56% of sites surveyed (Turak and Wakeford, 2002).

 Three species, E. aspera, E. echinata, and E. echinoporoides, were recorded in Komodo [East Nusa Tenggara] (Turak, 2006; in: Turak and DeVantier, 2011).

 Echinophyllia species were also reported at 44% of sites at the Luwuk Peninsula [Central Sulawesi], where they accounted for 0.4-3.2% of the scleractinian corals surveyed there (Scaps and Runtukahu, 2008).

 E. aspera has been recorded amongst the more dominant corals within Indonesia (Turak and DeVantier, 2003; Siringoringo and Hadi, 2013; Turak and DeVantier, 2011).

The harvest of live corals takes place in 11 provinces (Scientific Authority of Indonesia, 2014; in litt. to the European Commission, 2014): Lampung, West Java, Banten, Bangka-Belitung, Central Java, East Java, West Nusa Tenggara, East Nusa Tenggara, South Sulawesi, Southeast Sulawesi and Central Sulawesi (Suharsano and Bruckner, 2008). Of these collection areas, surveys had confirmed the presence of Echinophyllia around the Banggai and Togean Islands off the coast of Central Sulawesi (where at least half of these species were found at relatively few locations; Allen and McKenna, 2001), and off the island of Komodo, part of the East Nusa Tenggara island chain (Turak, 2006; in: Turak and DeVantier, 2011).

A full review of the status of corals in Indonesia, the main threats affecting them, and the management actions taken, with particular focus on the management of the harvest and trade of corals in Indonesia is provided here.

55 SCLERACTINIA: PECTINIIDAE Oxypora spp. II/B

UNDER REVIEW: Fiji

SPECIES (IUCN): Fiji: Three species: all LC.

EU DECISIONS No current or previous decisions. (FIJI):

Trade patterns

Fiji published zero export quotas for live and dead pieces of Oxypora spp. in 2004 and 2005. In 2015, an export quota of 1113 live or dead pieces was published. No direct trade in Oxypora spp. from Fiji to the EU-28 was reported for the period 2004-2013. Direct trade in Oxypora spp. to the rest of the world 2004- 2013 comprised two live source ‘I’ corals exported for commercial purposes, reported by importers in 2004 and 2012.

No indirect trade in Oxypora spp. originating in Fiji to the EU-28 was reported for the period 2004-2013. Conservation status

Oxypora are colonial, zooxanthellate corals (Veron, 2000) and there are five species recognised (UNEP- WCMC, 2012), two of which are restricted to the Red Sea (Veron, 2000). Species may reach sexual maturity at 3-8 years, based on most reef-building corals having been reported to reach sexual maturity at that age (Wallace, 1999). Oxypora spp. were reported to be able to tolerate shaded habitats (Dinesen, 1983) and slow growth rates of 0.2 and 0.5 mm/month were reported for the genus (Babcock and Mundy, 1996). The genus was reported to occur from the Indo-Pacific, west and east Australia, Eastern China Sea and Japan Sea (Veron, 2000).

The IUCN classified all three of the Fijian species as Least Concern (IUCN, 2015). General threats to species of the genus Oxypora were reported to include bleaching, coral diseases, ocean acidification, strengthening of El Niño Southern Oscillation events and storms, and a range of localized threats such as fisheries, development, pollution, sedimentation, invasive species, tourism, and changes in native species dynamics (IUCN, 2015).

Fiji: Three species of Oxypora have been recorded from Fiji (Lovell and McLardy, 2008). The Fijian species were reported to inhabit protected reef environments (O. crassispinosa), and shallow protected reef slopes (O. glabra and O. lacera) (Veron, 2000).

Koven and Paulay (1997) reported the occurrence of two Oxypora species in the Great Astrolabe Reefs. During surveys in the Great Astrolabe Reef and North Astrolabe Reefs on the northeast and northern end of the Kadavu island group (70 km south of Viti Levu) in 2001, two species of Oxypora (O. glabra and O. lacera) were recorded (Obura and Mangubhai, 2003). In the Great Sea Reef (Cakaulevu), Oxypora was reported to be common in channels with strong tidal currents; O. glabra was reported on Talailau island fringing reefs and from around Motuli Bawa, found to be abundant where the reef rises abruptly out of the sediment; and O. lacera was reported to be common in the Mali Passage and around 56

Nukuvadra Island. Oxypora was confirmed from the Volivoli Beach area near Rakiraki, northern Veri Levu with two species reported; they were found to be uncommon to rare (Fenner, 2006b). O. crassispinosa was tentatively reported from a single site in the Mamanuca Islands and assessed as rare. O. lacera was reported from multiple sites in the Mamanuca Islands and on the Coral Coast, where it was assessed as uncommon to rare (Fenner, 2006a). Relative percentage composition of Oxypora at the Walt Smith International collection area was calculated as 1.4% (Lovell and McLardy, 2008).

Based on global assessments in Veron (2000), it could be inferred that one species of Oxypora that occurs in Fiji is uncommon (O. crassispinosa) and the other two are common. More recently, of the Fijian Oxypora species, the IUCN (2015) considered one to be globally common (O. lacera), one globally uncommon (O. crassispinosa) and one common in the central Indo-Pacific (O. glabra). Globally, population trends of all the Oxypora spp. that occur in Fiji were considered unknown (IUCN, 2015).

57 SCLERACTINIA: CARYOPHYLLIIDAE Pectinia spp. II/B

UNDER REVIEW: Fiji

SPECIES (IUCN): Fiji: Three species: two VU and one NT.

EU DECISIONS Current no opinion ii) for wild specimens from Fiji [genus level decision] (FIJI): formed on 09/04/2015.

Previous no opinion i) for wild specimens of P. lactuca from Fiji formed on 02/12/2011. Previous positive opinion for P. lactuca formed on 22/07/1997.

Trade patterns

Fiji published CITES export quotas (in number of pieces) for live and dead wild-sourced Pectinia for every year 2004-2015 with the exception of 2006. Quotas for Pectinia may have been exceeded in 2008- 2010 according to data reported by Fiji (Table 1).

Table 1: CITES export quotas for wild live and dead Pectinia (in number of pieces) from Fiji, 2004-2015, and global direct exports as reported by the countries of import and Fiji 2004-2013. Fiji has not yet submitted annual reports for the years 2012 or 2013. Trade data for 2014-2015 are not yet available.

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Quota 605 1210 - 1210 907 907 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500 1670 Importer 415 665 589 629 786 538 615 948 786 949 - - Exporter 321 519 631 543 2180 1545 3031 131 - -

Direct trade in Pectinia spp. comprised low levels of trade to the EU-28 and moderate levels to the rest of the world 2004-2013, predominantly in live wild-sourced corals exported for commercial purposes (Table 2).

Indirect trade in Pectinia spp. to the EU-28 originating in Fiji 2004-2013 consisted of 10 wild-sourced live corals re-exported via Malaysia for commercial purposes in 2013.

Table 2: Direct exports of Pectinia from Fiji to the EU-28 (EU) and the rest of the world (RoW), 2004-2013.

Importer Term Source Purpose Reported by 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Total EU live W T Importer 5 34 8 10 16 34 49 113 269 Exporter 1 18 50 25 65 12 171 RoW live W T Importer 410 591 589 629 778 368 507 816 612 656 5956 Exporter 321 518 613 543 2130 1520 2966 119 8730 raw corals W P Importer 25 25 Exporter S Importer 3 3 Exporter T Importer 40 160 92 95 125 155 667 58

Importer Term Source Purpose Reported by 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Total Exporter raw corals (kg) W T Importer 25 25 Exporter Source: CITES Trade Database, UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK, downloaded on 28/09/2015 Conservation status

Pectinia are zooxanthellate6 colonial corals (Veron, 2000), which are well adapted to turbid waters (Dikou and van Woesik, 2006). The genus Pectinia comprises eight species (UNEP-WCMC, 2012) and was reported to occur from the Indo-Pacific, west and east Australia, Eastern China Sea and Japan Sea (Veron, 2000).

P. lactuca was classified as Vulnerable by the IUCN, as although it was considered to be common and widespread globally and found in most reef environments, it was noted to be subject to a number of threats, including harvest pressure (IUCN, 2015). P. alcicornis was also classified as Vulnerable, and was considered to be widespread but usually uncommon; this species was noted as particularly susceptible to bleaching, harvest for trade and reduction of coral reef habitat (IUCN, 2015). P. paeonia was classified as Near Threatened; it was considered to be widespread and common throughout its range and moderately susceptible to threats including harvest for trade (IUCN, 2015). The population trend for all three species is unknown (IUCN, 2015).

Fiji: Three species of Pectinia have been confirmed to occur in Fiji: P. alcicornis, P. lactuca and P. paeonia (Lovell and McLardy, 2008). One additional species, P. elongata, was predicted to occur in Fiji by Veron (2000), but its occurrence in Fiji was considered doubtful by Lovell and McLardy (2008) due to the lack of records from Fiji or surrounding islands. All three species were reported to be widely distributed within the Indo-Pacific (IUCN, 2015). P. alcicornis and P. paeonia were reported to inhabit turbid water, while P. lactuca inhabits most reef environments but especially turbid water and lower reef slopes (Veron, 2000).

Koven and Paulay (1997) reported the occurrence of P. paeonia in the Great Astrolable Reefs. Pectinia species were reported from the Great Sea Reef (Cakaulevu), with P. paeonia reported from Tilagica Island (back barrier reef) and as abundant at Nananu islet (off Mali Island); P. lactuca was reported to be abundant at Motuli Bawa (inner patch reef); Pectinia were also reported at Talailau Island fringing and patch reefs (Jenkins, 2004). P. alcicornis was reported from the Volivoli Beach area near Rakiraki, northern Veri Levu where it was described as uncommon (Fenner, 2006b), and from multiple sites in the Mamanuca Islands, where it was assessed as uncommon to rare (Fenner, 2006a). Pectinia spp. was not listed as one of the most common coral genera at the two main collection sites in Fiji (Nand, 2008).

Based on global assessments in Veron (2000), it could be inferred that two of the three species of Pectinia that occur in Fiji may be common in the country (P. lactuca and P. paeonia), whereas P. alcicornis may be uncommon.

6 with symbiotic zooxanthellae (dinoflagellate) 59 SCLERACTINIA: SIDERASTERIDAE Psammocora spp. II/B

UNDER REVIEW: Fiji

SPECIES (IUCN): Fiji: Seven species: three NT and four LC.

EU DECISIONS Current no opinion i) for wild specimens from Fiji [genus-level decision] formed (FIJI): on 07/11/2014.

Previous no opinion i) for wild specimens of P. contigua from Fiji formed on 02/12/2011. Previous positive opinion for P. contigua formed on 22/07/1997.

Trade patterns

In 2015 Fiji published an export quota for 1253 live or dead coral pieces. No direct trade in Psammocora spp. from Fiji to the EU-28 or the rest of the world was reported for the period 2004-2013. No indirect trade in Psammocora spp. originating in Fiji to the EU-28 was reported 2004-2013. Conservation status

Psammocora are slow growing (IUCN, 2015) zooxanthellate corals, with massive, columnar, laminar or encrusting colonies (Veron, 2000). The genus Psammocora comprises 13 species (UNEP-WCMC, 2012) and it was reported that the genus is readily confused with Coscinaraea (Veron, 2000). The genus Psammocora was reported to occur from the Indo-Pacific, East Africa, west and east Australia, Eastern China Sea, Japan Sea and South Pacific Ocean (Veron, 2000).

The IUCN classified three of the Fijian species as Near Threatened and four as Least Concern (IUCN 2015). General threats to species of the genus Psammocora were reported to include bleaching, coral diseases, ocean acidification, strengthening of El Niño Southern Oscillation events and storms, and a range of localized threats such as fisheries, development, pollution, sedimentation, invasive species and tourism, and changes in native species dynamics (IUCN, 2015). However, Psammocora species were considered to have the capacity to rapidly recolonize open areas after disturbances (Guzman and Cortes, 2001).

Fiji: Seven species of Psammocora have been reported to occur in Fiji (Lovell and McLardy, 2008). One species, P. explanulata, was predicted to occur in Fiji by Veron (2000), but its occurrence in Fiji was considered doubtful by Lovell and McLardy (2008) due to the lack of records from Fiji or surrounding islands.

Four species that occur in Fiji were reported to inhabit shallow reef environments (P. contigua, P. haimeana, P. profundacella and P. vaughani), two inhabit most, or a wide range of, reef environments (P. digitata and P. superficialis), while one species (P. nierstraszi) was reported to be restricted to reef habitats exposed to strong wave action (Veron, 2000).

Koven and Paulay (1997) reported the occurrence of three Psammocora species in the Great Astrolabe Reefs. During surveys in the Great Astrolabe Reef and North Astrolabe Reefs on the northeast and northern end of the Kadavu island group (70 km south of Viti Levu) in 2001, three species of 60

Psammocora were recorded, although only two species (P. contigua and P. superficialis) were reported as confirmed (Obura and Mangubhai, 2003). Psammocora was reported from the Great Sea Reef, with P. contigua recorded as common in shallow fringing reefs around Vatia islet and present around Nukuvadra Island. Psammocora spp. were also noted from Tilagica Island (Jenkins, 2004). Psammocora was confirmed from the Volivoli Beach area near Rakiraki, northern Veri Levu with four species reported; they were found to be uncommon to rare (Fenner, 2006b). Four species of the genus were recorded in the Mamanuca Islands and on the Coral Coast (P. contigua, P. digitata, P. nierstraszi and P. profundacella); they were assessed as uncommon or rare. P. haimeana was also reported from the Mamanuca Islands, where it was assessed as rare (Fenner, 2006a). At the Aquarium Fish Fiji (AFF) collection site, Lovell and Whippy-Morris (2008) estimated 1.5 million colonies of Psammocora spp., of which none were reportedly exported in 2007. Psammocora spp. was not considered in the non- detrimental finding (NDF) study for coral exports from Fiji (Nand, 2008).

Based on global assessments in Veron (2000), it could be inferred that two species of Psammocora may be common in Fiji, four uncommon, and one rare. The IUCN (2015) considered six species to be globally common and one as globally rare. Globally, populations of six of the Psammocora spp. that occur in Fiji are considered to be unknown and one stable (IUCN, 2015).

61 References

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67 Overview of status and management of corals in Malaysia

Malaysia is one of the six South-east Asian countries located within the Coral Triangle, a region regarded as the global centre of tropical marine biodiversity. This section provides background information on the status and trends of corals within the country, the threats affecting corals, and management actions taken to ensure sustainability of the trade. Status and trends

Located within the Coral Triangle of Southeast Asia, the coastal waters of Malaysia are comprised of highly diverse coral reefs (Tun et al., 2008). Fringing and patch atolls cover 4006 km2 (Tun et al., 2008) of the 453 186 km2 economic zone of Malaysian waters (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2014). Malaysia itself is separated into two geographically distinct areas: Peninsular Malaysia has a coastline of 2031 km, whilst the two states of East Malaysia in Borneo, Sabah and Sarawak, have coastlines of 1734 km and 1035 km, respectively (Asian Development Bank, 2014). With 3000 km2 of coral reefs within the waters surrounding Sabah, more than 75% of Malaysian reefs are located in the East (Burke et al. 2002).

No comprehensive surveys of coral reefs were reported to have been conducted throughout Malaysia (Wilkinson et al., 2006; Sea Resources Management, 2010). However, the Asian Development Bank (2014) compiled records from several sources which confirm a total of 480 species of Scleractinia coral species from Peninsular Malaysia. Of those, 245 species occurred on the South coast (comprised of 203 species recorded by Yusuf et al., (2009) and including records dating back to 1956), 63 species were recorded on the West coast (Affendi and Faedzul, 2011) and 431 species were noted to occur on the East coast (221 species documented by Affendi et al. (2005), 88 species documented by the Malaysia Coral Reef Conservation Project (2005) and 202 species recorded by Harborne et al. (2000)). Burke et al. (2002) reported 367 species for Peninsular Malaysia and 550 species for East Malaysia. The most recent estimation of species number exceeds 550 in the East and over 360 in Peninsular Malaysia (Asian Development Bank, 2014).

With regards to live coral coverage (LCC), Reef Check Malaysia’s (2014) eighth annual survey documented a relatively high LCC of 48.11% (range of <10% to >85%) for Peninsular and East Malaysia, indicating a ‘fair’ to ‘good’ condition of health. This represents a slight decrease since 2013 (48.33%) but a marked increase since 2012 (46.37%) (Reef Check Malaysia, 2013). Chou et al. (2002) stated that, despite limited information of Peninsular Malaysia, LCC was estimated to be relatively high on the east coast (55-70% coverage on fringing reefs) and lower on the west coast (25-45%). Harborne et al. (2000) reported a mean LCC of 42.2% from 17 sites in Peninsular Malaysia, indicating ‘fair’ to ‘high’ condition, whilst (Tun et al., 2008) reported a decline in live coral coverage from 55% ‘good/very good’ coverage in 2004 to only 40% in 2008. Although diversity and abundance of fish and invertebrates is higher in East Malaysia, reefs in Peninsular Malaysia were considered to be in ‘better condition’ (Reef Check Malaysia, 2014).

A 2014 Reef Check Malaysia survey suggested that reefs were still recovering from a bleaching event in 2010, which affected 5-10% of Malaysian reefs (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2014), and coral reefs across Southeast Asia (Reef Check Malaysia, 2014).

Threats Over 85% of Malaysian reefs were reported to remain under threat (Burke et al., 2002; Chou et al., 2002) stemming from a combination of natural processes and, more predominately, anthropogenic influences (Mazlan et al. 2005; Asian Development Bank, 2014). Destructive fishing and coastal pollution via sedimentation were considered the most significant and immediate threats to Malaysian reefs (Sea Resources Management, 2010), impacting 68% and 56% of reefs, respectively (Burke et al., 2002; Chou et al., 2002). Overfishing (Pilcher and Cabanban, 2000; Reef Check Malaysia, 2014), overexploitation of commercially important species (Mazlan et al. 2005) and destructive fishing (including cyanide) were reported to cause significant threats (Tun et al., 2008), with the latter estimated to affect more than two thirds of Malaysian reefs (Chou et al., 2002). Reefs in Eastern Malaysia were noted to be particularly affected (Pilcher and Cabanban, 2000; Reef Check Malaysia, 2014). Poison fishing reportedly began in parts of Malaysia after the 1960’s (Burke et al., 2002). Dynamite fishing (Teh et al., 2008) and trawling, particularly on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia, were reported to be threatening reefs (Phang, 1988; 1995 cited in Sea Resources Management, 2010).

According to Burke et al. (2002), the World Resources Institute estimated that more than 80% of Malaysia’s population live within 50 km of the coast and Tun et al. (2008) reported that the country has experienced an increase in coastal development. This change in land use, combined with forest removal (Mazlan et al., 2005) resulted in increased sedimentation and turbidity of coastal waters (Sea Resources Management, 2010). Coral reefs surrounding coastal islands near mainland Malaysia have been recorded to experience higher sedimentation compared to those in offshore sites (Mazlan et al., 2005). Excavation and conversion of reefs in Sabah to aquaculture ponds were also reported to pose threats (Mazlan et al., 2005).

Tourism has also been highlighted as a threat to Malaysian reefs (Wilkinson et al., 2006; Reef Check Malaysia, 2014). For example, increasing and unregulated tourists visits to the protected Pulau Payar Marine Park (west coast Peninsular Malaysia) were reported to have contributed to the decline in LCC from 43.2% in 1982 to 33% in 2002 (Wilkinson et al., 2006). Threats to coral reefs already protected within Marine Parks have been linked to tourism as well as local community activities (Reef Check Malaysia, 2014). Ineffective management of marine ecosystems, with limited numbers of marine protected areas (MPAs) and inadequate enforcement and monitoring of such wide-ranging coastlines have been highlighted as issues (Reef Check Malaysia, 2014).

Pollution was noted to be a threat to coral reefs on both a local and regional scale (Reef Check Malaysia, 2014), with contaminants (e.g. oil and grease from boating activities) poisoning corals (Sea Resources Management, 2010). Heavy shipping traffic along the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia increases the risk of oil spills and anchor damage (Burke et al., 2002). Eutrophication was reported to be especially prominent on Malaysia’s east coast islands, which do not have sewage treatment (Sea Resources Management, 2010).

The 1998 bleaching event marked the first significant mass coral reef bleaching within Malaysia (Harborne et al., 2000; Reef Check Malaysia, 2014); an estimated 40% of Peninsular coral reefs were affected (Reef Check Malaysia, 2014).

Natural impacts, such as storms and disease, have also been recorded to have a limited, localised effect on Malaysian corals. Wilkinson et al. (2006) stressed that, whilst in isolation, natural events rarely cause damage which reefs cannot recover from, an increase in the frequency and intensity of such events can have a permanent effect (Wilkinson et al., 2006). Sea Resources Management (2010) considered ocean acidification and global warming as the most significant future threats. Corallivorous species, such as Acanthaster planci and Drupella spp. were reported to cause mortality, with varying degrees of impact (Tun et al., 2004; Mazlan et al. 2005).

69 Protection and management Regulatory background Within Malaysia the Ministry of Natural Resources is the lead authority for environmental management (Tun et al., 2004; NOAA, 2011). Coral reef management and conservation were reported to remain separated under the separate jurisdiction of the Department of Fisheries (DoF) in Peninsular Malaysia, and the Sarawak and Sabah Parks and DoF in Eastern Malaysia (Tun et al., 2004). The management of coral reefs was reported to fall under State regulations (up to three nautical miles off shore) and federal government jurisdiction (up to 200 nautical miles off shore) (Pilcher and Cabanban, 2000; Coral Triangle Initiative, 2012).

No coral species are protected under the Wildlife Conservation Act of 2010, Act 716 and no coral species are included in the list of protected species in the Wildlife Conservation Enactment (1997) of Sabah. However, import and export permits were noted to be required for all international trade in corals, live or dead (Asian Development Bank, 2014).

Relevant legislation for the protection and management of corals includes the Malaysian Fisheries Act of 1985 (Act 317); section 41 requires the establishment of marine parks or marine reserves via the designation of an area or part of an area in Malaysian fisheries waters.

Lack of resources and insufficient harmonisation between different departments were considered to be limiting factors in the effectiveness of coral reef conservation (Pilcher and Cabanban, 2000), and the “inefficient” regulatory system was thought to leave the Malaysian reefs “open to almost unlimited exploitation and destruction” (Sea Resources Management, 2010). However, the Malaysian National Action Plan for the Coral Triangle Initiative emphasised sustainable trade in reef-based ornamentals, and the improvement of the status of coral species (Coral Triangle Initiative, 2009). Protected areas An estimated 1.4% of Malaysia’s territorial waters are designated as protected areas (Reef Check Malaysia 2014). Tun et al. (2008) reported 43 of the 83 actively managed MPAs contain coral reefs, 16% of which were reported to have a good management rating. In 2012, the World Resources Institute estimated a further ten MPA’s had been established, covering 7% of Malaysia’s coral reefs (Burke et al., 2012). Of this additional 7%, less than 1% were considered to have effective coral coverage, 5% was considered to have partially effective coverage and the remaining 2% was assessed as ineffective or of unknown management status (Burke et al., 2012). The effectiveness of MPAs management was reported to vary between marine parks with difficulties in enforcement of regulations and monitoring the status of Malaysian coral reefs highlighted (Burke et al., 2002). Ineffective management of marine ecosystems, with limited numbers of marine protected areas (MPAs) and inadequate enforcement and monitoring of such wide-ranging coastlines were highlighted as threats to reefs in Malaysia (Reef Check Malaysia, 2014). The collection of corals, anchoring and trawling were reported to be prohibited within Malaysian marine parks (Reef Check Malaysia, 2011). Four marine parks managed under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Tourism, Culture and Environment have been established in Sabah (Teh et al., 2008). A proposed protected area covering 11,000 km2 surrounding Sabah (the Tun Mustapha Marine Park) was due to be designated in 2015, which would be the largest protected area for corals in Malaysia (Asian Development Bank, 2014), however it is unclear if this has been designated to date. A number of additional marine parks located on the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia are also managed separately (Reef Check Malaysia, 2014). Malaysia has been committed to the Coral Triangle Initiative since 2009, with the aims of implementation, establishment and management of ‘marine parks, sustainable fisheries, marine enforcement and awareness 70

building’ (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2014). Efforts have been focused mainly upon the coasts of Sabah (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2014). Coral reef management actions Tun et al. (2008) reported that the country’s coral reef monitoring program was coordinated by several agencies within different geographical areas. In Peninsular Malaysia, the DoF regularly monitors specific areas within marine parks and works with other organisations which undertake monitoring (Tun et al., 2008). In Eastern Malaysia, the Sarawak DoF monitors those located within Northeast and Southwest Sarawak whilst marine parks in Sabah (Pulau Tiga Marine Park, Tunku Abdul Rahman Park, Turtle Islands Park, and Tun Sakaran Park) are monitored by Sabah Parks (Tun et al., 2008). Other governmental agencies are reported to monitor and protect two additional areas of coral reef; Sugud Islands Marine Conservation Area by the Sabah Wildlife Department enactment and Sipadan Island by the National Security Department (Tun et al., 2008). Tun et al. (2008) reported that, whilst data from 8 years of coral reef monitoring is substantial, there is no central coordination to archive and analyse data and is instead managed independently by various organisations and institutions. The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (2014) reported that, since 2010, the Department of Marine Parks Malaysia has created closer collaboration with local communities in consolation and education of alternative livelihoods and with NGO’s and local universities for improved research and monitoring

Following the 1998 bleaching event, Malaysia developed the Coral Reef Bleaching Response Plan with the aim to develop and implement appropriate responses to such events. This plan includes four primary components to achieve this; ‘early warning systems, response triggers, management actions and communication with stakeholders’ (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2014). Mariculture Malaysia’s efforts for mariculture were presented at the International Workshop on the Trade in Coral Reef Species: Development of International Guidelines for Environmentally Friendly Coral Mariculture in 2011. At the time of the workshop, Malaysia’s had developed draft guidelines for stony coral mariculture which were under review by the government. The guidelines were considered ‘restrictive’, allowing for only one commercial company to conduct stony coral mariculture. It was reported that it is therefore considered unlikely for mariculture activities to expand within Malaysia (NOAA, 2011). Trade pattern

Direct exports of live, wild-sourced specimens of the selected coral taxa from Malaysia to the EU-28 and the rest of the world 2004-2013 were low (Table 1). The EU-28 did not report any imports for nearly half of the taxa (45%), and where the EU-28 did report trade, all imports were from 2013 only and did not exceed 6 live, wild-sourced corals for any taxon. Countries other than the EU-28 did not report any imports for 30% of the taxa. Of the remaining taxa exported to countries other than the EU-28, mean annual trade (2004-2013) was considerably lower than the total proposed quotas for live, wild-sourced corals in that taxon. All indirect trade in live, wild-sourced specimens of the selected coral taxa originating in Malaysia was to countries other than the EU-28.

The full dataset is available here: https://db.tt/6sclyFCi.

71 Table 1: Overview of Malaysian corals subject to new quotas in 2015

Leptoseris spp. 9 8 LC, 1 VU 260 live W 725 live W * No trade to either EU or RoW Pachyseris spp. 4 2 LC, 1 NT, 1 VU 1080 live W 1120 live W * No trade to either EU or RoW EU: no trade in live corals reported 6 LC, 1 NT, 4 VU, 1 DD, 1 not yet Pavona spp. 13 6680 live W 1211 live W * RoW: 20 live corals reported in 2012 assessed only Current no opinion i) for trade in EU: virtually no trade wild-sourced raw Euphyllia spp. Euphyllia spp. 6 3 NT, two VU, 1 not yet assessed 200 live W 2425 live W * RoW: 347 live corals at genus level formed

07/11/2014. EU: virtually no trade Turbinaria spp. 6 2 LC, 4 VU 1860 live W 3660 live W * RoW: 8 live corals EU: virtually no trade Diploastrea heliopora - NT 63600 live W 1048 live W RoW: no trade in live corals reported EU: no trade in live coral reported Echinopora spp. 6 3 LC, 3 NT 1360 live W 834 live W * RoW: virtually no trade EU: virtually no trade Favia spp. 11 5 LC, 6 NT 1400 live W 1284 live W * RoW: 23 live corals EU: virtually no trade Favites spp. 9 1 LC, 8 NT 1200 live W 1172 live W * RoW: 23 live corals EU: virtually no trade Platygyra spp. 7 4 LC, 3 NT 1660 live W 1284 live W * RoW: virtually no trade EU: no trade in live coral reported Hydnophora spp. 4 2 LC, 2 NT 360 live W 774 live W * RoW: virtually no trade Current no opinion i) for trade in EU: virtually no trade Lobophyllia spp. 6 4 LC, 1 NT, 1 VU wild-sourced Lobophyllia spp. at 740 live W 1290 live W * RoW: 29 live corals genus level formed 07/11/2014. EU: virtually no trade Symphyllia spp. 5 4 LC, 1 VU 1240 live W 672 live W * RoW: 10 live corals EU: virtually no trade Galaxea spp. 2 1 NT, 1 VU 1000 live W 1184 live W * RoW: 10 live corals EU: virtually no trade Echinophyllia spp. 6 5 LC, 1 not yet assessed 800 live W 4625 live W * RoW: 30 live corals

7 Includes trade reported at genus level as well as trade reported at species level within each genus. 72

Average annual direct trade as Number of species Current SRG decisions Quota Peninsular rep. by importers, 2004-2013, Taxon IUCN category Quota Sabah in Malaysia Malaysia Malaysia live corals (sources W, U, unspecified; all purposes)7 Current no opinion i) for trade in Pocillopora spp. 6 4 LC, 1 NT, 1 VU wild-sourced Pocillopora spp. at 2400 live W 2288 live W * No trade to either EU or RoW genus level formed 07/11/2014. EU: virtually no trade Goniopora spp. 14 8 LC, 5 NT and 1 VU 800 live W 1794 live W * RoW: 48 live corals 9 LC, 6 NT, 2 VU, 2 EN, 1 DD, 1 not yet EU: no trade in live corals reported Porites spp. 21 74420 live W 13500 live W * assessed RoW: 6 live corals Current no opinion i) for wild- EU: virtually no trade Tubipora musica - NT sourced corals formed 1000 live W 948 live W RoW: 8 live corals 02/12/2011. Anacropora spp. 5 1 LC, 3 VU, 1 EN - 2006 live W * No trade to either EU or RoW EU: no trade in live corals reported Astreopora spp. 8 6 LC, 1 NT, 1 VU - 461 live W * RoW: 26 live corals reported in 2009 only EU: virtually no trade Catalaphyllia jardinei - VU - 622 live W RoW: 53 live corals EU: virtually no trade Physogyra spp. 1 VU - 675 live W * RoW: 10 live corals EU: no trade in live corals reported Plerogyra turbida - - 448 live W RoW: 41 live corals EU: no trade in live corals reported Dendrophyllia spp. 1 DD - 725 live W * RoW: 14 live corals Current no opinion i) for trade in EU: virtually no trade Tubastraea spp. 3 3 not yet assessed by IUCN wild-sourced Tubastraea spp. at - 394 live W * RoW: 40 live corals genus level formed 07/11/2014. EU: virtually no trade Caulastraea spp. 4 1 LC, 1 NT, 2 VU - 445 live W * RoW: 22 live corals EU: virtually no trade Cyphastrea spp. 5 5 LC - 448 live W * RoW: 48 live corals reported in 2009 only Goniastrea spp. 8 5 LC, 3 NT - 2141 live W * No trade to either EU or RoW EU: virtually no trade Leptastrea spp. 5 3 LC, 2 NT - 550 live W * RoW: virtually no trade Montastrea spp. 6 1 LC, 4 NT, 1 VU - 886 live W * No trade to either EU or RoW Current no opinion i) for trade in Ctenactis spp. 3 2 LC, 1 NT wild-sourced Ctenactis spp. at - 675 live W * No trade to either EU or RoW genus level formed 07/11/2014. Not yet assessed by the IUCN but Cycloseris spp. 1 - 445 live W * No trade to either EU or RoW reported to be rare (Veron, 2000) Current no opinion i) for trade in EU: no trade in live corals reported Fungia spp. 20 16 LC, 1 NT, 3 not yet assessed wild-sourced Fungia spp. at - 776 live W * RoW: 102 live corals genus level formed 07/11/2014.

73 Average annual direct trade as Number of species Current SRG decisions Quota Peninsular rep. by importers, 2004-2013, Taxon IUCN category Quota Sabah in Malaysia Malaysia Malaysia live corals (sources W, U, unspecified; all purposes)7 EU: no trade in live corals reported Lithophyllon spp. 3 1 LC, 1 NT, 1 EN - 1075 live W * RoW: virtually no trade EU: virtually no trade Polyphyllia talpina - LC - 1150 live W RoW: virtually no trade EU: virtually no trade Acanthastrea spp. 6 1 LC, 3 NT, 2 VU - 550 live W * RoW: 43 live corals EU: virtually no trade Blastomussa spp. 2 1 LC, 1 NT - 328 live W * RoW: 119 live corals EU: virtually no trade Cynarina lacrymalis - NT - 340 live W RoW: 89 live corals EU: virtually no trade Scolymia spp. 2 1 LC, 1 NT - 433 live W * RoW: 18 live corals Oxypora spp. 3 3 LC - 440 live W * No trade to either EU or RoW Current no opinion i) for trade in EU: virtually no trade Seriatopora spp. 2 1 LC, 1 NT wild-sourced Seriatopora spp. at - 12738 live W * RoW: virtually no trade genus level formed 07/11/2014. Current no opinion i) for trade in Stylophora spp. 3 1 LC, 1 NT, 1 not yet assessed wild-sourced Stylophora spp. at - 967 live W * No trade to either EU or RoW genus level formed 07/11/2014. EU: virtually no trade Alveopora spp. 6 2 NT, 3 VU, 1 EN - 435 live W * RoW: 84 live corals

Coscinaraea spp. 5 3 LC, 2 not yet assessed - 234 live W * No trade to either EU or RoW Current no opinion i) for trade in wild-sourced Psammocora spp. Psammocora spp. 8 5 LC, 2 NT and 1 DD - 585 live W * No trade to either EU or RoW at genus level formed 07/11/2014. Siderastrea spp. 1 (S. savignyana) LC - 998 live W * No trade to either EU or RoW EU: virtually no trade Trachyphyllia geoffroyi - NT - 440 live W RoW: 117 live corals Millepora spp. 5 all LC - 2262 live W * No trade to either EU or RoW Not yet assessed by IUCN but reported to 1 (Distichopora Distichopora spp. be "a common sight" on Indo-Pacific reefs - 2284 live W * No trade to either EU or RoW violacea) (Veron, 2000) Current no opinion i) for trade in EU: virtually no trade Pectinia spp. 5 2 NT, 2 VU, 1 DD wild-sourced Pectinia spp. at - 338 live W * RoW: virtually no trade genus level formed 07/11/2014. *not identifiable to species level

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Appendix

Table 1: Purpose of trade Code Description T Commercial Z Zoo G Botanical garden Q Circus or travelling exhibition S Scientific H Hunting trophy P Personal M Medical (including biomedical research) E Educational N Reintroduction or introduction into the wild B Breeding in captivity or artificial propagation L Law enforcement / judicial / forensic

Table 2: Source of specimens Code Description W Specimens taken from the wild X Specimens taken in “the marine environment not under the jurisdiction of any State” R Ranched specimens: specimens of animals reared in a controlled environment, taken as eggs or juveniles from the wild, where they would otherwise have had a very low probability of surviving to adulthood D Appendix-I animals bred in captivity for commercial purposes in operations included in the Secretariat's Register, in accordance with Resolution Conf. 12.10 (Rev. CoP15), and Appendix-I plants artificially propagated for commercial purposes, as well as parts and derivatives thereof, exported under the provisions of Article VII, paragraph 4, of the Convention A Plants that are artificially propagated in accordance with Resolution Conf. 11.11 (Rev. CoP15), as well as parts and derivatives thereof, exported under the provisions of Article VII, paragraph 5 (specimens of species included in Appendix I that have been propagated artificially for non-commercial purposes and specimens of species included in Appendices II and III) C Animals bred in captivity in accordance with Resolution Conf. 10.16 (Rev.), as well as parts and derivatives thereof, exported under the provisions of Article VII, paragraph 5 F Animals born in captivity (F1 or subsequent generations) that do not fulfil the definition of ‘bred in captivity’ in Resolution Conf. 10.16 (Rev.), as well as parts and derivatives thereof U Source unknown (must be justified) I Confiscated or seized specimens (may be used with another code) O Pre-Convention specimens