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Farmers on the Move Mobility, Access to Land and Conflict in Central and South Mali

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Farmers on the Move Mobility, Access to Land and Conflict in Central and South Mali Farmers on the move Mobility, access to land and conflict in Central and South Mali Karin Nijenhuis Thesis committee Promotor Prof. Dr J.W.M. van Dijk Professor of Law and Governance in Africa Wageningen University Co-promotor Dr M.M.A. Kaag Senior Researcher African Studies Centre, Leiden Other members Prof. Dr C. Leeuwis, Wageningen University Prof. Dr W.E.A. van Beek, Tilburg University Dr C. Toulmin, International Institute for Environment and Development, London, United Kingdom Dr M. Breusers, KU Leuven, Belgium This research was conducted under the auspices of the CERES Research School for Resource Studies for Development Farmers on the move Mobility, access to land and conflict in Central and South Mali Karin Nijenhuis Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of doctor at Wageningen University by the authority of the Rector Magnificus Prof. Dr M.J. Kropff, in the presence of the Thesis Committee appointed by the Academic Board to be defended in public on Monday 25 November 2013 at 1.30 p.m. in the Aula. Karin Nijenhuis Farmers on the move: Mobility, access to land and conflict in Central and South Mali, 290 pages. PhD thesis, Wageningen University, Wageningen, NL (2013) With references, with summaries in Dutch and English ISBN 978-94-6173-720-5 Contents List of maps, figures, tables and photos viii Acknowledgements xi 1 THE ‘DISCOVERY’ OF MOBILE FARMERS 1 The ‘discovery’ of mobile farmers 1 The sedentary image of farmers 9 Mobility and land use 13 Research questions 15 Defining the mobility of farmers 17 Methodological issues 23 The thesis 33 2 LINKING MOBILITY OF FARMERS WITH ACCESS TO LAND AND CONFLICT 35 The political ecology of mobility of farmers 35 Access to land through social and political relationships 37 Local hierarchy and the importance of first-settlement 42 The ambiguity of first-settlement 44 How to become a first-comer 46 Administrative decentralization reform as a new source of power 48 Conflict over access to land 49 Conclusions 53 3 REGIONAL VARIATION IN FARMING CONDITIONS 55 Introduction 55 Natural environment 55 Demographic trends 62 Regional agricultural development policies 66 Cotton growing and the role of the CMDT in South Mali 71 Legislation regarding the use of natural resources 75 Conclusions 78 v 4 MOBILITY IN A HARSH ENVIRONMENT (CENTRAL MALI) 80 Introduction 80 The 1999 map of ‘frozen mobility’ 81 Agricultural colonization in two waves 84 A snapshot of mobility 100 Expansive agriculture and diversity in Coofi 107 Agropastoralists’ responses to drought 113 Agricultural colonization of a pasture: Changing Dogon-Fulani relationships 116 Conclusions 119 5 ACCESS TO LAND: CONTESTED LAYERS OF CLAIMS (CENTRAL MALI) 121 Introduction 121 Village migration histories 122 Competing for land at a ‘frontier’ 134 Okoyeri Peul’s dreams of return and claims from a distance 142 Fulani reply to Dogon claims to land 145 Conclusions 147 6 CONFLICT OVER LAND AND POWER IN A VOLATILE CONTEXT (CENTRAL MALI) 154 Introduction 154 Settlement history in Coofi 155 The first layer of the conflict: The land issue 159 The struggle for power between two Fulani 163 The aftermath of the court case: The struggle for power continues 168 Analysis and conclusions 171 7 WAVES OF MOBILITY AMONG FARMERS (SOUTH MALI) 175 Introduction 175 Mobility at a glance 176 Five mobility waves in four decades 183 Conclusions 199 8 ACCESS TO LAND AND AGRICULTURAL COLONIZATION (SOUTH MALI) 201 Introduction 201 Accessing land for agricultural colonization 202 Conditions for agricultural expansion and/or intensification 206 Land-use practices according to socio-ethnic group 212 Divergent trends in land-use practices and mobility 219 Conclusions 221 vi 9 CONFLICT OVER LAND AND POWER AGAINST THE BACKDROP OF ADMINISTRATIVE DECENTRALIZATION (SOUTH MALI) 228 Introduction 228 Local level authority in Mperesso 229 Conflict over land 230 The underlying conflict over power 232 Analysis and conclusions 240 10 COMPARATIVE REGIONAL ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSIONS 243 Farmers on the move in two contrasting regions 243 Farmers’ mobility: The missing link 248 Ten years later 252 References 257 Summary 271 Samenvatting 280 vii List of maps, figures, tables and photos Maps 1.1 Mali, administrative regions and the location of the research areas xvi 1.2 Research area in Douentza District, Central Mali 4 1.3 Hamlets in Douma and Okoyeri village territories, Central Mali (1999) 5 1.4 Research area in Koutiala District, South Mali 6 1.5 Hamlets in Finkoloni village territory, South Mali (2001) 7 1.6 Hamlets in Mperesso village territory, South Mali (2001) 7 3.1 Water availability, Central Mali (1999) 61 4.1 Hamlets and water availability in Okoyeri and Douma village territories (1999) 82 4.2 Hamlets in Douma and Okoyeri village territories (1950) 91 4.3 Hamlets in Douma and Okoyeri village territories (1970) 92 4.4 Hamlets in Douma and Okoyeri village territories (1985) 93 4.5 Hamlets in Douma and Okoyeri village territories (1999) 94 5.1 Contested areas in Okoyeri and Douma village territories (1999) 136 6.1 Coofi zone, Central Mali (1999) 156 7.1 Hamlets in Finkoloni village territory (1950) 177 7.2 Hamlets in Finkoloni village territory (1970) 177 7.3 Hamlets in Finkoloni village territory (1985) 178 7.4 Hamlets in Finkoloni village territory (2001) 178 7.5 Hamlets in Mperesso village territory (1950) 179 7.6 Hamlets in Mperesso village territory (1970) 179 7.7 Hamlets in Mperesso village territory (1985) 180 7.8 Hamlets in Mperesso village territory (2001) 180 Figures 2.1 Political ecological framework of mobility of farmers 36 3.1 Annual rainfall (mm) in Koutiala (South Mali) and Douentza (Central Mali) (1950-2002) 57 3.2 Cotton production in Mali (1997/1998-2008/2009) 73 viii Tables 3.1 Mali’s annual population growth rate (1976-2009) 63 3.2 Population figures for Mopti and Sikasso Regions (in millions) (1976-2009) 63 3.3 Population figures and density, Koutiala District, South Mali (1976-2009) 64 3.4 Population figures for Mperesso and Finkoloni, South Mali (1960-2001) 64 3.5 Population figures and density, Koro District, Central Mali (1987-2009) 64 3.6 Population figures and density, Douentza District, Central Mali (1987-2009) 65 3.7 Population figures for Douma, Okoyeri Peul and Okoyeri Dogon, Central Mali (1953-1998) 65 4.1 Number and proportion of settlements and people in Douma and Okoyeri village territories, and the distribution of people over soil types in Douma village territory (Central Mali), according to socio-ethnic group (1999) 83 4.2 Number of settlements in Douma and Okoyeri village territories (Central Mali), according to socio-ethnic group (1950-1999) 90 4.3 Price list of agricultural equipment and cattle, Douentza District, Central Mali (1999) 96 4.4 Field and fallow field area (ha/person) in Coofi hamlet, Central Mali (2000) 108 4.5 Agricultural performance of a successful and a poor farmer in Coofi, Central Mali (2000) 109 7.1 Number of hamlets (1950-2001) and inhabitants (2001) in Mperesso village territory (South Mali), according to socio-ethnic group 182 7.2 Number of hamlets (1950-2001) and inhabitants (2001) in Finkoloni village territory (South Mali), according to socio-ethnic group 182 7.3 Number of cotton-farming units in Mperesso, South Mali (1986-2001) 195 8.1 Mean cultivated and fallow areas (ha) in Finkoloni and Mperesso hamlets (South Mali), according to socio-ethnic group (2001) 214 8.2 Mean cultivated area (ha) in Finkoloni and Mperesso hamlets (South Mali), according to socio-ethnic group (2001) 215 8.3 Mean fallow area (ha) in Finkoloni and Mperesso hamlets (South Mali), according to socio-ethnic group (2001) 215 8.4 Mean cultivated and fallow areas per capita (ha/person) in Finkoloni and Mperesso hamlets (South Mali), according to socio-ethnic group (2001) 215 8.5 Linear regression analysis on land size (ha) in Mperesso and Finkoloni hamlets, South Mali (2001) 216 8.6 Cotton data for Mperesso, South Mali (2001/2002 season) 217 8.7 Cotton production in Mperesso (South Mali), according to ethnic group (2001/2002 season) 218 8.8 Mean field size (in ha) and share (in %) in cotton and cereals in farming hamlets in Mperesso (South Mali), according to socio-ethnic group (2001) 219 ix Photos 1 A Dogon family in their rainy-season hamlet with their failing millet crop (Central Mali) 150 2 Livestock being watered in a rainy-season pool (Central Mali) 150 3 A Dogon farmer and his donkey cart in Central Mali 151 4 Water being drawn from a well (Central Mali) 151 5 An agropastoral camp in the dunes in the Okoyeri’s Seeno area (Central Mali) 152 6 Conducting interviews in Coofi hamlet (Central Mali) 152 7 Sharing space: a Dogon farming hamlet and a Fulani agropastoral camp (Central Mali) 153 8 A Minyanka family busy harvesting sorghum (South Mali) 224 9 A Dogon migrant farmer in his cotton field in Mperesso village territory in South Mali 224 10 A relatively wealthy Fulani family group (South Mali) 225 11 Integrating crops and cattle (South Mali) 225 12 The cotton harvest waiting to be transported to the CMDT cotton factory (South Mali) 226 13 An influential autochthonous Minyanka village elder in South Mali 226 14 Dogon women and children in their hamlet in South Mali 227 x Acknowledgements If a PhD is like a marriage, then my engagement was quite long and hectic and was interspersed with periods of seeming neglect and other lovers. However the initial love proved to be strong and I would like to thank everyone who has con- tinued to support me over the years. First of all, my gratitude goes to my supervising team, whose composition changed over the course of time.
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