USSR ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A quarterlg of the Sectton of the Social Sciences, Philosophy USSR Academg of Sciences. Founded in 1970. History Published in Moscow in English, Economics and also in French, Scicnccs Sociales; in German, Gesselschaftswissenschaften; Politics in Spanish, Ciencias Sociales; and in Portugucse, Ci6ncias Sociais Sociology Law Vol. XI, No. 3 I 980 The journal is published by agreement: Philology in Bengali, Samaj Bijnan (Bingsha Shatabdi Publishers, Psychology Calcutta, India); in Japanese, Ethnography Shakai Kagaku (Shakai Kagaku Co., Tokyo, Japan) Archaeology in Greek, Kinonihes epistemes (Planet Publishers, Athens, Greece); in Arabic, CONTENTS Al Ulum al-l jtima'iga (Dar al-Farabi Publishers, Beirut, Lebanon); in Portuguese, To the Reader ("Avantel" Publishers, Lisbon, put out the edition for circulation in Portugal). N. lnozemtsev The Scientific and Technological Revo- The Spanish edition is reprinted in Colombia lution and the Modern World by Centro de Estudios e Investigaciones Sociales (CEIS) Publishers, Bogota. The 15th lnternational Congress of Historical Sciences E. Zhukov The Origins of the Second World War 18 Since 1976 the Editorial Board has been l. Kovalchenko, Progressive Social Thought in Bussia publishing the journal Obshchestvennie nauki G. Kucherenko and Western Europe in the 19th Century (Social Sciences) in Russian. It appears six times a year. (Problems of Mutual lnfluence) 35 A. Chubaryan The ldea of Just and Eternal Peace in Russian Social Thought of the 1gth-Early 20th Centuries 46 For subscriptions apply S. Tlkhvinsky The Correlation Between National and to national distributors dealing with Social Factors in the Xinhai Revolution in V/O "Mezhdunarodnaya I(niga" China 56 that are listed at the end of this issue. V. Pashuto History Teaching in Soviet Schools 67
E. Kapustin Development @ Social Sciences, l980 Manpower in the USSR: Reprints authorised with written permission from the Editorial Board. and Utilisation Trends 82 N. Kolpinsky Engels as Lenin Saw Him 97
"social Sciences" Editorial Otfica, 33112 Arbat, Moscoa 121002, USSR. K. Dolgov The Origins of the Crisis in Western Ph ilosoph ico-Aesthetic Consciousness 110 BOOK REVIEWS V. Yartseva, Soviet Germanic Studies: Achievements ;ii, N. Semenyuk and Plans 124 I s.T' Publication Activities of the Historical Department of the USSR The lmage Antiquity 138 and Diplomatic S. Averlntsev Changing of Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Survey) 264 Developing Countries: Ya. Gorelik A Collection of Documents on the HiStory New Research of the Civil War (Survey) 272 D. Meltser The Soviet lJnion and the Struggle of the M. Volkov lndustrialisation in the Developingi Coun- Peoples of Central and South-East tries 154 Europe for Freedom and lndependence in 1941-1945 274 DIALOGUE M. ChemerlsskaYa L. V. Cherepnin, "Zemskie Sobory" of the Fussian Stafe in the 16th and 17th V. Davydov School and the Moulding of the Person- ality 168 l. Kovalchenko N. M. Druzhinin, The Russian Village: CRITICAL STUDIES AND COMMENT Years of Change (1861-1880) 279 N. Eldelman P. A. Zayonchkovsky, Government Ap- Th. Oizerman The Myth About the Death of Philosophy 178 paratus of Autocratic Fussia in the 19th Century 282 MAN AND NATURE M. Bliyev V. A. Georgiyev, N. S. Kinyapina, M. T. Panchenkova, V. l. Sheremet, The Eastern Question in Russia's Foreign Yu. lzrael Keep the Sky, Land and Water Clean! 196 Policy (the End of the l8th-the Beginning of'the 20th century) 285 YOUTH AND SOCIETY S. Kozlov S. Yu. Abramova, Atrica: Four Centuries of Slave Trade 288 K. Myalo Romantic Consciousness in the Western l. Blauberg V. S. Lyamin, Geography and Society 290 Youth Counter-Culture 2Os SCIENTIFIC LIFE BIBLIOGRAPHY Books on History 293 General Meeting of the USSR Academy of Sciences 218 Scientific Thematic Collections 304 A. Martynov The National Committee of Historians of the Soviet Union 22O Contributors to This lssue 308 Congresses o Conferences . Our Glossary 311 Symposiums Our Mailbag 313 V. Smirnov The 11th World Congress of the lnterna- List of Distributors 315 tional Political Science Association (IPSA) 224 l. Evgralov lnternational Scientific Cooperation in the Pacific 228 V. Sadovsky Logic, Methodology and Philosophy of Science 232 V. Nersesyants Contemporary Conceptions of Law 236 M. Koreneva A Forum of Literary Comparativists 239 The articles on the historical sciences in this issue were prepared jointly with the National Committee of Historians of the USSR. Chronicle 242 EDITORIAL COUNCIL
Fedoseyev P. N., Academician, Chairman Grigulevich I. R., Corresponding Member, USSR Academy of Sciences, Deputy ChSirman Maslova N. I., Executive Secretary
Members To the Reader
Afanasyev V. G., Corresponding Member, USSR Academy of Sciences; Arbatov G. A., Academician; Bogomolov O. T., Corresponding Member, USSR Academy of Sciences; Bromley Yu. V. Academician; Frolov I. T., In thi,s issue we continue o.ur p.ractice Corresponding Member, USSR Academy of Sciences; Gapochka M. P., of publishing arti:cles relating to some of internati,anal Cand. Sc. (Philos.); Gromyko An. A., D. Sc. (Hist.); Guryev I. E., Cand. forthcoming forums in the soiiat sci,ences. The materials haue been Sc. (Econ.); Gvishiani M., Academician; fnozemtsev N. N., Acaclemi- serectbd with due account of our read,ers, J. ,rpl!!! to our (see cian; Kapustin E. I., Corresponding Member, USSR Academy of Sci- -Questi,onnai,re Social Sciences, No. i, lg\g). v.ve ofen this issue,with ences; Khachaturov T. S., Academician; Khrapchenko i({. B., Academi- an articre by N. Inozemtsev, birectoi of the Institute of tl,e world, Economy cian; Khromov S. S., D. Sc. (Hist.); Komkov G. D., f). Sc. (Hist.); Kos- and,' rnternati.onal Relations, ussR Acad,enry of tyushko I. I., D. Sc. (Hist.); Koval B. I., D. Sc. (Hist.); Kovalchen- -sciences, on the sbcio-economic transformations ihiih are reshaping. the modern ko I. D., Corresponding Member, USSR Academy of Sciences; Kriv- world in condi.tions oj the ,rrr"tljii and technalo gical reoolution. tsov V. A., D. Sc. (Hist.); Kumanev V. A., D. Sc. (Hist.); Kuznetsov D. V., Cand. Sc. (Hist.); Markov D. F. Corresponding Member, USSR Academy of Sciences; Mchedlov M. P., D. Sc. (Philos.); Momdjan Kh. N., D. Sc. The l5th International Congress (Philos.); Narochnitskl A. L., Academician; Okladnikov A. P., Academi- of Historical Sciences cian; Piotrovsky B. B., Academician; Primakov E. M., Academician; Semyonov V. S., D. Sc. (Philos.); Shaposhnikov V. S., Shiryaev Yu. S., The .congress will take place this summer. In collaboration with the D. Sc. (Econ.); Sobolev A. f., D. Sc. (Philos.); Tikhvinsky S. L., Corres- Nati,onal c.ommittee of Historians of the souiet (Jnion, we haue brlebared,t ponding Member, USSR Academy of Sciences; Timofeyev T. T., Corres- seueral arti:cles on the topics that will be discussed there. ' ponding Member, USSR Academy of Sciences; Trukhanovsky V. G., E. Zhukov, chai,rman of the Nationar committee of Historians of Corresponding Member, USSR Academy of Sciences; Vinogradov V. A., the souiet union, analyses the soci:ar sources and ori,gi,nls of the ieconh Corresponding Member, USSR Academy of Sciences; Volsky V. V., world war; corresponding Member of the LJSSR Aiademi of sciences Kovalchenko, D. Sc. (Econ.); Zhilin P. A., Corresponding Member, fISSR Academy of f. and G. Kucherenko examine, on the nioript, oy tt, Sciences; Zhukov E. M., Academician. spread, of {Jto1tlgv socialism, the interconnecti,ons in EuropeLn iocial thought - of the lgth centur): A. chubaryan writes about the ieuelobment o!- thg idea "eternal of . peare" in Rissian Coiripdnding Member. _literaturc: of the IJSSR Academy of sciences S. Tikhvinsxy stiil,u tnl, c.orre-lation of the national ani soci,al factors in the Xinhli reuolution 1y phiya; Conespond.ing Member oy ine USSt Acad,eml of Sciences v. Pashuto.expounds thi basic priniiprcs in the teaching'o['hitory in Souiet schools. Philosophy. Aesthetics knowledge. K. Myalo deaotes her article to a soci.al ana\sis of tke conseruatiae tendencies among the Western youth in the context of the EngeLs, scholar and, fighter, in the uorks of Lenin is the theme of the counter-culhue. article by N. Kolpinsky, whi.ch we publish to mark the 160th This i,ssue carri,es anniaersary of the birth of Engels, one of the founders of scientific also seaeral reuiews, sun)eys and annotati.ons on the communism. Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences historical sci,ences. Th. Oizerman discloses the roots euolution modern "f the ,f bourgeois philosophy t'rom reason to mghology. K. Dolgov analyses, on the example of the concepts of phenomenology, the crisis i.n Western aesthetics. We thank aur read,ers 7o, ,lrl, on*r*u, * our euesti,onnaire. The suggestions and comments sent in will be taken i,nto consi,deration in our plans for the next i,ssues. Economics The Editors The specific deuelopment of the labour resources in the USSR and the ways of rai.sing the eft'i,ciency of their uti,li:sation under mature socialism is discussed D1 E. Kapustin, Director of the Institute of EcotLomics, USSR Academy of Sciences. M. Volkov examines the specific features of industrialisation in the d,eueloping countries uhich haue recently gai.ned political independence.
Philology
An article on the main stages and prospects of the deuelopment of Germanic studies in the USSR i:s contributed by Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences V. Yartseva, andN. Semenyuk in connection with the forthcoming Sixth International Congress ,f Germani,c Studies. S. Averintsev writes about the ualues of the ancient world which haue stood the test of ttme.
Ecology Yu. Irzrael, Chairman of the LSSR State Committee for Hyd- rometeorology and Enui,ronmental Control, t'amiliarises the reader uith the measures being taken in the USSR to i.mproue nature protectton and the exploitation of the country's natural resources.
Youth and Society
V. Davydov, Director of the Instttute of General and Educational l
Psychology of the USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, emphasises the l importance of combini,ng the objectcue of general deuelopment of the pupil's indioiduality uith that of giuing htm or her the ne('essar)
6 F',
exploitation. The STR further aggravates the general crisis of capitalism. Marxism-Leninism regards the productive forces as the prim- ary revolutionising elements of the given mode of production. Marx, Engels and Lenin saw the root of the contradictions of the capitalist system, and in the final analysis, the cause of its demise, not in the stagnation of the productive forces, but in the exacerbation of the conflict between the forces and relations of production. "Capitalist technology is increasingly, day by day, outgrowing the social conditions which condemn the working class to wage-slavery," Lenin wrote.2 That is especially important now, first, because of the greatly increased scale and growth rates of The Scientific and Technological production. Second, because of the unprecedentedly close link Letween social, economic scientific and technical development. Revolution and the Modern World The problems posed by the STR, its role in socialist and capitalist societies are being constantly and comprehensively researched by Soviet scholars and their colleagues in the fraternal NIKOLAI INOZEMTSEV socialist countries. They have long been in the focus of the world scientific community. In particular, the STR and the deepening of the economic and socio-political contradictions of rnodern capital- The scientific and technological revolurion (STR) is unfolding ism was the subject of an international conference held in Moscow in an exceptionally dynamic era of deep-going social change and in May 1979.3 The position of the Institute of the World Economy continuous development of the world revolutionary process, which and International Relations, USSR Academy of Sciences, was set has fundamentally changed the very image of the world. The out in the specially prepared theses for the conference.a revolution in science and the technical materialisation of its results Of the major fundamental problems discussed at this represen- in the productive forces have already led to profound changes in tative forum, special attention, in my view, should centre on the diverse- spheres of production, serious eionomic and "social link between the present uorldwide scientit'i,c and technologi.cal reuolution transformations, and a new alignrnent of class and political forces. and soccal reuolutions, on how this organic link affects modern .And as Leonid Brezhnev noted ar the 24th CPSU Congress, "the capitalism. prospects are that the revolution in the development of the The combination of deep-going revolutionary changes in social productive forces, touched off by science and its discoveries, will relations and the revolution in science and technology is a become increasingly significant and profound".l distinguishing feature of our time. It would be hard, indeed The STR is affecting all counries. But the most favourable impossible, to imagine the world we live in without jet aviation and conditions for bringing its potential to bear and making optimal its television, nuclear power and flights into outer space, computers results are provided by the socio-economic system in which and plastics, the new technological processes in industry and science, technology and production serve society and the harmoni- agriculture, our present system of education, information and ous development of the inclividual. It is only natural, therefore, management. Basic to all these are the achievements of the that the country of the first socialist revolution was able, within a scientific and technological revolution begun around the middle of brief span of history, to wipe out age-old backwardness and the century. advance to top place in several decisive branches of science and But no less profound are the worldwide social changes-the technology. socialist revolutions and the growth of the socialist world system, Under capitalism, the STR only aggravates its economic and national liberation revolutions and the ernergence of dozens of socio-political contradictions, a process so clearly demonstrated in independent developing countries, the upsurge of the working the 1970s. On the one hand, the STR accelerates socialisation of class and democratic movements in capitalist countries. the economy, but on the other, it is widely used by the monopolies If one were to ask: What rs the fundamental difference to strengthen their positions, increase profits and inter-rsify between the world situation today and that bf sorne 30 or 35 years
8 ago, between capitalisnr of the 1970s and thar of the early postwar whelming majority of the people, the unprecedented upsurge of years-the answer would probahly be as follows: democratic movements standing opposed to the menace of fascism first, and extreme right bourgeois dictatorships. The STR has played no - capitalism-if we take the industrialised countries- now accounts for only 18 per cent of the world population and for small part in changing both the international and internal situation about 5o per cent of its _industrial output. Thbugh capitalism is in the capitalist world. engaged in combat -world Under capitalism, the STR is complex and contradictory - with the other, opposite system, a socialism, it finds itself compelled to coexisf with it, coopera6 with process marked by collisions between its positive and negative it in different fields, in the conditions of the balance of forces steadily principles. Because of the very existence of capitalism, the changing in favour of socialism; unprecedented scope of man's knowledge of the hitherto unexp- second, with the collapse of its colonial empires, capitalism Iored forces of nature and the immense opportunities for progress has- lost its hinterland, its colonial periphery; it is stiil keeping m,st in the material conditions of society are combined with great of the developing countries within its economic orbit, but-it has dangers for mankind, the threat-a very real one-of destroying increasingly to.reckon with their demands. while influencing these all civilisation. That is a direct result of imperialism's persistent countries, it finds itself increasingly dependent on their 6.,..gy efforts to militarise.science and turn the scientific and technologi- and raw-material resources, as was strikingly demonstrated in tf,e cal revolution into a military-technological revolution that would mid-1970s. serve its reactionary and aggressive aims. The STR plays an especially important role in the current Hence, the tremendous responsibility devolving on all progres- social changes, primarily in the aitered balance of strength sive and peace forces, on all progressive scientists, to prevent a between the two systems. thermonuclear holocaust, ensure peace and security for all the For it was accelerated scientific and technical progress, wicle peoples. This is, indeed, the central task of our era, the first use of scientific achievements, genuine cultural revolutio'n, natural- priority for the efforts of the ivhole of the human race. ly combined with the social, eionomic and political advantages of socialism, have -*ni.f, The STR's influence on the capitalist economy is a highly that enabled the socialiit community, dialectical process. That follows from the very nature of monopoly accounts for less than 10 per cent of the world,s population, to which, as Lenin repeatedly notgd, implies the struggle two raise its share world industrial of in output to one-thiid. contradictory trends in science and technology: towards progress There is another, less no characieristic factor. The Soviet or towards stagnation, an artificial retardation of progress. Union, whose economic potential is less than that of the USA, and Competition with world socialism naturally stimulates the first of in conditions the military of confrontation imposed upon it by these tendencies, but the very nature of capitalism creates serious imperialism, was able to achieve parity with the USA in so vitally obstacles. important a field as strategic armiments. And this, as we all know, On the one hand, technical progress under capitalism produces has become a formidable barrier to imperialism unleashing more effective means the masses; economic crises, unparalleled inflation and unemploy- ment; between the d,eepening of capitali.sm's contradictions, the continued deaelopment of the STR, and the growth of the ca'ltitalist econo'my. sharpening contradiction between the mechanism of state_ - are monopoly regulation, operating mainly within national boundaries, The difficulties and contradictions of modern capitalism see. More, they are bound to increase in scope and and. heightened monopoly activiry unhampered by national there for all to however, should be taken mean that science, barriers; the limited scope of state-monopoly iegulatioir at a time depth. That, not to economy mark retrogress. when economic realities, the rapid growth oi production powered technology and the will simply time or by.the STR, objectively require effective planning and piognosti- Nor does it mean that in the coming years and decades we will see cation; the sclerosis of capitalism's productive forces, a kind of automatic wrong underestimate the vast oppor- deepening contradictions between the national economic stagnation. It would be to - available modern capitalism. "It is farthest from the mechanisms. of- capitalist countries and the interests of monopoly tunities to capital within Communists' minds to predict an 'automatic collapse' of capital- these countries, and the development requirements "It of the- capitalist world economy as a whole. A fe* ionvincing ism," Leonid Brezhnev told the 25th Congress of the CPSU. has considerable reserves."5 ' examples: exacerbation of several global problems; structura-i still most important these reserves is the crises of the world capitalist economy ln such-fields as energy, raw And one of the of continued development science and technology and their materials, foodstuffs finances; ' sharpeqing of con"tradic- of ?nd practical achievements, used expand the productive forces. This tions between the developed and the develbping:countries; acute to ec-onomic struggle between the three main capita-list centres (usA, potential is a very appreciable one; in my opinion, there is every STR, far from slowing down, might well Western Europe and Japan); contradictions linked with the reason to predict that the proceed even faster pace in the coming decades. development of economic integration of several capitalist coun- at an tries, etc. The economy will be increasingly influencecl by the practical realisation the existing and rapidly growing fund of scientific All these contradictions, added to those accumulated in the last of technological know-how. This will mean, in particular, that: cycle, imparted especial depth to the lg74-lg7b economic crisis and greatly stimulate and to the economic of the mid-1970s. A noteworthy perfection of computer techniques will -upheavals microelectronics,- the use of robots, with resultant much wider {eature of this crisis, the severest since that of 1929-1g33, is that it has affected the highly developed postwar state-monopoly automation; the revolution in biology will sharply increase the output of economy .and its regulatory and stimulating mechanisms. The - bourgeoisie was prepared to accept partial reforms and concen- foodstuffs; advances in chemistry will extend production of new trated on using the achievements of the STR to raise the - effective.ness of production and boost growth rates to strengthen materials with programmed properties; its positions wider use will be made of underdeveloped areas of our planet,- the World Ocean, deep strata of the Earth, Arctic and _An{.s.o,-taking into account the cardinal changes in the social and po.litical picture of the world (notably the wealening positions sub-Arctic land areas; new energy sources will be developed, especially through of capitalism in its confronration with ihe main anti-Imperialist - forces), aggravation of internal contradictions in individial'capital- breeder reactors, thermonuclear synthesis, use of solar energy, etc. make a cardinal solution the energy problems ist countries and in the world capitalist system as a whole, This could for of years. sharpening of global problems (particularly wiih the end of cheap within twenty or thirty oil, energy and raw materials, the vital need for environmental In recent years, the Institute of the World Economy and to protection involving larger investments, the need to narrow the International Relations has devoted much time and effort prognostication on working out a realistic appraisal of gap between the developed and the developing countries as an oriented rates capitalist economy importrrnt condition for expanding internationil economic rela- trends and development of the world up to the years 1990 and 2000. Th€se studies are an organic part of a tions and the normal functioning or the world economy) there is "Int€grated Programme Scientific and Technical every ground for the conclusion that the world economic crisis of wider project, of the mid-1970s ushered in a period of considerabry worse capitalist Progress and its Socio-Economic Consequences for the Period up Year project is being carried out jointly by the reproduction conditions compared with the preceding 30 years. to the 2000". The USSR State Committee The next question of practical importince tie corielation USSR Academy of Sciences and the for - Science and Technology. 12 l3 Our prognostication has been based on the following: US level (as against 95 and 27 per cent respectively in lg?7). the capitalist economy There is reason to anticipate thai productivitl by the year 2000 _ .- will continue to develop cyclically, which means recessions, depressions and profound crises; will be 70 per cent of t,h-1-Uq figure in Western'Europe and 7b per in (the 1-9-77 figures are 48 capitalist economic development will be impeded by high ^cent l.apan and 3g per cent). levels- of inflation, chronic unemployment, structural crises, deeper And another reasonable probability is a higher share of the social conflicts, and sharper international contradictions; developing co,ntries in the industrial output oT the non-socialist the coming decades will see the imperialist chai4 broken in world, some 25 or 28 per cent in the year 2000, compared with more- links, with possible social revolutions in different parts of the 14.7 _per c,ent in 1977. Their share in energy outpur .orld ir.r.ur. capitalist world and also in developing countries. Such events as to 55 or 60 per cent and to as much as 86-per ient in oil. But in the collapse of the dictatorial regimes in Greece and Spain, the such key- economic ,indicators as per capita production and revolutions in Portugal, Angola, Ethiopia, Afghanistan, Nicaragua, consumption the tendency is to an even wider gap.between the Iran are the most convincing confirmation of such a forecast. developed and the developing countries. Anothii probable de_ Prognostications vary, naturally, with the changing outlook for velopment is a morg pronounced differentiation among the the development of international political relations, the results of developing countries themselves; a certain number will, on sEveral detente and possible changes in the levels of military expenditure. indicators, achieve medium development; the emergence of Taking into account factors that tend to impede economic centres of so-called sub-imperialism in the Third world sfioulrl not development, and those that stimulate it (scientific and technical be precluded. progress, more efficient production organisation and manage- IJneven development, particularly in growth rates, is bound to ment, Iarger internal markets based on growing private and, more aggravate intra-imperialist contradictions and contradictions be- especially, state consumption, role of larger foreign markets, etc.), tween the industrialised and the developing countries. long-term forecasts cleared of cyclical fluctuations suggest that we should also foresee that centrifu[al forces in the capitalist between now and the end of the century the capitalist economy world will be- paralleled by centripetal tendencies. This p.o."r, stems will grow at an appreciably lower, but neverrheless substantial, rate from the community of .class interests of the moiopoly than in the 1950s and 1960s. Our prognostication suggests that the bourgeoisie in different countries. And from this fo[ows'the gross domestic product of the developed capitalist countries might objective need for unity of all revolutionary forces, and the special importance of increase 100-130 per cent by the year 2000 compared with 1978, and -unity. of. progressive movements and of stringent their industrial output, by approximately 150 per cent. adherence to the principles of internationalism. Our institute's forecast outlines some indicators of STR And one more very_ important question deserving of close influence on the capitalist economy. From this forecast it follows attention--the forces sta.nding opposed ti the reactionory or1 aggressiue ambiti.ons the monopolie-s; the that in the coming years capitalist countries will concentrate on the ^of forces worki,ng for geniine pro{ess, for development and application of energy- and material-saving the use of science and technology in the i,nterisis ,f hu*anity;"the tasks technology. As a result, we forecast that for the mid-lg80s fairly cgnfyytjng these forces in the iontext of the continuing deuitopment of substantial structural changes in the economy of the USA and the STR. other developed capitalist countries, mainly in reducing the share , Let me first emphasise that the struggle of the working class, of the extractive industries and metallurgy and increasing the the. popular masses, to make scientific and technical progreJs serve share. of power engineering, chemistry and machine-building, will their interests and the struggle against militarism u.ra tf,e menace occur. There will be a considerable increase in the output of of another war are closely conneited with the struggle to restrict computers, digital programmed machine-tools, and an especially rnonopoly omnipotence, raise living standards, deri6cratise man- sharp increase in robots. The output of aluminium and other agemen-t at every level of economic and social life-that struggle is modern construction materials, plastics and synthetic resins will an inalienable component of the anri-monopoly, demJ&atic increase at a rapid pace. struggle in the broadest sense of the term. In. fact, the. very development of the The law of uneven capitalist development will continue to . . STR, which inevitably opcrate in the decades after that too. This will generate serious intensifies social and class polarisation, makes for higher ,rr*..i- changes in the economic balance of the USA, Western Europe cal, organisational, educational and professional Gvels of the and Japan. Thus, by the year 2000 West European industrial working class and its closer associatiorr with widening sections of intellectuals production could be 120 per cent and Japan's 47 per cent of the and white-collar workers, and aggravation"of some old l4 t5 accomplished they must be, for they are essential to effective this creates new, and emergence of new social antagonisms-all economic management and, consequently, to the attainment of the conditions the masses, for the activity of all more fav()urable for majn goal of our economic efforts, namely, the steady dedicated democratic alternative to the .all anti-monopoly forces to uninterrupted rise of the material and cultural standards of the policies of state-monopoly capitalism. people. For the development of science and technology, optimal too, struggle for positive use - In the developing countries, the use of their discoveries have become a major area in the economic with the struggle against of the STR is inseparably bound up competition between world socialism and rvorld capitalism. Last genuine inclependence and imperialism and neocolonialism, for but not least, rxrr successes in this sphere are closely associated progressive economic and social sovereignty, and for far-reaching with the efforts for peace and international security and with the econornic relations on a changei. Reconstruction of international continued development cr.t report on the need to stabilise the German economy-by means of a signed between Germany and the USSR in 1926. At the Geneva million gold marks. preparatory conference in 1927, the Soviet Union tabled big loan to Germany totalling 800 -The ^ London Conference of 1924 officially adoptecl the Dawes' Plan, proposal on universal and cornplete disarmament. On the initiative which spelt a complete change of course in respect of Cermany on of the USSR, a protocol was signed with a number of neighbour- the pait of the Western powers, with French forces being ing states on the immediate implementation of the Rriand-Kellogg withdrawn from German territory. Throughout the period be- l'ait on the rejection of war as a vehicle of national policies."' tween 1924 and 1932, direct British and US patronage brought Nevertheless, the strengthening of imperialist Germany con- about the restoration of Germany's industrial and military tinued with active aid from British and US diplomacy. According foreign_ loa.ns received by to the Young Plan of 1930, and then at the Lausantle Conference potential. The total value of the -. b,e.-arry during those years stood at over 3l thousand million of 1932, Germany was in fact completely exempted from all whereas reparation payments were limited to l1 r-eparation payments, with Britain, the US, France and Italy gold marks, ()erman i-housand million. Thus, the financial shot in the arrn provided by officially recognising the principle of equality in the area British ancl American capital, which totalled the vast sum of 20 of armaments.rr thousand million gold marks, playecl an important part in Germany was ever more becoming a porverful militarist state restoring Germany's military potential and her rearmament. armed to the teeth. The German imperialist monopolies, as well as It gois without saying, this was not only mq\ed by-a cooling of the Reichswehr, who had previously regarded l{itler's claims to Germin-Soviet relations, this on German initiative, but by ever political leadership with scepticism, now began to change their more fostered German political ambitions on the world scene. The attitude towards his adventurist military progranlme. At the same government of that country officially presented a dernand to the time, Hitler did his utmost to convince. the Western capitalist L.ugr.. of Nations that it should not only be recognised as equal powers that the struggle against the danger of revolution and for in the area of armament but should be given mandates for the ihe destruction of Bolshevism and the liquidation of the Soviet colonies it had lost in thc 1914-1918 war' socialist state were the main tasks. IIis official statements and In the autumn of 1925, I-ocarno was the venue of an published articles frankly proclaimed a course towards war against international conference attended by Britain, France' Italy' Bel- ine ussR. 'fhe compliments he paid to the western powers, gium, Germany, Poland and Czechoslovakia, the latter two Britain in the first place, \{'ere accompanied by a single demand: iountries being closely linked to France by military agreements. Gerrnany should get her former colonies back. Although officially called to help consolidate European peace' the In the autumn of 193 1, militarist Japan fell on China and Locarn6 Conference was in fact designed to involve Germany in occupied-Britain, Manchuria. Japan's imperialist rivals, prirnarily the tlS the "concern" of the Western powers, isolate the Soviet Union, and limited themselves to verbal protests against the and organise another anti-Soviei intervention.s The decisions of robber acts of the Japanese military. In this, they were guided by the LoCarno Conference provided for an Anglo-Italian guarantee the illusory idea that Japan's aim was a preparation f<>r an attack of Germany's Western boundaries (with France and Belgium) against- the USSR. alone but .iid ,ot in the least affect her eastern borders (with Irrespective of nationality, the reactionary leaders of the Poland and Czechoslovakia). Thus, these decisiot.rs already con- capitalisi monopolies ever more openly linked the possibility of a tained the seeds of the anti-Soviet idea, later to find lrank taleorer of power in Germany with the prospect of an aggressive expression, of freedom of actions for imperialist Germany in the war against the USSR. The international situation took a sharp eaitward direction. "The relative stabilisation and the so-called turn for the worse, and in 1933, the Hitlerites came to power. 'pacification' of Europe under the hegemory_ of Anglo-US Shortly afterwards Germany officially declared she rvould no capital," said the resolution adopted by the 14th Congress of the longer take part in the work of the International Disarmament Ali-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) on the report submitted Commission, and left the League of Nations. With British and US by the Central Committee, "produced a whole system o{ economic connivance, the nazi leadership continued to strengthen in every and political blocs, the latest of which was the Locarno Conference possible way the German military machine, whose resurrection was on the so-called 'mutual guarantees' that were spearheaded against initiated in many respects by those two countries. the USSR." e The impunity of the Japanese aggressor encouraged the The Soviet state took steps to neutralise the l,ocarno Pact, at German and Italian fascists to speed up their own war prepara- least partially. Thus, a treaty of non-aggression and neutrality was tions. Despite the failure of the nazi-inspired putsch in Austria in 25 24 1934, rulers Germany and continued insistently to more the of Italy Characteristically enolrgh, on February 27, 1939, .i'e',- wrest ever new concessions from the Western powers in the area than a month prioi to the"counter-revolutio,ary coup in Madrid, of rearmarnent. T'he [,easue of Nations plebiscite in the industrial- Britain. and liance officially recognisecl the Franco mutineer ly developed Saarland gave that area to Germany. government. The USA followed suit early in April of the sarne In March 1935, Hitler Germany officially rejected all the year. military clauses of the Treaty of Versailles and introduced ' Crushed by the fascists, Spain, which was Ilow represented by universal conscription. Britain agreed to a i00:35 ratio in the Franco, officially joined the so-called Anti-cornintern Pact, a strength of the British and the German navies. Finally, in March military and poiitiial bloc of three fascist aggressors: Germany, 1936, Germany unilaterally flouted the guarantecs in the Treaty Italy and Japan. of Locarno and occupied the Rhineland. The behiviour of Britain, France and the USA during the have It might seemecl that all these aggressive acts on the part Spanish civil war convinced Hitler that he could carry _out the of nazi Germany should have evoked appropriate retaliatory ,.irrt. of more territory in Europe with ease' Next in line was rneasllres from the Western powers. However, the latter's leaders Arrtria, where local I{itlerite ige,,tt were waging a rabid werc captivatecl by the idea that at long last a strong militarist campaign for Anschluss, i.e., the liquidation of the independent Germany was emersing, which was capable of opposing the Soviet Ausiria"r-, state and its conversion into a German province. For a Unir:n so that they should display if not open encouragemerlt then while, there was even some tension on that score between at least tolerance of nazi military build-up. Gerniany and Italy, the latter laying claim to a dominant role in Fascist Italy, which was considerably weaker than Hitler Austria where they had a fairly firm foothold' However, the Gerrnany hastened in its turn to make use of the favourable i.i"rf.y between these two aggressors ended i. victory for the international situation. In the autlunn of 1935, Italy attacked Hitler Germany the senior partner. Ethiopia, a gangster act which evoked a very weak reaction on the The Soviet governmer)t came out against the aggressive plans part of Rritain, l'rance anct the USA. In NIay 1936, Mussolini ' was prePared "to of fascist Gerriany, stating that the USSR - arrnounced the annexation of Ethiopia. participate in collective aition designed to curb the further Two months later, in July 1936, General Franco's mutiny h.r.lop-..rt of aggression and remove the growing danger of a against the lawful government of the Spanish Republic flared up, new wbrld war....-Ii may be too late tomorrow but the time for with active sllpport from nazi Germany and fascist Italy. Besides that has not yet passed, if all states, especially the.Great.Powers, sending the l'rancoist mutineers every kind of military equipment, take up a firm ancl .,nan',biguous. stand towards the problem of Italy also sent an expeditionary corps 250 thousand strong. Hitler the collective sallation 30 31 It was clear to the Hitler command that, despite the change in No real steps ro give help to Poland were taken either in the tone of the British, French and US press, which were London or in Paris. "condemning" the German-fascist provocations against Poland, The responsibility for the unleashing of the Second World War the Western powers had no intention of warring against Germany. lies squarely yilh international imperialism, which for a long time The economic and political talks held with British representa- created especially favourable conditions for the establishmeit and tives by Wohltat on behalf of Germany produced no results consolidation of Hitlerite Germany's monstrous military machine. favourable to British diplomacy. Hitler was everywhere finding The world's reactionaries frankly counted on that military machine evidence, not only of his rivals' spinelessness and desire to being. the force that would smash and destroy the w6rld's firsr capitulate but also of their inability to defend their positions socialist state. his growing demands.'o against constantly However, the experience_ history shows not only invincibility Anglo-French torpedoing Moscow talks the 9-{ The of the in of socialism but the- impossibility of changing the soiial narure oi summer 1939 and the simultaneous search for a backstairs of imperialism. It was there{ore quite imposslbte to cancel the jungle accommodation with Hitler revealed the perfidy of the Western laws of imperialist rivalry that are inherent 1939, the in the fina aia powers. That was why, when in the August of in monopoly phase of the capitalist system. conditions of the enmity showed by the Western powers towards USSR, Hitler Germany proposed non-aggression pact to the The calculations of Neville Chamberlain and other overt or the a covert Soviet Union, the latter agreed to hold such talks so as to avoid men of Munich that the trend towards unity of the anti-Soviet forces isolation and forestall any aggression against the Soviet land. The in the policies of the various capitalist countries would Soviet Union was bound by no obligations towards the Western emerge victorious proved illusory. The Second World War within the powers inasmuch as all its constructive proposals had been legan capitalist system and was waged between states that part of that The West's rejected by them. Soviet people had no illusions regarding the .formed -system. rlactionary leading anti-Soviet plans the Hitlerites and their allies Anti- politicians underestimated the strength of the imperialist con- of in the tradictions Pact. signing a non-aggression treaty with nazi and let themselves be deceived by such primitive Comintern By camouflage Germany, the Soviet state obtained a certain breathing spell, which of the military and political alliance of ttie fascist aggressors enabled it to take extra measures to build up country's defence. At as the notorious Anti-Comintern Pact. the same time, by signing the treaty witi Germany, the USSR The realities of history proved far more complex than was disorganised the anti-Soviet front of world imperialism. thouglt by the political leaders of most of the capitalist counrries. The German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, In the person of fascism, such destructive forces were released marked the onset of the Second World War. Betrayed by their that presented a direct threat even to those who counted on using puny leaders and by their allies, the Polish people offered heroic them in their own interests. Millions of peoples in the capitarisi resistance to the nazi invaders, but the forces were too unequal. countrres paid with their lives for theii gou...,*.rts' fraring On September 3, the governments of Britain and France were turned a deaf ear to the calls coming from ihe Soviet Union foi forced to declare war on nazi Germany, an act which in many collectiye action to be taken to defend the world and the ,peoples, security, -and respects proved a formality. Neither the British nor the French -which- might have curbed the fascist aggressors command took any steps to bring effective military pressure to prevented the Second World War. bear on the Hitler aggressors. Thi so-called "phoney war" began Ttre victory over fascism was, first and foremost,the triumph of in which the passiveness displayed by the allied Anglo-French socialism,themostprogressivesocialsystem. command was merely a continuation of a policy designed to have Victorious in the Second World War, the Soviet Union has the war directed only against the USSR in the east of Europe. The been -firmly and- unswervingly pursuing the Leninist policy of Hitlerites were invited, as it were, to develop their military activity consolidating world security. This policy is being conducted jointly along the immediate approaches to the Soviet Union. Moreover, with the fraternal socialist countries and enjoyJ the suppori of ail the British and French political and military leaders showed that progressive mankind. they wanted a campaign by the fascist states against the Soviet However, one cannot but see that the policy of peace is Union. What came to light was the Western powers' strategic plans advancing in conditions of an acute struggle wifh the forces of war to use Finland against the Soviet Union in the north, and Turkey and reaction. These forces-from the imperialists to the Maoists- in the south. have not laid down their arms. Since 194b, over 100 major local 3 3ax.1522 32 - 33 wars have been fought, presenting a potential danger of a worldwide The 15th Internati,onal Congress conflict. of Historical Sciences The lessons of the Second World War enjoin us to spare no efforts in the struggle to avoid any repetition of the tragedy of the past and to makJiure that mankind shall never experience the irorro., of a destructive nuclear war. The peaceful skies of our planet should never be lit up by the blood-red flames of a world conflagration. NOTES I V. I. Lenin, Collected Worhs, Moscow, Vol. 22, p. 190. Progressive 2 tbid.. p. 260. Social Thought in Russia 3 Ibid., p. 295. and Western Europe 4 p. 398. lbid., Yol. 24, in the 1 gth Centu ry 5 Ibid., Vol. 41. p. 338. 6 lbid., Vol. 33, p. 148. (Problems of Mutual lnfluence) 7 History of the IJSSR's Foreign Policy, Part I. 1917-1945, Moscow, 1976, pp' A IVAN KOVALCHENKO, 162-164 (in Russian). KUCHERENKO 8 The Locarno Conference, 1925, Moscow, 1959, p' 309 (in Russian)' GENNADI s The CpSU in the Resolutions and, Decisions of I* Congresses, Conferences and' Central Committee Plenums, Part II, Moscow, 1954, p. 194 (in Russian)' to A History of the IJSSR's Foreign Policy, Patt I, 1917-1945, pp' 245-247' The ideological aspect of man's life is gaining prominence in I t Ibid.. p. 267. modern historiography. For quite a few decades nbw periodicals 12 Dolores lb6rruri, "The Struggle Continues", The Peoples' Solidarity uith the have been coming out about Voltaire, Rousseau and Diderot. Spanish Repubh.e. 1936-1939, Mot.orlu, 1972, pp.20-21 (in Russian)' International conferences on antique and mediaeval culture, the 1977, p. 129 (in r3 Documents of the Foreign Policy of rhe ussR, Vol. XXI, Moscow, Renaissance, the Enlightenment and social thought of the lgth Russian). cerrtury command the attention of the world's outstanding t4 A' History of the uSSR's Foreign. Potiq, Patr. I, 1917-1945, p' 307' scholars. r5 Deal, 1958, p. 17 (in Russian). Neru Documentsfromthe History of Munich Moscow, Utopian Socialism is being widely studied in the 1960s and 1979, 16 Quoted from I. Zemskov, "This Must Never Happen Again", Kommunist, 1970s; we have every reason to speak of an explosipn of interest in 13, p. 56. No. it. Hundreds of summarising works have been written. There r7 and Articles,Yol.2, Moscow, 1970, have L. I. Brezhnev, Follouing Lenin's course. speeches appeared quite a few books not about p. 472 (in Russian). only the socialist ideas of the modern times, but also about "antique socialism" r8 Ibid., Vol. l, p. 122. and mediaeval principles of community. collected l9 For further details see: L. A. Bezymensky, "New Materials on the wilson- The works by M6lier, Wohltat Talks (Summer 1939)", Nouaya i no'teishaya istoriq 1979, No' 1, pp' Saint-Simon and Fourier have been put out. Monographs on Th. 83- I 05. More have been published by E. Surtz and J. Hexter, G. Marc'hadour and A. Pr6vost; on Campanella by N. Badaloni T{ !..Firpo; on M6lier by M. Dommanget; on Deschamps by A. Robinet; on Owen by J. Harrison.... The list could ilr continued. For example, the latest bibliographical index about Saint-Simonism alone is 132 pages long. Numerous international conferences are held on More, M6lier, Fourier, Owen; internation- al editions are being put out. In the early lg70s, seven issues of the magazine Economies et soci1tis, the organ of the International Institute of Applied Economics, were devoted to Saint-Simon. At 35 ':,1 University in the USA many scholars from many countries Yale Winstenley, prepared a multi-volume collection of the works of More. Special M6lier, Babeuf, Saint-Simon, Owen, Herzen and Chernyshevsky have been issues of leading monthlies, newspaper articles and radio program- written in this manner. The historians social ideas mes concerned-with Utopias and Utopians have appeared' The of seem to have overlooked the achievements and 3 ,,A Man for All Seasons" about More won the highest awards methods of scholars in the field of comparative literary criticism film and-often.put and was shown in every corner of the world. too much emphasis on the national identity of this 1960s and 1970s, Soviet scholars made their tangible or that thinker. In the eminent contribution: Russian translations of works by More, Deschamps An authority of More's works, Abbot Marc'hadour, and Babeuf and a five-volume edition of Collected, Works by Professor at the Free University (L'Universit6 libre) in Angers and Editor-in-Chief journal, Academician Volgin, a prominent Soviet historian, have been put of Morianne says that his hero is the pride works-of V.-Dalin about Babeuf, B. Porshnev about ,19 l"y-of-England, an unfading luminary of her history, thit he out. The called M6lier, I. Zilberfarb about Fourier, A. Ionnisyan about the com- his homeland to the bosom of the united Roman church and, therefore, munist ideas at the time of the French Revolution, M. Barg about is dear to the Catholics of the whole' world. A L, Osinovsky about More, young English researcher M. Farrare was ingenious enough to Winstenley and his contemporaries, - about Campanelia and G. Kucherenko ab-out M6lier, prove that Sainrsimonism stemmed from thJ French spirii and A. Shteckiya hence yet, Saint-Simon and Evgeni Tarle's research concerning_West.Euro- failed to strike roots on English soil. did-not the famous fltitpiq p.u" Ut"pian Socialiim have become firmly established in.science.r by More, disputes about which have been going on bf tn. works on Russian Utopian Socialism the writings of unabated for five centuries, make the great Englishman piominent G. Vodolazov, A. Volodin, B. Itenberg, R. Konyushaya, V' Leyki- in the history of French, German, Italian 1nd Rusiian social thought as na-Svirskaya, V. Malinin, P. Nikandrov, M. Nechkina; O' Orlik, well? Did not New Christianity and other Saint-Simon,s Yu. Polevoy, U. Rozenfeld, E' Rudnitskaya and V' Tvar- worki glert a profound influence ,po, Carleyle and Mille? Did I. Pantin, not Mikhail dovskaya are of special value. Lunin and Saint-Simon, Fourier and Owen, Owen and No'doubt, the present keen interest in the history of socialist Herzen were in association with each other? Did not the SainrSimonites, ideas has been generated by the needs of our time' However, in Fourierites, Owenites and Russian revolutionary democrats the pasr, too, scfiolars took great interest in the history of spiritual belong to one and the same trend of social thoughi, culture. Although the evolution of mankind is an objective and though, naturally they differed from each other? natural process,-and the changes that take place are caused,-in the The interrelation and mutual influence of the social thought of various peoples, particular, final anilysis, by socio-ecorro-i. reasons, "history is nothing but the in of Russia and Western Europi, are a complicated and little studied activity of his aims".2 Man has always toiled, reared problem, although there ari some -u.r'pursuing achievements this childrln, foughi and waged wars, but, at the same time, has always in field and initial data have been accumulated. tried to unlerstand ."a express the meaning, fundamental It seems that Russo-French cultural relations have been studied properties and deitinies of being' In restoring an better and that literary critics have made a more tangible principles, . contribution pi.trt" of the past, the researcher comes to view to their study than historians. Let us take, for authentic - the works socio-economic facts as prim4ry in the overall historical 9x1mple, by L. Pingaut, E. Haumant, L. Jousserandot, -process, R. Labry, P. Angrand, while politics and intelleitual life as phenomena without which this A. Granjard, Ch. Corbet ana ff,l. Cadot. The data they have collected Drocess does not exist. are of lasting value to scholars. However, the French authors ' An analysis of foreign and Soviet works of the 1960s and 1970s are more inclined to write not about Err.op.u., aid Russian Utopian Socialism is. a hard the mutual influence of the two countries, but about the influence on West France scholarly task. (Even an attempt to present the situation as a of on the Russian culture and social thought. It is also necessary whole, io g.utp the main results, to determine the major areas of to recall the best Russian and Soviet works on this and theme. In particular, the books of P. Sakulin,, a collective discrepancles ind confrontations, to reveal -methodological difficulties and map out avenues for further research monograph by Soviet researchers, soci,alist Ideas in classical Russian oer.u.ih Literature (Leningrad, probably require a number of independent studies') One 1969), and O. Orlik's works are extremely would useful for_studying- feature common to-many of these works is that the development the interrelation between West European and Russian Utopian Socialism. But, on the whole, of social thought and the heritage of its outstanding exponents are - the prbgressive studied largely on a national level. The monographs on More' social thought of Western Europe and Russia ii a"nalysed separately rather than in interaction. 36 37 A number of works by Soviet scholars have testified, however, interpretation of their essence by the ideologists themselves and that they sought to overcome the traditional-in the writings of their followers. Objectively the ideas may have quite a different historians-is6lation of "Russian socialism of the 19th century" essence and yield different results than that their authors from ..western socialism".a such are The Genesis and content of envisaged and strove for. The non-coincidence of the objective Herzen's Sociah,st Thought by Volgin and a number of this Russian and the subjective engenders Utopian trends in social thought in thinker's works which he selected for the series "The Forerunners the given historical conditions. However, the Utopian character of of Scientific Socialism".5.The last brain-child of the outstanding an idea in itself can in no way serve as a basis for evaluating its Soviet scholar has been received as a wise call to persistently tackle essence or progressiveness.. the vital historical problem of the relationship between the For example, the mid-19th century progressive Russian thin- national and internatibnal in the development of social thought. In kers believed that once the traditional commune (obshchina) was faced with retained and the serf peasants freed with plots land the working on this problem a scholar of-any-counfry is. of complicated and delicate issues of home and foreign history which end-result would be socialism. That was Utopian, since the more may^enrich his understanding of the phenomena maki-ng. up the land the peasantry would receive, the more rapidly capitalism ,rotion of "relationships between countries" and "relationships would develop in the countryside. Thus, the socialist aspirations of berween peoples". Authentic knowledge in this field proves the the thinkers were Utopian, while bourgeois democratism, the internationaliharacter of the remarkable achievements of culture, objective content of these aspirations and ideas, was progressive as well as the fact that the social thought of this or that countly and revolutionary. did not exist, with rare exceptions, without assimilation of the In studying the history of social thought one must single out achievements of other countries. the factors that determine the degree of progressiveness of one or another idea. Social thought, though conceived by an individual, is Speaking of the progressive social tho-ught -.of Russia and Western Erirope in thi 191h century we shall confine ourselves to an expression of the needs and interests of definite social classes, an analysis of tn. interrelation between West European and strata and groups. Here the individual is always the expression of Russian'Utopian Socialism, formulate in this connection only a the social. Therefore, in the final analysis, the degree of few general'considerations and theoretical and methodological progressiveness of trends of social thought is determined by the problems, giving some examPles. extent to which the interests and activity of the classes, social strata Let ui iefin"e the notion "progressive social thought"' In our and groups which these trends represent correspond to the course opinion, it should denote those-trends and tendencies which could, of historical development and can help accelerate this develop- if translated into life, con6ibute to social progress. Inasmuch as ment. In the epoch of transition from feudalism to capitalism in the development of productiye forces (i.e., the material basis of Western Europe, the bourgeoisie came out as the most consistent the prospeiity of eveiy society) is the rnain y-ardstick of progress, fighter for progress, and the Enlightenment as the ideological the degree oi p.og..*ivenesi of an idea is determined, first and expression of this progress was the most advanced trend of social foremo-st, by iti soiial and economic content. It is determined by thought. In the epoch of struggle for the abolition of serfdom in the degree'to which the proposed changes and transformations Russia, the interests of the peasantry dovetailed to the greatest of extent with the course of historical development and the needs of may bJ conducive to the development _of the. material basis ,o.i"ty and by the extent to which the social and economic social progress. Therefore, revolutionary democratism, expressing progress, its conditions and results would be beneficial to the the interests of the peasantry in the form of peasant Utopian oveiwhelming majority of society, i.e., the mass of working Socialism, was,the most progressive trend of social thought. With people. Theie guideli.,es help one_ single out. the three most the establishment of the capitalist mode of production the iadical trends in* the progressive social thought in Europe at the proletariat became the most progressive social force. Thus, end of the l8th and the futh century, representing three stages in Marxism, which represents its class interests, became, and still its development, namely, the Enlightenment, Utopian Socialism remains, the most advanced trend of social thought. and Marxism. Hence, the pluralistic approach to the assessment of trends in The character of social ideas and the degree of their social thought, where nearly all of them are regarded as equally gogd, as having their positive and negative features, is, in our progressiveness are established by bringing out their ,objective e.r""rr.", i.e., the results which might be obtained if they were opinion, unacceptable. As Lenin pointed out, the paramount carried out under given conditions, and not by sticking to the methodological task in the study of the history of sociaf thought is 39 38 "to reduce social ideas to socio-economic relations",6 i.e' to reveal such were the ideas of the Enlightenment, Utopian Socialism and the social in the individual and to assess the €ssence of the ideas Marxisrn. Yet, researchers do not always take into account the fact according to the relationship between the subjectively social and that progressive social ideas already have an international founda- the objectively historical. Such an assessment, naturally, does not tion when they emerge and are developed since their genesis rests rule out an evaluation of the thinker's personal contritlution to the on the ideological material accumulated by mankind. development of social ideas. But this evaluation rnust be as The consideration of the national and international in the consistently historical as the determination of the general degree emergence, existence, dissemination, antl influence of advanced of the ideas' progressiveness. However, in their evaluation of any ideas and trends in social thought is of major methodological given thinker historians often modernise him and judge of his importance- It allows for a deeper historical revelation of the iontribution according to the subsequent or even present-day state essence of this complex process. of social thought. We think one should evaluate a thinker not in There exists, for example, a widespread and, we should say, comparison wittr subsequent periods, but in comparison with his untenable notion of the self-determined filiation of ideas and their predecessors.- ability to be an origin of social changes. For example, there are In our opinion, when speaking about the narrowness of this or researchers who explain the abolition of serfdom in Russia by the that thinker's ideas it is necessary to differentiate between fact that the landowners, having familiarised themselves with the historical and social narrowness. Many representatlveS of the ideas of West European political economy and other bourgeois Enlightenment, for example, upheld the idea of universal prosper- teachings, came to the conclusion that it was necessary to abolish ity and assumed it could be achieved by preserving private it. But, w€ may object, any ideas are accepted, disseminated and ownershipand exploitation. The historical narrowness of this idea acquire soc'ial response and weight only inasmuch as there appears stemmed from the underdeveloped nature of bourgeois society's an inner objective historical need for them. Moreover, once they class contradictions at the time. The Enlighteners did not and are accepted, ideas novel to a given society do not remain could not see these contradictions. Therefore, they could not unchanged. They are developed and concretised conformably to uphold and speak out from the class positions, defend the class the new conditions of their existence, and provision is thereby interests of the working pe 40 4l the heritage of the Utopian Socialists. In fact, this has been the Predominant in this ideology were the notions of the necessity subject oi a number of studies of Russian and West Eu-ropean of a popular peasant revolution, of the "working people of the Utopianism. Data have been collected as to how the ideas of More, West" as fighters for socialism, of the alliance of the working M6lier, Fourier and Owen became known in Russia. But'historians people and peasants, Russia's lofty mission and the unity of have only started to do research in this field. Much work lies socialists and democrats of all countries in the struggle for the ahead to creare a sufficiently complete, rich and historically bright future of mankind. authentic picture of how Western Utopian Socialism was studied in The transition. to revolutionary-democratic positions was con- Russia and the latter's contribution to the history of social thought nected with the elaboration of the philosophical and socialist in Europe. However, the outlines of this picture can already be theory most advanced for the democratic period. "In the feudal seen. Russia of the 40s of the 19th century, he [Herzen] rose to a height which placed him on a level with the greatest thinkers of his As is known, the last third of the 1Sth and the first third of the time.... Herzen came right up to dialectical materialism and halted lgth century saw rhe prevailing influence of Enlightenment in _the before historical materialism."s After Herzen "Chernyshevsky is as expressed in the idea of universal prosperity based on Russia, only really great Russian writer who, from the 1850s until preservation of private ownership an-d exploitation provided the the 1888, was able keep on level of an integral philosophical peasantry was freed from serfdom and granted civil rights and to the the wretched nonsense the sysrem was appropriately democratised. materialism and who spurned the of the iocial-political 'thought -There neo-Kantians, positivists, Machists and other muddleheads".r0 One existed lir.t of onihe subject, namely, the reformist t*o cannot take this factor into account when evaluating Russia's (majority) and the revolutionary (Radishchev, Decembrists)' but contribution to progressive social thought in Europe. The ideas of Utopian Socialism began to spread in Russia at Russian peasant Utopian Socialism, which was objectively the end of .the l8th century, and from the 1830s it became an revolutionary democratism, was shaped in the 1840s and 1850s independent trend in the country's social thought: ways. were and remained predominant in progressive Russian social thought rorght to overcome the narrowness both of the nobility's right up to the beginning of the 1880s, it was represented by rerJlutionarism (the struggle for the people, but without the Narodi'sm. The NarodzliAs criticised capitalism, basing themselves people), and of the Enlighienment ideas of universal prosperity' on the socio-economic development of the West European i" th. 1840s and 1850s i new trend of progressive social thought countr:ies and its debunking in the works of Utopian Socialists. Revolutionary democratism began with theories expounded a i.e., non-capitalist, course was coming into being. - Their different, of Herzen, BeIinsky, Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov. This ideology, development for. Russia. In Russia, just as in other countries, which shaped up as peasant socialism expressed the class interests "until the complete collapse of serf-ownership and absolutism, the of the peisant.y, which (without taking into account the .urban bourgeois democrats constantly imagined themselves to be 'social- petty bourgeoisie) was "the only impo-rtant and mass vehicle of ists"'.rl That was the tiine "when democracy and socialism were Lo.,ig"ois-d'emocratic ideas in Russia-"'7 Underlying this thinking merged in one inseparable and indissoluble whole".'2 This merger *or ih. search for an alternative to the autocratic, feudal system was due to the fact that the forces which could actually become the and capitalism, the belief in'Russia's ability to^bypass capitalism in fighters for socialism had not emerged in Russia before the 1880s. reaching socialism. This variety of Utopian socialism began with Therefore, the ideas of struggle for socialism remained Utopic, Herzeni who believed that socialism meant liberating the peasants but, nevertheless, they were extremely progressive for they and giving them land, under the conditions of communal objectively expressed the decisive and consistent revolutionary landoilnerJhip and the peasants' right to land' This was Utopic. democratism of the peasantry. Russia was bn the thieshold of bourgeois and not socialist By the early 1880s the class of the proletariat-a social force transformations. Nonetheless, these demands were "a formulation objectively interested in the struggle for socialism-had been of the revolutionary aspiration for equality cherished by the formed in Russia in the main. Scientific socialism had emerged peasants who are fighting for the complete abolition of landlor- and Marxism had become an independent trend. That period dis..r",' i.e., objectiuity, tte Socialist Utopia was o{ a bourgeois- signified the end of the epoch of historically conditioned merger democratic t atr.e. Such was the peculiarity of the Russian of socialism and democratism. And although bourgeois democrats thinkers' contribution to the development of the ideas of Utopian continued to consider themselves "socialists", their Utopianism Socialism. had become the consequence not of historical, but of social, class 42 4? u repeatedly discussed the principles of socialism and the future of narrownes-s.- Utopian peasant socialism had been replaced by a mankind with Michelet, Kinet, Mazzini and Garibaldi. radically different philistine socialism and the Utopian romanlics The example of Herzen, who learnt much from the West and, objectively fighting for revolutionary bourgeois-democratic trans- in turn, taught the latter much, makes it easier than in otller cases formations had given way to Utopian reactionaries who hoped to for the historian to see the interconnections between Western and defeat capitalism by bourgeois means.13 Russian socialism, to elucidate the complex problem of the What was particularly characteristic of Russia was that here as relationship between the national and the international in the nowhere elSe in the world the ideas of Utopian Socialism had history of social thought in the 19th century. become the banner of resolute and heroic revolutionary struggle against autocracy, i.e., progressive ideas were embodi;d in t-he practice of social move.ment. The experience of this struggle NOTES exerted a tremendous influence upon the development of 6oth r V. A. Dunayevsky, G. S. Kucherenko, Souiet Historians on West European.Utopian progressive social thought and the liberation movement in Russia Socialism, Moscow, 1980; G. S. Kucherenko, "Problems of West European and other countries. Utopian Socialism in the Works of E. V. 'farle", The History of Socialist Teachings, Moscow, 1977 (both in Russian). Utopian Socialism of Western Europe was, undoubtedly, one of r.K. Marx and F. Engels, CoLlecteil Worhs, Yol.4, Moscow, 1975, p. 93' the- ideological sources "Russian of socialism", and it facilitated the :r See, for example, V. M. Zhirmunsky, Comparatiue Literary Studies. East andWest, transition of Russian social thought from the Enlightenment and Leningrad, 1979 (in Russian). the revolutionarism of the nobility to revolutionary democratism. + See, in particular, V. P. Volgin, Essays on the History of Sociali* Idzas, Utopian Socialism also assisted Russian thinkers in studying Introduction by B. F. Porshnev, Moscow, 1975, p. 7 (in Russian). critiqrres of bourgeois development in the West and plans'foi 5 Both were published after Volgin's death in A. I. Herzen, About Socialism. (in social reconstruction, and then seeking for and thinking they had Selectetl Worhs, Mosc<>w, 1974 Russian). found, an alternative to capitalism-the path which would deliver o V. I. l.enin, Collected' Worfts, Moscow, Vol. l, p. 397. people from both the nightmare of the autocratic-feudal system 7 Ibid., Vol. 20, p. ll7. and the horrors of capitalism. The problem of the interreiation a lbid., Vol. 18, pp. 26, 28. between Western and Russian socialism gives rise to reflection on s lbid.. pp. 25-26. to how and when the history of socialist ideas in Russia began, Ibid., Vol. 14, p. 361. whether, in the second half of the lSth century when Rusiian tt Ibid.; Vol. 20, p. llt{. thinkers started to master, translate and popularise the works of 12 Ibid., Vol. l, p. 27 l. the Western Utopian Socialists, or the 1830i when Herzen's first 13 Ibid., pp. 395-396, 445-446. works_ appeared_. There seems to be no need for such contraposi- tion. What we have here are two qualitatively different stages of the_developrnent of one and the same trend of social thoughi Nor is the problem of the "beginning" essential for other countries; one might wonder, for example, whether this trend arose in Italy and France with the translation of More's l-Jtopi,a or the publication of Crty of the Sun by Campanella-opinion, ana L'ile de Siaaromboao by Vairasse d'Allais? In our France, for instance, absorbed much from the thinkers of England and ltaly, from More and Campanella, before becoming ihe countr.y irl' classical Utopian Socialism. As is known, in 1847 Herzen, the father of Russian srx.iirlisrn, went to Western Europe. His journalistic activity and cor.r,r.spon- dence with prominent representatives of Europein su.ial tlroirght and culture, with democrats and revolutionaries of tlrt.r.aily period of Russian socialism, became part and pnrr.el ol the spiritual life of European society. Suffici it to rcctll rlrirr llr.rzen 44 7fl The 15th Internati,onal Congress Second, in connection with the settlement of contradictions and of Historical Sciences conflicts between states. Here the Marxist viewpoint is based on the condemnation of war as the alternative to peace and on orientation towards peaceful interstate relations. The Leninist concept of peaceful coexistence was formulated in the 20th century on this basis. In their study of the idea of a just and eternal peace, Soviet specialists see it not as the evolution of some general abstract idea, but as the clash of different trends and concepts reflecting concrete social and class factors and contradictions. Philosophical treatises outlining the benefits and blessings of peace have The ldea of Just and Eternal peace frequently, in thq past, been transformed in active political practice and in the actions of various political figures of those in Russian Social Thought times, and were often used as justification for aggressive wars and of the 19th-Early 20th ienturies ambitions of aggrandisement. Referring to the Age of Enlighten- ment, Engels wrote: "The state based upon reason completely collapsed.... The promised eternal peace was turned into an I ALEXANDER CHUBARYAN endless war of conquest." Therefore when analysing the idea of eternal peace in history, we consider that a clear distinction should be made between the humane ideas of eternal peace advanced by the progressive The evolution . -origin -and of the idea of universal peace have thinkers of the past and the pacifist phraseology used to justify always figured broadly in world historical and philosophical political ambitions, new redivisions of the world and the unleash- Iiterature. Interest in this theme has rapidly increased in iecent ing of wars, that is, in effect for anti-humane purposes. years owing to its crucial-significance in t6e nuclear age. The study Soviet historians, who are studying the evolution -general origin and of of the various theories of ete_rnal peace is part of the study the idea of eternal peace, correlate it primarily with the humanist of the problem of peace. Soviei historiio-philosoph:ical writingi tradition and with the history of how this idea, which originated in have also shown a heightened interest in thii problem recently. in the ancient world and the Middle Ages, was thoroughly substan- Marxist-Leninist historical studies an overill analysis of'the tiated in the Renaissance. At that time it began to be associated problem is made, taking account of political, social, economic and with the idea of human liberty and the individual's release from moral factors; the historical approach to the study of various peace the fetters of religion and despotism. treaties and theories as they relate directly to the concrete poli.i.* In the l7th-l8th centuries, various ways of achieving eternal of different states makes it possible to deicribe their evoluti,on and peace were proposed-beginning with Cruc6 and ending with show up their social content and class roots. Jean jacques Rousseau. It was at the close of the IBth century, researchers Soviet _explore the problem of war and peace from during the pre-revolutionary era and the cleansing revolutionary two angles. First, in the context of the peaceful and non-peaceful process in Europe, that the tendency towards linking the idea of (or violent) alternarives in settling social and class antagoniims and eternal peace with fundamental internal changes in individual dealing- with revolutionary processes of development.-It is in this countries and in society as a whole, first manifested itself. Even sense that the thesis of jusi and unjust wars is interpreted. The those theories and projects, which were based on the then Marxist-Leninist concept proceeds from the desirability of settring prevalent idea of a "social contract" (according to which eternal class conflr-lts by peaceful means, for violence has always lecl t6 peace was to be a corollary of accord between enlightened rulers) great sacrifices, especially on the part of the broad maises. The showed a growing realisation of the fact that revolutionary use of violent means of settling deep-rooted conflicts has transformations were a prerequisite for the establishment of depended on many circumstances, not least of which is the eternal peace. In other words, the idea of eternal peace as the resistance of classes and groups personifying the old ordcr which ideal of mankind was to an increasing extent linked with the was at variance with social progress. liberation struggle against despotism and exploitation. In pre- 46 47 1, itl Marxian philosophy this approach was most explicitly expressed in ,'treating Utopian Socialism. Fourier, Owen and Saint-Simon in their w 50 5r This small passage by Pushkin, dated 182 l, attracted the carried on by the leaders of the liberation movement in the latter attention of a number of Soviet researchers, in particular of the half of the 19th century. Herzen, Chernyshevsky, and other well-known specialist on Pushkin, Academician Alexeyev.'7 They prominent personalities left us no special treatises or writings on have extensively annotated Pushkin's draft, the text of which is of the subject of eternal peace, but their revolutionary struggle,"their great value in many respects. practical activities were an impassioned struggle for thJibolition Pushkin reveals an excellent knowledge of the designs of of tyranny and exploitation and for the crea[i]o., of a new society, Saint-Pierre and Rousseau. In Russia at that time, as in Paris and based on the principles of liberty and equality, in which theie would in other capitals of Western Europe, these and many other b." "9 place for enslavement and predatory wars. Their schemes for eternal peace were being heatedly debated. Democra- views echoed the ideas of West European Utopian'socialism. tic circles in Russia, as also in the West, were beginning to see The dreams of a society in which thi ideas of a just and erernal more clearly the watershed between attempts to build up new peace would triumph, which were characteristii of European coalitions in Europe (like the Holy Alliance established at the progressive thinkers in the lSth-l9th centuries, and were eiabo- Vienna Congress in 1815) to suppress liberation movements, and rated in.the ideology-of utopian Socialism were further developed the projects of progressive thinkers. They were also beginning to in Marxist ideology. Marx wiote that the international principli of understand more deeply the qualitative difference in the various the new communisr society that would replace the old society :.wiil be Peace, because national rulers will be the same projects for eternal peace, many of which were of a speculative 18 .u.ry*h...- character, or placed hopes on accords between rulers, which were Labour!" Manifesto of the Communist party-the p.bgru*-. to lead to eternal peace (Saint-Pierre's project was drawn up in document of Marxism--not€d that "in proporiion as the irtugo.r_ this spirit). But West European and Russian progressive thinkers ism between classes within the nation vanishes, the hostility of-on. were attracted by those designs in which peace was linked with the nation to another will come to an end".rs fundamental reconstruction of society, with the struggle against In Russia, at the turn of the 20th century, the ideas of peace tyranny and despotism, and the fight-for democracy ina li6erty. were comp-rehensively substantiated and analysed in Lenin's works and- speeches- Pushkin's life, his association with the Decembrists and his The Leninist concept- of the historical process exposure of tyrants show that the great poet, though constrained synthesised the progressive ideas of the Russian lib'eration by censorship, favoured plans that inseparably linked peace with movement and social thought.- Lenin more than once noted in this the significance of the revolutiondry writings of the struggle for freedom and with revolution. That is why Pushkin l.rp..:t . . "subse- identified himself with Rousseau but was ironical about the good Radishchev, the progressive views of the Decembiists and intentions of Abbot Saint-Pierre. This is why he spoke of the quent-generations of the revolutionary movement, and progressive guillotine for those who wanted only conquests and campaigns, thought in Russia. Lerrin's interpretaiion of the .orr..pt oT a just and of revolutions which had already begun. It should be and eternal peace reflected not only the achievementi of Russian remembered that this was written in 1821 whEn revolutions were thinkers but the views of many weitern theoreticians as welr. we taking place in Sicily, Piedmont and Portugal. will not deal here with the whole spectrum of Lenin's ideas and his approach We spoke earlier of Malinovsky's social Utopia. Malinovsky was to the problems of war and peace, but only with what we director of the lyceum where the young Pushkin studied, and his consider to be some of the basic points. son was a close friend and classmate of Pushkin. As already noted, First of all, it is evident from hii numerous works that to Lenin Pushkin, in the draft, quoted above, wrote that it was possible peace was one of the loftiest and ultimate ideals of mankind. His "that in less than 100 years there will be no regular armies". In interpretation of peace took into consideration various factors such the works of Academician Nechkina, the leading authority on the as how to eliminate wars from the face of the earth and what form history of the Decembrist movement in Russia, evidence is cited of relations should be established among states and nations. In one that many of the Decembrists' programme documents. specially of his works, Lenin wrote of communism as a society of "universal stipulated the abolition of standing armies. Thus, Pushkin's attitude prospe-rity and enduring peace".20 His programme for disarma_ to the concept of eternal peace corresponded to that of ment logically provided for such revolutionary measures as the progressive thinkers both in Russia and in Western Europe. replacement of the regular army by a people'i militia. Following The tradition born in Russia in the l8th and in the first Marx and Engels, Lenin wrote more thin once that in the future quarter of the l9th century, linking the dreams of a perfect communist society the general laws of morality (encompassing the homeland with the struggle against autocracy and exploitation, was concept of justice, elimination of wars, and so on) will BecomE the 52 ' s Russisclrr Cii*stlinge, Tiibingen, 18-09, p: 238' Von Helbig on Georg von Helbig, norms of relations apong people, as well as among the nations writel that Mikhail Chulkov has published more than 75 volumes of his works our planet. and that his, ypt unptrblished Drift Treaty is a whole century ahead of his time. Secondly, the demand for peace was not simply an abstract e A. N. Radishchev, seletted Philosophicat and socio-Political wm&s, Moscow, 1952, pacifist slogan to Lenin; it was filled with concrete historical p. 139 (in Russian). ro Works, Moscow, 1958; also Treatises on meaning, and he considered it in the context of class and social V. f. Malinovsky, Selected Socio-Political Peace, Moscow, 1963, pp. 213-253 (both in Russian)' revolutionary struggle of the masses. Lenin Eternal antagonis.ms and the rr "Outstanding Russian Democrat and Enlightener", Voprosy filosofii, just peace among all B. R. Meilakh, linked the establishment of a and democratic No. 2, 1954; I. S. Dostyai, "V. F' Malinovsky's 'European Utopia"" Vopros) nadons with the triumph of socialist and communist ideas. is,orii, No. 6, 1979, PP. 32-46. Developing the laws of Marxism in conformity with the conditions t2 VErosy islorii, No. 6' 1979, P. 39' century Lenin gave a comprehensive interprefation of r3 Peace, pp. 213-214' of the 20th "Treatises on Eternal just and unjust wars, and substantiated the right _to wage war 'in 14 Ibid., p. 226. ihe irrterestJ of achieving national and political independence and r5 Ibid., p. 233. against despotic and reactionary regimes' 16 A. s. pushkin, complete woits, Vol. XII, Moscow, 1949, p; 480 (in Russian). (in ' Th.irdly, in the concrete historical practice of the 20th century, r7 B. V. Tomashevsky, P|/jhhin, Book I (1813-1824), Moscow-Leningrad, 1956 p. ;:pu.trti" of Eternal Peace", Russhaya when world found itself divided into socialist and bourgeois Russian); M. Al6xeyer, and the Problems the No. 3, 1958. 3-39. camps, Lenin advanced the idea of peaceful relations between literatur:a, PP. 18 F. Engels, Selected, Worhs, Moscow, Vol' 2, p' 194' statei with different social systems making a distinciion between K. Marx, le lbid., Vol. l, p. 125. these relations and the "class peace" concept. The main thing, as 20 V. L Lenin. Collected Works, Moscow' Yol' 27, p' 159' .l Lenin .saw it, was to shift the centre of gravity of the struggle and clashes betury.en states of the two systems'from the military sphere to that of the social and economic. This was the origin of the concept of peaceful coexistence which rules out military conflict and ensures.peaceful conditions for competition between the two systems. The Leninist concept of peace spanned many different aspects and problbms. Examination of even a few of them will demon- strate the continuous link between Lenin's ideas and progressive interpretations of peace in the lsth-l9th centuries. The Leninist approach to the problems of war and peace and its further d-evelopment also occupy a central place in the general system of theoreiical views on these problems in the 20th century. NOTES I F. Engels, Anti-Diihring, Moscow, 19?9, p. 303. 2 A. P. Klibanov, Common People's Social Utopia in Russia. Period, of Feu.ilalism, Moicow, 1977; idem., CommunPeople'sSocialUtopiainRussia. l9thCenturl,Mcxcow, l9?8 (both in Russian). 3 S. V. Paparigopulo, "Progressive Russian Thinkers of the l8th Century on War and Peace", Voprosy filosofii, No. 2, 1960, pp. 132-142. a Ya. P. Kozelchy, Reflections on Philosophy,' St. Petersburg, 1768 (in Russian). 5 lbid., p. 208, 6 Yu, A. Kcigan, Kotclshy, Enlightener of the 18th Century, Moscow, 1958, p. 177 (in Russian). 7 S. v. Paparigopulo, op. cit', pp. 141-142. 54, The 15th Intetnational Congress forces in China who applied great Western ideas to Chinese life as of Histori,cal Sciences best they could... When it was clear from the general mood of the country that the old regime was near its end... and that no victories by a handful of Manchu soldiers could halt the natural course of events, the most eminent dignitaries of the empire, one after another, went over to the republican side. There was an overall sell-out of the former government. Most of these dig- nitaries... were guided, I believe, by only one consideration-to stick to the porkbarrel... However drastic the upheaval might be, we could not, if only for the time being, do without the 'experienced officials of the old regime. I, too, interpreted their role in that light, putting no trusr whargoever in their loyalty to the The Correlation Between National new order. Regrettably, events took a turn that was unexpected even by the most moderate elements. Not only the special and Social Factors branches of the state machinery but even the introduction of the in the Xinhai Revo'lution in China new regime and new ideas, in fact, the whole leadership of China's administration, ended up in the hands of officials spared by the revolution." I SERGEI TIKHVINSKY One must look to the origins and composition of the Chinese bourgeoisie for the reasons why the Xinhai revolution did not bring them to power, even though their revolutionary wing, led by the great Chinese democrat and revolutionary, Sun Yalsen, as The Xinhai revolution was an important stage in the struggle early as, 1895 began to organise an armed overthrow of the Qing of the Chinese people for democracy and national liberation. ln monarchy. the course of this revolution, thanks to the heroic battles carried The Chinese bourgeoisie as a class began to grow up in the on by the working people against their age-old oppressors and the 1880s and 1890s, but the process was extremely slow and uneven, selfless actions of Chinese revolutionarie s, the Manchu Qing and it. was regional .rather than national in character. The monarchy collapsed, and the two-thousand-year-old monarchii representatives of this young and politically immature and rule was replaced by a republic. However, the Xinhai revolution inexperienced class, which did not as yet realise its true interests, failed to bring the Chinese bourgeoisie and the new landlords to were divided into a number of loosely connected or even virtually power. Instead, the Manchu aristocrats ceded political power to unconnected strata and provincial and regional groupings. The various regional groupings of Chinese militarists representing th'e most politically mature and active elements of the Chinese reactionary circles of landlords and merchants who were clbsely bourgeoisie consisted of the so-called emigrant bourgeoisie, that is, linked with the imperialist powers. Chinese who had at one time emigrated from the home country, Huang Xing, one of Dr. Sun Yatsen's closest associates and made their fortunes in the colonial possessions of Britain, France, former Defence Minister of the Nanjing provisional revolutionary Holland, and the USA in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, and government, who later became governor-general in Nanjing and wanted to create favourable conditions for capitalist enterprise on Commander-in-Chief of all rhe forces of South China, gave a their return to China. This ambition was hampered, however, by self-critical appraisal of the reasons for the defeat of the Xinhai the feudal system dominating the country and the inability of the rev-olution. In June 1912, that is, three monrhs after the Qing Qing government to defend China's national interests against the abdication, during a conversation with A. Voznesensky, Secretary colonial expansion of the imperialist powers. of the Russian Consulate at Hankou, he said: "Right from the The emigrant bourgeoisie had previously had the opportunity triumph of the revolution, the republican circles, that is, the to study Western bourgeois political and economic theories and present administration, army, and the government, were infil- practices and witness the great powers' colonial policies, so they trated by elements that were alien and even hostile to the spirit of were able to appreciate the military, scientific and technological the new order. The revolution had been launched by young, fresh superiority of these powers over backward feudal China. These 56 5l JT! emigrant Chinese, the huaqiao, traditionally retained their kinship ment for their enterprises and carried out their export-import and local ties with the country of their birth, rendering financial operations through foreign banks and offices, they largely assistance to their relatives in China, and often returning home in depended-This on foreign capital. their old age to buy land and attempting some commercial or upper \ayer of the Chinese bourgeoisie also included the industrial occupation. The huaqiao and their relatives living in the so'called compra\ores, that is, Chinese agents of foreign firms and. sea-coast provinces of southern and eastern China played an active companies, whose' }ob was .to buy and transport raw materials for, role in the anti-Manchu activities of the secret societies-the export, such as tea, cotton, tung.oil and bristle, from China's Triads, Heaven and Earth, Elder Brothers, and others, whose cells remote regions to the sea ports. They also sold imported industrial were active among Chinese emigrants in South-East Asian commoditiis-machine equipment, kerosene and textiles, etc. The countries. Seventy-eight per cent of the members of the first compradores also formed a significant part of the management of bourgeois revolutionary anti-Manchu organisation, the China foreign factories, concessions and settlements in China's port cities- Revival, Society (founded by Sun Yatsen in 1894), were huaqiao, of Many compradores, in addition to their services to foreign firms, whom forty-eight per cent were representatives of the Chinese started commercial and industrial companies of their own, using emigrant bourgeoisie.2 the foreign flag as a shield against the oppression of the local The most numerous stratum of the Chinese bourgeoisie were authorities. the owners of workshops, cornmercial and transport firms catering The Chinese big bourgeoisie and the compradores took an for the internal markei and export-import trade, or were engaged active part in the constitutional monarchic opposition to the Qing in small light industry and communal enterprises as well as owning regime. factories for processing exported raw materials and foodstuffs. A direct result of the "self-strengthening" policy of the Qing The owners of such enterprises also often had small landholdings government in the 1860d-1890s *as iire emeigence of the Chinesi which they rented to farmers. A large proportion of this stratum 6ourgeois intelligentsia, which largely consisted of foreign-trained of the Chinese bourgeoisie came from the shenshi-the learned Chinese specialists working at modern state-owned and mixed layer of Chinese landlords. In the provinces of Eastern, Sou.thern, state-private enterprises set up within the framework of this policy. and Central China they were strongly influenced, on the one It also included specialists trained at modern educational establish- hand, by the traditions of anti-Manchu resistance led by the secret ments initiated at the time in China itself. Under pressure from societies,.and, on the other, by the people's rebellions against the the bourgeoisie at the beginning of the 20th century, the activities of foreign missionaries in China's various provinces in the government began to encourage the policy of sending young men 1870s-1890s. These rebellions were headed by the local shenshi, with some schooling (mostly from the ranks of the shenshi and the who viewed Christianity as a threat to the official feudal ideology, urban petty bourgeoisie) to continue their education in JuPufr. Confucianism. Members of this stratum of the Chinese bourgeoisie This stiatum of ,the Chinese intelligeritsia, together with elements took part both in the revolutionary and the constitutional- of the Chinese emigrant bourgeoisie, formed the most dynamic of monarchic reform movements at the turn of the century. the forces that chose the path of revolutionary struggle against the The big Chinese bourgeoisie, which was not a very numerous Qing monarchy and was very active in the work of the China but politically most influential group with which the Qing court Revolutionary United Alliance led by Sun Yatsen. had in certain respects to reckon, corrsisted of those with feudal The first decade of the 20th century was marked by and bureaucratic backgrounds who took a.n active patt in the comparativ€ly rapid industrial development in China. The textile "self-strengthening" policy of the Qing monarchy in the 1860s. indultry in Eastern China. and other branches of light industry, 1890s. They invested in mixed state private-owned enterprises" In such as production of flour, glass, ceramics, tobacco, matches, etc., the industrial, commercial, and transport spheres, as well as in grew particularly fast. However, the total capital investments in mixed Chinese foreign-owned enterprises. However, these big modern industry by the Chinese national bourgeoisie in the 40 businessmen were not exeinpt from the oppression and restric- years before the 1911 revolution were quite small-about 140-150 tions imposed by the Qing government and the regional feudal million Chinese silver dollars.s On the national level, the physical militarist cliques. This stratum of the Chinese bourgeoisie retained volume of "old" industry decreased, but insignificantly. Chinese l'ery close ties with the local bureaucratic machine and the feudal society was going through a period of transition: the capitalist landlords, encouraging the planting of industrial and other economic structure and transitional economic forms had emerged, commodity crops. Since they bought abroad the modern equip- while the old traditional patterns had lost their momentum and 58 held no prospects, hictorically speaking, although they srill 'Ihis land via the transfer of differential rent to the state. However, his retained their structural and physical superiority. general demand for "equalisation of rights in the ownership of land" got evolution was manifested not so much in the emergence. of no response from the broad peasant masses, nor any support from bourgeois tendencies as in the building of a mixed-rype socio- the majority of the revolutionary organisations, which comprised economic structure. Budding Chinese capitalism inherited from too many members with a feudal family background. On the feudalism the Grilnder bureaucracy as. well as the links with the contrary, in many provinces, after the overthrow of the Qings, state in the form of various mixed state-private firms. The social, the Chinese bourgeoisie joined forces with the squires in their economic, and political situation in China at the turn of the efforts, including punitive expeditions to nip in the bud any century offered the best opportunities to the conservatives and the peasant unrest or other manifestations of popular spontitneous landed gentry, which was detrimental to a democratic and revolutionary activity. progressive path of development. The immense scale of pre- It should be recognised, however, that the demand for the capitalist, small-scale production, which grew faster than bourgeois overthrow of the Manchu monarchy was, objectively, anti-feudal in transformation could proceed, made a spontaneous capitalist nature. The highly centralised Qing empire with its archaic restructuring of society "from the bottom upwards" incredibly institutions (which had been somewhat moflernised, however, after difficult. At the same time, the Chinese bourgeoisie lacked the the Yihetuan uprising) and its feudalist Confucian ideology, was necessary strength to modernise society "from the top"-in other the embodiment of the most conservative forces in Chinese society words, they were unable to release the potential needed to achieve and impeded the development of a capitalist economic structure. this goal and to remove both the internal traditional, and the new, Considerable tracts of land belonged to Manchu aristocracy and external, obstacles in the way of bourgeois development-the the "banner" (Manchu) troops. Maintaining the Manchu court was feudal forces and the imperialist powers.a a great drain on the national budget. The Qing government was The fact that the national, anti-Manchu trend prevailed over ruthless in suppressing all popular movements which protested social factors in the Xinhai revolution can be explained precisely against corruption, abuse of power by the authorities, the by the historically conditioned weakness of the Chinese unbearable burden of taxes, and the nationalistic oppression of the bourgeoisie, which was not an integral whole but rather a motley Hans (Chinese) and other peoples of the Qing empire by the aggregate of loosely interconnected strata, groups and groupings Manchus. The Manchu court and Qit g civil and military differing in genetic, typological, local, regional, corporate, legil authorities in the provinces repressed private enterprise by means and other features.s This, then, determined the meagre resultsLf of excessive taxation, extortion, bribery and corruption. this revolution which fell far shorr of the expecrations of the A distinguishing feature of the anti-feudal class struggle in country's revolutionary-democratic social forces. China during modern times was its clear-cut anti-Manchu orienta- In his. article "Democracy and Narodism in China" written in tion. Evidence of this are the proclaimed goals and practices of the June 1912, Lenin revealed the essence of the basic contradiction of major peasant uprisings-the White Lotus revolt, the Taiping, the Chinese society on the eve of the Xinhai revolution: "The Nianzun, and Yihetuan rebellions, and the activities of numerous objectiae conditions of China, a backward, agricultural, semi-feudal secret societies. country numbering nearly 500 million people, place on the order The Chinese bourgeoisie did not advance any clear anti- of the day only one specific, historically distinctive form of this imperialist slogans during the preparations for the Xinhai oppression and exploitation, namely, feudalism... The political revolution nor even during the revolution itself. There were no exponents of this exploitation were the feudal lords, all together demands for the withdrawal from the country of the foreign and individually, with the emperor as the head of the whole forces stationed there after the suppression of the Yihetuan 6 armed system." revolt; for the collection of customs duties, run by foreigners,to be Due to the factors outlined above, the Chinese bourgeoisie handed over to the Chinese; for the liquidation of foreign proved unable to advance direct and explicit anti-feudal demands settlements and concessions in China, and for the cancellation of during the Xinhai revolution; it concentrated all its efforts on the humiliating fetters of the 190 I Final (or Boxer) Protocol. overthrowing the Manchu monarchy which, in its eyes, personified In fact, the manifestos the Chinese revolutionaries issued before all evils and miseries. Only Sun Yatsen, a progressive ipokesman and during the revolution contained repeated appeals to the for Chinese revolutionary democlatic forces, demanded an im- populace not to take action against foreigners, as well as official provement in people's living conditions through nationalisation of assurances to foreign powers to the effect that the revolutionaries 60 6r would observe all treaties and accords earlier concluded by the changes anticipated are extremely varied, but their meaning may Qing government-provided the foreign powers refrained'from be eipressed Ly the words 'Liberty, Eqrrality,- Fraternity'."8 aicling the Qings during the uprising against the government. Sun The Declaration also pointed out that "the previous revolu- Yatsen and his followers wanted at all costs to prevent coordinated tions, the revolutions of the Ming period and of the Taipings' action by foreign powers on' the Qing govcrnment's side, S.tate of Heavenly Peace, set as theii task only the expulsion of recalling that it was only the support of the latter that kept the foreigners and the revival of the glory of our motherland."e Manchus in power in 1860 and 1900. Even outright interference C major achievement of the Xinhai revolution was the by foreign powers in the negotiations berween the North and the elaboration and adoption of an essentially bourgeois constitution South on General Yuan Shikai's side and the refusal of sea port by the Nanjing provisional republican government on March 10, customs houses, which they controlled, to remit to the republican 1912. This constitution was soon brusquely swept aside by Yuan authorities part of the sums collected in Central and East ehina as Shikai and the militarists who succeeded him, and the struggle for customs duty and taxes, failed to incite the, revolutionaries to its restoration was waged by China's revolutionary forces right up resolute anti-imperialist action. to the 1925-1927 revolution. Lenin appraised highly the success of On the eve of the revolution, some articles and pamphlets of the l91l revolution which had overthrown the moriarchy, viewing both the revolutionary democratic and particularly ihe ionstitu- it as a victory of Chinese democracy "in spite of Yuan Shikai".ro tional monarchic trends in the Chinese bourgeoisie strongly The ideology of the Chinese bourgeoisie in th9 Xinhai denounced the predatory policies of foreign poweis in China, aid revolution *at-Chi.tese nationalism of a distinctly anti-Manchu their arrogation of the Chinese people's soveieign rights to e*ploit type. All of the manifestos put out by the bourgeoisie before the the country's natural resources, conitruct railways, eft. The blime, r&olution and all of its publications, came out strongly condemn- however, was mainly placed-to on the Qing government, which was ing the Qing court and the Manchu rule in China. In August ulrwillin-g or unable counrer thE ig[ressire poii.y of the 19b5, Sun Yitsen formulated the top-priority goal of the coming imperialist powers. revolution in the following wordis: "To cleanse the country of the At the same rime, the removal of the Manchu monarchy by the 260-year-old disgrace of subordination to barbarians, to revive our Xinhai revolution was, objectively, anti-imperialist in character. country, whose history spans 4,000 years, and to ensure native tt The resolution of the Sixth (Prague) All-Russia Conference of the happiness a.,d prosperity for 400 million Pegp-Ie." Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party "The Chinese Revolu- 'the Declaraiion-of the Society for Mutual Progress-another tion-, written by Lenin, emphasised tfiat the Chinese people's Chinese revolutionary party-dated May 1907, also called for the revolutionary struggle undermined the dominance of thi Euro- overthrow of the Manchu domination over China, giving wrathful pean bourgeoisie in Asia.7 However, after the fall of the eing accounts of the M'anchus' evil doings during their conquest of monarchy,- the imperialist powers transferred their support to th; China and of abuses of power by the iuling Qing administration.12 feudal militarist and corirpradore forces headed by Vuan Shikai, On October 12, l9li, one day after the triumphant uprising of which enabled them to retain and even strengthen their positions the Wuchang garrison against the Qing authorities, the milita-ry in China after the revolution; government of the Hupei province launched its Appeal _to the The absence of explicit anti-feudal and anti-imperialist de- fohol. Country. This caUed for the overthrow of the Manchu mands in the Chinese bourgeois revolutionaries, programme is, government, reminding the people of the Manchus' brutalities however, no reason to deny the general democratii rra-ture of the during their conquest oJ China, their ruthless stamping^out of the programme of the principal revolutionary party, the China Chineie people's national customs and traditions, and of the abuse Revolutionary United Alliance, which was the mosi concentrated of power, iorruption, and anti-popular policies of -the_Qitg expression of the goals and tasks of the revolution. The Alliance's gore..rment, which consisted of "profligates and criminals". It also Declaration stressed the fundamental difference between the irentioned the selling out to foreigners by the Machus of China's revolution as prepared by the Alliance from all the previous sovereign rights to exploit its natural resources and to build popular mov€ments-from the Chinese people's patriotic struggle railways.ts a-gainst the Tatar-Mongol yoke and the Taipings'- struggle There were, of course, differences between the Chinese the Manchu rule. "As distinct from the upheava-ls of thi-pasi,"guiilrt the revolutionaries in their interpretation of the idea of nationaiism. Declaration read, "the present revolution should also bring about Sun Yatsen emphasised that nationalism should not be reduced to a change in the state system and in the people's well-bein"g. The revenge meted out to all Manchus without exception.ra 62 63 As.oppoded to Sun Yatsen and his supporters, Zhang Taiyen peoples of the republic under the aegis of the Hans (Chinese), and and his followers put the idea of a natio;;l vendetta ag"ainst retaining- within this republic territories inhabited by the the 9! 'Tibetans, Manchus in the forefront, agitating for a purely racial aplroach to Mongols, Uighurs, and other non-Chinese peopies at the revolution. The theory of nation and nationalism as'd'eveloped one time forcibly incorporated by the Manchus into their empire. 'the by Zhang Taiyen was essentially chauvinistic. In his view, The ideological preparation for the revolution by the Chinese concep_t. of nation was based on blood bourgeoisie was actually limited to nationalistic propaganda, that kinship only;'nationalities he had a supercilious attitude to the non-Han nations and is, advocating the unification of all Chinese regardlels of their within china, advocating at the same time the annexation of social status and class membership in the struggle for the Vietnam, Korea, and Burma. His works, written shortly before the overthrow of the Qing monarchy. The slogan of nationalism, Xinhai revolution, set china's ancient culture in opposition not which dominated the preparatory period of the revolution, was only to the. supposedly corrupt culture during Manchu rule but not linked with the other two demands-the institution of a also to modern Western culture.rs bourgeois democratic republic and nationalisation of the land, The nationalistic views of the leaders of the revolutionary wing advanced by the most consistent bourgeois revolutionaries as early of the chinese bourgeoisie were formed under the strong frrrpu.t as 1905. This obscured, as it were, the class conrenr of the of the patriotic, anti-Manchu, traditions of the chinesE feudal revolution. The new social forces were not mature enough to get a perspective locjelf , especially the traditions of the peasant wars of rhe clear on their most dange.rous enernies-Chinese Taipings and Nianzuns, and the activitiis of the numerous feudals and foreign imperialists anti-Manchu secret societies in South, central, and East china, as Nonetheless, it was in this specific form of a nationwide well as among chinese immigrants in South-East Asian countries. demand for the overthrow of the Qing rnonarchy that the At the same time they were not free from the influence of the objective social tasks of the revo'lrrtion were reflected-the goal of Sinocentrist feudal ideology of confucianism which slighted all eliminating feudal remnar,tt$ ancl the semi-colonial dependence on n_on-Han peoples as barbarians and ascribed to china lthi iraiaale imperialism that stood in the way of the development of the Kingdom, Heavenly Empire) the historical mission of spreading its capitalist economic structur€.Ie culture to all countries and nations. The Xinhai revolution solved only that long overdue task of The bourgeois reformers' brand of nationalism reflected the eliminating nationall oppression by the Manchu aristocracy and the inclination of the chinese bourgeoisie to exploit the non-Han monarchic form o{ governrnent. Nevertheless, it was, objectively, peoples had at one time been the fitst nationwide,. mass revolutionary action against th-e feudal -that_ forcibly iniluded in the eing empire by the Manchus. Also characteristic of the reformers was order and semi.coi,onial dependence embodied in the eirg the.tendency to introduce a racial element inio appeals to fight monarchy, and represented the first stage in a democratii against the sway of the foreign powers in China:'they regard'ed revolution that passed through several phases and was crowned in foreign colonial expansion in China as the expansion of thi white 1949 by the victory over the forces of feudal and imperialist race.against the yellow race, and clamoured for 'lprotection of the reaction in China. race". 16 The Xinhai revolution was a brilliant confirmation of Lenin's The reformers asserted that "the Han tribe was strong in that forecasting, made as early as 1908, to the effect that "the old-style it.always assimilated other tribes, it was never conquered 6y other Chinese revolts will inevitably develop into a conscious democratic tribes".rT movement" 20 in the Qing enrpire, ai well as of Lenin's thesis that The nationalism of the chinese bourgeois reformers took "the bourgeois nationalism of dr?) oppressed nation has a general shape under the predominanr influence of ihe feudal Sinocentrist democratic content"2r directed againit oppression. ideas of China's exceptional position in the world; it was also affected. by the prevalent sociological theory of social Darwinism NOTES concerning the natural struggle of nations and races for survival, according to r,rrhich racial community was allegedly the most effective association of men in the struggle for-survival under I Quoted from The Xinhai Reuolution of lg11-1913. A Colledion of Documerrts and conditions where the natural selection meihanism is at work.r8 MateriaLs, Moscow, 1968, pp. 250-252 (in Russian). 2 After the institution of the the nationalist policy of Wu Yuzhang, Xinhai geming. Beijing, 1978, pp. 5, 7. -republic, 3 the chinese bourgeoisie was thai of assimilating the ilon-i-Ian The Reuolulion of 191 I, Foreign Languages Press, Peking, 1976, pp. 3, 7. M 5 - sax. 1522 65 4 O. E. Nepomnin, "The Crisis of the Chinese Society in the Early 20th Century: Its Origin and Specific Features" in the collection The State and, Society in China, The 15th International Congress Moscow, 1978, pp. 146-151 (in Russian). of Historical Sciinces 5 O. E. Nepomnin, "The Chinese Bourgeoisie on the Eve of the Xinhai Revolution (Problems of Social Community)", in the collection The State and Society in China, Moscow, I976, p. 204; on the role of the Chinese bourgeoisie in the Xinhai revolution see also Marie-Claire Bergere, The Role of Bourgeoisi,e. Chi,na in Reaolution. The Fi.rst Phase. 1900-1913, edited and with an introduction by Mary Clabough Wright, New Haven-London, 1968, pp. 229-295. 6 V. I. Lenin, Collected Wor&s, Moscow, Vol. 18, p. 166. 7 Ibid., Vol. 17, p. 485. 8 The Xinhai. Reuolutton of 1911-1913, p. 31 . e Ibidem. I0 V. I. Lenin, Collerted Worhs, Vol. 1?, p. 490. History Teaching in Soviet Schools tt The Xinhai Reaolution of l9ll-1913, p. 37. r2 Ibid.,p.45(Theoriginalof theDeclarationwaspublishedinJindanZiliao, l9ST, VLADIMIR PASHUTO No. 2, pp. 94-98). 13 Ibid., pp. 50-52. 14 N. M. Kalyuzhnaya, "The Minpao as the of the Tungmenghui Alliance" From the Editors: The following is an abridged version of the article in the Journal journal in the collection China. The Search for the Way of Social Dewlopment (From the Voprosy rstorll (Problems of History), No. 6, 1980, written for the lSth History of Socio-Political Thinhing in the 20th Century), Moscow, 1979, p. 73 (in lnternational Congress of Historical Sciences in collaboration with Yu. Kukushkin, B. Marushkin and l. Fedosov. Russian). r5 A. G. Krymov, The Social Thinking and ld,eological Struggle in China (1900-1917), Moscow, 1972, p. 23 (in Russian). foundations 16 Yu. V. Chudodeyev, "The Ideas of Nationalism and Sinocentrism in the The and guiding principles of Soviet pedagogics Programme of Rourgeois Reformers (Early 20th Century)" in the collection were worked out and formulated shortly after the Great October China: Trad.itions and the Mod.ern 'Iimes, Moscow, 1976, p. 143 (in Russian). Socialist Revolution of 1917.tEver since then the ideas of peace, 17 Selections t'rom the Press o.f the Decad,e Preced,ing the Xinhai Reuolution, Vol. 2, Part equality and social freedom have been basic to all aspects of 2, Beijing, 1963, p. 628 (in Chinese). The idea of the Chinese people's education in the Soviet Union. History holds a central place in superiority over the others is contained in the numerous works of Liang Cichao Soviet school curricula. It is taught by pedagogues 67 who claimed in particular that "among all countries of the world only China has rrained in universities and more than 70 pedagogical reached the highest perfection in historical science" (quoted from Joseph institutes, about 10,000 R. l,evenson, Modern China and Its Cont'ucian Past. The ProbLem of IntelLeetual young historians are graduated every year and most of them Continuity. I962. p. 122). become school teachers.2 The USSR Academy of Pedagogical t8 L. N. Borokh, "Theorics of Progress in Early 2Oth-Century Chinese Thinking" Sciences plays an important part in perfecting the teaching of in the collection Ch.ina. The Search for the Ways of SotiaL Deaelopment, p. 28. history. The journal Prepodauantye tstorii a shkole (History Teaching re S. L. Tikhvinsky, The History o;f China and Our l|ime, Moscow, 1976, p. 189 (in in School), founded in 1934, keeps school reachers abreast Russian). ol Soviet and foreign advances in history and pedagogics. Its 20 V. I. Lenirl Collected Worhs, Vol. 15, p. 185. popularity can be judged by its stable circulation of nearly 2r Ibid., Vol. 19, p. 112. 200,000. We have consistently sought to produce scientifically sound and lucid text-books on history. Many of them have been written by eminent scholars working under the auspices of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, universities and pedagogical institutes and prominent methodolog- ists. Standard history books were introduced in the 1930s and have since been improved and amended, and now, with the introduction of compulsor),, free 10-year schooling, pupils are given a wide range of historical knowledge on the countiies and regions of the five continents. 67 the history books for the 5th, 6th, 8th, 9th and 10th grades In text-book on contemporary history (lgl7 ro our days), Our description of- the geographic give pupii a comprehe-nsive picture of the ancient world, the regions is complemented by social the regioning- in.the contex-t-of taiaat" Agei, and contemporary time-s.3 The idea to -the triumph of socialism and collapse -odern ^is of th.e colonial. system. Much space combine fhronological sequence within the framework of the is devoted to the struggle ior ecorrol-i. foimations (primitive-communal, slave- social and national freedom, against fascism and war. Ii-accor- social and dance with our chronological feudal, capitalist imperialist] and socialist), with principle, much attention is given to owning, [including the. history treatme;t to brlng out the objective course of historical of Britain, Germlny, France, Italy and of ii-re new territoiial -one socialist countries. In, Asia, progress, rather than the asiessment of or another period of along with the hisiory of china and India, the text-book describes the rise and histo.y by the European or "white man"' 'Afghanistan, development of Japan, ielate a characteristic of the dominant social Turkey, Mongolia, Korea, Vietnam and Indocliina as Our iext-books a whole, Indonesia, system in a given epoch. with the role oJ.leading and other countries. In Africa, besides the and political history of^Egypt, and iegions symbolising fhis domination. The history of there.is the history of Ethiopia, Algeria and a .orrri.ier number of other the main condn;ts is iystematised, and there is continuity of the countries that emerged following the-breakdown of colonialism. The section on America contains, besides the main assessment parameters. history the ancient world (from antiquity to 476 A'D') these are of the USA, material on Cuba and also on the anti_ For imperialist struggle Egypt, Mesopotamia and other regions in Africa and South-West of the Latin American peoples. In addition, Parthia and other areas in Asia; Greece there is a review of the socio-economic ievLlopment of the eiia; india, bhi.ru, Persia, capitalist world and and Rome in EuroPe. of cultural development in the socialist, capitalist and developing countries. FortheMiddleAges(fromthe5thtomid-lTthcentury)the should qeosraphic scope is iluch wider. It includes the Germans, Slavs It be borne in mind that the Soviet pupil is given additional information Irra".u'.ty feudil, decentralised and centralised European states in on European history 1"otailly orr' the formation and development, viz., Bl"antium, Trance, western slav, Balkan and Scandinavian countries) in Soviet history process bf and social-science iingland, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Bohemia, Turkey' text-books. But, of course, there are still many history includes also assessments of the Catholic opportunities for a more even, balanced presentation of world Euiopean history. These.opp_orrunities Crusades and the struggle against the Ottoman are being expiored by scholars and Church, the teachers, Asia, school studies centie on China and India, in and in 1974 the USSR Academy of Sciences set up a .orrqr"rtr. In commission consequences of the domination of the Arab to cooperate with the secondary schools in improving Afriia on the the teaching Caliphate and the Ciusades. American history begins with the of history. of the continent and uP to its partition by the Are we satisfied with our text-books and curricula? By and discivery large yes, but not entirely. Europeans. Yes, Iri modern history (mid-l7th century to 1917) emphasis is laid because our text-books provide a rounded-out picture of world history. Dr. Bossard on the uneven deveiopment of continents and countries and the of Switzerland told the lg77 bucharest Meeting that Soviet text-books consequences of continued change-in their relations and develop- contain more material on the paid to Europe-England, France, history of western Eu-r9pe than western text-books on the history ment ievels. Much attention is Fastern Bilkan and West-Slav*peoples; thls is of Europe. This applies to other parts of the world, too. Spain, Germany, Austria, the Dr. Barr by a characterisation of. progressive European ideas of the USA believes that the Soviet system maintains a ai.o*pa.tied healthy balance between (Utopian Socialism, scientific communism) and organisations, world changes in the life of society and the level Much material is devoted to America, not only of education in its schools, and the level of factual knowledge of cultuie and science. Soviet school children "their the USA, but also the'national liberation struggle in North and is considerably higher qhan among Mexico, Brazil, Bolivia, etc' In Asia, there American counterparts.4 South America-Haiti, But is a detailed account of the history of India and China, in we are not entirely satisfied, because not all latent reserves partition of Africa by the big for perfecting the teaching of history have been brought to bear. Africa-a description of the ^ the anti-colonial struggle of the Afro-Asian And these reserves lie in the uery naiure of our metho"cl, scientific capitalist powers ind historicism, text-book also contains a general characteristic of whiih regards history as a law-governed, integral*the peoples. The process indicating the causes, process and results of the First and is not subject to a crisis of ideas resulting from impLrialism, absence historical World War. of traditions in contemporary ro".i.ty. our 68 69 reserve (accessible to all) is the comparative historical method' Our active position in life, i.e., primarily self-assertion in work, for it is interest in this method is natural. For the history of the USSR' a only work, we firmly believe, that leads to intellectual, moral, country situated in Europe and Asia and with a wide variety of aesthetic, emotional, physical development, to the formation of the naturai and geographical conditions and ethnic structures, impels ideological basis of one's personality. The absence in the USSR of the researcher to apply the principles of comparison and typology. social inequality, antagonistic classes and groups, vastly facilitates But comparison not for the self-assertion of any one nation that this process, which begins in the family, is continued in the school has advanced further than another, and not for social pacification and in later years. Under the Constitution, "citizens of the USSR, of one at the expense of another. All that is alien to us' The in accordance with the aims of building communism are guaran- comparative method makes it possible to single out ,the different teed freedom of scientific, technical and artistic work".5 This is rtuget in the development of civilisation in the USSR and the ensured by broadening scientific research, encouraging invention *oild, to distinguish the common and the particular in the rise of and innovation, and developing Iiterature and the arta. In 1978, classes and stttes, and in the change of social and political no less than 17.5 million young people were involved in scientific structures in different countries and regions. This, in turn, makes and technical work.6 for a deeper understanding of human history and creates optimal Soviet historians have always maintained that history is a conditioni for the pupil to assimilate the process of history and its partisan discipline and that its cognitive and educational poten- implications.^The tialities are- directly dependent on what class interests it expiesses. comparative method organically combines general, Defence of the interests of the proletariat, peasantry, the toiling theoretical and methodological work with concrete research, thus people generally, impart to hisrory a high cognirive value. And it ii helping the historian reconstruct the past and reveal the common only on this path that we can achieve scientific validity and "laws valid for all countries, irrespective of national, supreme class, proletarian of history" , objectivity blended with kinship with natural, geographic, social, political and cultural distinctions, on the people, patriotism, internationalism and passionate defence of the one 6and, and the specific features of one or another process one's ideal. By active involvement in public affairs, the historian, taking place in a given country or given region, or limited to a be he researcher or teacher, fulfils his professional duty.7 "given period, etc., on the other. Not only communist theoreticians, but men like Prof. Erdmann A close examination of synchronous stadial development levels of Kiel, President of the International Committee of Historians, of tomparable social and political structures enables us to analyse nor,v qmphasises the link between politics and history aird, one the numerous forms of their synthesis and of their accelerating or infers, the teaching of history.s stagnating role in the history of countries and peoples. . The- coxtroversy now is only over how best to link pedagogics, World history must not be reduced to a mechanical combina- in particular the teaching of history, with politics.e And since a tion of the history of different peoples. Their histories have much basic principle of politics, peaceful coexisience of states with in common, as is testified by unity of their historic destinies in the differing political systems becomes of especial interest for an fight for progress, national and social freedom, and this should be international forum of historians, they should strive to purge cJmpared and gereralised. But there is much that. is specific in text-books of all manner of unscientific prejudices. History theii histories, and this, too, should be taken into account, teachers in the socialist countries have set an example in this analysing diverse and even fortuitous phenomena. Unification of respect:.their regular contacts play a positive role in g-eneralising the pastls alien to the dialectical method, which sees the history of international experience in teaching history and in-forming a the world as a uniform process in its main, and widely diverse in scientifically grounded world-outlook of the young men ind its partial, features. Thii helps to utilise the experience^ of past wom-91 and promoting the allround development of their per- genbrations, and promote faith in the progress of future sonalities. generations. The Academy of Pedagogical Sciences has a research institute Correctly to understand the educational value of history as on the content and methods of teaching. Its functions include taught in ihe USSR one must bear in mind that our youth is coordination and exchange of experience in improving school gua"ranteed the right not only to education, but also to immediate history books. There is also systematic exchange oi curriiula and ipplication of its iesults. The guarantees set out in our Constitu- teaching aids at all levels with teaching personnel in the European fundamental influence on identification of the socialist countries and do; exert a in Cuba. The results of a comparative-already personality. And the term identification is here used to denote an analysis are discussed at bilateral meetings (there have 70 1t played been 14) and at multilateral symposiums held every two years' persists, as does the allegation that Russia an insignificant times was Some their results were summed up at symposiums in Poland iole in mediaeval history, that its growth in modern of by (1975) and czechoslovakia (1977) and werq also discussed in the conditioned by "Europeanisation"' and expansion, and -not nedasosical press. internal economic, social, emancipatory and cultural changes; ' recognition of the Soviet Union's major role in the world of today, Tf,is" -uk"t for a closer understanding of the history of -growth countries and their cultural ties, and of their joint the of its industrial, military and cultural strength' is individual the for social liberation. atterided by emphasised disregar-d of the popular roots- o[ struggle its So-ri.t history teachers keep in touch with their colleagues in revolution,' the creative character of socialist consfruction, to France and a number of other countries. Their coopera- tangible benefits for the Soviet peoples. It would be important Finland, the tion in i.rrprorir-tg text-books has proved mutually.beneficial. The desfribe, citing the evolution of the Soviet Constitutions, right to six discussion se-ssions between Soviet and Finnish pedagogues fundamental rights enjoyed by Soviet citizens-the .work, resulted in improvement of text-books and in agreem€nt on leisure, housing-, education, free medical care, maiintenance in old cultural contacts certain methodological principles in their compilation., This was age, etc. Data bn our long-standing and strong understanding noted at the UNES]IO educatibnal conference (Geneva, 1977), and w-ould, in our view, likewise help towards closer has been commented upon in the Soviet and Finnish press as between our two countries. proof of the -atty opportunities schools have in promoting The latest history books puuished in the FRG.allow for the iooperation and friendshiP. conclusion that their contents are often in contradiction with the br this example: the USSR-.FRG cultural cooperation agree- clauses of cultural cooperation agreernent and are not in keepiqg ment of May 21, ig73, Pur' 6 of Article 2 obligates the two.sides to with the spirit of the Helsinki declaration.r3 "promote [he exchange of pedagogical and methodological States, too, the situation in this respect is for In the United liierature, teaching aids] educationaf films", and Art. 3 calls deplorable. History books usually contrast Russia 'to the West "text-book treatment of the history, geography and culture of the (alihough right up'to the found;ing of NATO, history knew of no other party in a way calculated to facilitate better understand- political reality cilled the "West"), though no contrast is drawn prejudice in ing".roint; is of especial importance, considering^the with other countries. Russian history, furthermore, is treated as Eu"ropean historiography iil treating. German-Slav and more the product of the activities of tsars and of the autocracy.ra There partitularly, German-Russian relationi in the pu?,." is no analysis of the socio-economic and socio-political_structure of ' 'scholars the Soviet and their GDR colleagues have drawn ancient Rus, Greater Russia and Russia, and its evol.ution over the position in attention of West German historians to the deplorable centuries. But there is the contention that Russia has no traditions "Eastern studies" (Ostkunde) in FRG schools, which is exerting a of liberating, revolutionary, cultural-creative activity, and that all USSR and a negative influence on rhe teaching of history-of the her achievements are the result of the Westernisation begun by ,-rrirb.. of other countries. Some, though slight' improvements Peter the Great.rs These allegations are part of a master aim, are to be seen in the new series of text-books'l2 What are they? prove that the Soviet period is the result of a revolution of namely, to Abandonment, first, of open apology of war in favour carried o,rf by communist fanatics, a revolution that forced the moderate pacificism; second, German fascism is no longer 'country's various peoples to serve the state and, at the cost of a liberating eulogised u.rd th. war against it is now regarded as incredible sufferin[ and hardship, achieve industrialisation, collec- war; third, Marxism is no longer condemned, though it has been tivisation and the triumph of authoritarianism and totalitariar+- replaced by social-reformism. ism.r6 It,need hardly be said that American history books are si'lent 'These shifts in gerreral changes have been followed by_certain r.ole the people in Russia's national liberation wars, nor history. on the of the interp-retation of East European, notably Russian, do they draw any distinction between the reunification of Russia's longer outright glorification of the Drang nach Osten, There is no ancieni lands captured by other .countries and tsarist expansion though there is'itill ideaiisati6n of the Ostbeweg""g !\'geopoliti- beyond the country's boundaries.'' p"resentation of the history of the Reich has been cal .German result is that one history book, for instance, contains a the Reich is still idealised as Europe's biggest and-most The reviied, but "Upheaval Russia: From Tsarist Autocracy to the growing role. of Russia as an organic. factor chapter titled: in progreisire .state; Dictatorship" and the last paragraph is headed: Errrop.un history Is recognised, but the patently. unscientific Communist Lf "soviet Communism as a Continuation of Tsarist Autocracy."rs theory of the "Germano-No*arr" origin of the Russian state still 72 The authors of these history books are, in this case, evidently, from future text-books. The list was examined by exPerts of the interested not so much in the history of Russia (not to mention the European Council of 18 countries, approved 11d published-25 history of the Soviet peoples, their relations, tradition of joint Piof. Maes is unhappy about the results of his investigations, liberating struggle against tsarisrn, their cultural ties, etc.-all that for, he says, despite ali the technical progress,^-"we are still in the is conspicuous by its absence), as in inculcating distrust of the Stone Age as regards human relationshlps".2T But, the valuable USSR. In explaining the origins of the communist victory in terms material iccumulied by Prof. Maes is proof, first and foremost, of of the traditional "modernisation" concept,rs the authors proceed the low scientific level of school instruction and also of its doctrines of from the proposition that socially, economically and politically, dependence on the false ideological and -political Russia is an "underdeveloped state",20 and, by way of ilh.rstration, Eurocentrism and Pan-Americaniim, with their chauvinist, racist l9th-century Russia is contrasted to lgth-century North America. and anti-communist overtones. Prof. Maes's findings also indicate Yet it is well known that Russia's backwardness was not absolute the need to increase the influence of academic science on school and that she belonged'to the medium-developed countries. education. Instead of contrasting Russia to America it would have been Monuments of the past strongly influence the formation of wiser and fairer to recount the history of their relations, using, for historical views. This applies to architecture and sculpture,_ those example, the research done by Academician Bolkhovitinov,2t mementos of man's p.ogiets, literature, which can be described as whose book has been published in the United States. It would be artistic historiograpn-y, tlie cinema and the mass media, particularly right to recall that George Washington welcomed Russia's neutrali- television.28 Gr6at monuments of the past are inseparable from the They ty, that the United States hailed Sussia's victory in the patriotic historical destinies of the peoples that created them' War of l8l2 (in one history book it is not mentioned at all,22 in continue to live with the peoptef they are symbols of its history another it is mentioned in passing,23 and in another still the pupil engraved on people's minds,-especially the younger- gerreration' is told that Napoleon was defeated by the Russian frosts,2a thbugh Th"eir educatibnai value is immense and manifold. For they most of his Grand Army was destroyed before winter set in). It symbolise the victories and hopes of nations and of the whole of would be proper to recall progressive Russians popularising the mankind. One need only point to Red Square in Moscow, with the experience of the American Revolution; the high regard Ameiican Lenin Mausoleum; the statue designed by Soviet sculptor Vu- scientists have for the achievements of the Russian Academy of chetich, "They Shall Beat Their Swords Into-Ploughshares"'", Sciences, and lastly, the establishment of diplomatic. relations at the United Nations Headquarters in New York, symbolising between Russia and America. man's great dream of eternal pea9e. Advances in science, too, have North Of course, such an objective "e*pression picture of the past would require a complete revision of- found in statuary-the monuments to Copernicls in some 'Warsaw, text-books to replace fiction by fact. US history teachers should, in balileo in Florence, Tsiolkovsky in Kaluga and the our view, display more responsibility in expounding the history of conquerors of outer Space in Moscow. Monuments stained with the USSR, for anti-Sovietism 25 and amazing naiveness in dealing the blood of freedom fight.ts shot down by the suppressors of Paris, with the intricate problems of the history of such a great power as freedom-the wall of the communards at Plre Lachaise in Russia can have a bad effect on the orientation of young the Field of Martyrs of the Revolution in Leningrad, Americans in a world in which Soviet-American relations are such With the triumph of construction over destruction, Peace over new monuments, a decisive factor. war, freedom ovei despotism- there appeared There is a good deal of prejudice also in the history books of and old ones acquired a different meining, a different social, some European countries. At the suggestion of Prof. Maes of often also nationil, significance. Palace Square of St. Petersburg Antwerp University, the Belgian Ministry of Education in lg72 set has retained its impoitance as an artistic ensemble, but from a be-come a of the Great up in Ghent a pedagogical centre on historical education. It made symbol of tsarist despotism it !ra_s -symbol a study of school books, documents and research reports on bias October Revolution. the site of the destroyed Bastille has become people of Paris. Red Fort in Delhi, once 11d_p_rgjudice in the teaching of history, collected after the war by the site of festivals of the UNESCO experts, the European Council, Atlantic Information the symbol of British imperialism's strength, now symbolises its Center for Teaching, the International Schoolbook Institute in collapse. Braunschweig and also reports on various international discussions Niorrrr*..rt, of the past-Their are mute witnesses of great physical on the subject. The result was a list of what the Center regarded and spiritual battles. significance and influence were as the 120 most importanr prejudices, which should be deleted appreciated in ancient times, at the dawn of our recorded history. 74 Ttrc, triumph of class society and of Christianity over pre-class preserved,3r and there is a constant search for more relics of the he'athenism brought the end of idols and idolatory and th-e rise of iountry's past" The law on the protection of historical and cultural temples:,Peroun and Stribog, idols of heathen Slavonic tribes, gave *o.r*..rlt |.1977) has stimulaied the mass movement- Organised way to the Cathedrals of Sophia ("The Divine Wisdom") in Kiev by the All-Russia Society for the Protection of Monuments of and Novgorod; the process is symbolised also by the gargoyles of Iiirto.y and Culture, founded some 15 years- ago' it has a Notre Dame, and the high reliefs on the walls of the St. Maria membership of l3 million, plus thousands of collective members' Church in Inowroglaw. There are'similar societies ln the other Union Republics. Their But the nrw gods did not bring peace: religion only membership includes many school puoils who, under the direction consecrated the struggle of kings and empires for dominion over of their ieachers, have'accomplished much in discovering, peoples, countries and continents. The Syrian Krak des Chevaliers restoring and studying various monuments of history and culture. and thc Palestinian Krak de h{ontr6al, the Dom and the They coitinue to bring to the knowledge of the- people the names Vishgorod Citadel in Riga and Tallinn have much to tell the of many war heroes. Thousands of Soviet schools have memorials, historian about the Crusades against the Arab and Baltic-Slav thematic museums, most of the exhibits historico-biographical and 'or worlds. The visitor to the Bosphorus stands in admiration of the collected b/ sihoolchil 76 77 any partic-ular branch of science must closely follow its develop- artistic historiograpll-, bring to millions ideas hidden in scholarly ment, and never hesitate to correct his work accordingly. T6e treatises and school books and therefore accessible to relatively mention of Tolstoy in this connection is not accidental. For Soviet small groups. Now these ideas are broadcast from the screen and historians, with their high appreciation of Russian crassical have an emotional impact on vast audiences, evoking either literature, have made in-depth studies of the sources and essence admiration or condemnation. of historicism in the writings of the titans of Russian literatire, The Soviet historical cinema was born with Eisenstein's from Pushkin to Blok.3a (The problem of the interconnection of "Battleship Potyomkin", which experrs consider the best film of all Russian history and literature was discussed at the l3th Interna- time. In reflecting our country's past, the Soviet cinema is guided tional Congress of Historical Sciences in Vienna.35) by the same ideas as the historiographer. Mention should be- made Soviet historians have constantly stressed the natural develop- in this context of such outstanding productions as "Alexander ment in Russian literature of the historico-patniotic theme, Nevsky", "Peter the First", "War and Peace", "And Quiet Flows originating in Ancient Rus and determined by internal socio- the Don", "Liberation", cinema portraits of the leadtrs of the p-olitical ,factors. And Soviet historians polemicise with those Revolution, Lenin and his close associates, etc. The school, the (Schamschula, Harder and others), who seei< to reduce the genesis work of the teacher have become the subject of many films, two of and progress_.of Russian literature to "imported factors,', i6gard- which "The Village Teacher" and "The First Teacher", have .,Byzantin"ism,' probably. ing.Russian.literature merely as a replacement of been _seen by every adult. We have no films glorifying immorality, violence by -"Europeism". Sovier literarure scliolars (Likhachev, Alexcyev, or aggression. Our films on historical subjecti and others) have long since exposed the fallacy of that theoiy.36 are permeated with the ideas of progress and friendship of the However, some writers (S. E. Robcrrs, J. Riihle, B. Thomson, peoples. Such films are shown on television along with educational G. Struve, et al.,) still abide by it and are inclined to regard emigre programmes, usually conducted by well-known scientists. Many of rather than Soviet literature (which, they allege, like ihe Octo6er these programmes are filmed in research institutes, schools and Revolution, has no historical roors) as the lontinuator of the museums, ancient castles and other historical sites, archaeological European tradition of the Russian classics. That is far from the expeditions, etc. One example of c()operation of historians truth. For the historical genre in Soviet literature (as Andreyev has and film makers is the television serial "Our Biography',. convincingly proved) is the direct successor to what is best in The Soviet Union went through the terrible ordeal of Hitier Russian culture. The assertion of socialist realism, in its different lggression. A film that met with wide response was "Ordinary forms, has gone hand in hand with ever deeper penetration of the Fascisrn",- prodtrced by Mikhail Romm, 6ut we would reject essence of the historic sources and their scientific interpretation.3T J. Festt film "The Career of Hitler"; in the land of Stalingiad, And that is undersrandable, for by its very definition, socialist which bore the burden of the Second World War, no one would realism demands of the writer "historically concrete depiction of understand the film "The Longest Day" which belittles the Soviet reality in its revolutionary development".is Our historilal genre contribution to victory over fascism; in the land of the October recreates the antecedents of the october Revolution, the ma[nifi- Revolution there could be no approval of "Nicholas and Alexand- cence of the struggle for national ra-", that piece of fictionised vulgarity. There are many liberation, the life and wo?k of 'fhey such films. the great representa-tives of the people. It treats of the problems are not calculated to instil dignity, produce a personality 9f the various peoples and of the new historical community, the worthy of our age. That is fully realised by thinking people the soviet people. cooperation world over. And is no accident "The-Caieer between history'appreciate teachers and writers it that the film of has proved mutually beneficial. we fully literature's Hitler" Plg_"*na to mind the results of a questionnaire among FRG independent part in the alliance, but we do not share Dr. Carr,s school children arranged by one Dr. Bosimann; it establishe"d that apprehension that history will become literature, i.e., the story of the average school child has a very vague and distorted idea of history and legends deprived of aims and significance.3e We are fascism.ar A good example of international cooperation is the confirmed in our view by the Children's Encyilopaedioa, which sets Soviet-American television serial "The Unknown War". out the history of all countries, and by the bist volumes of the In short, the most popular art, and one so important-left for "Great Lives" series. assimilating the history of one's country, cannot be to the The cinema and television have added to the work and discretion of producers and directors. concerns of teachers and have added to the specific problems of - It is. gratifying to know that the problem of teaching history in the historian. The mass media, which draw on scientific and school is to be discussed at the International congress oT Historical 78 79 Sciences. Ancl one can only hope that it will be taken up at future r5 lbid., pp. 424, 633. congresses, too, bringing out what is best itr the teaching of history 16 lbirl., pp. 644, 645, 646, 652; T. W. Wallhank, A. Shreier, D. Maier-Weaver, in the clifferent countries. In this context, it should be said that P. Guttierez, History and Life, the World and Its People, Illinois, 1977, p. 582. the proposal of Prof. Maes to regard Marxist dialectics as a 17 M. Perry, op. cit., p.423; T. W. Wallbank, op. cit., pp.376,377. method, as a working hypothesis, alongside Anglo-Saxon ideologi- l8 M. Perry, op. cit., p. 629. cal methods, alongside the interdisciplinary method suggested in re T. W. Wallbank, op. cit., p. 574. the journals Annales and Pasl and. Presmt-in short, side by side 20 M. Perry, op. cit., pp. 634-635. with the classical positivist doctrines and regarding them "merely !r N. N. Bolkhovitinov, The Establishment of Russian-Arnerican Rellations. 1775-1815, as many parallel ways to the disclosure of historical reality",'2 seems Moscow, 1966; Rassian-Ameriean ReLatims, 1815-1832, Moscow, 1975 (both in to us fruitful only in its practical aspects, above all, in reciprocal Russian). 22 T. W. Wallbank, op. cit., p. 375. verification of the authenticity of the facts. As for their concep- 23 Perry, op. cit., p. 637. tualised interpretation, there can be no question of a convergerlce M. 2+ Ex4lortng World, Cultures, Annotated Edition, USA, 1977. of mutually opposed ideas; there can be only conscientious 25 ideas based Z. A. Malkova, "School Education in the USA. Present Situation and New selection of on the experience in practical research. Trends", USA-Economics, Politics, Id,eology, No. 4, 1979, p. 56. 26 L.-T..Maes, "Die Problematik der Vorurteile und ihre Auswirkung auf den Geschichtsunterricht. Eine wichtige belgische Initiative von l.owis-Theo Maes", NOTES Ideen und, Studien, No. 94, Brussels, 1974, pp. 37, 38. z7 I The October and Public Education. Theses of Reports and Communications, Issue Ibid., p. 5. 6, USSR Academy of Sciences, Scientific Council on the integrated problem 28 Erich Schr 84 85 on the servicing of that equipment. It is particularly necessary, in expenses on labour that this economy involves; what is more, our view, to hive complete systems of labour-saving equipment, thrifty expenditure of raw and other materials can ensure far since the main processes of production fitted out with the latest greater economy of labour than what is usually possible through equipment som-etimes coexist with rather technically- obsolete the saving of manpower in the process of production. In view of auxiliary operations. There are many shortcomings in the servic- this circumstance, the Soviet Union is effecting a re-orientation of ing sphere- as well, and there is much room for improvement in economic strategy towards the preservation and the most efficient repair facilities. utilisation of the material values already produced. This not only The trend of scientific and technological advancement that makes for an augmentation of the output-to-assets ratio, but involves the creation of new technological processes and equip- reduces unfulfilled demands for additional labour. ment which eliminate monotonous and non-creative work deserves Besides advanced technology itself, considerable porentialities the special attention of scientists and designers. The youth of for the economy of manpower are inherent in the re-organisation today, who have a high level of education and culture' make of production and labour that it requires. Unless this re- increasingly high demands on the contertt of labour and seek organisation is carried out, the advanced technoiogical level of satisfaction in work which enables them to develop and apply their Iabour organisation is incapable of ensuring optimal results. This abilities. Satisfaction with work is of exceptional social importance is why the Soviet Union attaches such great importance to for the socialist countries, where the new man and the socialist way research and practical measures aimed at perfecting the machinery of life are taking shape at a rapid pace. The question of work of economic management and the organisation of production and giving satisfaction is also relevant to the efficiency of utilisation of labour: at all levels of the economy-from the production section ira.rpo*e., for one of the main causes of the unjustified to the national economy as a whole. fluctuation of manpower observed in different branches of the A great deal has been done towards this end in the course of national economy is that the employee is not entirely satisfied with the economic reform. However, economic practice and research have his iob. shown that due attention was not paid to making production The difficrlty in solving this problem is that the content of collectives interested in increasing output with a minimum number labour must be changed and the creative elements in it intensified of employees. This was responsible for employing surplus simultaneously with promotion of the growth of labour productivi- personnel at some enterprises. The number of employees envis- ty. This is not a simple matter, especially if assembly conveyors aged in their plans was sometimes greater than the number and monotonous operations are concerned. Here in some cases we estimated by the State Planning Committee of the USSR. This need a genuine technological revolution so as to bring about inadequacy of the economic machinery in the present socio- fundamentally new aspects of technical progress. demographic conditions in which manpower is reprbduced aggra- Certain successes in this direction have already been achieved, vated the problem of shortage of labour, for there has sometimes especially in the sphere of employing robots and other automatic been a lack of labour on the macro-level despite the availability of devices which carry out monotonous operations on production reserves on the micro-level. lines, etc. Rut we would like to see greater attention being In view of this a transfer is being made to a new normative paid to the development of equipment and production processes, system of planning the wages bill of production associations and which help to make work more interesting and intensify its individual enterprises. Stable norms have been set for expending creative aJpects, thereby ensuring a far greater satisfaction in the wages bill in terms of a ruble's worth of product. The sum work. My opinion is that economists and sociologists- .in all economised on the wages bill by means of a more efficient countries' are not yet paying sufficient attention to this key utilisation of the enterprise's labour will be used for rewarding the workers, engineers and technicians for carrying operations problem.- out The task of achieving maximum efficiency in utilising man- with a smaller numerical strength, for doing several jobs power involves the saving of not only live labour in a given simultaneously, expanding the servicing sphere, and for their high production process, but, more often than not, of raw and other professional skill. These and other measures, including the materials, energy, etc. This is due to the fact that expenditure on transition in the Eleventh Five-Year Plan period (1981-1985) to a raw and other materials in the majority of processing industries predominantly team form of organisation of, and remuneration makes up the biggest part of the cost of production. The sum for, work (already tested experimentally) are bound to promote economised on materials is, as a rule, greater than the additional higher efficiency in the utilisation of manpower. 86 87 In a longer term, the rate at which labour force is released the extensive development of employment. But unlike the case in outside the factories will be considerably increased. This is why the past years, these processes are taking place on a fundamentally our country attaches ever greater importance to the study of the new basis-on the basis of the intensification of production and, production collectives' interest in releasing personnel for other as a result of it, the increased role of redistribution of manpower. sectors of social production, and to increasing material incentives And it is already obvious that both agriculture and industry can for the employees released, who become the object of sectoral and supply labour for the national economy. territorial redistribution. More extensive research is also being In view of this it is interesting to note changes in the made into the way the organisation of labour, especially the fixing distribution of the population (not counting studcnts) by trranches of output and time norms, of various forms of work cooperation, of the national economy (in percentage). and of working conditions,influences the utilisation of manpower. Recent years have seen an exhaustive study of the influence of Table 1 working conditions on labour productivity; a classification has been made of the factors which affect the working conditions so as to increase the efficiency of management. Yet there is a need to 1965 1970 1975 t977 1978 further study the problems arising in connection with the introduction of comprehensive mechanisation and automation, Total employed in the national which, on the one hand, eliminate arduous physical labour, but, economy r00 100 100 100 100 on the other, often cause more noise and vibration and make In industry and construction 36 38 38 38 39 greater demands on man's nervous system. That is why not only In agriculture and the timber in- the econornic, but also the social effect of new technology is dustry (including personal sub- considered in the Soviet Union to be a matter of prime sidiary plots) 3l 94 23 oc, 21 importance. We try to tackle it already at the stage of designing of In trade, public catering, supply of new enterprises, production processes, and equipment, and to materials and machinery, market- organise research with this problem in mind, on the basis of, ing and procurement 6 among other things, the comprehensive programme for long-term In the public health service, social scientific and technological progress. security and physical culture; in Under socialism, socialist emulation among individuals and public -education, culture and art; r7 r7 among production collectives is of great importance to the task in science and research services L4 l6l6 of raising the efficiency of manpower utilisation. Tangible results In the state administration bodies, have been achieved in the matter of incorporating socialist management bodies of cooperhtive non-government organ- emulation (as the most vivid manifestation of the masses' initiative and other isations; in the credit system and and as the most effective method working people's of the state insurance 2 participation in economic management) into the system of planned In other branches of the national management the national also of economy. It should be noted that economy (housing, public utilities, the fusion of emulation with the relevant plan creates more welfare) 3 favourable conditions for balanced economic growth and for providing a real base for fulfilling socialist obligations. A better use of the work force and a higher efficiency through Sources: The Economy of the IJSSR in 1977, Moscow, 1978, p. 375; The USSR in the intensification of production processes are important factors in Figures for 1978, Moscow, 1979, p. 175 (both in Russian). the economy of manpower. But the intensified production does not rule out an extensive economic growth because it presupposes In the last few years, notwithstanding the considerable growth the development of new branches and types of production which of industrial production and capital construction, the proportion accelerate scientific and technological progress. The demand for of the working population engaged in the major branches, as can personnel on the part of new economic branches and types of be seen from the Table above, became practically stable. production, of enterprises and construction projects, and the Moreover, the absolute growth of the employment figure takes further expansion of the non-productive sphere act as factors in place far more slowly compared with the expansion of output in 88 the respective industries. For instance, over 1940-1977, total, rural areas 4.4 million people came to the towns, the bulk of them industrial output increased by 18.8 times, capital investments by lg being able-bodied men and women. Only 1.7 million people times, while the number of employees in industry rose by 2.7 *orricl from the towns to the countryside.a times, in construction by 5.5 times,2 which is the result of growing In the last few years the outflow of people from the labour productivity mainly due to technological advance. countryside has dropped; the reduction of the absolute number of The proportion employed in the administrative apparatus and agricultural workers has slowed down. However, the increased some other areas remained unchanged. investments being made in agriculture and consistent implementa- The part of the working population engaged in agriculture has tion of the policy of speeding up the mechanisation, chemicalisa- continued to decrease, though at a slower rate than in the tion, specialisation and concentration of agricultural production previous period; in this case it is not only the proportion, but the are bound to broaden the possibilities of redistributing manpower. absolute number of people that is decreasihg. Thus, the average The number of workers employed in the non-productive annual number of workers in agriculture (including collective sphere (public health, education, science) has increased in both farms) dropped frorn 31.8 million in i940 to 27 million in 1970, relative and absolute terms. One can therefore clearly see that the and to 26.5 million in 1977.3 change in the correlation in the distribution of employees in The absolute and relative reduction in the number of people material production and in the non-productive sptrere is in favour engaged in agriculture is the result of the growth of labour of the latter. productivity, of the development of agro-industrial integration, The efficient utilisation of scientific and technological achieve- and of the transfer to industry and other branches of certain ments has called for a considerable increase of skilled labour, for a functions formerly carried out by the farms (processing, storing, higher proportion of specialists with a higher and specialised transportation and marketing of agricultural produce, production secondary education, and also for more skilled workers. of feed and fertilisers, etc.). Table 3 Table 2 1965 1970 1975 1977 1960 1965 1970 1975 Absolute (thousand persons) rncrement Number of graduates of trigher edu- Number of people engaged in cational establishments 403.9 630.8 7 13.4 751.9 material production (in mill- Number of graduates of specialised ions) 73.4 81.7 +17.9 87.3 91.3 secondaryeducationalinstitutions 621.5 1,033.3 1,157.0 1,186.0 inclucling: non-agricultural Number of graduates of general branches 41.4 50.2 58.9 64.3 +22.9 educatior-ral schools agriculture 32.0 31.5 28.4 27.0 -5.0 a) graduates with a complete secon- dary education 1,340 2,581 3,564 4,101 b) graduates with an incomplete sec- Calculated from figures available in The Economy of the USSR in 1g70, Moscow, ondary education 4,270 4,661 5,201 4,874 1971, pp.404, 510,511; and The Economy of the TJSSR in 197i, Moscow, 1976, pp. 440, 532 (both in Russian). Number of skilled workers who graduated from vocational schools 1,100 1.638 2.094 2.217 The release of labour from agriculture and its redistribution among other branches of the economy make for a reduction of Source: The Eunomy of the USSR in 1977, pp. 397, 490, 502' material production's demand for additional manpower. The scale of the flow of labour from agriculture to non- It should be noted that already in 1977 , more than 98 ner cent agricultural branches can be seen from data on the migration of of eight-form graduates contir.rued tlteir studies in secondary rural dwellers to the towns. According to the census of 1g70, from schools or in other educational establishments which offer a 90 9l complete secondary education. Owing to this, the number of In the USSR as a rvhole the average annual number of factory workers-in (secondary, the lphere of education specialised and and office workers increased from 76"9 million in 1965 to 106.4 higher) has also been increasing. This process was ipeeded up by 1977 (i.e., 138 per cent), whereas in some Soviet the transition million in by to compulsory general iecondary ed^ucation. ihe republics speedy growth their number characteristic of the medical the of service has likewise been considerably developed. on the postwar years continued. For instance,. irr whole, number prewar and first the of employees in .the spheres oi education, Uzbekistan the increase over the same period was 72.5 per cept, in public health, social- security, scien_ce, culture and art rose by 21 Azerbaijan, 56.4 per cent, in Armenia, 69.4 per cent, in per cent between 1965 and 1978.5 Turkmenia, 58.2 per cent, whereas in the Russian Federation, the There is a very high proportion of women in the total number Ukraine, Byelorussia and the Baltic republics the growth rate of g!-{.:t"Iy and office workers in the counrry (51 per cent in the number of factory and office workers is closer to that of the 1970-1977).6 This is,due nor only to improved working conditions country as a whole.T in industry, but also to the development of the ietwork of The accelerated industrial development of the sparsely popu- children's institutions and services, which, to a certain extent, lated eastern regions of the USSR, which are extremely rich in facilitated the recruitment of the majority of women in the sphere mineral, energy and timber resources, wotrld have been impossible of material production. Ir can ,ppui".rtiy be said rhar at p..r..,t without an intensive inflow of manpower from other parts of the the employment of women's labour in this sphere is stabie. country. One of the major means of increasing the efficiency of Soviet economists have carefully studied the factors which manpower utilisation is the rational distribution of the productive determine the scale and trends of manpower movements (in forces. In solving. this problem we assign a rnajor role to optimal general and in particular forms). This was necessary for making creation and terrirorial-sectoral distribuiion of jobs in the nitional rational choice of forrns and methods of regulating such move- economy with a view to erasing regional disproportions. This ments and optimising the scale and trends of manpower distribu- requires. a series of measures to expand the pioduction base in tion. areas with t high demographic potential and low mobility of The question of the methods of studying and of the criteria for manpower (Central Asia and Transcaucasia), to bring manpower evaluating various aspects of manpower mobility is most fully to areas where there is a shortage of it, and to iftrie settrers to elaborated in the Soviet Union with reference to analysis of stay there. These measures make for fuller and moie efficient use migration of the population. Methodological recommendations for of live and embodied labour, that is, for higher productivity of studying the processes of migration of the population in regions, social labour. territories and autonomous republics have already been put out; In this connecrion the Tenth Five-year plan pays great methods of calculating migration indices and the principles of attention to the spheres of capital investment with referlnce t; job questioning migrants to clarify the motives of their movements cle.atio:1 and im-provement of working conclitions. In regions and study the qualitative composition of migratory flows have which badly- need manpower new investments must help to irake been elaborated in detail. So have the methods of studying the causes laws flu.ctuation of personnel-methods prodr-rction less labour-intensive, whereas in regions wheie there is and governing the surplus labour- t_h9y must help to broaden ihe sphere for the of collecting initial information, the methodological principles of employment labour, create new efficient jobs, develop more analysing it, and possibilities of using mathematical methods. .of the sectoral labour-intensive indusries.and agricultural crops, and alsoio cope Questions pertaining to the meth,odology of studying with the task of increasing the socio-economic and territorial regrouping of manpower, intra-plant movements, and changes in have been elucidated. mobility of.manpower, redistributing labour, improving its occupa- the occupational movements of personnel tional qualifications, and so on. Literature on questions relating to manpower movement and to the sectoral and territorial redistribution of labour shows that in The structure of employment by Soviet republics quite reliably recent years research on this subject has reached a new stage. If reflects, first, the proc€ss of levelling out econamic development in the majority of studies of the 1960s dealt mainly with individual the former national borderlands, and, secondly, the accelerated aspects of the problem of manpower movement and its regularities develo.pment of regions.which were sparsely populated in the past (migration, fluctuation, release, occupational and social mobility), but which are perspective today by many'indiiators, particulirly or with a number of these issues within a Iocal framework (on the with regard to energy and minerals. level of a region, a socio-demographic group, etc.), today it is 92 93 more typical to find studies on all these questions and on various We also continue to improve the system of vocational-technical aspects of the subject on the level of the national economy as a education and broaden its material base. We believe this should be whole. This is because the aim is to determine the place of the done by expanding the network of vocational-technical schools movement of manpower and personnel within the structure of the which provide, in addition to occupational training, a complete national economic ties, to find ways of optimising that movement, secondary education; and by effecting optimal territorial distribu- and consider the possibilities of improving the supervision of this tion of such schools. process on a countrywide scale as well as at the lower levels in the The effectiveness of demographic policy under socialisrn structure of the organisation of production. depends largely on how comprehensive it is; on how correctly it Apart from the main source of labour for the national combines the use of economic, legal, and moral stimuli; on how economy (young people of working age), it is worthwhile fully it embraces the whole system of material and non-material examining additional sources. One more means of obtaining relations. In the research works by demographers and economists rnanpower is to involve in social production all able-bodied people, there are still many unclarified questions concerning the methods including those who have reached pension age but can still woik. of implementing this policy. One of the foremost aims of the Mothers with many children or infants and persons of pension state's demographic policy should be the elaboration and enforce- age can be engaged in social production by allowing them io work ment of effective practical measures to protect the health and life for part of the working day or part of the working week. We of Soviet citizens. The right to health protection in the Soviet attach great importance to further encouraging "part-time emp- Union, as is known, is constitutionally formalised, and medical loyment" as a flexible form of the rational use of labour, mostly care is free for everybody without exception and is financed by that of women having children, elderly people, students, and also society. Demographic science faces a major task of bringing out people who are unable to work at full capacity. the factors which affect longevity and facilitate minimisation of the In conditions of the scientific and technological revolution, the death-rate. A knowledge of these factors would make it possible to problem of extended reproduction of skilled labour is of utmost eliminate a number of ,negative phenomena. importance to the national economy. A proper solution of this The principal task of Soviet demographers today is to elaborate problem in many respects would determine the efficiency of a comprehensive and effective demographic policy, and the theory manpower utilisation, and help to compensare for the quantitative and practice of governing demographic processes. It is particularly shortage of labour by improving its quality. The solution of the important in this connection to study ways of determining the problem is greatly facilitated by further improvement of the whole effectiveness of demographic policy and the social and economic system of vocational training and retraining of personnel. consequences of the various measures to implement it. The vocational training of the youth is a major subject of Thus, by systematically modifying the structure of manpower, economic and philosophical research in the Soviet Union. But the socialist society is simultaneously coping with diverse tasks although we have obtained certain positive results we still have to aimed at ensuring the efficient use of labour. Among these tasks achieve full and effective regulation of the occupational structure are: job placement of workers released due to technological of labour as required by demands for it. The mass trades are still - not popular enough among school children. So we have set the advancement; provision of the necessary retraining for a section of the task of speeding up research to work out scientifically supported - recommendations aimed at overcoming the lack of conformity workers released at the expense of the government, the workers between the socio-vocational orientation of the youth towards being paid their average wage while undergoing retraining; planned of skilled workers and specialists with due ce-rtain professions and the demand of the nation;l economy for - training labour. For a number of objective reasons it is too early as yet to regard for imminent structural changes in social production; fostering of vocational orientation of the youth, and shift full responsibility for occupational training to the system of - vocational-technical education, although it is widely developed in re-orientation of a section of public opinion with regard to the the Soviet Union. It is therefore an urgent task to improve the importance and prestige of certain trades and branches of social training of workers at factories and plants (primarily by ionsidera- production; to induce people to work in bly expanding short-term training), where there are favourable - provision of material incentives conditions for organising instructional and educational process on those branches and regions which are undergoing the most rapid a high level. development. 94 95 ,lw The mechanism for the planned distribution and redistribution of manpower is a component part of the overall machinery which makes for the balanced functioning of socialist economy. It ensures, on the one hand, painless overcoming of the consequ- ences that scientific and technological advancement entails for working people, a gradual elimination of the social distinctions between them as to the nature and types of labour activities, and, on the other, stimulates a redistribution of labour in favour of new highly productive branches and perspective regi<.rns of economic development. The key links in this mechanism are the planning, stimulation and the system of interrelated organisational forms of rnanpower Engels as Lenin Saw Him redistribution. With their help the socialist srate regulates the (To movement of workers between branches of the economy, on the the 160th Birth entire territory of the country and within enterprises, thereby Anniversary of Engels) securing a, progressive structure of the national econorn*y and ensuring the growing efficiency of manpower utilisation in the NIKITA KOLPINSKY interests of society as a whole. NOTES Every student of Lenin the historian is amazed by his I Labour in the USSR. A Collection of Statistics, Moscow, 1g68, p. 5 (in Rusaian). profound knowledge, especially of the history of Marxism. This is 2 The Etorwml of the L|SSR in 1977, Moscow, 1973, p. 376 (in Russian). because Lenin's works on history and his contribution to the 3 Ibidem. scientific elaboration of the biographies of Marx and Engels were 4 Results of the All-Union Cenyu of 1970, Moscow, 1972, Vol. 7, p. 8 (in Russian). closely interwoven with his activity as a theoretician and practician 5 Calculated from: The USSR in Figures t'or.1978, Moscow,lg7g, p. 177. of Marxism. 6 The Economy of the USSR in 1977, p.382; Vestnik statistiki, No. l, 1978, p. 86. A'broadminded approach and thorough study of the history of 7 The USSR in Figures for 1978, p. 380. Marxism in its relation to the development of social thought and the revolutionary process constitute one of the most important features of Lenin's works. Lenin had a deep knowledge of all the works of Marx and Engels available to him in those days. One needs only to look at the Index to the latest edition of his Complete Workst to be convinced that he knew literally all the works of Engels available in his days. (It should be nored that the Index includes only works which are quoted or specifically mentioned, while in' a number of cases, eipecially when dealing with articles in Neue Rheinische Zeitung, Lenin spoke in a general way about the conclusions of Marx and Engels, about their tactics, etc., basing himself on their works for the period concerned.) When after the transference of the Soviet Government to Moscow in 1918 Lenin was able to build a library of his own, he paid special attention to the works of Marx and Engels, collected all editions of their works 4nd literature on their life and activities. His library contained 167 copies of works by the founders of Marxism, including 62 editions of works by Engels and more rhan 100 books on Marx and Engels.2 t -3ax.1522 97 Without claiming to give an exhaustive account of what Lenin's which has stopped at rhe ABC. Marxism goes further."6 In the works offer to Engels' biographers, we shall dwell upon the artiple "Certain Features of the Histoiical Development of methodological value of Lenin's works for the study of Engels' Marxism" Lenin wrote: "Our doctrine-said Engels, referring to contribution to the development of Marxism, and show Lenin's himself and his famous friend-is not a dogma, but a guide to approach to his works. action. This classical statement stresses with remarkable force and expressiveness that aspect of Marxism which is very often lost sight of." 7 Repeatedly referring to this proposition, Lenin saw in it a methodological basis for all his activity, and believed, like Engels, "It is impossible to understand Marxism and to propou^nd it that the working class needed materialistic dialectics ai its Fngels." 3 fully withouf taking into account all the works of theoretical weapon. And like Engels Lenin said that to be a This sentence most vividfy describes Lenin's attitude tciwards dialectician means to look at events objectively, to try to one of the founders of Marxism. The thesis that Engels, side by comprehend them in their development, in all the totality of iheir side with Marx, was an outstanding theoretician of Marxism Lenin diverse relationships, to grasp the interdependence and cause-and- regarded as one of the most important methodological principles effect connection of any event, of every aspect of any phenome- in elaborating the biography of Engels. In one of his first articles non-. A.good- illu_stration of this is his attitude towards Engels, dealing,with the life of Engels (1895), Lenin wrote: "After his a-pplication of dialectics in working our the strategy and tactici of friend-Karl Marx (who died in 1883), Engels was the finest scholar the working-class movement. One may recall that he described the that and teacher of the modern proletariat..."a Later on he wrote substance of the correspondence between Marx and Engels as "Marx and Engels are justly named side by side as the founders of dialectics in action ("The focus, so to speak, the -whole r' 6 of mooern soclallsm.', - correspondence, ...that word would be dialectics."\8 Lenin drew these precise conclusions after making a detailed In a number of works and articles Lenin explains this analysis of Engels' legacy in many of his works' One need mention conclusion in detail by studying the tactics of Marx and Engels in only Tu.,o Tactics of Social-Democracy in the Democratr.c Reuolutton, the revolution of 1848-1849, their elaboration of the nationil and Materialism and, Empiri,o-Crittcism, The State and Reuolutton and The the agrarian questions, their fight against reformism and sectarian- Proletarian Reuoluti,on and, the Renegade Kautsky in order to draw the ism, their advice to socialist parties, etc. When bringing out the reader's attention to the importance of . Engels' works for the historic significance of Engels' works and letters conneited with further development of Marxist theory in Lenin's famous publica- one situation or another, he points to the scientific way by which tions. Lenin was better able than even F. Mehring, one of the moSt he approached and resolved the problems concerned, he often erudite and best informed historians of Marxism, to reveal and used this phrase: "The.wq Marx and Engels posed the question.', explain the theoretical significance and urgency of such of Engels' This emphasis-hotl the founders of Marxism put the-problem, works as The Condition of the Working Class in England,, ReuoLution how they approached its solution-is characteriitic of his works. and, Counter-Rexolution in Germany (Lenin, like everyone else in his Let us take the article "On rhe Attitude of the Woikers' party day, thought this was a work by Marx), The Peasant War in Towards Religion" (1909) as an examplel of 1.rrin:s,4,n lysis of the Germany, On Authority, The Bakunim,sts at Work, The Housing dialectics inner of Engels' works. " Question, Anti-Diihring, Engels' letters, and his introductions to In that article he discusses in detail those places in Engels' Marx's works. works- Anti-Diihring and The Housing Question) and in En[els' Lenin expounded the contribution oJ Engels the theoretician to remarks on the Erfurt Programme, which deal with the prob-iem all the components of Marxism-philosophy, political economy of attitude towards religion, and he points to t-he connection of and the theory of scientific communism, and to the elaboration of Engels' propositions lwhich sometirnbs contradicr one another) the strategy and tactics of the proletariat's liberation struggle. with concrete situations and with the level of development of the In so doing he paid primary attention to the scientific and working-class movement. Lenin shows that only "to. people with a philosophical substantiatjon of the new doctrine, or, to be more slapdash attitude towards Marxism, to people who cannot or will eNact, to the problem of, dialectics and to how it was worked out not think, this history (i.e., various aspecti of the working-class ppd interpreted by Engels. He often repeated Engels'words to the partys attitude towards religion.-N.X.) is a skein of meaningless ,etfect that Marxisnr w-flg not a dogma, that it "is not a materialism Marxist contradictions and waverings";e he notes that it is 98 7t 99 "il anarchist phrasemongers who are inclined to search for such dialectico-materialistic comprehension of concrete subjects. What over the "contradiciions". The perplexity of these phrasemongers interested Lenin was the efficacy of Marxist scientific methodolo- works Lenin poses alleged contradictions of Marxism in Engels' gy, and he made this clear on every occasion. "\{e have direct inference against the thesis that these contradictions are a deliberately quoted the direct statements of Marx and Engels at rnaterialism, which believes that everything is in a fiom dialectical rather great length in order that the reader may study them as a a lower to a state of continuous change and constantly passes from whole," he wrote in the article "Imperialism and the Split of higher stage, "in this question, too, the political line of Marxism is Socialism'l. "And they should be studied, they are worth carefully philosophical principles".r0 Winding inieparably bound up with its pondering over."r5 "But just think how Engels put the ques- "is a up the discusiion Lenin says that this kind of contradiction characteristic appeal to the reader reveals Lenin's and tion"r6-this real contradiction in real life, i.e., a dialectical contradiction, own method of work, the essence of his creative activity. study. not a verbal or invented one",ll and that it requires careful We stress once again that this approach to the works of Engels he when In that article Lenin explicitly formulates what saw enabled Lenin in new historical conditions to reveal the topical tactics the analysing many works by Marx and Engels: their during scientific and political significance of a particular work or thesis by wars, their revoiution of 1848-1849, their attitude towards and him. To quote Lenin again. In 1918, he wrote the article working-class movement in America, June different advice to the "Prophetic Words", in which he discussed Engels' "Preface to a problems Britain and Germany, i.e., their analytical attitude to the Pamphlet by Sigismund Borkheim, 'In Memory of the German general. of the dialectic of social processes in Arch-Patriots of 1806-1807"', dealing with possible consequences which Lenin brings out There is another notable example in of a world war. Lenin wrote: "Frederick Engels had occasion in the methodological significance of Engels' remark on utopian 1887 to write of the coming world war... socialism to the effect that "what formally may be economically "What genius is displayed in this prophecy! And how infinitely be correct from the point of view of incorrect, may all the same rich in ideas is every sentence of this exact, clear, brief and which Engels world history".r2 Having examined the context in scientific class analysis! How much could be learnt from it by those "Two drew this conclusion,. Lenin emphasises in the article who are now shamefully succumbing to lack of faith, despondency mind IJtopias" that "Engels' profound thesis must be borne in and despair, if...if people who are accustomed to kowtow to the utopia in when appraising the present-day Narodnik or Trudovik bourgeoisie, or who allow themselves to be frightened by it, could Russia (perhaps not only in Russia but in a number of Asiatic but think, were but capable of thinking! countriei going through bourgeois revolutions in the twentieth "Some of Engels' predictions have turned out differently.... But century)".r3 Lenin's observation brings Engels' thesis closer to us what is most astonishing is that so many of Engels' predictions are time. and makes it moie urgent in our turning out 'to the letter'. For Engels gave a perfectly exact class (1906), entirely In the article "Guerrilla Warfare" which is analysis, and classes and the relations between them have based on the works of Marx and especially of Engels though their remained unchanged." 17 titles are rtot specifically mentioned, Lenin elucidates the evolution This excerpt shows how Lenin valued Engels and his works. of their assessments, but this time on the question of the forms of Against all manner of falsifiers and downright opponents of struggle, and examines the circumstances which influenced the Marxism Lenin fought not only with the conviction of a scholar, development of their views. His conclusions, based on an analysis but with all the ardour of a combatant. This irreconciliation with of these views, that Marxism does not bind "the movement to any distortion of Marxism threads its way'basis right through all his works. one particular form of struggle", and that "Marxism Jeorns...from Lenirfs works also provide a for eviluating Engels' mass practice.... Marxism demands an absolutely historical exami- contribution to the creation of working-class political economy.r8 again nation' of the question of the forms of itruggle",ra Having in mind such works of Engels as A Contribution to the Engels, demonstrates to us the approach and method of Marx and Critique of Political Economy and The Condition of the Working Class new and shows its applicability to new situation, to the solution of in England,, Lenin wrote: "Contact with Engels was undoubtedly a problems. factor in Marx's decision to study political economy."re Here Many similar examples could be cited, But something else is Lenin states the fact that Engels was the first to study the important. As already noted, Lenin always strove to gain an problems of the political economy of capitalism, the first to apply objective and thorough knowledge of all of Engels' thoughts on the method of dialectical materialism to this science, the first to one question or another, to show that they were the results of give an analysis of the consequences of the industrial revolution. r00 l0r Lenin considered Engels' work over the second and third the state; that in their totality their thoughts represented an volumes of Capi,tal to be a colossal scientifi,c achievement. Recalling integral solution worked out on the basis of single, general M. Adler's words to the effect that by publishing these volumes theoretical premises. We find this conception of the unity of Engels had erected to his great friend a magnificent monument on activity of Marx and Engels in many of I-enin's works, above all in which he unwittingly inscribed his own name, Lenin added: his exposition of the philosophical principles of Marxism, scientific "Indeed these two volumes of Capital are the work of two men: communism, the strategy and tactics of the proletariat's liberation Marx and Engels."20 struggle, the lessons of the ideological struggle, etc. (See Fred,erick Lenin showed that new -phenomena of social life and tenden- En gels, K arl M arx, M aterr,alism and Empirio-Criti cism, Corr e sp ondence cies of their development made Engels pay attention to the Between Marx and Engels, The Right of Nations to Self-Determination, emergence of industrial associations (trusts, cartels) which some- Letters on Tactics, Marxism and, Insurrection, Economics and, Politics in what changed the face of the capitalist economic system; Engels the Era of the Dictatorship of the Proletariat, etc.) Sometimes he laid pointed to the role of the monopolies, to the "competition of special emphasis on their joint activity. For example, he wrote that conquest", to the appearance of a working-class aristocracy, to the Engels' Anti-Diihrins was "in full conformity with this materialist possibility of a world war of unprecedented horror breaking out. phiiosophy of Marx's, and expounding it...";?3 about the book But what Lenin valued most was Engels' absolute confidence in Lud,wig Feuerbach and, ihe End of Classical German Philosophy: "In his the eventual triumph of socialist revolution, which turned into Ludwig Feuerbach-which expounded his own and Marx's views on reality owing to the activities of Lenin himself; it was Lenin who Feuerbach's philosophy...".2a made a brilliant analysis of new phenomena and created the In fact Lenin's exposition of the theoretical significance of theory of imperialism-the pivot of his teaching. Engels' works, which we have already indicated above, was his In one of his early articles Lenin remarked that "Engels was response to the attempts to falsify them. He maintained that "to the first to say that the proletariat is not only a suffering class",2r understand what Frederick Engels has donq for the proletariat, but that it is capable of liberating itself and mankind. That is, one must have a clear idea of the significance of Marx's teaching Engels was the first to formulate the basic postulate of scientific and work for the development of the contemporary working-class communism on the historic mission of the working class. Lenin movement".25 This is an important methodological principle for gave a high assessment of Engels' elaboration of the problems of students of the biography of Engels. the state, the proletarian revolution, and the theory of the class Lenin completed his idea with these words: "That is why the struggle. His analysis clearly shows the difference between his name ancl life'of Engels should be known to every worker."{u He approach to Engels' heritage from that of preceding historians of attached paramount importance to the identity of views of Marx Marxism and biographers of Engels. In our view, Lenin convinc- and Engels, to Engels' contribution to the integral theory of ingly expounded the general theoretical significance and the Marxism. urgency of that aspect of Engels' works which showed, to paraphrase his words, "how to make and how not to make a revolution ". *** Lenin's works contain many important and interesting proposi- tions and assessments that help to understand the vari,ous areas and aspects of the practical revolutionary activity of Engels; they Lenin did not dwell in particular on rhe artemprs made in his deal with such problems in Engels' biography as the formation of days to oppose Engels to Marx. In this connection one can only his proletarian views, the value of his first works, his activity point to that section of The State and, Reaolution in which he during the revolution of 1848,1849 and its significance. Let us see discusses the alleged contradiction betwe€n the stands of the two how Lenin elucidates Engels' activity in the years of the First founders of Marxism on the future of the state after socialist International, since this is one of the controversial issues. revolution.22 Analysis of the relevant documents (Marx's letter of ,The new element that Lenin conributed to the elaboration of May 5, 1875,to Brucke and Engels' letter, of March 28, 1875,to the history of the First International 2? and of the activity of Marx Bebel), Lenin said, testify that Marx and Engels complemented, each and Engels in it is most closely connected with his contribution to other by drawing attention to different aspects of the problem of the development of Marxism. We emphasise: without reviving and 102 103 developing theory of the proletarian party, and of the teaching on the viewpoint of the need to realise the tendencies inherent in it, its strategy and tactics, without carrying forward the doctrine of and of the possibility of doing so.3o the class struggle and its forms, without elucidating the impor- Particularly important in this respect are such works of Lenin's tance of scientific theory, without theoretical exposition of the as Under a False Flag, The Third Communist Intemational, and The process of combining theory with the mass working-class move- 'class Third International and, Its Place in History. Lenin's periodisation ment, without a rnore profound analysis of the and of contemporary history from the point of view of the world epistemological roots of Right and "Left" opportunism-without revolutionary process and its pattern for the first time created a doing all this it would have been impossible to clarify the true basis for determining the historical tasks of the working .class at meaning of the activity of Marx and Engels in the International every stage, and, consequently, the tasks of the First International and assess its historic significance. as well. Its emergence was, according to that periodisation, a To grasp the contribution of Engels to the First International logical result of the class struggle. The fact that the International one must appreciate Lenin's determination of the historical role of arose between two epochs accounts for its specific ideological and the International Working Men's Association. Lack of historicism organisational features. in studying the International led (and sometimes leads today) On the other hand, having shown that the revolutionary to incorrect conclusions that it was futile and collapsed. The process was undergoing qualitative changes and passing through a inevitable consequence is a distorted notion of the activity of Marx number of stages, Lenin revealed its unity on the historical plane and Engels in it. Like the founders of Marxism, Lenin continued and the continuity of its various stages. The creation of mass to regard the First International as a particular stage in the proletarian parties on a national scale was therefore the continua- development of the proletarian struggle. And while Marx and tion of the cause of the First International in new conditions, and Engels proceeded from a scientific forecast of the course of that not a break with its traditions. development, Lenin made his assessment of the basis of an Lenin's method requires examining the history of the Interna- analysis of that stage in the history of the working-class movement tional in the light of the tendencies which it had initiated and as a whole. which were developed later on. [n other words, the International Lenin's definition of the historic role of the First Interna- Working Men's Association appears not merely as a historically tional was based on the specific features of the situation in which it conditioned form of unification that we have already gone had emerged, on the historic tasks then facing the working-class through and finished with, but as the starting point of today's movement; he proceeded from a periodisation of contemporary working-class movement, as something living that has come down history and of the revolutionary process, and showed how the to us. Lenin said: "The First lnternational (1864-1872) laid the tendencies inherent in the First International were realised in the foundation of an international organisation of the workers for the onward march of the working-class movement. preparation of their revolutionary attack on capital." sr He Already in 1894 Lenin came out, in his What the "Friends of the affirmed that the communist movement is a continuation of the People" Are and" How They Fight the Soci,al-Derttocrats?, against the cause of the First International, that it has taken over its banner. assertions of N. Mikhailovsky that the efforts of the International Lenin was the first to make a comprehensive analysis (especially were futile (the case concerned attempts to put an end to national in The Historical Destiny of the Doctrine of Karl Marx) of the affinity strife between working people). Lenin's method became manifest of the history of the working-class movement with the history of immediately. He showed that the point was not that the First development and spread of Marxism as of two aspects of one International had failed to end national hostility, and that the single process. This affinity is today the starting point of all problem could be solved only by following the path indicated by Marxist studies of the history of the First International and of the the International, only by uniting the oppressed, by setting up activity of Engels as one of its leaders and organisers. Lenin's national proletarian organisations and uniting them into one thesis explicitly showed the general direction of the activities of the international army to combat international capital.2s Lenin said founders of Marxism in the International Working Men's Associa- that the First International had proved the feasibility of achieving tion-from the organisation of joint actions, through ideological such international unity of the working class; that herein lay the struggles and elimination of the influence of pre-Marxist socialism current and historical significance of its experience.2e And later on to ideological unity of the working-class movement, to a uniform he repeatedly spoke of the role of the International precisely from tactics of struggle for socialism. 104 105 Lenin's evaluation of the ideological struggle in the Interna- class movement as a dominant ideology. Moreover, the role of tional on the national question promotes understanding of Engels' Marx and Engels and their activities became the key factor in the activity in that body. Before Lenin this aspect of the struggle of development of the working-class rnovement. The importance of Marx and Engels was either neglected or distorted. ln The Right of the founders of Marxism "as the spiritual leaders of the Nations to Self-Determenatton (1914) Lenin showed the theoretical working-class movement grew continuously, because the move- and practical significance of Marx's and Engels' elaboration of the ment itself grew uninterruptedly",3T Lenin wrote. Engels played a Polish and Irish questions in the years of the International, particularly great role after the death of Marx, when he trrrderlining the proletarian internationalist character of their "continued alone as the counsellor and leader of the European tactics.32 This fundamentally new proposition could be formulated socialists. His advice and directions were sought for equally by the only in connection with the further development of Marxist theory German socialists, whose strength, despite government persecu- on the national question, and with an assessment of national tion, grew rapidly and steadily, and by representatives of backward liberation movements as a component part of revolutionary, countries, such as the Spaniards, Rumanians and Russians, who anti-imperialist forces, as a potential ally of the proletariat. Lenin were obliged to ponder and weigh their first steps. They all drew also clarified the purport of the ideological struggle within the on the rich store of knowledge and experience of Errgels in his old working-class movement. And he went deeper into the problem age."" This passage vividly and accurately describes Engels' role than did the Left-wing German Social-Democracy. Special in general-his role as "counsellor and leader", his tremendous emphasis should be laid on his thesis that anarchism is not and diversified work, his contacts with the international working- revolutionary in comparison with Marxism. With reference to class movement as a whole. It should be noted that to Lenin the Engels' article "On Authority" Lenin wrote: "Social-Democrats, working-class movement was an integral whole, and that he claiming to be disciples of Engels, have argued on this subject regarded Engels' activity as a guide for the international working- against the anarchists millions of times since 1873, but they have class movement, and not as a sum-total of separate and m.ot argued as Marxists could and should. The anarchist idea of unconnected actions in relation to this or that national contingent the abolition of the state is muddled and non-reuolutionary-that is of the proletariat (this fact is of major importance to researchers). how Engels put it." 33 This thesis of Lenin's on the dialectic of the international and the national constitutes starting point gaining proper In describing the epoch in which "the First International had the for a understanding Engels' activity in the last years of his life. It played its historical part, and now made way for a period of a far of helps us appreciate the fact that even after the dissolution of greater development of the labour movement in all countries in to the First International, the international unity of the working-class the world, a period in which the movement grew in scope, and movement did not disappear, that the theoretical and practical nzass socialist working-class parties in individual national states work Marx and Engels, and that Engels' alone after the formed",S4 Lenin gave a precise characterisation of the of of were death of Marx, was decisive in attaining that unity. activities of Marx and Engels in those years. He wrote: "...1n those days, after the defeat of the Paris Commune, history made slow Lenin paid greater attention to two trends in the activity of organisational and educational work the task of the day. Nothing Engels in those years-to his theoretical work and his ideological else was possible. struggle (he studied the organising role of Engels less because "Marx and Engels gauged the times accurately; they under- many documents, including letters addressed to Engels, were stood the international situation; they understood that the unavailable at the time). 35 approach to the beginning of the social revolution must be sJou.,." Lenin studied most carefully all documents that threw light on This definition of the nature of the new era in the Engels' ideological struggle wiih reformism and opportuni;m, as development of Marxism and the working-class movement, which well as with "Left" sectarianism. He showed that the destiny of the greatly Lenin supplemented with the remark that the growth of Marxism working-class movement was affected by Engels' struggle against the influence petty-bourgeois ideology pro- proceeded "in scope", "at the cost of...a temporary strengthening of on the letariat, against the penetration anti-working-class views in the of opportunism",se helps us to grasp the essence of Engels' activity of socialist movement, whatever forms they assumed. in the 1870s-1890s and reveals its objectiae basis. The spread of Marxism led to its triumph over all forms of utopian and Lenin always admired Engels' energetic and tireless participa- petty-bourgeois socialism and to its consolidation in the working- tion in the working-class movement. "Engels...flung himself into 106 23 3e lbid., Vol. 21, p. 51. the fight with the ardour of youth," he wrote of his activi 2a lbidem. Congress ty in the period of preparations for the International 25 Ibid., vol. 2, p. 19. of 1889. 26 Ibid., p. 20. 27 See P. N. Pospelov, "V. I. Lenin on the Historic Significance of the First International", Voproq istorii KPSS, 1964, No. 4; The First Intemational in Historical Scimce, Moscow, 1968, pp. 77-89,97-lO2; R. Sh. Tagirov, Russian and Souiet Historiography of the First Internatiutal, Part l, Kazan, 1968 (both in Lenin was always attracted by Engels the scholar and fighter, Russian). by his lucid mind, enormous range of knowledge, inexhaustible 28 V. L Lenin, Collec.tcil l{orls, Vol. l, p. 155. energy and warm heart. In Engels' works and experience of 2e lbid., p. 156. revolutionary struggle Lenin sought and found ideas for the 30 Ibid., Vol. 4, p. 176; Vo!. 6, p. 37; Vol. 13, p. 82. further development of theory, and for struggle for its implemen- 3r Ibid., Vol. 29, p. 306. tation. This is why till this day Lenin's legacy provides material 32 lbid., Vol. 20, p. 442. (which is exceptionally important in depth of ideas and accuracy 33 Ibid., Vol. 25, p. 438. of analysis) for elaborating all aspects of the life and works of 34 Ibid., Vol. 21, p. 49. Engels, one of the great founders of scientific socialism. 35 Ibid., Vol. 24, p. 87. 36 Ibid., Vol. 29, p. 306. 37 Ibid., Vol. 2, p. 26. 38 lbidem. NOTES 3e Ibid., Vol. 12, p. 369. I An Index of the Complete Worhs of Lenin, Part 2, Moscow, 1970, pp. 339-356 (works by Engels-pp. 349-356) (in Russian). 2 Lmin's Library in the Kremlin. A Catalogre, Moscow, 1961, pp. 33-66, lll-120 (in Russian). 3 V. I. Lenin, Collected Worfu, Moscow, Vol. 21, p. 91. 4 Ibid., Vol. 2, p. 19. 5 Ibid., Vol. 19, p. 558. 6 lbid., Vol. 15, p. 405. ? Ibid., vot. 17, p. 39. 8 Ibid., Vol. 19, p. 554. e Ibid., Vol. 15, p. 404 ro Ibid., p. 405. rr lbid., p. 406. 12 Ibid., Vol. 18, p. 357. 13 Ibid., p. 358. 14 Ibid., Vol. ll, pp. 213, 214. 15 Ibid., Vol. 23, p. ll3. ro lbid., p. ll9. 17 Ibid., Yol. 27, pp. 494, 495. l8 For details, see L. A. Leontiev, Engek and, the Economic Doctrine of Marxism, Moscow, 1965; A. I. Malysh, F. Engels and Proletarian Political Economy, Moscow, 1970 (both in Russian). re V. I. Lenin, Collected Worfts, Vol. 2, p. 24. 20 lbid., pp. 25-26. 2r Ibid., p. 22. 22 Ibid., Vol. 25, p. 456 and further. 108 posthumous publications of Husserl himself and in the sum-total of the activities of his followers and disciples. phenomenology had prepared by degrees, as it were, the coming break wilh the scientific rradition, while existentialism inherited those of its features that determined their rapprochement and common historical destiny. _ Thus, if it is a question of incorporating them into some school of theoretical thought, we ought to refer them, despite the feerings of the adepts themselves, to rhe school of idealistic aesthetils opposing the trend of realism. In existentialism, tendency is on the surface, made ^this clear by the open rejection of scientific philosophy and the hostile attitude to the sovereignty of scientific itrinting. The Origins of the Crisis in Western -philosophicalThe deviation from and, indeed, radical opposition to, the tradition is Ph i losoph ico-Aesthetic Consciousness sufficiently clear from the self-determinitiori oi existentialism with regard to it. This .is patently obvious in Martin Heidegger,s KONSTANTIN DOLGOV etymological game w,th the conceprs of ancienr Greek philos6[hy, in his quest for predecessors. He was more artful thin the iried Pip9, of Hamelin, engaging in debate the grear Western philosophers as well as-the Greek "a In this article I am going to continue the analysis of the symposion with single aim in relation between existentialism phenomenology view-to show that philosophy is'defective in its ver], origins, and begun some having ten years ago,r aiming at a deeper penetration only a tenuous bond with man whom it has been'unabl"e to into the-causes of discard for more the crisis in modern Western aesthetics. than two millennia. The range problems In our view,. phenomenology and existentialism have brought of in existentialism is akin to the eternal themes of art: human existence, the meaning with. particular clarity the critical state of bourge-ois of life, responsibility, "yl. freedom, etc. It would therefore philosophico-acsthetic consciousness in the 20th century. The very be easy tJshow that existentiai- emphasis on the role and function ism is' primarily oriented towards the aesthetic rather than the of art and aesthetici in both o? scientific these trends is, we believe, a kind symptom consciousness. There is another essential point here. of of this critical Existentialism acquired condition. Edmund Husserl, the founder of phenomenology, the status of a philosophicil-own doctrine who precisely through phenomenology set himself the task of reviving the humanist iontent of phil,osophy and not by its efforts. It theretore seems more worthwhile here and the positivist obsession and uacuous system- to ask the question: in what -.exorcising way did it obtain this philosophical sanction? truilding, initiated a. powerful trend in philosophy marked by a How did it come clearly realised desire for a rigorous icience. about that Husserl's titanic attempt to revive the scientific prestige ln his opinion, of philosophy came phenomenology inherited such a rigorous science, while existen- to naughi and was transformed into a re-orientation towards unscientific tialism, on the contrary, mounted sharp attacks on scientific consciousness at the hand of the existentialists? what features philosophy. Nevertheless the development of both of these trends of phenomenology facilitated the ultimately brought about similar formation of defiantly anti-scientific. mentar att"iiudes and the reiults-their general crisis. appearance Half. a. cen-tury of the development phenomenology lhg philosophical scene of "a generation steeped in . of and prejudice and"l driven existentialism has shown that the impressivt phenomen6iogical by psychoses, which wints to ,." urd h.u. nothing of scientific philosophy"?2 studies and the strikingly non-traditional writings of the existen- tialists were essentially gtricled by a single method'ological principle : and strove for the si*-e ki.rd of con6nt. *#* It has become clear in historical prospect that existentiarism -Husserl is Edmund Husserl (1859-1938):, neither phenomenology gone bad,-as believed, a mathematician and larer an nor a enthusiastic psychologisr and distortion of it, but rather its self-exposure. It is a result of the levelled shattering criticism at all contemporary phiiosophical-trends-epistemologist, development of the fundamental Husserlian premises in the frorn the rathei u0 ltl .,q Cartesian philosophies and made a particularly careful study of unexpected position of objective truth. In his search for Truth, is more th;n the epistemologist's obsession' If it Plato, Leibnitz, Descartes, Kant, assimilating the life-giving motifs howeier, thire their philosophies which stimulated independent creation. merely the lack of theoretical tlarity on the meaning.of the of were While feeling quite free his choice predecessors, Husserl .realities' discovered by the sciences of nature and spirit that in of reserved the right phenomenology be completely indepen- worried us, he mused. But, no: our need is vital and acute, of to any philosophical system: impulses research the whole of our life.8 dent of other for enveloping should come from objects and problems rather than from an itmosphere of stagnation, when philosophical positivism In philosophy, he wrote.s naively and enihusiastically extrapolated lts scientific results in spirilual domain, when psychologism and Despite his wide-ranging interests, Husserl was, in the very specific fields to the philosophising, exaggeiated the relativity of- ex-perimental know- spirit of his primarily an adept of the ideas of two emprrrocrrtrcrsm great minds-Descartes and Kant. His own philosophical "faith", while idealist propounded arbitrary-theoretical ledle, [[ilosophers like his methodology, was largely formed by assimilating the schEmas, Husserl sef the task of consiructing a genuinely scientific He believed that its scientific content should be intersecting elements of Cartesianism and Kantian transcendental philosophy. idealism. ierealed in the ability ro formulate its problems independently and to the essential Husserl personally preferred Descartes. "No philosopher of the to develop a specifii methodology coir-esponding "had theie problems. He wanted to.make life past," he wrote, such a decisive influence on the develop- nature of -possible.a phenomenology as France's greatest thinker Ren6 governed by the- pure norms of reason a and have scientific ment of Descartes. It must honour him as its'true precursor."6 ihilosophy discard unintelligible learning borrowed from natural- i'physicalist" knowledge and avoid the following. of We shall not question the indubitable kinship of Cartesian icientific philosophy phenomenology as regards the problems they models. And this is exactly what phenomenology and pseudoscientific cover and methodology. This is perfectly obvious their from the lowest level of clearly perc_eived things, it was their in is. Starting mutual tireless search for unified and clear foundations of called .rpJ.r, according to Husserl, to open uP the horizons- for the philosophical knowledge. We see radical Cartesian methodological development of manlind by liberating itself from the obliquely l phenomenological epochd mathematising methods. Having grasped the doubt in reduction, in the operation symbol'ising and ensuring unbiased philosophical consideration. The principle of oJ the principles underlying structure of cognising meaning .the clarity, truly an obsession with Husserl, is also borrowed from I phlnomenology would give a sort of instructions to consciorJsness, Descartes, who insisted that things which we apprehend quite history. I clearly and distinctly are true.7 Like Descartes, the only authentic Husserl's belief in the exceptional mission of phenomenology reality that Husserl recognises is the content of our consciousness. unshaken throughoui the first three decades of the 20th remained There is a difference, however: Cartesian omnipotent reason century, with all their ideological and social cataclysms..lle naively delay in -his theoretical work facilitated the finds the prototype of the real world in the content of believed that a consciousness, certitudes acting "levers" the historical catastrophe, which he viewed a crisis of the mind's like in explosive .as reality reason, while Husserl erases gone astray. To convince oneself of that, one need assimilation of by or cuts off rationalism the predicate mental operations. two of his works-Philosophy- as a Strict.Sci.ence, a of only compaie metaphysics (cf. Descartes, Leib- / manifesto, summing up the findings of "In the seventeenth century, kind of pherott.rological nitz, others) still contained a positiue, secular element", wrote earlier, large woik Logical Inaestigations an! revealing its and his Marx and Engels. "It made discoveries in mathematics, physics meaning, and The Crisis of European Sciences. This latter work was and other exact sciences which seemed to come within its scope. Husserliana ai a world outlook, revealing the author's the acm"e of This semblance was done away with as early as the beginning of unshaken by the tragic conflicts of the age, that it was belief, - eighteenth century. positive sciences broke away from erring humanity see reason, provided the The possible to make - metaphysics and marked their own independent fields. The ological philosophy was able to disclose the real face of out ph".,oln.t whole wealth of metaphysics now consisted only of beings of irumanity and the approprlate direction of historical develop^ment' -edifiie thought and heavenly things, at the very time when real beings In building the of phenomenology in a period of acute and earthly things began to be the centre of all interest."s We can crisisl Husserl drew on the stock of ideas accumulated cultural observe something similar in the 20th centur/, too. the ages by European thought. He intended-phenomenol- through Having no interest in heavenly things, Husserl nevertheless ogy t; be the development of the basic themes of ancient and I a*.,1522 r13 112 - reduced the content of Cartesian philosophy to beings of thought. that in-tellectual cognitive schemes had no ontological weight, nor In substantiating the intentionality of consciousness, he looks were they suitable for cognising the essence of man, whom Kant, towards the products of consciousness as a basis for genuine in opposition to Descartes, placed outside the natural domain. philosophising, ruling out any idea of reality, of being. It is only These schemes, developed in application to the natural sciences, the directly perceptible reflection of being in consciousness that is were worthless when applied to a domain within the competence within the province of philosophical consideration, he remarked. of reason. Reason sets the goals of intellectual activity irom a All investigation should be directed at the scientific cognition of position of higher humanist values, and the scientifit task of the essence of consciousness, and at the existence of consciousness philosophy, according to Kant, lies in clarifying the properly in all its diverse structures.e human goals and the meaning of all cognitive obje-t domiinsl "In "As far as cognition is concerned, it is necessary to take into this respect, philosophy is the science of the relation of all consideration two things alone: ourselves as those who know knowledge to the essential goals of human reason (teleologi,a l0 rr rationis things and the things themselves that must be known," asserts humanae)." However, the supremacy of reason (and t[is should Descartes. His corpus cogitans doubts, understands, asserts, negates, be stressed) was interpreted by Kanr as having only a subjective feels, etc., signifying the coming of the era of great discoveries. practical reality. Objectively, the teleological structure of being was Husserl, on the other hand, encloses knowledge within certain conceived hypothetically. limits, as it were. Classical rationalism is oriented at reality, while It would be wrong to say that Kant or consistent Kantians phenomenology turns cognition to "pure consciousness", to out- emphasised the significance of some ontological form or other. and-out subjectivity, in its search for . a solid foundation of Usually Kant infected the scholar with a kind of methodological philosophy. Such was the result of Husserlian elaboration of inertia, compelling him to reproduce Kant's progress withiir the classical rationalism. framework of his critique of consciousness. But, if one overcomes Giving the Cartesian motifs in phenomenology their due, we this inertia and, using the totality of oblique references and should, however, bear in mind that only an analysis of the links evidence, reconstructs the general picture of his thinking, abstract- between phenomenology and Kantian philosophy will solve the. ing its ontological projection, one will see that he was not satisfied riddle of the destructive tiansformations of classical rationalism in by the "negative ontology" of the thing in itself. In Kant, critical it, which resulted in a reshaping of Western philosophy along reflexion is attended and anticipated by its ontological model aesthetic lines. linked with the aestheric capacity for judgement. Descartes was a great help in the quest for a unified basis of Art, in its hypostasis of being rarher than in relation to the knowledge, found in the content of consciousness, whereas the soul's capacities, is viewed by Kant as the only ontological field in teleological structure of the transcendental subject's cognising which the rationalist conception of the world is modelled. The consciousness along with his humanist orientation of cognitive teleological and cause-and-effect explanations of the world, which practical activity, Husserl borrowed from Kant. It appears, have a merely regulative significance for the subject's cognitive however, that Husserl neglected the most important contribution activity, are.endowed by him in the sphere of arr with constitutive of Kant's Critiques to the new historical stage in the development principles, that is, real ontological characteristics. of rationalism. He repeats the operation of the subjective idealist elaboration of philosophical heritage, which in Cartesian philosophy left intact the types of reflexive activity of conscious- ness. With Husserl, however, it completely annihilates the rational- ist aspect of Kantianism, rejecting the very essence of Kant's "Copernican revolution" in cognition. Neo-Kantians, following the letter of Kantian philosophy, have We should recall that the significance of this revolution lay in been active mostly in the sphere of epistemological formalism, changing the standpoint, in stopping the metaphysical trend of wh_ile phenomenologists, beginning with Husserl himself, attemp- thought, by a sober self-evaluation of epistemological idealism, and ted to rationalise the latent premises of critical philosophy. in treating the work of consciousness and its principles as Ignoring "the thing in itself" as an entirely gratuitous'element of something heuristic, facilitating the knowledge of reality which by the idealist system, they were literally infected with the Kantian no means is identical with it in its structure. Kant's conscientious- idea' of humanist control and regulation of cognitive activity, ness a rigorously scientific him recognise and attitude compelled to aspiring to make Kant's transcendentalism the basis for a 114 lr5 Now, in what way was transcendental philosophical analysis of the ultimate principles of man's being- the subject's teleological structure transformed into the constitutive man's essence and the meaning of existence. principle of ontology? Discarding as an anachronism certain confusing, mythical - Annoyed at the failure of the public to understand his Critiqte of Pure Reason, Kant reverted concepts of intellect and reason, which were so thoroughly worked to its problems in his Cri,tique of by Kant, Husserl painstakingly reproduces Judgment, and in the Prolegomena to Eaerl Future Metaphysic he took out and differentiated particularly great schema the transcendental subject. This schema is to be pains to make clear the meaning of his his of "Copernican revolution". observed in every man's individual consciousness (any psychologi- With the aid of graphic examples accompanying each thesis, cal subject, according to Husserl, is a carrier of.the pure form of he tried to explain even to readers unaccustomed meditation idea transcendental subjec$; every act of consciousness proceeds to the of the limits of teleological the conceptions, which according to this schema and all fields of social practice are have absolute ontological value only in works Indeed, history itself turns out to be a of art, the creation of which is preceded by setting the goal (we constitutad on its basis. might the imperative of transcendental .consciousness' recall here Kant's concept of genius). In art, the justification realisation of correlating Such is the phenomenological basis, the unshakeable founda- for the object with the subject's notion, experience, emotion, or is questioned, of the genuine, rigorously scientific philosophy. opinion not for in this exceptional case tion the object is deduced Husserl siated with satisfaction that phenomenology had grown from subjectivity. However, the " foundations of aesthetics... cannot embrace (italics into a universal ontology, a certain unity of all a priori conceivable all things mine.- K. D.), for in that case all things would become mere appearances".l3 sciences, realised and improved on the basis of the phenomenolog- Husserl pays no heed to Kant's explanations ical method. He called phenomenology a universal eidetic ontology and his interpreta- embracing all spheres of human knowledge. In his view, it tions on many occasions run counter to the K6nigsberg thinker's world outlook. While assimilating transcendental brought out the interconnections between the transcendental the . subject's any objects whatsoever. The potential range of teleological structure, he ignores its premise and changes' its "souice" and modality regard phenomenology includid metaphysical, teleological, ethical, logical, with to reality. Kant's tentative correspondence historico-philoibphical-that is to say, all possible problems. between consciousness and beiqg (with the exception of art, as.was The foundef of phenomenology considered that all spiritual pointed out) turns, in Husserl's system, into identification of the structures being and consciousness, structures were rooted in it and patterned according to it, and of the foundations of aesthe- be understood rationally in the light of the transcen- tics becoming accordingly the constitutive principle of ontology. could only Fundamental dental "ego". ontology thus finds a platform on which may be In hiJ early period, Husserl turned to the structure of built a mythical picture of the cultural-historical process that could compete with similar pictures romantic philosophy. transcendental consciousness to ensule the scientific character of of What logic prompted Husserl to extrapolate the Kantian model and save it from positivist and relativistdegeneration. of subjectivity philosophy, to history? Given Kani's Later Huiserl appealed to ii as an unshakeable foundation of aversion to daydreaming idealism, it is certain that he . historicil destiny, the last sensible argument to which a would have regarded the idea of mankind's innate mankind's teleology rational culture might resort in the face of the crisis as an absurd prejudice defender of One hardly misled the bourgeois world. In the shadow of an imminent world will be by the terminological similarity within between the old Prospero urgently chants incantations, appealing idea of mankind's innate teleology and Kant's notion catastrophe, of mankind endowed to reasbn which has gone astray: "The 'crisis of European with the ability to ser goals. In this case Husserl actually disregards Kant's socio-cultural concepts. Accord- existence'... is not an obsiure fate, an impenetrable destiny; rather, ing to Kant, culture as applied becomes understandable and transparent against the back- to the individual is "the emergence it of a reasonable being's ability to set any goals general".la teleology of European historl than can be-discovered in In an ground of the individual subject, ...In order to 6e able,to comprehend th-e disarray culture develops the freedom of goal-setting fhilosophically. creation, but the socio-cultural process escapes the control the of tt e preseni 'crisis', we had to work out the concept of g1 of .ELrope goal-setting subject: certain blind forces of social mechanics come the historicat teleologl of the infinite goals of reason... The'crisis'could into play here. Kant outlines the dialectics tHe socio-cultural then become distinguishable as the apparent of ratio_nalism. of failure process: the division of labour, inequality and oppression The reason for the failure of a rational culture, however, ...lies not bring about the development of individual culture; rhe gap between in the essen€e of rationalism itself but solely in its being rend'ered t2 mental and physical labour ensures the development arts superficial, in its entanglement in 'naturalism' and 'objeclivism'." of the ll7 l16 and sciences. In their turn, "the fine arts and sciences... prepare.'. ' Husserl appealed to every man not to succumb to the man for the kind of dominance where reason alone will have temptation of the hackneyed ready-made forms stocked by power".r5 To them is allotted the function of education, of consciousness, to overcome the inertia of intellectual clichds and influencing the individual, whose efforts are the only means of intentions which escape the control of reason and threaten to turn consolidating rational goal-setting in real history. into blind forces making inroads into the cultural process. These Persistently endowing subjectivity with the kind of general appeats are also the special task of phenomenological reflexion. significance which it has in art alone, where our conceptions of The philosopher must "always devote himself to mastering the what is due are freely realised in the structure of being, Husserl true and full sense of philosophy, the totality of its horizons of thrusts the goal-setting reason on history itself, distorting and infinity".r8 He musr throw light into the dirk corners of life, shattering the rationalist tradition. taking account of and introducing into our field of vision the Both ihe old and new philosophies have always been and are whole of the deep pre-history of the present in order to be able to naively objectivist, he wrote.16 The ontological constants deduced pass on to the future an undistorted image of the genuinely by traditional philosophy are in no way related to man's essence' human sense, for "the development of the futuri is the Dead results of cognitive activity are raised to an absolute and preoccupation of the liuing...".t9 living life of consciousness. Husserl was confused The awesome symptoms of the crisis bourgeois culture opposed- to the of by the powerful effect of the object under study on cognising compelled Husserl, as we have pointed out, to revise all of its conscioulness, which resulted in the "spirit" adopting doubtful foundations, that is, according to the ontological model of methods of self-formation. This is fraught with the danger of the phenomenology, to critically analyse philosophical thought, which naturalisation of reason, the disappearance of meaning and the has lost its humanist dimension because of its orientation at the naturalisation of ideas and, along with these, of all absolute ideals object. and norms; it gives birth to a false ideal of culture which is All of Husserl's excursions into history had the goal of fundamentally alien to man and, as a consequence, the crisis of determining the limits of reflexion unobscured by the disiortions man's existence. of impulses coming from the object. His objective was to discover Mutually contradictory images of the world disorient the th,. primordial life of consciousness, to reveal the genuinely iridividual who is left by philosophy to the mercy of fate' He is scientific basis of philosophy (in this sense he calls phenomenolo- surrounded by the phantoms of loneliness and the senselessness of gy, wilh every justification, philosophical archaeology). being. However, we may now judge more definitely the results of Husserl's "archaeological researches". Their meaning, which was We must be going mad in this confusion apparently not clear to Husserl himself, was brought out into the artrficial reasons, spaces, times... Of open in the form of a parody, as it were,-in particular in These lines, written by Alexander Blok in 1912, the year after Heidegger. Treading the same path as his teachei, Heidegger the phenomenological manifesto was written, are singularly in aims at a general -reorientation of philosophy at prescientific and harmony with Husserl's uneasy and critical attitude, which extrascientific thohght, at art. We believe, however, that Husserl remained characteristic of him throughout his scholarly activity. was the first to cross, unawares, the line that separates philosophy We should do justice to the steadfastness and courage of the from non-philosophical thinking in his pursuit of the vanishing philosopher, who upheld the humanist ideal of Reason at a time horizon of pure human essence. of inflation of spiritual values, when there was only one alternative left for,Western philosophv-scientism or irrationalism. Husserl's sophisticated methodological innovations present cer- *r<* tain difficulties in the assimilation of his ideas. However, this goes hand in hand with the missionary-like enthusiasm of his appeals to In so far as phenomenological concerns are primarily focused reason. "unreason, blind day-to-day existence in dark, lazy on the concept of subjectivity, let us take a closer look at the passivity, neglecting any preoccupation with genuine knowledge of changes wrought in transcendental subjectivity, whose teleological the beautiful and the good-these are the things that make man schema is so widely applied in phenomenology. unhappy, urging him 1o pursue worthless goals,"t7 that was his First of all, as we have indicated, Husserl does away with the unending complaint. transcendental subject's naive objectivism. 118 119 The Kantian subject is introduced as having a double support, sepsual cognition, of direct subjective perception. In otder to set as it were. On the one hand, it is supported by the senses and higher goals, in Kant's terms, for intellectual activity and to intellect linked with empirical reality, and on the other, by reason, confine its positivist tendency, he attempted to reunite the senses perceiving man's higher objectives, contemplating God, so to and the intellect, subjective experience and conception, in an whole. Thus he chooses quite an uD€X- speak.- integral, sense-forming Husserl's transcendental subject no longer has any of these pected path towards correlating the activity of consciousness with archaic features, and at the same time he is deprived of links with human essence. reality. Phenomenological procedures create gaps that cannot be All this took place, as has been noted, against a background of filled- in. The subject of phenomenology is an ontological acute dehumanisation of European culture and science. This real homunculus separated from reality by the conditions of his birth and menacing situation made Husserl literally fearful of any and locked in an imaginary intelligible time and space whose abstraction and differentiation. He strove to retain at any cost the coordinates are not correlated with real space and historical time. integral meaning of human life, to grasp it in the concreteness of The category of intentionality, which Husserl intended as a subjective experience, drawing emotional and volitional charac- means for neutralising the reverse effect of the object on the teristics into the cognitive act as the guarantee of genuine and consciousness which is concerned with it, introduces disarray into humanist philosophical consideration. This intention remained consciousness itself, though it does eliminate the danger of any unavailing, however. distortion of subjectivity. Being always, by its very nature, a As a result, phenomenology is merely lost in a thicket of "consciousness-of i, it turns out to be aimed at itself alone, entirely concepts that are virtually untranslatable into the language of absorbed in the technique of realisation. In Kant, tl:,e a priori traditional philosophy. structure of consciousness is characterised primarily by the formal We have intentionally selected certain points of contiguity element (concepts are logical functions, lending form to empirical between phenomenology and traditional philosophy to bring out data), while ir Husserl both the formation of content and the more clearly the essence of the transformations which Husserl content of consciousness itself are inherent in its structure' used as instruments for preventing the edifice of Western Husserl's transcendental subject has no analogues in the philosophy from collapsing. It seems at first striking, indeed, philosophical tradition, either in structure or the nature of his unheard-of in scientific philosophy, to include into its subject ictivity. This activity or, to be more precise, the intentional life of matter emotional characteristics, the conditions under which things consciousness, is not to be reduced to categorial deduction nor can conceived are experienced at the moment of thinking and the it be defined in concepts. "It is part of the peculiarity of integral intellectual-emotional process. We have been at pains to consciousness generally to be continually fluctuating in different show that this is not so much the task of philosophy as the dimensions, so that there can be no talk of fixing any eidetic traditional prerogative of art, of a historically determined domain concreta or any of the phases which ent-er immediately into their of artistic consciousness, theoretically substantiated in aesthetics. constitution with conceftual exactness," 20 Husserl pointed out. In other words, in joining the philosophical tradition, Husserl In other words, "conceptual exactness" apart, the founder of became qn aesthetician rather than a philosopher. Reuniting the living subjective experience and conception, the sensual and the rational; phenomenology reproduces Kant's description of - movement of spiritual forces which accompanies experiencing an he brought together the objects of philosophical concern and aesthetic idea in the shape of a visionary image. artistic images, the latter indeed being endowed with the general I Husserl sees the task of phenomenology as that of frgeing the validity of concepts and the integral structure of subjective ereative potential from the influence of epister*olo6ical formalism. e*perierrce. It appears that the unrealised ideal o{ philosophical However-, the logic of rejecting objectively deterrnined cognitive consideration, according to Husserl, is artistic thought, art in activity leads him to the limits of aesthetic reflecdon, so that general. That is the root, in our view, of his respect for everybody instead of a newly discovered form of philosophy he seem-s to be consciousness and the sphere of the immediately obvious, which discovering the familiar characteristic tyPes of testhetic judgment Husserl postulates as something supreme, a carrier of the elaborated by Kant, in which 'definition of the subject and his humanist values. feelings rather than of the object is meant".2r Husserl endowed subjectivity with a general validity which it Hrisserl opposed the traditional reduction of human knowledge only has in art. That was the outcome of his sustained effort of to scientific objective cognition, eliminating the rich spectrum of many years to provide a rigorously scientific philosophical r20 r2l substantiation for the meaning of human life. The living world, It was not by chance that the phenomenological ideas of "I-myself, with all of my actual and possible knowing life and, reactivating history and of a humanist transformation of culture ultimately, my concrete Iife in general" 22-that is the source of his degenerated into conceptions of permanent upheaval, constant "scientific" philosophy, which he called upon to save rhe world return, counter-cultLlre, new sensuality, etc. from destruction. And that is precisely the point where These and the numerous similar models of culture now current phenomenology is obviously crossing into neighbouring territory. in the West are evidence of obvious confusion of bourgeois the basis of But unified of culture discovered by phenomenology and thought in the face of the new problems -reality. iritended to eliminate the contradiction between the disjointed T-he problems of the humanisation of culture and the links of humanitarian and natural scientific knowledge, the basis assimilation of cultural heritage, which are beyond the powers of that was to become the focus of the totality of spiritual and bourgeois philosophico-aesthetical consciousness, find a genuinely cultural values, apparently Iies outside the competence of scientific scienlific solution in Marxist-Leninist theory and in the practice of philosophy. At the end of his life, Husserl himself wrote of "the socialist and communist construction. poelry of the history of philosophy" (Dichtung der Philosophieges- chichte). NOTES Husserl's unconscious conversion t 122 were written by major Germanic languages-the was compiled' These specialists on Germanic languages who were active at the higher educational establishments and at the- Academy. Publica- tio-ns of this kind are generally oriented towards modern theoretical achievements in general and Germanic linguistics, in particular, towards research findings by Soviet linguists which have L.en published in monographs and articles. Of considerable signifiiance in ihis respect-are the numerous works by spec-ialists irithe Germanic languages from the Institute of Linguistics, USSR Academy of Sciences Germanic linguistics received independent organisational status in 1950, when-a special Sector of Germanic Languages was Soviet Germanic established at the Instltute of Linguistics in Moscow, and Germanic Studies: Leningrad were included in the Indo-European specialists in - Achievements and plans Lang,rages Department. Working at present at the Institute are specialisls on various Germanic languages--English, German, VICTORIA YARTSEVA, Iiutch, Icelandic, and Danish, as well as Afrikaans. Apart from NATALIA SEMENYUK modern languages, all of the old Germanic languages (particularly -Old Gothic and Icelandic) are being studied at the Institute. Many specialists in Germanic languages also work in the field of general Germanic studies in the ussR became an independent branch linguistics. of linguistics, after the ocrober Revolurion of' r9r7. At the -Marxist-Leninist methodology is the theoretical basis for beginning.of the century, the only serious research ,"", b.irrg do.r. research work in linguistics. A concrete manifestation of this in u., ,l: Uni'ersity of St. petersbuig, where Fyodor the factual data of the Braun fotrnded philological studies is the interpretation -of the frrst chair of Germanic philorogy in Rusiia. However, both the individilal languages on the basis of the general conception of research work and the lectures wiie oriented towards'historical nreans communication in language as ihe most important- of and philological asp-ects and not strictly linguistic one. soci-etyi and ?s, in Marx words, "the immediate actuality of . T!. position of Germanic studies wiih relation to orher thought". The dialectics of language development compels the branches of changed drasticaly laws transforma- .linguistics -was in the *ia-rbsor. r" lingu-istic researcher to distinguish the general of 1935, 3 special study group organired ut the Lansuase a.rd tioi of the language system which lie behind individual linguistic Thought Institute of the Acad6my Sciences on yssl of i"i."i"g*a, changes; that iJ precisely why the work of specialists -Germanic 1o ca{y out research in Romance and Germanic languages. languages is intimately linked with general linguistic studies. In its Several soviet specialists in Germanic and general ti"grrirti?, sr.h t,.r.il, iire general advancement of linguistics contributes to the as M. Gukhman, A. Desnitskaya,- S. Katsnellon, V. yaitseva began successful development of Germanic studies. their academic careers here under v. Zhirmunrr.y ,"J vi Sr,irtr- The existenci of a centre specialising in the Germanic marev. At that time the range of-Germanic languages under study languages made it possible for collectives of scholars to undertake was gradually extended, as was the range or prlbtEms involvid in funtariental academic projects and to concentrqte on the particu- the. stu.dy of these languages. German"ic rtridi., th,r.--L..r*" larly complex problems of historical linguistics. major branch of Soviet-lin[uistics. " Speciaiists in Germanic languages from the Institute of Research in the Germanic languages is at present beinq done Linguistics and from various higher educational establishments are not.only_ in Moscow and Leningr:ad rit in othei la.ge .iri.s'of -the conlucting historical studies in various aspects-the comparative- soviet union too. The need fol weil-trained t.".h.?s a historical historical-typological aspects of the work, and the 1nd founding of chairs of Germanic philorogy ut ,rrrir.rriti.s"...rrit"t research into the history of standard Germanic languages. the torelgn languages departments of teacher training institutes.""a Contacts between research organisations and the departments To meet the needs of trigher educationar -the estabtish*ents, a of Germanic philology at higher educational establishments are whole system of textbooks on theory and history largely through All-Union Sessions on Germanic "i-."pr.ut" maintained r24 r25 I-.inq_uistics which are organised once every three or four years by vocabulary insofar as it had a bearing on the regional characteris- the Institute of Linguistics. The first session was held in'19b6 to tics of the Germanic languages and their position among other discuss the prospectus of the Comparatiue Grammor. Seven such Indo-European languages. However, this work differed from sessions have taken place so far and the subjects discussed are previous efforts not only in the greater volume of material but always linked with the most important directions of investigation also in the principles of interpreting it. Both the system of in the Germanic languages conducted at the Institute. language resources and certain features of their functioning were taken into account, particularly with regard to morphology. It should also be pointed out that, on the whole, the work *{<* draws on information from all the old Germanic languages, including the language of runic inscriptions. A major comparative-historical study of the Germanic lan- The latter had been thoroughly described in E. Makayev's guages is the four-volume Comparatiae Grammar of the Germanic monograph The Language of the Most Anci.ent Runic Inscriptions Languages (Moscow, 1962-1966) edited by M. Gukhman, Y. Zhir- (Moscow, 1965). V. Zhirmunsky's The Introduction into Comparatiue munsky, E. Makayev, and V. Yartseva. Apart from the editors, the Historical Studies of the Germanic Languages (Moscow-Leningrad, authors' collective included S. Katsnelson, E. Kubryakova, 1964) and S. Katsnelson's Comparatiue Accentology of the Germani,c S. Mironov, O. Moskalskaya, M. Steblin-Kamensky, N. Chemodan- Langtages (Moscow-Leningrad, 1966), were published at the same ov and G. Shchur. time as the Comparatiae Grammar and later, in the early 1970s, In the Preface to Volume 1 of the Comparatiue Grammar, the appeared E. Makayev's monograph Word,-Structure in the Indo- authors pointed out the need for a fundamental work incorporat- European and Germanic Languages (Moscow, 1970). ing the latest findings of compararive-historical studies of the These works, taken together, completed, at a definite stage in Germanic languages, as there was a considerable gap between the development of comparative-historical linguistics, the cycle of present-day research work in this field and the survey-type Germanic studies at the Institute of Linguistics. publications that had appeared within the last few decades. The Comparatiue Grammar was thus intended and took shape as a survey of Indo-European comparative linguistics of the I950s and 1960s. It contained refelence materials as well as original interpretations of the mosr debatable problems in the field of the A major scholarly project undertaken by the Germanic comparative grammar of the Germanic languages. Languages Sector of the Institute of Linguistics in the field - h determining Germanic archetypes, the authors attempted to of language history was An Historical Typological Morphology of the single out phenomena belonging to different periods of the Germanic Languages, in three volumes (1977-1978); it was edited by existence of the Germanic language community, distinguishing M. Gukhman, E. Makayev and V. Yartseva and the other authors between the structural patterns and processes characteristit of the were E. Kubryakova, S. Mironov, V. Admoni, L. Yermolayeva, epog! when lh. Germanic language community was being O. Moskalskaya and O. Smirnitskaya. established, and the later phenomena and processes involved in As work on the comparative grammar proceeded, it became the gradual isolation of the individual Germanic dialects. Special clear that there was a need to investigate the typology of processes consideration was also given to the development trends wfricfr leading to the formation of morphological systems of the were apparent in the initial stages of the history of separate individual Germanic languages. This emphasised the importance Germanic langudges, such as the various types of muiation, not only of retrospective comparative studies, but also of reduction of final syllables, incipient disintegration of the old types perspective ones. It should be noted, however, that by that time of declension, etc. The sound-structure of the Germanic languages various articles, dissertations, and monographs had already been was described in terms of a combination of phonetii ana published on the subject. phonological principles; accentology was treated in a special Determining the goals of the work, the editors wrote in the chapter (Vol. 2). The treatment of morphology (Vols. 3 a"a +; introduction to Volume l: "...as distinct from a comparative- included not only accidence but also a detailed iharacterisation of historical grammar, in which the focus is on the reconstruction of verbal and nominal word-formation-a major contribution to the archetypes and basic patterns at various levels while the study of work. In the first volume, a whole chapter was devoted to their <'hanges in the oldest written records is viewed as something r26 127 derivative and even secondary, historical-typological studies of a special section (Vol. 3) of the problem of monoflexion in the cognate languages are aimed at the results of development and Germanic languages. The history of non-finite forms of the transformation, at revealing the inner springs and mechanisms Germanic verb is also treated'here in a generalised form, from a conditioning the processes themselves". Thus the goal is to show typological point of view. the general tendencies in the transformation and development of Analysis of this extensive material revealed typological shifts separate categories and certain microsystems, to establish thereby that were marked by common structural tendencies even in certain diachronic constants, and to determine the correlation materially different entities. Examples of this are the German between the general and the specific both in the direction of Conditional and the English constructions with should and would development and in the degree of intensity of change. in their correlation with future tense forms, as well as the Gothic Archetypes borrowed "ready-made" from comparative gram- verbs in -nan and. Scandinavian ones in -s, which became part of mar may serve as base material or alternatively, when explicit use the voice oppositions in the process of their devi:lopmen1. The of reconstructed types is impossible, the system of the language correlation between general tendencies and specifiC features is which is supposedly the carrier of the most archaic or even therefore established in this work not only with regard ro primordial features may serve as the frame of reference. The genetically identical entities (e.g., nominal declension classes or the principal object of study is here the typology of processes system of finite verb endings) but also with regard to grammatical determining the major shifts in the morphological paradigms of categories whose formal expression in various Germanic languages the Germanic languages. In this work, development is traced up to is different but the content oppositions of which are the same, as the l?th and t8th centuries. Not only do the processeJ of is the case in the formation of the new paradigms of mood or disintegration of old paradigrirs prove to be typologically signific- voice (passive). At the same time structurally identical formations ant, so does the formation of new paradigms-a feature are often found in quite different positions in the system of each particularly characteristic of the verb. This process is based on language. That was the case with the combinations of the verbs qualitative changes in the functional and systematic status of uerden and sein with Participle II in German, English, and Dutch combinations of notional and auxiliary verbs. not to mention the complexities of their history in the Scandina- A characteristic feature of the methods of analysis is the vian group of languages, where they were absorbed in the consistent application of the opposition principle combined with a subsystem of forms in -s. functional analysis of the structural units included in a certain These tasks were accomplished through linguistic analysis of microsystem. One of the postulates here is the determining role of numerbus prose and poetry texts of all the Germanic languages, grammatical semantics, the latter being clearly manifested in the beginning with Gothic and the language of the runic inscriptions formation of new oppositions through units of different levels and ending with scripts from the 16th and lTth centuries. This being included in paradigms. material served as the source for estatrlishing the relative - The m€thods applied here have shown that the determining chronology and the degree of intensity of the diachronic processes factors of changes in the morphological paradigms of the in separate Germanic languages; it was also instrumental in Germanic languages were transformations in the means and forms determining the measure of productivity of the new categories, of realisation of grammatical meanings and, over and above that, which frequently valied from one genre of scripts to another in changes in the principles of their division, which determined the one and the same language and throughout the same period. composition and types of oppositions in different areas of the The additional factors affecting the processes under study were morphological system. thus the genre of the text and whether it was an original or a The principal part of the work is a series of chapters on the translation. grammatical categories of the noun and the verb. These are It should be stressed that historical themes figure prominently preceded by two introductory chapters treating phonomorphologi- not only in the work of the Institute of Linguistics bui also in the cal processes and typological formations in the structure bf lecture courses, particularly at universities. The history of indi- paradigms. The latter of these considers general changes in the vidual Germanic languages is therefore covered by a whole system structure of word-forms, in the correlation of the root and of publications differing in their nature and purpose, including a inflexional morphs, in the structure of grammatical markers, the series of monographs and textbooks. Surveys of the history of degree of generality in the modes of marking grammatical German have been written by V. Zhirmunsky and O. Moskalskaya; meanings, etc. An original aspect of this study is the tieatment, in historical syntax is surveyed in a work by V. Admoni, historical r2t g sax.1522 - 129 morphology, by L. Zinder and T, Stroyeva. Textbooks on the researcher's independent analysis of a vast amount of factual data. history of English have been written by B. Ilyish, V. Arakin, and Particularly noteworthy was the use of incunab.rlla and manus- I. Ivanova (jointly with L. Chekhoyan). cripts. At more advanced stages of instruction, use is rnade of Germanic materials were also represented in Volume X of Yartseva's monographs on historical morphology (1960) and Transactions of the Iwtitute of Lingaistics (Moscow, 1960) in the syntax (1961) tracing the laws of the transformation of the articles by V. Yartseva, S. Mironov and M. Gukhman. These morphological and syntactical subsystems of the English language. works on the history of standard languages had hs their primary Extensive historical materials on substantival morphology have goal the establishment of the relatioiship berween the siandard been gathered in S. Mironov's monograph (1973). M. Steblin- languag-e and its dialects at different peiiods in its history; they Kamensky is the author of a historical survey of the Scandinavian were also marked try a rejection of the traditional simplistit languages (1953). There are also special manuals on Gothic by interpretation of the correlation between processes in' oral M. Gukhman and B. Zadorozhny (in Ukrainian); on Old Icelan- communication and those in various written traditions. There was dic, by M. Steblin-Kamensky; on Old English, by A. Smirnitsky. also another aspect to the artemprs at determining the dialectal Germanic verbal word-formation is thoroughly analysed, with basis of the various Germanic languages, that is, at eitablishing the illustrations from Gothic, in I. Sizova's monograph (1978). Wide genetic dependencies of the standard language on dialects-I-the use is made, in teaching, of the anthologies in the history of scholars were concerned with the separation of the standard German by N. Chemodanov and of those in the history of English language. from its dialectal basis and- the development of the by A. Smirnitsky. N. Filicheva has compiled and published a "supra-dialectal" features of the standard language. university course of lectures in the history of German (1959). In the second half of the 1960s and the earty tS7Os, several books on standard languages appeared-V. Admoni,s (The De- uelopment of Sentence-Structure at the Time of the Formation of-and the German National Language, Moscow-Leningrad, 1966) N. Semenyu.k's_(Prollyyt of tlte Formati.on of thi Norms of Standard In the 1950s, work began at the Sector of Germanic Languages German in the First Half of the 18th Century, Moscow, t9"67), to be on problems of the history and theory of the standard Germanic followed !y tn" works of V. Yartseva (The Deuelopment of the Ianguages. National Standard English Language, Moscow, 1969), M. Gukh-an The work of Soviet Germanic linguists, just as that of all Soviet (The_Langugge of Geiman Polilical Leturature of the'ileformation and Iinguists concerned with the history of standard languages, is the Peasant War, Moscow, 1970), N. Semenyuk (From'the History of marked by a tendency to view the separate phenomena in the the_Functi:onal Stylistic Differentiation of Standard, German, Moscow, historical changes of the language against the background of, and 1972\, and S. Mironov (The Formaiion of the Literary Norm of in connection with, the general laws of language development. Mod,ern Dutch, Moscow, 1973). This involves deep-rooted historism in assessing separate linguistic A characteristic feature of these studies was the use of phenomena, as similar language features and identical structures extensive textual materials representing various types and genres may have different functional values at different periods in the of written documents. one should noie in particular the ise of development of the given language. There is also a desire to sources hitherto practically unstudied. Thus the works of establish the functional features of language phenomena in N. Semenyuk on l7th- and l8th-century German are based on the connection with the social role of the language in a specific language of -periodicals, while M. Gukhman's monograph is linguistic community. devoted to the language of leaflets from the time* oi the In 1955-1959, M.'Gukhman's two-volume monograph From the Reformation and the Peasant war. The common.feature of these Langtage of the German Nationali,ty to the National German Language works is the use of unexplored popular forms of literature from appeared, which raised a number of most important theoretical the l6th-l8th cenruries. problems'pertaining to the characteristics of standard German at Various Germanic languages provide material for the study of various stages in its development. The author was primarily the relatively recent s.tages in the history of standard .languages concerned with revealing the differences between the standard directly preceding their modern srate. considerabre importincJ is language of the pre-national and the national periods. This was therefore'attached to pro.blems of the norm and the characteristics the first Soviet study on the history of German based on the of various forms of the process of codification which, in its turn, r30 13r leads to a number of new theoretical and practical aspects of the component of the entire range of historical and, in particular, study of standard Germanic languages. Problems arise of the cultural-historical processes. The perspectives of this direction consiant and variable elements of the literary norm, of the include a gradual extension of the range of Germanic languages prestige of certain features of the language system as- assessed by analysed from this point of view. society in the process of their codification, etc. The focus is now Standard languages are also studied in their modern forms. noticeably shifted from the study of territorial differentiation and Particular attention is devoted to the variations in standard "dialect basis" to the consideration of the nature and correlations Germanic languages as used in different areas and states. between different types of variation of the standard language- P. Domashnev, for instance, considers the distinctive features of social, functional-stylistic, and territorial. the Austrian variant of the standard German language at various The intensive study of these problems, with special reference to levels of its system. Structural differences between the British and the German language is motivated by the long-standing academic the American variants of standard English are the subject of a cooperation between the Institute of Linguistics of the USSR number of publications by A. Shweitser. G. Shchur, on the other Academy of Sciences, and the Institute for the German I anguage hand, concentrates on grammatical variations within the English and Literature, later. the Central Institute of Linguistics of the language over an extremely large area (including lreland, India, GDR Academy of Sciences. Australia, etc.). Soviet works in Germanic linguistics have mostly appeared in a The sociological aspect and development of the English series especially designed to promote cooperation*Bouster'ne zur language in the USA are the subject of a work by A. Shweitser Sprachgeichtchte- des Neuhochdeutschen, ed. by G. Feudel (Berlin). now in preparation-The Social Dit'ferenti,ati,on of English i.n the At present there are two rnore works in print that are part of USA. lt poses the important theoretical problem of the mobility of the coordination project: M. Gukhman's and N. Semenyuk's study socially marked elements of the language system. We thus observe on ways of formation of grammatical nort't.ts in the verb a further development, at a new level and against a new system, based on manuscripts of different genres of the l5th-lSth background, of the sociological approach to the Germanic centuries, and V. Admoni's work on the formation of the complex languages initiated some time ago in the works of V. Zhirmunsky. sentences in German, based on business prose of the l6th-l8th centuries. In this latter work the author develops his ideas on the historical syntax of German and raises the problem of the specificity- of syntactic norms. Constant extension of the scope of data and of the chronologi- cal range, as well as of the problems considered, entails the One may formulate the following general principles which are possibiliiy of a transition from the study of separate periods in the common to most Germanic studies in the field of grammatical history of standard Germanic languages to an integral treatment theory: a more or less consistent delimitation of language and of processes observed throughout their history. The realisation of speech units or, correspondingly, of system and its realisation in thii task is more feasible in the case of those languages for which texts; the tendency to study both the formal and the semantic there is already a body of preliminary research' That is the aspects of language units; the elaboration of certain principles of situation with English, German and Dutch; their history has been singling out grammatical categories, in particular, correlating expounded in a unified series on the basis of certain general grammatical categories with the concept of paradigm, etc. Among principles. The essential features of these works are in keeping the most important general theoretical problems is that of with the traditions of linguistics in this country. Firstly, there is the revealing the correlation between the formal aspects of grammati- delimitation of the history of the standard language from other cal phenomena, their semantic aspects, and categories of thought. historical-linguistic disciplines, in particular. from historical gram- The theory of the modern Germanic languages is expounded mar, lexicology, and dialectology-in other words, the specifica- in a number of original monographs, like V. Admoni's Syntax of tion of the subject-matter. Secondly, of particular significance is Modern German (1973). One should also mention here M. Steblin- the orientation, in principle, towards the study of the history o{ Kamensky's The Grammar of Norwegian (1957), G. Torsuyev's standard Germanic languages in the context of the political, works on the phonetic structure of the word and modern English economic, and cultural history of the country concerned, that is, accentology (1960 and 1962), E. Kubryakova's Fundamentals of viewing the genesis of a standard language as an essential Morphological Analysi,s (with Special Reference to Germanic Languages) 132 133 (1974), and V. Pavlov's monograph on modern German com- raph is essentially obliterated. The last of the above-mentioned pound words published in German (Munich, 1972). works considers problems of grammatical stylistics as well as-those Grammatical problems are also treated in a number of papers of text organisati,on. Of the earlier works on grammatical stylistics, published in special collections of articles and journals. see T. Siliran's Problems of Syntactical Stylistics (Leningrad, 1967). However, it is not always possible to draw a distinct line In recent years problems of text linguistics (its stylistic and of between historical and modern synchronic studies on the theoreti- grammaticai aspecis, primarily) have also gain-g{ the -attention cal plane, either, for theoretical concepts are often evolved against iesearchers in the Geimanic languages, in English and German in both kinds of background. This is true of morphology, problems particular. Among the most significant publications on this theme of syntax, and features of Germanic word-formation, the latter are works by I. Galperin and O. Moskalskaya. being distinguished, according to the linguistic tradition in this Lexical and lexico-semantic studies based on the Germanic country, as a special field of linguistic research, differing from. languages are also in progress. activity the most both morphology and lexicology. RecEntly, there hai been considerable _ in It should be noted however at the same time that the very complicated problems of Iexical semantics in the Germanic concepts of grammatical category, field, inflexional form, morph, languages. Studies in this direction are dominated-.by syn-chronic grammeme, and others, are variously interpreted by different .esd.rcl in modern languages (particularly English), although scholars and the role of the formal and the semantic aspects of historical materials have also been adduced [cf. A. Ufimtseva, An language units is taken into account in varying degrees. There are Essay in the Study of Vocabulary as a System (with Special Reference to also differing interpretations of the logico-semantic aspect of the sentence in the' syntax of modern Germanic languages-a a general characterisation of the lexico-semantic_system of the particularly fast-growing field. There are currently varying in- language (see A. Ufimtseva, The Word tn the Lexi,co-Semantic Systeln terpretations of the valency theory, so widely used in syntactic of Language, Moscow, 1968) is complemented by a semantic theory and to some extent in the theory of word-formation (see analysiiof-separate groups of words based on the description of M. Stepanova, G. Helbig, Parts of Speech and the Valency Problem in various components of word meaning singled out-for the purpose Modern German, Moscow, 1978). Of the syntactical studies now in (see O. Seliverstova, Componential Analysis of Polysemantic Words, preparation at the Sector of the Germanic Languages of the Moscow, 1975). Institute of Linguistics, mention should be made of N. Slyusareva's In the works of A. Ufimtseva, mentioned above, a fundamental work Problems of the Functional Grammar of English and S. Kuznet- distinition is made between lexical and lexico-semantic levels in sov's Theoretical Syntax of Danish. the study of vocabulary. The word is viewed, on the one hand, as Grammatical theory is developed not only in separate monog- a nominative unit and paradigmatic relations between words are raphs and articles but also in works intended as college texts. Such established at this stage. On the other hand, syntagmatic connec- works as V. Admoni's Der deutsche Sprachbau (1972) or O. Moskals- tions arising in the functioning (use) of words are also traced. The kaya's Grammatik der deutschen Gegenwartsprache (1975) offer both vocabulary of English is widely used as material for this study. an exposition of the debatable views of various problems of Works on componential analysis fall into two groups: (a) morphology and syntax and the authors' own ideas. Original studies in which meaning components are singled out on the basis research findings are also presented in L. Barkhudarov's The of dictionary definitions, the purpose of which is largely the Structure of the Sentence in Mod,ern Engli.sh (Moscow, 1966), systematisation of dictionary data, and (b) works whose main N. Filicheva's On Word-Combi;nati'ons in Modern German (Moscow, purpose is the verification of dictionary definitions -and the 1969), E. Shendels' Polysemy and, Synonymy in Grammar (Moscow, istab[shment of meaning components not recorded in dictionary 1970), E. Gulyga's Theory of the Complex Sentence in Mod,ern German definitions. In works of the latter type, analysis of textual material (Moscow, 1971), and B. Abramov's Typology of the Elementary is supplemented by experimental studies (work with informants Sentence in Modern German (Moscow, L972). and diagnostic tests). Application of these methods has yielded The situation is much the same in the other fields of Germanic certain iemantic groupings of English verbs (see works by studies. English Stylistics by I. Galperin and German Srylistics by O. Seliverstova). E. Riesel, as well as E. Riesel's and E. Shendels' joint work bn Amongst lexicological works in the proper sense, one should stylistics (Moscow, 1975) are original independent works, so that note, in farticular, Jtudies in the phraseology of German and the boundary between the textbook and the theoretical monog- English (iee I. Chernysheva, The Phraseology of Modem German, t34 135 Moscow, 1970; A.I(unin, English Phraseology, Moscow, 1970). This In conclusion, a few words on the perspectives and goals of trend, largely based on the theoretical achievements of linguistics Germanic studies in the near future. The next task is the in this country, constitutes an original development in Soviet preparation of a series' of academic historical gr.1mqa1s of the Germanic lexicology. individual Germanic languages according to a unified plan' The need for such a work is due to the fact that fresh linguistic Research studies and textbooks in lexicology and semantics are data have been accumulated within recent decades, and both the complemented by a great number lexicogiaphic of works linked methods their study and their interpretation have undergone with the- publication of bilingual dictionaries of in att of the principal considerable revision. This apart, the lexico-semantic studies in Germanic languages, including Icelandic (V. Berkov, tS62;, Nbr- Germanic languages will certainly be extended. It is also assumed wegian (V. Arakin, 1963), Swedish (V. Maximov,l9G4 D. Milano- that diverse linguistic data will be drawn into theoretical research, va, 1973) and Danish (A. Novakovich, l97b). Mention should also in particular of the less explored Germanic languages. be made of Neu German-Russian Dictionary (edited by Germanic studies in these directions O. Moskalskaya, 1969) the first The development of edition of which contained about does not exclude other aspects of research in the 165 thousand words. At present, a supplement certainly to this edition has languages-aspects that have been touched upon in this been prepared which has brought Germanic the number of lexical entries to article and the possibilities of which have by no means been 200,000. The third edition New English-Russi;an Dictionary, of exhausted. edited by I. Galperin, has appeared (Moscow, lgTg). A Danisir- Russian Dictionary has also been published, and the third edition of the Dutch-Russian Dicti,onary is now in preparation. A German- Russian Phraseological Dictionary, compiled by L. Binovich and N- Grishin (2nd ed., lS75), and A. Kunin's English-Russi,an Phr.aseological Dictionary (1967) have also appeared. An original lexicographic work has been carried out under M. Stepanova's general direction (see The Di:cti,onary of Word-Formateons i,n Cerman, Moscow, 1979). We may thus say that the themes of study in the Germanic languages are comprehensive and varied. There are numerous fundamerital surveys, monographs on more specialised topics covering particular domains of language material, and works intended for instruction. However, the characteristic feature of all these works is the tendency to link up Germanic studies with general linguistic problems. This feature was also inherent in the earlier studies in historical and comparative-historical grammar as well as in works analysing the laws of the functioning and development of Germanic nltional and standard languag"L lt it also a feature of the later works in historical typology, the history of standard languages, theoretical grammar, word-forrnation, lexicology, and semantics. It should be pointed out in this respect that many conclusions reached in Geimanic studies were liter used in works on other languages, becoming a feature of various fields of theoretical linguistics. We have been at pains to show that Soviet Germanic studies are in many respecls based on the traditions of Russian and Soviet linguistics. On the orher hand, this influence is not one-sided: Germanic studies, we believe, have made a considerable contribution to the development of Soviet linguistics in general. 136 greatest care made distinct from true Nature as the subject of naive poetry".a Actual Nature is fortuitous, it was thought, while true Nature is a necessity; the former may be low in level, while the latter cannot be. In other words, true Nature is Nature as an ideal, and an ideal just as Nature is. With .Homer, Schiller a-sserted, "everything is ideal even given the most sensual truth".5 According to Hegel, Greek culture as another form of existence of Nature was indeed the "actual existence (Dasein) of the classical ideal".6 It was classical, i.e., as normal as Nature and as normative as an ideal. Its classicality was so self-evident that it called for no discussion, and The Changing lmage was so inexplicable that it proved a mysterious gift. "As for the of Antiquity historical realisation of the classical ideal, there is hardly any need to note that we must seek for it with the Greeks. Classical beauty, SERGEI AVERINTSEV in all the infinite volume of content, material and form, was a gift received by the Greek people."? This image of antiquity both as "Nature" and an "ideal" More than two centuries separate us from the l760s when possesses a property that was then attributed both to Nature and winc-kelmann .,noble "eternalness". along the ambiguous epitomised the essince of Heilenic culture as-.rttrr..,, the ideal, i.e., Man wanders simplicity ,ld tranquil majesty',, and studied tt",ui and unquiet paths of history, but he has a home which never fails aesthetic qualities down to the smallest details of everyday-lif. of to await the return of the Prodigal Son: the indisputable and calm the time; he did not hesitate to describe as "majestic" l ihl way or beauty of Nature, which is given once and for all time, the beauty thinking- of all people in ancient Greece. These" words will not be of an ideal, of antiquity. To the times, the images of antiquity as repeated by anyone today, for his view of classical those of Nature were contrasted with the "vanity" of history. "We antiquity ,..*, 8 nalve to us; and indeed it is. However, this ,iru posresses an are free, while they are necessary; we change but they remain." indisputable advantage: it possesses integrity, .onJirt.rr.v und They are as unalterable as the succession of day and night; they logic; it is not an amalgam of mutualJy ".*Jtrrrire f.ug-'.rtu.y are alien to the sphere of human choice, risk and struggle' sketches, as it was seen by later, more informed u"a ru. i.r, naive It was in such a light that an entire epoch saw Hellenistic interpreters ,,ideal,' of those disfant times. It is because it is classicism, which can be conventionally dated as beginning in 1764 mhrked PI u" "idea". It_is an ideal, not in the ,fr..uaUr.., or 1766 (i.e., the publication of Winckelmann's Geschichte der Kunst irresponsibly. emotional and sentimentai rneaning i" *ni.r, it i, des Altertum.s and Lessing's Laokoon respectively), and may be otten used but in its initial strict and full senie. what stands considered as an end in 1831 or 1832 (the years of the deaths of behind it is not a mood or idre admirarion but berief-a Lelief, Hegel and Goethe). An interpretation of antiquity-was-then placed inherent_ in the Enlightenmenr, in the possibilities of a culture that in unique conditions determined cnter alta by the alignment of rs rn tull accord with Nature and a Nature that is in fuil accord forces between the scientific fact-description and philosopho- with Reason. It was Goethe who compared Winckelmann with aesthetic generalisation. The advances of the concrete scientific columbus;z indeed winckerman" r.*ui'.a ro an entire epl.h an disciplines were comparatively modest, while the ability of the ideal_image of antiquity: the weimar crassicism or coetne,'scr,iile. German Biirger and the European bourgeois to harbour high and voss, as rvell as the German classical idealism of scheilineo and ideas on the upbuilding of life remained high for the time being. Hegel stem from Winckelmann's initial idea. But the situation was soon to change, for while the facts kept Hellenic culture was again and again considered similar to accumulating, ideas did not always keep pace with them' The Nature, and, indeed, was identified w'ith it. To Goethe, fto*.. decadence in philosophy which was to take the place of classical was Nature itself.3 But what was the "Nature" spoken of in this idealism revealed opposing extremes that were in sharp dissonance connection? There wa. a Nature, it was thought,'that was merely but at the same time were somehow mysteriously interlinked: at "actual nature", which, Schiller demanded, s"hould n. ;;*iif, tn. one extreme stood the unprepossessing "soberness" of positivism 138 159 ,,intoxication,' and vulgar materialism, and, at the other, the of had yielded place to localism. unlike many of his contemp_orarres irrationalism. (for instance Gottfried Benn), Mann linked the concept of Europe His Europe meant a tradition The traditional attitude towards antiquity'of as an ideal did not *ith *..rt"I, not racial categories. , vanish at the conclusion of the first third the lgth century. of liberal humanism whicli regarded democratic Athens as its to That most characteristic representative of positivist ecclecticism, a original home. Freedom-loving-Greece, which stood -opposedcould, man.who proved so much to the taste of ihe European educated the""stifling" Orient, the despotism of .Persia, that symbol if p"bli: and exerted an influence out of all profiortion to his for a time, regain an intimate link with our times' sigrrificance as a thinker, to wit Ernest Renan, worshipped the Mann, who- in 1925 had welcomed the defeat of all and any the Pallas Athene, in his rhetorical effusions, as the eternal lawgiver of "Persians;', saw those very Persians sixteen years later in Beauty and Reason: "Le monde ne sera sauv6 qu'en rev6nant i soldiers of the Third Reich. Speaking on the BBC in May 1941 toi, en r6pudiant ses attaches barbares."e Echoes bf such thinking and recalling, among other things, the resistance offered by the -to his can be seen in Anatole France- already in his La R\uolte des Angis Greeks of ihe day the Geriran invaders, he addressed (1914), and also subsequently. A certain emotional reacti;n fellow-countrymen in the following words: "Do you like the role the towards the monuments of classical antiquity has remained armost the play of iristory has forced you. to assume today, when automatic with the west European vector of the antique culture. world-scale symbol'of Thermopylae is being repeated at the-very Your "Athens? I have been there," Tho-as Mann wrote in summing up same place? Again, these are the Greeks, but who are- you? his travel im-pressions of 1925. "...but it is also difficult ro put int; rulers have cJnvinced you that freedom is so much outdated words, j9.--,t? are all so familiar to us, so spiritually elegint and rubbish. Believe me: despite all the empty talk of the pseudo- so youthfully European-all these divine remnants afte. tf,e forms philosophers ancl all the- caprices of the history of the mind, of culture on rhe banks of the Nile. Cast bookish ireedo- will always be what ii was over 2,000 years ago-the light off all your rr sentimentality; these are not trifles: from the Hill look downwards and soul of Europe." and into the distance, towards Salamis, and the Sacred Road. After Confronted by a grave historical situation, the writer spoke all, it is here that all of us began; here lies the truly heroic land of confidently of the himanistic narure of the Hellenist ideal of our youth.- We have separated ourselves from the'stifling Orient; freedom, Lut hasterred to link it exclusively with Europe, asfuring "light and our spirit has become gay and genial, it is here that the image his readers that the Hellenist ideal would always be the of Tlurope, man was born, which often drooped but invariably re-eme-rged soul of Europe". However, Europe is nothing more.than article written in towards the sun. From where I stood, one can feel that only h6 is merely a geographical notion, pais pro toto. ln an a genuine son of Europe who, in his finest hours, is capable of 1936,'Main ioniraposed two ways of understanding,the heritage returning in heart antiquity: one represented by Winckelmann, Wilhelm von - - to Hellenism. As you stand theie, you of passionately desire that the Persians, no matter what dress t'hey Humboldt,'schiller, doethe and Hegel, and the other by Jakob may return in, should be defeated again and again." to Burckhardt and Nietzsche. "To the former, Hellenism was a law It is not without a dash of irony that Mann summarises and a norm, something standing outside of time, and eternal; to transit- features common to all neoclassicist enthusiasm. we shalr not be the latter, it was an Eistorical phenomenon, something Goethe but remaining a man of surprised when this Goetheian, the future author of Lotte i,n oiy." " Yearning for the times of Weimar recalls Goethe's words from lphigeni,e auf Tauii;s: ,'Das his own times, tho.rur Mann felt obliged to side with the latter, Land der Griechen nrit der Seele suchend." However, the who had "an historical vision that is more real, acute, intense and similarity produces a living sense of difference. To Winckelmann, gloomy".r3 " Between the Lessing., Goethe and Schiller, Ancient Greece was the mystery of Th; latter epithet is most revealing. -W-eimar humanity, of mankind, an expression of humanity's Naiure and classicism and its later successor stood generations of Biirget humanity's essence as something that has returned to itself. To intellectuals to whom the concepts of the real and the gloomy had was a Thomas Mann's generation, it went without saying that Greece was drawn very close together. Truth must alytays le g-looml-that at best a secret of Europe (or the Occident-'des-Abendlandes) and, view strangely shaied by the "scientific" Biichner, Moleschott, an expression of the West European "essence". What was once the Strauss u.ri ih. "non-scientific" Schopenhauer, Nietzsche and "childhood of mankind", had become the youth of Europe, a Eduard von Hartmann. remarkable but small part of the world; Mann's generation had A period that had produced naturalism in artistic creativity heard of the "twilight of Europe" from O. Spenglei. Universalism could not be different. As pointed out by a personage in Thomas 140 141 writings, (this been tUann's "in. the naturalist -melancholy;point of view or history... existence of Oriental literature despite the Bible have vulgarity-is-stran-gely intertwined with ... such a blend translated by Jews into Greek in the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C.), is a symbol of the times, of the lgth century *ni.f, is prone to as well as another and even more surprising fact: they were' sure vulgar gloorniness".-to of course, the referen.L he". is eiclusively that no Roman literature ever existed. Plutarch would consult to the middle and the end of the lgth century-not to its opening Horace to find some information for his own historical writing years' ,In other respects, this characteristic' is epigrammlticail! but it never occurred to him to read Horace as a po€t. He wrote a pointed and, of course, epigrammatically orre-sidei, but it has biography of Cicero but refused to speak of Cicero as an orator understood its own aspect of the matter veiy precisely. It was from and stylist. This concept of the uniqueness of Greek culture will his own experience that Thomas Mann had a firsi-hand know- not seem so very absurd if we realise that they were able to impose ledge both of the school of naturalistic "returns to soberness" and it, not only on the Romans (who considered themselves as "rivals" of the Schopenhauer-Nietzscheian,,raptures',... of Greek culture and endeavoured to forget everything that had been created before they gained a knowledge of Hellenic standards) but also on the cultural uPper crust of the Middle Ages ** and then of Renaissance and post-Renaissance Europe, who so easily eschewed the ",barbarism" of the mediaeval cathedrals and we see the culture of antiquity as having possessed a developed chivalrous poetry. and reflective just self-awareness but lacking.- i genuine awarenesi of This state of civilisation was regarded as the only possible, the reality of other cultural traditions. as immutable as the arrangement of the Universe and the . While-in no way. being "superior" to the culture of neighbour- Pythagorean harmony of the spheres. If history ever spoke of 1rB peoples, and_ with its own weaknesses, dangers and iripasses, other conditions, then that stemmed from barbarism, which had to Greek culture first arrived at a self-awareneJs and a level of be done away with so that a new culture might be erected. It was reflection that enabled it to see itself as a special kind of in approximately such a light that Vasari in the 16th century wrote phenomenon, one irreducible to any kind of culi, tradition, or his history of Renaissance painting: everything had begun with mere practical wisdom. Giotto, prior to whom there had been nothing but barbarism, It is obvious today that, even prior to the Greeks, people had which ended with the renascence of the antique tradition of given thought to the arrangemeniof the world and whit man had painting. And though this. was not quite true in respect of to do in that world, i.e., posse-ssed what is called a cosmology, an painting, since no exact knowlgdge of the ancient tradition of ontology, an ethic. However, there was a philosophical disci"pline, painting was then existent, Vasari could not think otherwise, for namely epistemology, which did not and'could not exist tfo.. he based himself on a concept of culture that went |ack to then, because it was only their mode of thinking (we are not at antiquity, one in which everything was cultivated, smooth and present referring ro the orient) that addressed itself to itself, trurtpu."rt; it was the only dwelling in the world, one that could thereby rransforming everything else into philosophy: cosmology, not bi placed on a level with similar dwellings for the spirit, could ontology and ethics. not be disputed by them, and had been chosen for all time, so that Other peoples also possessed alphabets and literature, but'it no rivalry could ever threaten it. was only with the Greeks that the stiucture of literary genres took During the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and' later, contacts *up9_ ext-raneously of everyday or cult situations (as,'f6r instance, with the heritage of antiquity were so intimate and immediate that the "kinah" or lamentations of the old Testament associated with no integral, self-contained and complete "image of antique some woeful event) and proceeded from their own formal genre culture" could exist, in just the same way as a man who is within a features (in the same wiy as the elegy, which house cannot see it from outside. For the question of any correspondEa'by to "kinah", was marked by a rigoroui'measure and paired characteristic of antiquity as something integral to arise, prerequis- hexameter and pentameter alterirations). ites were essential for a multiple view on the history of culture as The Greeks also knew that other peoples also possessed the history of cultural traditions. It is characteristic that the first "wisdom" but no philosophy; there eiist.^d .rrto*, but no image of antiquity, one that was idealised and still preserved the paideia; literature, but not in the genuine sense of the term, i.e., impiint of its "exclusivsns5s"-although contemporary with the in the way the- Greeks understood it. Their conviction that-they firit efforts to question that exclusiveness-hinged on the idea of alone possessed culture can be seen in their totar disregard of the Greek art and Greek sculpture. t42 143 Fundamental changes in the basic spiritual views of cultured place among all other facts. It could lre more or less interesting, mankind burgeon but gradually and do not take shape immediate- more or less demonstrable and more or less significant, but, in ly, so that any dating can only be conventional. Nevertheless, one principle, it possessed the plenitude of rights of a fact. This cannot but attach tremendous importance to the 1760s, which saw "democratic" equality possessed by all facts as of necessity the appearance of Rousseau's most important writings, when there presupposed by the spirit of science was incompatible with the first appeared a thirst for primitive and barbaric beauty, as distinct "aristocratic" and hierarchical principle in the selection of facts, from the Hellenic standards-a thirst that was so eagerly slaked without which no ideal canon could be built or preserved. by the forgery committed by James Macpherson, whlch'became Winckelmann and thinkers of the Weimar epoch distinguished known to all Europe and was entitled by him The Writings of between "true" antique classicism and the empirism of historical O-ssian, tg" of Ftngpl, Translated From the Caelic or Erse Language. facts. When, fo'r instance, they praised the civilisation of Ancient When Thomas Gray, aurhor of Elegy Written in a C-ounlry Greece as the triumph of human dignity, they were not ignorant (twice Churchyard, translated into Russian by Zhukovsky), began to of the humiliation of slaves, helots and the like, which was the take a serious interest in Celtic and Scandinavian mytholog!, and price paid for the dignity of the full citizen. It cannot. be said that his friend Horace Walpole took up depictions of meiiaevaimotifs such authors turned a blind eye to unpleasant facts, which they (the Castle of Otranta, 1765), and finally when Johann Winckel- simply regarded as pertaining, not to the sphere of the "true" but T-u-r^, brought out his celebrared History of the Art of Antiquity, to that of the "actual". However, to any contemporary of the 19th 1763, in which, for the first time the iollecting of intiquarian century "physiological" literary genre, the drab everyday information features about statues and coins of antique timej and of distant times proved of interest in their own right. That was scholarship of Renaissance _tfre, type, which had existed practically why, in one of his moments of relaxed imaginings, Flaubert wrote: unchanged until the 18th century, yielded place to an approach to "l'ai 6tE batelier sur le Nil, leno ) Rome du temps des guerres antique art grounded in aesthetic principles and a.t sirdies. puniques, puis rh6teur grec dans Suburre, oi j'6tais d6vor6 de The erosion of the Winckelmannian concepts of classical punaises."t5 Previously a nostalgia for classical antiquity had never antique beauty as an "ideal" and as "Nature" proceeded from been created by such images; of course, an unvarnished image of decade to decade under the impact of two forces that stood in the world was ever more decisively becoming an imperative both grotesque contrast to each other but were able to enter into a of aesthetic and scientific coguition complex interaction. It ma) be rvell said that the reality of slavery was the One of these forces consisted. in an accumulation of scientific foundaii 146 10. 147 author is referring to a highly topical culturological problem, but antiquity of the later period. A postulate being advanced now when he reaches the end of his article his extra-evaluational claimed that it was not after the classical period but in the times of statements suddenly yield place to quite definite appraisals. The classical Athens that there took place a kind of fall from grace, so conclusion drawn is that Hellenic culture was an improvement of a that what had to be returned to was the archaic, not the ilassical. culture that rested on a reverence for books whether in the With all the force ar rhe disposal of his tendentious prejudices, tradition of the Old and New Testaments or in that of the Nietzsche took sides with the "tragic wisdom" of the- Dibnysian neo-European hurnanism. As Ker6nyi saw it, history is something myth in contrast with the Attic intellectualism. The Socratic theme like a fable with a moral, the latter declaring that we men of the in world history had to be reviewed: again and again we meet, in 20th century should cast off the tyranny of books so as ourselves the writings of the later followers of Nietzsche, ispirations much to become Hellenised. In the 1940s and the 1950s, this European in the same vein. philosophising philologist was still free to understand such calls in In the second place, the old-fashioned serenity of the romantic a highly abstract and respectable way, without compromising them revivers of myths (Schelling, Kreurzer and Bachofen) yielded place by linkages with the facts of a technological age. But not so long to Nietzsche's much more nervous and inner need to achievi far afterwards, the Canadian Marshall Mcluhan, an ideologist of more extremes tomorrow than today. One of his most sincere "neo-archaism" and a most influential inspirer of "counter- verses declares that "He who has lost what you are losing will culture", announced nothing less than the approaching advent of never settle for anything". A frame of mind that followi the the Utopia: the end of the "Gutenbergian Galaxy", the triumph of Nietzsche model becomes aware of itself only as a hyperbolised the "spoken word over the printed, the complete elimination of the "self" in a process of continuous escalation. A colourful example book cult, the return of living myths, and an efflorescence of the of such escalation will be seen in a well-publicised but now original pagan sensualism and the ancient forgetfulness of self in a forgotten instance of Nietzsche himself being censured as a secret unity with the collective soul. But what will all these gifts bring in humanist, rationalist and follower of Socrates. This happened - in their wake? According to the old fashioned notions in this area, 1926, and the attack came from Alfred Baeurnler, a fairly the reply is rather a scandalous one, for it points at television and influential representative "life philosophy", joined 22 of who later other mass media! Quite possibly Ker'6nyi himself would have the ranks of the apologists of the Hitler regirne, but in the-lg20s undergone something like a shock had he lived to see such a operated as an historian of German philosophy. metamorphosis of his chcrished aspirations. This however in no In a very lengthy (almost 300 pages) introduction to a selection way removes the objective fact that his interpretation of antiquity from Bachofen, Baeumler set forth the historv of the various follows the line of a culturological thinking leading direct to approaches to the problem of ancient myths, from Winckelmann Mcluhan himself, a stone's throw from an idealised Hellenism to to the end of the l9th century. Here is what we read: ,,A matters far from ideal. profundity which endows Iife with the gravity of death is absent in Nietzsche's concept of life"; "Nietzsche was lacking in a symbolical view. He discerned not a speck of the immeasurable reality of the Friedrich Nietzsche's ,**"riun* aer Tragiid,i,e aus d,em Geiste der Greek cult"; "in keeping with present-day subjectivism, Nietzsche Musik, which came out in 1872, is fairly well known, so we shall speaks of the Greek as an individual" and so on.23 not touch upon the theme. However, we shall take note of two This is a situation full of the unconscious humour of historv: points that are just as characteristic of the state of affairs after Baeumler re-addressing to Nietzsche reproaches that the latt6r Nietzsche as they are alien to pre-Nietzschean times. In the first had himself addressed to Socrates. As Baeumler saw it, there was place, the author makes so bold, from the very outset, as to reject still too much light even in the thinking of Nietzsche, who had some very important component of the Greek classical heritage, ?ppealed to Dionysius, the god of night: "Everything is in the ostentatiously excise it from the whole body, and condemn it as a foreground, distinct and clear," he says with a frown, calling such manifestation of "non-genuine" classicism. That is the way clarity "pedestrian". Apart from anything else, what we have here Nietzsche deals with Socrates. To this day, the panorama of Attic is an act of ingratitude: it was from Nietzsche that Baeumler classicism has preserrted itself to the imagination as a single whole learned everything, including his skill in censuring Nietzsche. (one will recall the mural compositions on historical themes However, berating of the fathers for their inconclusiveness and produced by Wilhelm von Kaulbach, who was still alive in 1872). inconsistency is called for by the logic of any intellectual In those days, one coulcl speak pejoratively only of the despised extremism. 148 r49 Again: the stakes have to be increased all the time, for orgiastic rites, one who immerses himself in the world of vague, hope his ecstasy Nietzsche's successors are united in thinking that history has to be shipeless and featureless Uhr-forms in the that revised, the problem being the establishment of the particular will endow him with the experience of a living myth, is a moment when everything went awry. The more radical decisions grotesque and deeply ambiguous phenomenon. Apart from would shift that moment further and further into the recesses of everything else, this is a phenomenon of hopeless vanity, since the history. A typical example is provided by Martin Heidegger, the "primordial" or the "genuine" which is so sought wholly escaPes recently deceased head of German existentialism, who saw the foe the grasp. in "metaphysics", by which he meant the intellectualistic and anthropoCentric approach to being. However, in an earlier work Sein und Zeit he still linked the turn towards metaphysics with heterogeneous Descartes' philosophical initiative on the threshold of the modern when it comes ,o ,,r-.r,,r,i ; ;. operation of age, contriposing to him the excellent example set by Greek causes which question and erode the traditional image of classical albeit in a most general form, clrassicism (Aristotle). Twenty years later, in 1947, he found that antiquity, one cannot but mention, science. Today, the Plato's writings revealed a fall from grace. It remains for us to the iactor of internal transformation within at least the pre-Socratics (whom Heidegger held in the new, unutilised, and therefore attractive opportunities for analysis hope that "macro-" and "micro- highest esteem) are still in a state of "innocence": the rot has not. are linked with research at the level of is placed squarely structures". In respect of the humanities, this means that we have, yei s.t in. Alas, that is not the case: the blame '"global" on Parmenides, and then on the more archaic thinkers, the matter at one extreme, the elaboration and application of ending with the moment of the downfall of philosophy- simply schemes, and, at the other, the identification of the rnost simple coinciding with the moment of its birth. "The logic of his own and minimal units of a value that is being realised. It may be said achieved reality in concept tEa frim to the idea that 'being has not yet been thought that neither of these extremes has yet become on its up bf anybody'."2n The present.day nihilistic consciousness, which the practice of the humanities, but it is already Present so speak, condition, his fled from classical to archaic Hellenism, again and again sees fringes, affecting its self-awareness and, to its own face as though in a frightful dream. and-revising its make-up. Because of the former trend, every fact Theodor Adorno, who would seem to be the philosophical and in antique culture should be extracted from the context where enjoyed the privilege of "uniqueness" and concrete self-identity, political antipode of Heidegger, has discerned the hateful syn- it - drome of bourgeois rationalism in-Homer's Odysseus, i.e., on and should be included in other series on the principle of at similar the very threshold of antiquity.2s "typological" comparability with phenomena that stand Clasiical antiquity has been compromised as an object of st.fes in other civilisations. The very terms denoting local and "bourgeois" veneration, the "academic" cult. It is excessively singular phenomena are systematically subjected to a universalis- ration;listic, excessively moralising and humanist, and excessively ing rethinking, thereby turning into generic names-of former-entire decorous and measured. In other words, its fault lies in its being claises of phenomena. Because of the second trend, the subjects) which are correlatable classical. When, in 1884, Engels called for the Ancient Greek to be textual uniis (compositions or still seen as "savage and Iroquois" this was least of all something with the integrity of the simplest image cease from being commonplace for the 19th century. However, the 20th century has perceived as indivisible atoms, and split into further components. brought witli itself an extreme psychological stand inducing one to Also pertaining here are all the modes of the microscopic dart towards that "savage" through the ancient Greek, even examination of a text, i.e., from so close a distance that no reader "slow are bypassing him, without a keen sense of his Hellenism and without or viewer can take it in; all the devices of reading" experiencing in him anything but his Iroquois nalu_re. slowed down to such an extent that there is no longer any reading, -A - - - has be drawn here. Of and by itself, the for it has emerged from the framework of "natural" human distinition to justified discovery of the autonomous aesthetic value pf the primitive, reactions. Of couise the roads of science as such are by its whether exemplified in a Negro cult mask or an Aegean idol, own inner necessity: the winnowing and implementation of enhances our- receptivity and is an unquestionable cultural emergent working possibilities-a process that cannot and should is something achievement. Howev-er, it cannot be denied that the adherent of not be stopped. Science can do very much, but there post-Nietzschean nihilism, who is irresistibly drawn to th-e depths it cannot do, i.e., again go over ground that has already been of the archaic and closer to the ritual of human sacrifices and travelled. However, these notes deal with the theme, not of science 151 150 "as such" but of the trends that surround science, the trends of reality which once used to take up so many pages in the textbooks. the times; such trends may be excised from "absolute science", We see it as something very small, and to us its diminutiveness (in from Science with a capital letter, but science in its empirical space and also in time: did the classical efflorescence last very manifestation, i.e., the actual intellectual activities of hctual long?) is linked with its majesty. As Chesterton once said, the tiny scientists-people of flesh and blood-is highly sensitive to such city-states of l{ellas brought forth a broad philosophy which was trends. too vast to fit into the expanses of the Persian Empire. Indeed, "The indifferent space of cultural abstraction" (A. Mikhailov) nothing can guarantee the survival of the classical ideal, which is is not a chimera but an actual threat to our times, one akin to the why it is becoming even more precious than when it was beyond ecological crisis. No inner attitude towards the ideal of culture is dispute. possible in that space. We have attempted to examine the mechanism of the joint NOTES op€ration of forces which have been working to destroy the "classicist" stand towards antiquity, on the sole basis of which an t 1. 1. Winckelnann, Kleine Schriften und Briet'e, Weimar, 1960, pp. 44, 54-55. inner and intimate attitude towards the ideal of classical antiquiry 2-[. P. Eckermann, Gesprtiche mit Ooethe in den letzten Jahren seines l,ebens,Leipzig, is possible. At the saine time, the history of the 20th centurl has 1968, p. 215. seen many attempts to instill fresh life into the classical ideal, give 3 Der Briefwechsel zwischen Schiller und Coethe, \t 152' Deaeloping Countries: industry to the feasibility of their utilising the experience of socialist industrialisation. The differences in the forms and I'{ew Research methods of industrialisation between countries following the capitalist path of development and those with a socialist orienta- tion have been intensifying, and the socio-economic consequences in the two groups of countries are becoming increasingly divergent. Since gaining their independence, the developing countries have had major successes as well as setbacks on the road of industrialisation. The economic problems of industrialisation are lndustrialisation today acquiring new features because these countries have entered in the Developing Countries a new phase in their struggle for economic independence, their main goal being to secure a new international economic order. The determination of the developing nations to remove the MAI VOLKOV obstacles to industrialisation caused by their unequal status in the world capitalist economy was reaffirmed at the Fifth Session of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (Manila, May 1979). The achievement of political independence by the former colonies created an objective need for a national industry. The young states are carrying out their industrialisation programmes in specific conditions which differ from those of capitalist industrial- isation in Western Europe, North America and Japan, as well as The objective need for industrialisation in the countries of from the conditions of socialist industrialisation in the USSR. The Asia, Afriia and Latin America is due to three groups .of industrial revolution in Asia and Latin America has been taking interrelated factors: the task of overcoming economic backward- scientific technologi- place simultaneously with the worldwide and ness inherited from their colonial past; their desire to achieve cal revolution. In these countries industries are being created economic independence and rid themselves of imperialist exploita- has been formed. before the corresponding mode of production tion; and the urgent necessity to solve socio-economic problems- In the multistructural society of the young states capitalism exists to wipe out hunger, poverty, unemployment, illiteracy, epidemic as only one of the economic structures and .has not so far diseases, etc. Without an industrial revolution no developing developed into a prevalent socio-economic formation. In socialist- country can become economically independent. oriented countries, industry is being developed on the basis of the Large countries, as we know, are able to build a diversified state sector, which is non-capitalist in content but nevertheless does industry that embraces practically all modern types of production. socialist The young states are not represent a mode of production. Smaller nations, however, are unable to do so; nor is it necessary greatly dependent on their external economic ties for building up for them to build all branches of industry on their own territory. their industries. The modernisation of the economy in certain small countries may The industrialisation of the developing countries is taking place not require building heavy industry and can be confined to in a world where two opposing socio-economi.c systems coexist and bringing up to date such branches of the economy as agriculture, various stages transition compete, and there are countries at of the iervice- industries, transport, etc. But no matter what kind of formation. global from the capitalist to the communist The specialisation individual countries may undertake, the industrialisa- confrontation between the old and the new social systems ti,on of the developing nations as a whole is determined by the affects the forms and the course of industrialisation in the extent and technological level of their industry, above all in the newly-independent countries and turns this process into an arena processing- sectors. of economic, social and ideological struggle. This struggle involves In reCent years, attention has been drawn to the widening all aspects of the industrialisation process-from the need of the economic gap' between the industrialised and the developing America national countries of Asia, Africa and Latin to build a countries, which is one of the legacies of colonialism. In 1950, the 154 lb5 per capita gross domestic product of the industrialised capitalist countries in the course of industrialisation and reflects the countries was 11.2 times rhat of the developing nations (1,5?0 and established trend towards industrial construction. 140 dollars respectively), in 1977, it was 12.b times (3,b00 and 2g0 Between 1950 and 1970, the industrial output of all the dollars). Even more striking is the gap in the per capita output of developing countries increased four titnes. In the 1970s, its annual the manufacturing industries. growth raie areraged about seven per cent, and the ou-tput of the [rocessing industiies increased by eight per cent' In 1978' overall up by six per. cent and the output of Per Capita Net Industrial Product industrial production went per cent.r New industrial centres (at 1970 prices and official exchange rates) the ^regionsprocesiing industries by tt and [are grown up in Asia, Latin America and Africa, such ai Bombay in tndia (electrotechnical, petrochemical and textile industries, and a nuclear research centre); Sio Paulo and Redonda in Brazil (mechanical engineering, ferrous and 1950 1977 Volta non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical and light industries); HelwAn in the ARE (ferrous metallurgy and mechanical engineering); Industrialised capitalist countries 455 1,160 Monterrey in Mexico (iron-and-steel, metal-working and pet- Developing countries zz i+ rochemical industries), and so on. The developing countries' including: industrial output in 1977 was 1.5 times the total amount produced in 1950 by ihe capitalist countries of Western Europ.-e taken those of Lhtin America 81 218 together. These young national industries have also contributed to those of South and South-East Asia 8 27 thE technologicai modirnisation of agriculture, as a result of which some countries have seen a sharp increase in agricultural produce. Industrialisation has mainly affected the production of con- sumer goods however. In recent years only a few of the.larger of . -In .1950, th9 per capita ner industrial product of the countrids have begun to develop intensively the production industrialised^ capitalist countries exceeded that oi the developing industrial equipment, a substantial part of which is meant for nations by 433 dollars and in lg77 by 1,086 dollars. Nor ii thE export. Indii, for example, supplies the world market with steam ratio of qualitative indicators, especially those denoting the level of boilers, electric motors, equipment for textile, tea and sugar technology- and labour productivity, favourable to th; developing factories, diesel engines, and refrigerators. Indian-made machine- nations. These nations, which account for three-quarters of'thE tools are purchaseiby industrialise? countries, such as Britain, the population of the capitalist world, possess only about one per cent United Siates, Holland and Austria. In the 1970s, metallurgical of its scientific and_ technological porentiai (estimated by the products, including steel and cast-iron pipes, constituted India's number of registered patents). major export. Theie are purchased by France, Britain, Japan and No wonder the programme to establish a new international Auitralia, not to mention many developing countries' A major economic order includes, at the request of the developing nations, buyer of Indian industrial products in recent years has-been.the and woollen 1_p1opos1l to accelerate their industrialisation so thaf by the year USSR, which imports from India not only cotton 2000 their share in world industrial production rnay be'increased fabrics, but also machinery and equipmelt (including electrotech- from 7 to at least 2! p.I cent. To ittain this goai, the average nical and garage equipment),-brings metal goods and chemicals. annual growth rate of industrial production mrst be increased io Industrialisition about important socio-economic trans- not less than 11 per cent. owing to the limited domestic markets formations in the developing countries, above all the growth of the of the young states, their industrial exports have to be increased state sector. In India, the state sector accounts for about 16 per by, according to some estimates, as muih as 18 per cent annually. cent of the gross national product; moreover, 129 state-owned In this connection, two circumstances should be noted. First, the industrial plants are the leading producers of 50 m-ajor items, very fact that these bold tasks have been set demonstrates that the which guaiantees the state an important position in the national y.oung states attach great importance to the industrialisation of e.ono*Iy. The ernergence of a national industry e-ntails the their economies. Secondly, th-e programme has emerged on the formation of social classes that are new to many developing basis of what has already been achieved by the -developing countries. The developing world has more than 60 million t56 157 industrial workers, which is three times the number in the United States and 1.5 times the number in Western Europe. The national industrial bourgeoisie has also been growing. Industrialisation is The developing countries have embarked upon industrialisa- responsible for the fact that despite the sharp rise in the rate of tion at a time *he.t the world already had an enormous industrial growth the population of in the developing countries, the average potential and tremendous material and financial resources, when per capita national income has increased significantly. At the same ihe scientific and technological revolution was underway, and time, however, the unevenness in distribution of the national historical experience of the two different approaches income when the in capitalist-oriented countries has intensified. (capitalist and socialist) to industrialisation was widely known. All As industrialisation proceeds, with the help of the socialist thii, in theory, should have significantly promoted and. speeded up states, the former colonies are increasingly able io build industrial the industriaiisation of the young states, and brought it about with plants using their own resources. For instance, in the first section least possible outlay by the public. But unfortunately the the iron-and-steel the of works in Bhilai, only l0 per cenr of the capitalist ttitr." of internati'onal economic relations, to which the equipment installed was Indian-made; the rest came from the countries are tied, has been a serious hindrance to USSR. developing However, in the second section 20 per cent of the indu"strialisation. The monopolisation of science and technol- equipment was their Indian-made. In the first section of the Bokaro ogy in the capitalist world by the large p-rivate corporations, and plant as much as 65 per cent of the equipment was made in India. the whole system of international economic Industrialisation th"; subordinuiio.r of in the developing countries has been an relations to their interests, not only hamper the very process of extremely uneven process, as a result of which differences between industrialisation in the developing countries, but also distort it. individual nations have been growing. For example, per capita development in these countries is regarded tf'' industrial production -times Industrial !y in Latin America is now three the multinational corpoiations as a source of extra profit and as a a-verage- level the developing in world as a whole and eight times means of imposing new forms of dependence on the young states' that of South and South-East Asia. Industrialisation in the stut.rl of the majority of the developing countries in developing The unequaf countries which have chosen the capitalist path tends capitalist economy, and their growing exploitation by towards the world the formation of national monopoly issociati,ons. They multinati,onals, deprive them of a substantial part of their cannot approach the the giant industrial corporations of the Western accumulation funds, which could otherwise be used to finance powers in size but they manifest the desire inherent in all private industrial development and the modernisation of some branches monopolies to secure dominance in the market and augment their of the economy. According to some estimates, from 50,000 million profits by artificially restricting competition. Such issociations miliion dollars-flow out of the developing countries to regard neighbouring to 100,000 countries which are industrially less de- the West every year.2 The growth of accumulation funds in the veloped as their own agrarian periphery, as a markei for their developing countries is fiampered by .their multistructural industrial products and as a sphere for the export of capital. As a farming and ..sub- economies- and the persistence of subsistence result, a new form of relations. that can be termed forms of exploitation. It often-happens that part of imperialist" precapitalist is growing up. ifre tunas mobilised through the state credit system to promote Since the developing countries form part of the world capitalist industrialisation ends up in the sphere of precapitalist forms of economy, their industrialisation leads to an aggravation of the exploitation, including us.rty, whiCh bring an income far exceed- contradictions inherent in that economy: combetition within it ing industrial profits. becomes more fierce, and the conflicting ,utrr" of the relations "Another paiadoxical phenomenon is the increased outflow of between the developing and the industrialised capitalist countries from the developing countries at a time when their becomes more manifest. capital The course of industrialisation in the industrialisation is being himpered by lack of finance-s. Yet yolng sta res is influenced by the laws governing the capitalist cycle another hindrance is the ihortage of skilled personnel in industry. and by the policies of international monopoly capital. While Asia, Africa and Latin America are known to have enormous solving some problems, industrialisation creatLs otheis. In coun- deposits and supply of raw materials to the quj-"t tries following capitalist mineral a path, social inequalities intensify, and imperialist po*..r. At the- same time, the industrialisation of the favourable conditions are created for the grbwth of the contradic- young states is somewhat limited by a shortage of certain raw tions inherent in bourgeois society-unemployment, inflation, lack -ut.iiulr and energy supplies. This situation is due to the fact that of material security, etc. only a small num6'e. .if these states possesses rnineral deposits r58 159 known to be suitable for development. Another important factor is corporations which play off corporate production ties against that the developing countries which export raw materials lack interstate integration. processing facilities. As a result, while they export non-ferrous The participation of the developing countries in economic metal ores and crude oil the newJy independent countries are unions with industrialised capitalist countries, such as the associa- tion 57 countries Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific with compelled .to- import finished metal produits and many types of of of petrochemical goods. the European Economic Community on the basis of a new (Togo), The inadequate development agreement signed on October 31, 1979, in Lome does not of the economic and social promote national industrial development. Nor does it infrastructure, the import of machinery, equipment their and certain provide for the development of industrial cooperation between building materials, the purchase licenses of and the employment them. Its overall effect is to enable the capitalist monopolies to of {oreign specialists increase the foreign exchange e*pendit,rre o, make use of the industrialisation of the newly liberated countries building indr-rstrial enterprises and reduces the efficiency of capital increase the degree their exploitation. Under these cir- investments. Under these circumstances industrialisation to of entails a cumstances the young states are finding it useful to study more rapid growth of the developing nations' foreign debts which in the the kind of industrial cooperation and specialisation last decade have been. increasing at average closely an annual rate of 16 by Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), per cent and today exceeds practised the Council for 250,000 million dollars (including on principles equality and mutual commercial debts). whose activities are based the of benefit. The limited domestic markers of the young states have predetermined two important features in the development of their industries. First of all, there is a high degree of concentration of production, even total monopolisation at the initial stages of i.dustrialisation. It frequently happens that a comparatively small In the early period of independent development of the former industrial enterprise in a small developing countiy becomes the colonies, international monopoly capital went out of its way to sole manufacturer of a certain product as soon as it comes into hamper their industrialisation, and Western economists insisted operation. The monopoly of such an enterprise is strengthened by that there was no need for industrial development in the young customs protectionism. If the enterprise is privately-orvned, all the states. With the passage of time, it became clear that these states, ne-gative features of a private capitalist monopoly soon become despite the policies of imperialism, were firm in their determina- fully manifest. Its activities aggravate ttre countfy's socio-economic tion to carry out industrialisation, and that scientific and tech- contradictions and discredit the very idea of industrialisation. The nological cooperation with the socialist countries would help them second feature is the constant and considerable undercapacity of in this endeavour. Moreover, the capitalist monopolies realised industrial production, which lessens the efficiency of inclustrial that the technological and economic backwardness of the develop- investments and raises the costs of production. The'state often has ing countries was making their exploitation by means of modern to resort to different ways of subsidising such enterprises directly methods and machinery increasingly difficult. Today the indus- or indirectly, and the prices of their products tuin out to be trialisation of the developing counries is regarded as a new and unjustifiably high. highly profitable sphere of activity for the ransnational corpora- Industrialisation and its rational direction could be promoted tions. In an attempt to bring the industrialisation process in the by the economic integration of the developing countries. iIowere., newly free countries under their control and to derive maximum integration measures have so far failed to bring about broad benefit from it, these corporations are increasing their investments industrial cooperation. only a small part of the industrial products in the processing industries there. As a result, two trends are of the youlg states is mutually tr-aded ancl they moie often evident in the industrialisation of the developing countries- compete with one another than cooperate in solving common national and neocolonialist. problems. The reasons for this are the political tensionJthat often The national trend involves the construction of industrial exist between countries of the sarne region, increasing differentia- enterprises in accordance with national economic development tions in socio-economic and political orientations, theiresire of the plans. In this case, the state normally acts both as an organising industrially more developed partners in economic unions to force and as an entrepreneur by creating and expanding the dominate the others, and the activities of the transnational public sector. The shift of the centre of gravity in industrial 160 rr - 3ar. 15122 16I development to the public sector has been, as was noted at the amount to rhore than half the total of all annual direct foreign 25th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet lJnion, one investments in the developing countries, and they are growing at of the principal trends in many of the young independent an annual rate of approximately 20 per cent. In some cases the countries in recent years.3 The national trend in industrialisation salary of a foreign technician is 50 times higher than of a local also involves using industrial progress to bring about a technologi- technician doing the same work. And the direct payments, as the cal reconstruction of agriculture and other branches of the Indian economist S. Patel notes, are only the tip of the iceberg. economy, and implies an ever wider integration of the national Invisible, indirect payments make up a far greater amount, and economy as a whole. Foreign capital investments are allowed in the their main sources are: the artificially inflated prices of equipment, projects included in the economic plans but only under state materials and services provided by Western firms to their control and on acceptable terms. This trend is chzrracteristic of the subsidiaries in developing countries; the artificially reduced prices countries which have chosen a socialist orientation. of products delivered by these subsidiaries to the "mother" The neocolonialist trend manifests itself mostly in the creation companies; the increased costs of technical expertise, etc. of subsidiaries of multinational and transnational corporations on According to Patel, the total surn of direct and indirect the territory of devgloping nations. These subsidiaries enjoy a payments made by the developing nations for foreign technology certain amount of autonomy and are not subordinated to national in the early 1970s reached 12,000 million dollars.a On top of this, economic bodies-they are actually foreign enclaves, having little the capitalist monopolies have entangled the industries of the connection with the country's economy. These industries are part young states in a web of restrictions, prohibitions and obligations of the productive machinery of world capitalism, which are using (prohibition of the use of specified equipment and technology by the territory of the young state concerned as their economic base the recipient country for the production of goods for export; the and exploiting its manpower resources. This trend of industrialisa- obligation to use only imported materials, semi-finished products tion can be regarded as a form of neocolonialism, with its own and spare parts; restriction of research in certain fields; constant organisational structures and is characteristic of a number of use of the technical services of foreign firms, etc.). countries taking the capitalist road of development. Lenin characterised the economic aspects of imperialism in the The industrialisation of the developing states, in conditions of following way: "To the numerous 'old' motives of colonial policy, the world capitalist economy where modern science and technolo- finance capital has added the struggle for the sources of raw gy are monopolised by the major private corporations, can materi'als, for the export of capital, for spheres of influence, i.e., lead-and in some cases does lead-to the emergence of new for spheres of profitable deals, concessions, monopoly profits and forms of dependence, particularly to the technological dependence so on, economic territory in general."5 Neocolonialist trends of of the newly independent countries on the world centres of industrialisation in developing countries represent a form of the imperialism. This dependence serves as the material basis of the use of "economic territory" in Asia, Africa and Latin America by neocolonialist trend of industrialisation. The monopolies seek to capitalist monopolies. Capitalist industry needs this territory, set up a system of relations under which a developing country because there are a number of conditions which must be fulfilled cannot gain access to modern equipment and technology unless it if investments are to be highly profitable. The primary conditions grants foreign capital various privileges, freedom of action and are: the availability of mineral and other natural resources, sources favourable investment terms. If the developing nation concerned of energy and fresh water, cheap manpower, and a sufficiently does not take appropriate measures, technological dependence high demand among the population for the goods produced assumes increased dimensions, and the neocolonialist trend of locally. industrialisation becomes predominant. That struggle is why the Multinational and transnational corporations are investing in against technological dependence is important component an of the industries of the developing nations of Asia, Africa and Latin the national industrialisation trend. America for the sake of their own interests which often run The international monopolies are resorting to new methods of counter to the tasks of economic development in those countries. profiteering. One of their main methods is to force the recipient The industries that tend to be transferred to developing countries countries to pay exorbitant prices for modern equipment, technol- are labour-intensive, require great quantities of raw materials and ogy and expertise. Direct payments for patents, licenses, expertise, fresh water, and pollute the environment. US firms have some 700 the use of trade rnarks and the services of foreign engineers industrial enterprises in Mexico, rvhere wages are much lower than 162 163 in the United States. The giant monopolies t.rf Western Europe and Japan also have enterprises abroad. In this endeavour they are encouraged by the policies of the imperialist states, whose The capitalist powers account for the bulk of foreign economic customs and non-tariff barriers for industrial goods imported ties with the countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America but the from developing countries do not apply to the products of process of industrialisation in these countries is also being subsidiaries of monopoly associations situated on the territory of significantly influenced by world socialism. The socialist countries, those countries. having carried out their own industrialisation policy which The young states are aware of the danger presented by foreign differs basically from the capitalist version, have shown by their monopolies which use science and technology as the basic weaPon experience that the enormous efforts expended on the building of of neocolonialism. The economic declaration of the Fifth Confer- a modern industry can yield fruit to society as a whole provided ence of Heads of State and Government of Non-Aligned exploitation has been abolished. They have demonstrated that Countries emphasised that industrialisation is a highly dynamic industrialisation can be carried out without detriment to the instrument for promoting social and economic progress in the working people and without aggravating social contradictions. In developing countries, but noted that the technological monopoly fact, they have shown that even a relatively backrvard country car) of the developed countries has given rise to some negative industrialise on the basis of its own domestic resources without phenomena that call for the immediate adoption of significant having to sell itself into the bondage of the industrialised capitalist organisational measures. states. The Marxist-Leninist tenet that the building of a socialist society necessarily presupposes socialist industrialilation and the often act in collaboration Large private national corporations transfer of all branches of the national economy to an industrial 43 per cent fixed capital in with foreign capital. For example, of basis has been borne out in practice. enterprises employing over Indian industry belongs to 9t major Under the impact of the historic experience of socialism, more each. late 1977, there were 740 branches and 5,000 people In and more countries which have cast off the colonialist yoke are operating in subsidiaries of various transnational corporations choosing the non-capitalist path of development whose program- India, whose total assets were estimated at 30,000 million rupees me gives prominent place industrialisation. 1948). Although a to Although the (as compared with 3,200 million rupees in young independent countries which have chosen a non-capitalist have been required to reduce foreign firms operating in India rnad have been developing for a relatively short time, they have 40 per cent, they still their shares in any particular company to already built some large modern industrial enterprises. A working investments. In early 1978, foreign firms retain control over their class has been formed and is growing in these countries and large-scale issue new shares and distributed them on began a of agriculture is being switched to collective production with the use limiting the number of shares that the Indian stock market, strictly of machinery and scientific methods of farming. One of the acquired by any one person. In this way the foreign firm could be decisive. factors in the success of their industrialisation processes is its share injoint-stock capital can retain control, even though own their economic cooperation with the socialist countries. monetary funds obtained from is reduced to 40 per cent.6 The Soviet researchers have pointed to certain conrmon features these subsidiaries foreign issuing new shares are used by of between industrialisation in the Soviet Union and that in the companies to increase their assets. majority of developing countries. These features exist despite the ln a number of developing countries, foreign firms cooperate fact that industrialisation in the Soviet Union took place on the with the public sector in order to retain their positions. The basis of the socialist mode of production.T There are a number of number of mixed companies, with foreign private firms and the areas in which the Soviet experience is relevant today. In the first national state as partners has been increasing. Such companies are place, the young states are confronted with the task of securing a form of compromise which, on the one hand, ensures the inflow economic independence from imperialism-the same task that the of foreign equipment, technology and funds to the developing Soviet Republic faced after the October Revolution of 1917. It was country concerned, and guarantees their use in conformity with the type of industrialisation established in the USSR that made it national development plans whilst, on the other hand, enabling possible to fulfil this task successfully. Secondly, the success of foreign capital to make an acceptable amount of profit, i.e., to industrialisation in the USSR is connected with the advantages of gain access to the material and manpower resources of that national economic planning. The Soviet Union started ecoiomic country, planning long before the conclusive victory of socialism, when it IM r65 still had a multistructural economy, and planning was an and this lends the process of industrialisation an anti-imperialist indispensable requisite for the successful accomplishmenr of edge. Their level of self-sufficiency has also been rising so that socialist industrialisation. So it is natural that the developing these states are becorning capable of building new industrial nations should be interested in the Soviet experience in planning enterprises on their own. The socialist states retain no right of and wish make use to of it in drawing up their own national ownership to the enterprises built with their: assistance; nor do economic plans. As a fact, matter of in their endeavours to achieve they lay claim to any part of their profits or seek to participate in nationwide industrialisation, developing the countries are using their management. elements planning. feature distinguishing of a their industrialisal The role of world socialism in the process of industrialisation process from classical tion the capitalist variety with its inherent developing countries is not confined to assistance in building spontaneity, anarchy and fierce competition. in Thirdly, it is neces- industrial enterprises. It is of utmost importance to a young state's sary for the developing nations defend young to their national industry to have access to the markets of the socialist countries, industry adverse from the influences of the world capitalist especially at a time when the West is putting up formidable market; indicative respect in this is the proclamation by the Soviet barriers against industrial exports from the former colonies. Back state in April l9l8 of a state monopoly on foreign trade. Socialist unilaterally abolished import duties on industrialisation in 1964, the USSR all was thereby reliably protected from outside industrial goods from developing countries. Long-term trade attempts to dismpt it. Fourthly, the developing nations have to agreements guarantee stable (i.e., not subject to cyclical fluctua- bring socio-economic reorganisation about a and technical moder- tions) markets in the socialist countries for industrial products nisation of agriculture. From the outset, socialist industrialisation from the developing nations. Moreover, the very possibility that in the USSR was the basis for transforming the country's might expand their cooperation with the inefficient the developing countries small-peasant farms, which almost exclusively used world socialist community compels the industrialised capitalist manual labour and obsolete methods of cultivation, into a highly states and the multinational monopolies to make certain comprom- efficient large-scale mechanised system agriculture, of opening the ises. They are forced to provide assistance in building industrial way new to a life in the countryside. This is why the Soviet enterprises on terms which the developing countries would have experience in combining industrialisation with the socio-economic been unable to secure if they had remained in the orbit of reorganisation of asriculture is alsn of interest to the young states. imperialism. Finally, most developing nations do not accept those sources of Despite the contradictory and complex socio-economic prob- accumulation by means of which the industry of the capitalist West lems connected with industrialisation in the developing countries, was built up-impoverishment, dispossessing peasants of their this process is bringing about significant progressive changes in land, intensified exploitation of the working people in all branches the system of international economic relations and a restructuring economy, of the plunder of colonial peoples, war booty, and of the international division of labour. It is thus enabling these onerous loans. The experience of the Soviet Union, which relied countries to play a greater role in world affairs. on clomestic accumulations and used external sources (to a very limited extent) in the process of socialist industrialisation, has much in common with the problems confronting the developing NOTES countries which have embarked on the process of industrialisation. 1 Monthly Bulletin of Statistics, !-elrruary 1979, p. XVIIL Today, in addition to that of the USSR, srates the young have 2 access to the experience of socialist industrialisation other Resha\ing the Internationnl Onl,er. A Report of the Cluh of Rome, New York, 1976, in p. 16. countries, including those with small populations and those which 3 'I'he 25th Congress of the CPSU, Moscow, 1976, pp. 15-16. were until recently backward colonial countries. 4 Mainstream, l1 Annual Number 1973, pp. 85-89. Industrial, scientific and technological cooperation the with 5 V. I. Lenin, ColLected Works, Moscow, Vol. 22, p. 299. socialist states is paramount importance developing of to the 6 New Age, New Delhi, March 19, 1978. nations in industrialisation their efforts. In the key industrial 7 L. Reisner, G. Shirokov, "The Experience of Industrialisation in the USSR and branches of those young states which are significantly ahead of the Its Significance for the Countries of the East", Aziya i At'rika segod.nya, No. 10, others on the road of national industrialisation, a high proportion 1977. of enterprises were built with the help of socialist countries. These enterprises form the backbone of the public sector in industry, 166 In recent years there has been much talk about nelv ways of approaching physics and mathematics, biology and chemistry in schools. Some of these ideas have been elaborated by the institute DIALOGUE of whiclr you are the head. They are presently being tried out in experimental schools and will evidently be introduced into ordinary schools in the near future. Unfortunately one hears much less about "new trends" in the study of the humanities, especially literature. We know, of course, that much is being done in this direction too, that the efforts of educationalists- theoreticians and practicians- are meeting with a certain amount of success. Nevertheless, the impression is that these subjects continue to be regarded as of secondary importance School and Moulding in schools. The approach is still that if a person knows and the appreciates literature and art so much the better, but the main of the Personality criterion should nevertheless be how efficient he is in his work. It appears that when speaking of the study of literature in VASILI DAVYDOV schools, it is necessary to speak not simply about the process of instruction, but of its influence on the pupil's personality. personality... From the Editors: What role does the school play in a child's uobrinoing in Concerning the development of the conditions of rapid development of social production? What is th6 role-of-the Ansuer: seem to be making a distinction between study of literature in this process? What is meant by "development of the You personality" and how is this task combined in practice with another, no less "instruction" and "development of the personality"? I believe that important, ^task, that of the assimilation by the pupil of a certain body of is a wrong approach. Let trs recall exactly when pedagogics and knowledge? What new contributions do pedagogics and educational psych-olo- gy have to offer in the study of literature in school? psychology first started talking about "development". It was These were the questions that Pereverzev, correspondent of the iournal precisely when the narrowness of the notion "instruction" as the Literaturnoye obozreniye (Literary Review), put to the Director of the lnstitute of simple coaching of the pupil with the help of verbal empirical General and Educational Psychology, USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, Vasili Davydov. information was fully realised. That is when it was decided that it Below we reprint the interview. was necessary to separate and oppose to each other specialised instruction (primarily, scientific and technical), on the one hand, Questi,on: The study of literature in school is, of course, and "development of the psychological structures of the personali- nothing new, but the context in which school in general is being ty", on the other. In "personality development", the arts and considered is changing substantially prompted by deep, rapid and humanities were, of course, to play the leading role. multi-faceted changes in contemporary life as a whole. The Soviet However, such a premise is basically incorrect, in my view. At Government's decision (December 1977) on the further improve- any rate it does not resolve the problems of the "traditional ment of the instruction and education in schools and the school" either in theory or in practice. (I mean here not some preparation of schoolchildren for work stares that, despite the specific school or educational theory, but rather the practice which considerable successes achieved in the content, methods and orients itself mainly on former experience without noticing that means of education over the past ten years, the state of affairs in this experience has already become outdated in many respects.) this field still does not measure up to the increased demands of Far more productive are the notions of pedagogics and education- social production and scientific and technological progress. al psychology that have their roots in the fundamental works of To overcome this shortfall schools must evidently not only the distinguished Russian psychologist Vygotsky and were de- move in step with the times but even outpace them in order to veloped in the writings of his followers Leontyev, Zankov, prepare children today for the problems they will encounter Galperin, Elkonin and others, where the notions of "instruction" tomorrow. Apparently what is needed is a system of teaching and "personality development" are not contrasted but are which is not only flexible and responsive to the requirements of considered with all their interconnections and constant interac- the times, but which is capable of furthering the pupil's tions. self-development ahead of the times. r69 r68 Unfortunately this principle is not always implemented in school Q.: What do you mean rvhen speaking of means? practice. It is not a matter of the number of hours allotted'for A.: To begin with, such social relations do not arise of subjects in the natural sciences humanities, and but of their themselves. They can be established only on the basis of certain content. The curricula and textbooks are often overloaded with habi* of culture which in this case act as means. It would be a great unnecessary detail, while the most important thing for the pupil oversimplification to think that they can be done without, that it is during his school years is to acquire the foundations of knowledge responsive, and habits work, and prepare enough to be sociable, even tempered, emotionally etc. of for mastering the various Such qualities are insufficient to solve problems whose complexity professions needed by the national economy. is increasing along with the complexity of social production. Here Q.: Then how can the needs of society and the national it is essential to be in possession of a whole range of special economy best be served by the study of literature, and aesthetic intellectual abilities and resources, to master, in the words of education in general in schools? Saint-Exupery, the art of human communication. A.: I deliberately usecl the words "prepare for mastering Q.: We could probably say that, to this end, it is necessary to professions", and not "master" because the school gives the pupil be "spiritually" well developed, to possess a distinct personality... an education meeting specific requirements-both in the realm of A..' But what do you mean by possessing a personality? It is precise knowledge and practical skills and from the point of view generally considered that development of the personality is, purely of general culture. The actual mastering of a profession comes simply, continuous assimilation all the material and later. and a of The school only lays the foundation. Some pupils, after intellectual culture accumulated by mankind. Such assimilation is leaving school, will go on to a higher educational institutions- possible only if a person works hard at self-improvement. either technical or humanitarian, but most of them will start work. But the forms of such activity are not present at birth, they do The role of literature in moulding the pupil's personality should not spring from a spontaneous impulse, but are developed in the not, in my view, be considered in isolation from the influence child by adults who themselves are following definite patterns. exerted by other subjects, j_ust as aesthetic education as a whole Development is not a passive process, it is based on the versatile should not considered be in isolation from, let us say, ideological spontaneous activity of the individual, but again, such activity does and moral education. Only in their sum total can they mould a not come naturally to the child-it has to be stimulated with the personality rneasuring up to the requirements of society. help of special methods of instruction. And it is precisely this that In approaching the question from this point of view we must should constitute the primary task of the school of today, in the take into account two factors. First of all, modern production is sphere of literature and the humanities as well as all other continually being inundated with sophisticated techn 1?6 rz-3alr.1122 doubts far from hindering, on the contrary, facilitated fruitful CRITICAL STUDIES development of philosophy. Signal achievements of pre-Marxian teachings offered the theoretical conditions for the creation of the AND COMMENT dialectical and historical materialism. The revolution worked by fril Marxism- in philosophy is an all important srage in mankindis philosop.hical p-rogress. The contradiction between .metaphysical materialism and dialectical idealism-the two most salient ichieve- ments of pre-Marxian philosophy-gained its positive, creative resolution in the philosophy of Marxism. Thi emergence of dialectical marerialism meant the end of philosophy in- the old meaning of the word. Describing dialectiCal,'It mat-erialism as the philosophy of a new .type, Engels wrote, is no longer a The Myth About philosophy at all, but simply a world outlook...', and wenr 6, to say, "Philosophy is rherefore 'sublated' here, that is .both the Death of PhilosoPhy overcome and preserved'; overcome as regards its form and preserved as regards its real content."a THEODOR OIZERMAN The emergence of Marxism is a radicar transformation of the historico-philosophical process. The antithesis of materialism and idealism, of dialectics and rhe meraphysical mode of thinking, which in the conditions of entrenched capitarism necessity, validity and justification of philosophy has been existed within tlie The framework of one and the same bourgeois ideology, doubt, even to negation ever since its emergence. The henceforth is subjected to a philosophical expression of the opposition philosopher A. de Waelhens writes that it "exists for 20 betwein the revolutio- Bel[ian nary working class and the capitalist its right to existence has never ceased to be social relations. It is not cenluriei but accidental, therefore, that historically the emergence questioned".r Even the sceptics of antiquity who considered of Marxism coincides with the commencement of the inteilJctual ihemselves outside of philosophy inasmuch as they refrained from crisis of the capitalist society..cultural developments in this society positive theoretical pronouncements, alleged that philosophy was a henceforth take the descending course. It is therefore natural pointless occupation, since all philosophers disagree_ with each that the doubts regarding the status of philosophy which in the past other on all questions. The sceptics of our times follow, in this facilitated its advancement turn into symploms of ideological degradation, respect, the example of their predecessors- P. Bayle held that factors which ;Orr.. erodes not only are intensifying this process. rJcent lb0 phiiosophy was similar to the medication which years," writes p. body to the very marrow.' the. outstanding Soviet scholar Fedoseyev, ihe slct< fiesh but the healthy "bourgeois theoreticians had moie However, not only the sceptics expressed doubts regarding than once declared the end of philosophy, its 'death' in the course development the capabilities of philosophy. F. Bacon contrasied it with "natural of the of the scientific knowledge of the world. The idea has not been always philosophy", i.e., natural science. In his teaching about the stated in by misconceptions and the form of an overt, 'old-positivist' negation irr ip..t.ei which obscure human conscience philosophy as such, reducing teachings-as i,dola theatri. philosophicaf knowledg. iL u prejudices, he characterises philosophical compendium of conclusions made -... sought erect the edifice of science on a in specific scienies. A more i{. Descartes who to refined forrn of negating philosophy is, foundation of his own rationalistic metaphysics, i.e', who highly in the final count, the stand which, while recognising specilics philosonhical valued the part that philosophy is to play in the system of sciences the of thinking and of its right to exisGnce, proceeds that r'it is impossible to imagine anything, however strange from ihe absolure, stated abstract conrrasting of it to scientific ihinking.,,u and improbable, that has not been already suggested by _some philosopher".3 Like Bacon, Descartes meant, in the main, scholas- Thus, we find in the realm of modern philosophy the Marxist, iic phifosophy. Precisely in this connection he stated that those positive, dialectico-materialistic rejection of pr.cedi.rg philosophy, who had never indulged in philosophy, more often than not are on the one hand, and philosophitd negativism by a"ctnsid..ubie wiser than hired philosophers. It should be emphasised that these part of contemporary Western philosop=herr, o., th. other hand. r78 179 While disavowing the progressive ideological legacy, the Western I YTy Western philosophers are directly associating the ..death scholars declare that philosophy has lost its raison d'Abe. of philosophy" with the spread of religious indifferentism. Thus, The Marxist negation of philosophy in the old meaning of the G. Picht, one of their ilk, states: "With the disappearance of God word is a negation of the historically obsolete opposition of from philosophy, philosophy itself faced degiidation.',6 picht, philosophising to non-philosophical-both scientific and practi- definitely, means the degradation of idealism but he speaks about cal-activities. Philosophy, as it follows from the history of philosophy,as a whole. He is confident that religion ii the source Marxism, becomes radically transformed; thanks to its organic of philosophy, that essentially philosophical protrlems are religious, association with the progress of scientific knowledge and foremost theological. Philosophy is dying, since rhe question about trutf, and social practice it develbps into a scientific-philosophical world the question about God have been separated and, moreover, they outlook. Bourgeois philosophy, however, is incapable of surmount- have been contrasted to each other. "He who is asking about ing the alienated perception of reality which is immanent in its truth," Picht laments, "is not asking about God; he who tfiinks of social nature. This finds its impressive reflection in the myth about God, does not seek truth." 7 The statement that scientific philosophy's death which puts on record its real break-up and, knowledge and religious consciousness are incompatible is most mystifying this historically real process, Iends it an absolutely emphatic-specifically-because the philosopher of a religious type universal interpretation. laments the historical situation engendered by social piog.ess. Thus, the process which i9 specifically a characteristic of an^thropology of the "morrified man", jusr as " J.h" the theology idealistic philosophy is extrapolated to a fundamentally different of "dead God" resorts to metaphores to describe Western realitiJs. philosophy, that of Marxism. Dialectical materialism is interpreted Present-day abstract humanisnr which characterises the capitalist not as the negation of traditional philosophising but as the system irrespective of capitalism and the proletariat, ignoies its rejection of philosophy in general. This interpretation of facts is fu.ndamental antagonism. More than a century ago Mar-x made a an illusionary ideological self-consciousness which perceives the scientific study of the functioning and development of the degradation of modern bourgeois philosophemes as a total capitalist mode of production and showed that expioitation of the self-destruction of philosophy. A critical analysis of this illusion proletarians takes- place even when they are given-wages, equal to brings to light not only the hostility of bourgeois philosophy to the cost of the labour power sold by them. eapitalist-production, dialectical. materialism but its inability to comprehend the social Marx explained, is most intensive when there is a formally free sources of its own impotence. worker who becomes a hired slave of capital because under A proper comprehension of the myth about philosophy's death capitalism he has no other alternative. Capitalism, as is known, is only possible if this myth is taken not in isolation but jointly with alienates the. producer's product from his work, alienates thereby other similar mystified realities of present-day bourgeois con- man's essential forces from the environment. Capitalist application sciousness. The theology of the "dead God" or the anthropology of of machinery transforms the worker into an ippendage of the the "mortified man" basically are ideological phenomena of the machine while capitalist division of labour rendefs him a partial same type. God is dead, F. Nietzsche used to say, expressing worker. through this metaphore an empirically observed reality-the Humanism, however, which appears under the banner of the degradation of traditional religious consciousness of a thoughtless, axthro.po.logy of the "mortified man", while indirectly recognising unweakened by doubts, faith in the inconceivable. The pagans these indubitable truths, discusses man in general, the scientifii who took the sun and stars for Gods, naturally, did not doubt the and .technological progress in general terms, abstracting from its existence of the latter. Since the emergence of monotheism, specific historical social form. E. Fromm, who adheris to the however, with its transcendental God transformed into an positions of. a pseudo-scientific theory bf a single industrial society, abstraction, there appeared also the "proof" of the existence of states that in the nearest decades "man ceases to be human and God. The theology of the "dead God" is a forced admission of the becomes transformed into an unthinking and unfeeling fact that socio-economic and scientific-technological progress entail machine".8 This ernasculation of the real historiial, class content oT not only secularisation but also the downfall of religious conscious- the alienation problem simply disavows the task of destroying the ness. The believer of our days is increasingly becoming a antagonistic social relations. Since mankind cannot .erroir.rce spontaneous atheist, i.e., he is a believer inasmuch as he is not a material production, scientific and technological progress (it conscious atheist. God is dead, since the believer is not finding him cannot but, naturally, should change their social form), Fromm'i in his consciousness. conclusions are outright pessimistic-a mechanised and automat- 180 l8l ised man, as he becomes an element of the latest scientific and differing, contrasting, mutually excluding philosophical teachings technological system, loses his specific human- properties, no are, essentially, only variations of Platonism. "Throughout the longer &itt. ut a personality or an individual' "In the 19th history of philosophy," he writes, "Plato's thinking preserves in its ceniury," Fromm wriles, "the problem was that God r's dead; in the transformations the importance of the standard. Metaphysics is 20th century the problem is that man is dead. ln the 19th century Platonism. Nietzsche characterises his philosophy as overturned inhumanity'-.arl[ cruelty; in the 20th century it means schizoid Platonism. Philosophy reached its limit when Karl Marx carried self-alienation. The danger of the past was that men became out the overturning of metaphysics. Philosophy comes to its end. slaves. The danger of the future is that men may become Since, however, philosophical thinking continues to bend its efforts, robots. " e it only attains feeble imitations of renaissances and their var- Existentialism transformed the concept of death into an letles. " '' ontological definition of consciousness and of the entire human Heidegger's historico-philosophical concept, therefore, is a existente. Adhering to these positions, existentialists are substan- teaching about the descending line of philosophy which allegedly tiating the irrationilist variant of the myth of philosophy's death. commenced as far back as classical antiquity. From this point of fr,l. HEidegger, for instance, states that philosophy is dying because view the decline of philosophy is unavoidable owing to its it is esseniLlly alien to modern society. Philosophy, he writes, "is continued and increasing withdrawal from its original source. In esseDtially Greek".r0 This, according to Heidegger, means that the tris opinion, there is another source of the inevitable degeneration independent historical foundation of philosophical culture of new of philosophy. This is the permanent progress of science and timei is out of question. Only thinking of Greek philosophy you engineering which creates absolutely new conditions of mankind's can comprehencl what philosophy is. Only -the Greek language existence, within the framework of which there is no longer any authentically expresses the substance of philosophy, only that place for philosophical contemplation of being as being. Scientific language penetritcs the root of things. "A Greek word, inasmuch achievements are essentially technical, instrumental, measured by ur il. [..i.ive it, brings us directly to the thing itself, not merely their effectiveness in controlling the world of objects. What to the'meaning of the word."rr Consequently, it is n9t merely a philosophy has engaged in becomes a matter of scientific study statement of ihe word "philosophy" being of Greek origin- which, however, deprives philosophical problems of the specific, philosophy by its substance is interpreted as an old Greek substantial content. The scientific and technological revolution, the on?:#il"l..o.di.,g supreme stage of which is cybernetisation of knowledge and to Heidegger, perceived the substance of technology, creates its own new, specifically technical, "unnatural" language as logos. "We, however, can neither ever return to that language which is alienated from das Sein des Seienden and is srbitari.e of lalnguage, nor merely comprehend it."t2 This means infinitely remote from the language of philosophy. "The end of that the trpt.*6 of philosophy belong to,its Greek philosophy," Heidegger notes melancholically, "appears as the past. Philosophy is".hierr.*e.rts metaphysics wiich, in the main, was developed triumph of the controlled structure of a scientific-technological ilready by flato. Theiefore, all subsequent philosophy is the world and its corresponding social order." ra history of Plutot itm (this point of view has been rep-eatedly The meaning of these speculations is clear: the author wants to expressed long before Heide[ger). Thus, A. Gily_arov, the Russian say that science is a knowledge which instructs in skill, rather than idealist of the end of last century, wrote: "In Plato's system the in truth. Practical effectiveness and truthfulness are not in the genius of philosophy attained the highest summit- bey-ond which it necessary balance. Heidegger, naturally, does not recognise iurr impossible io' reach" (A. N. Gilyarov, The Imp.ortance ?f practice as the yardstick of truth, the foundation of knowledge. Phitosopiy, Kiev, 1888, p. 19, in Russian)' Gilyarov said that Plato's The unity of theory and practice seems to him as the ignoring of system 'iwas at one a.td the same time the culmination of the das Sei.n des Seienden which we can approach only through pure entire preceding philosophical thought and the foundation for the meditation disinterested in practical effect. development oithe subsiquent intellectual life of nations..'" (Ibid', Heidegger brings to the exreme the traditional, characteristic p. 13).'These statements clearly illustrate Lenin's well-known thesis of idealist philosophy, opposition of philosophy to the diversity of ihat idealists are supporters of Plato, while materialists are scientific knowledge. He alleges that sciences engage but in the defenders of Democritus. In his article "'fhe End of Philosophy existing, (ontic, to use Heidegger's terminology), while philosophy and the Task of Thinking", Heidegger provides his arguments for deals with das Setn des Sei,enden finds its subject in the metaphysi- the idea of the "end of philosophy", seeking to prove that most cal. Heidegger believes that "there are of necessity two mairi 182 183 alternatives of science: there are ontic sciences and ontological produced by the prospering civilisation.- "Doubts and desperation, science, philosophy."r5 Science written with a capital S is opposed on the one hand, blind o-bsession with untested truths, on the sciences about nature and society, the diversity of which is an other hand, oppose each other. Fear and fright intermingle with to t7 indefinite plurality devoid of real, substantial, being-ward orienta- hope and confidence." of tion. Sciences, Heidegger asserts, owing to their inherent attitudes Commenting on the existentialist concept of the -death to Whatever is practically attainable and useful, owing to the philosophy, the- historiographer of existentialism (and the author progressing specialisation are becoming increasingly remote from of tf," u.iy .ru-" of this frend) F. Heinemann believes that the das Sein des Seiend,en and this fatal "doom" of scientific knowledge philosophy'of antiquity was nourishgg Uy faith in outer space; the of stands for the insurmountability of misconceptions concerning the bf,it"t"bfrv of Middle.Ages-by'Meanwhile' faith in God; the philosophy meaning and importance of its ultimati results. The truth is new timei-by faith in man. the man of the 20th to beyond instrumental measuring and experimental testing. Sci- century "has no faith in anything and therefore is prepared ences seek not the truth but only what they call truth and what, as believe anything".rs The substance of the matter, thereby, is not is shown by philosophical consideration, turns out to be but the loss of religious faith. In other words, this ideologist sees immediate effectiveness; the consequences of which are lost in the universal disillusionment in the values of the bourgeois society. He darkness of the future which determines the present. That what is believes that lack of faith is the source of the multitude of all sorts called to be scientific, according to Heidegger, is only of of philosophies-the which do not significantly differ from one another. operational, formal character. Theology, within the framework of Some of philosophical theories represent an escape into methodological yardsticks of the scientific; is also science. pseudo-faith, into speiulative fancies and rhetoric, others reject While adducing arguments for the thesis about the intentional informative knowledge, limiting the tasks of philosophy to superfluousness of scientific knowledge, Heidegger states that methodological problems. However, both avenues have no pros- science light-mindedly excludes nothingness from the sphere of its pect^ whatsoever. interests. "Science," he writes, "discards and ridicules nothingness There was a time, Heinemann states, when philosophy and as naught... To science nothingness can be nothing but something science formed a single whole. In our time, however, owing to the repugnant and fictitious. Whether science is right or not, one differentiation of sciences which progresses in all directions, all thing is clear-science does not wish to know anything about primary problems, i.e., philosophical problems, turned into the thereby their nothingness. This, in the final count, is the strictly scientific problems- belonging to specific sciences losing . understanding of nothingness. We know what it is if we do not phil 186 r87 trends of scientific development. The neopositivist "philosophy of to know everything, of knowing the absolute truth in the final science" simply rejects the necessity and the possibility or thit instance. There ari t o unsolved problems, as he maintains, in world outlook. Therefore, neopositivism has..rothi.rg but subjec- philosophy. Philosophers are incapable o{ waiting, when the tively agnostic possible thanks to the accumulation -epistemology to oppose-an rationaiist metiphysics with. iolution oi a problem becomes This epistemology proves to be eclectic mishmash^ of idealistic of factual dati. Unlike real scholars philosophers always have the empirism and epistemological dogmas which are akin to apriorism answers for any questions-the answers are naturally an expres- (or o-verlooks present-day conventionalism). sion of ignoranie. Revel clearly - that The unplomising character of neopositivist criticism of philosophi&l trends which fly the of absolute relativism, -flag the philosophy is mosr evident in the case of its particularly active irluralisrn, agnosticism are far irom claiming absolute truth in a psychologically (or ldepts. who are- e-ng3g9d1n prrblicism. The better known among iinal instanci. Truth, to them, is nothing but them is most likely J. F. Revel, a French pamphleteer, the authoi methodologically) justified assumPtion, conviction or attitude' of an--extravagant essay "What Are philosophers For?', Revel It is ra"ther'comical that Revel contrasts philosophy with a himself who goes on to say that a scientist is not _can_ hardly be called a philosopher, though he did write statement by L6vi-Strauss, several books on the history of philosophy. In eich of them he the person'who delivers true answers. Rather, he is the person allege.s that philosophy exists ut th. result oi prejudices, misunder- who- correctly formulates questions. It does not occur to our standings, snobbery and ignorance. pamphleteer ih^t if we checi< the "identity" of that declaration, it Revel leader structuraiism has paraphrased - says that in our time philosophy is a substitute for *itt iranspire that the of -only religion. He has in mind not idealisrn bui philosophy in general. Heidegger's words that philosop-hy should "by formulating ques- Revel rejects the self-evident delineationi of materiariin and tions leave the research oPen"." idealism, theism and atheism. The logic of his reasoning is Naturally, this poises i question why would Revel, this rabid approximately like this: he who believEs in God and he ivho ideologist of impeiialist bourgeoisie, attack even that philosoplry doesn't believe in the existence of God hardly differ. Revel believes which"is upholding the capitalist rnodw uiuendi? The crux of the that the delimitation of the material and ideal, of the subjective matter is t'hat Revil who opposes, in the spirit of neopositivism, hackneyed and obj-ective does not correspond to any scientifically established specific sciences to philosophy, _retains- nevertheless a facts. Philosophical problems are primarily pseudoproblems pro_ bllef that the scientific and technological revolution fully settles, vided unless they are found to belong to' the subiLct of specific without social reforms, the vital problems of our times. According sciences. Modern philosophy, thq Fiench pu.rr[h1.t... trut"r, to Revel, the existence of philoiophy was justified in the remote represents but a desperate attempt to prove its-own existence. times when there were no sciences. However, since the emergence "Never before throughout its hisiory, did philosophy, which is of natural sciences of New Times, with their experimental studies Revel, now feeling the chill of death, claim-with such detirmination its and instrumental observation, philosophy, acco-rding to indep_endence of all other forms of spiritual activity...."26 turns into something like alchemy or astrology.zE the spirit of those obscurantists .wnjte admitting the real gap between idealistic speculations Revel appraises philosophy in and scientific studies, Revel says nothing not only aboui dialectical who believi that its usefulness is doubtful, but harm-possible' It materialism, but also about the fait that within bourgeois turns out that philosophy which is fully based on the capitalist philosophy proper there are teachings attempting concrete tom- status quo .unrrbt discard its critical attitude'to the most glaring puts-on.rerord the prehension and summarisation of icientifii u.f,i.r.*ents and ulcers of present-day Western society. Thus, it appropriate philosophical conclusions. Suffice it to mention even negative ionr.qrerr.es of the scientific and technological revolu- is the French neorationalism, whose outstanding representative Ba- tioi whose immediate connection with capitalist relations evident chelard was developing the philosophy of "ritional materialism" even on the level of ordinary consciousness; it indicates the danger of on the basis of rhe latest achievements of physics and chemistry. of the ecological crisis; points out the dehumalisi-ng influence ty^pe- philo.sophy, inas- British and American "scientific materialisis'; should neither be capitalist rationalisation.- In short, this of neglected, since despite their naturalistic limitations. much as it is an expression of the crisis of the capitalist system, is thev are thinking and successfully struggling against the idealistic interpretation of bound to question some of the stereotypes of in that system' And yet the natural science and provide it with arguments for the solution of a behaviour which are inherent psychophysical problem. excessively straightforward Revel accuses it of.... ignorance. This, verdict: "The normal Revel accuses philosophy of every sin and primarily of claiming by the way, is- his formulation of the 188 189 .gSiT^.:^9f philosophy- ignorati:o elench,i-ignorance beyond de- and this absolutely important idea. This, however, is not the nial."2s since Reveldescrides philosophy as Excessive pritentious- methodological oversimplification that a researcher has to resort to ness verging on obsession and evident inability of considering in search of a regularity. On the contrary, this is the outright obvious facts, the destructive characteristics should also be appliej ignoring of a discovered regularity of philosophical development, to this philosophising adversary of philosophy. since the mentioned formulation completely precludes the an- Hence, the dying of bourgeois philosophy is interpreted as a tithesis of the materialistic and idealistic understanding of a c_omatose state of philosophy in general. The thesis about its death reasonable remaking of reality. The matter, however, is not the which, as usually happens in a directs its- _spearhead against the scientific-philosophical world deficiencies of the formulation it outlook of Marxism. In real fact it is preciseiy this ieaching that serious study, are rectified by the subsequent explanation of the the en€mies of Marxism are seeking io -"r.tify. Some of"them matter at issue. Here we are dealing with a cardinal defect of assert that dialectical materialism does not ess..rtidly, in any way, Marcuse's entire concept which puts into brackets the alternative differ from the historically outmoded metaphysicai materialism. relationship of the main philosophical trends. others allege that Marxist philosophy porsibly corresponded to Naturally, a general definition of philosophy should be put into the level of science in-the lgth century-but aliegedly ii is clearly a form to encompass both materialism and idealism. The meaning out of line with modern scientific data, In d-oing this, they, of Marcuse's thesis, however, is absolutely different. He wished to naturally, completely ignore one essential circuristance thit prove that philosophy in its entirety, inasmuch as it provided dialectical materialism arguments for the possibility (and the necessity) of a reasonable -unlike other philosophicar teachings is a developing sys_tem.. These remaking of the world, was essentially idealistic. "Philosophy," - critics db not recognise Mirxism_ Leninism, the Leninisr srage in Marxist philosopliy. Still further, Marcuse summarised his reasoning, "is thereby idealism; it however, go those critics of Marxis.t philosophy who vainly attempt subordinates being to thinking."s' Since Marx broke away with to prove that there no such philosophy in'general. This group idealism, he thereby, according to Marcuse, broke away with .is "sociil of critics includes the theorists of thq Frankfirt school of philosophy. "The theory of society," Marcuse wrote, having in studies who- are the flag "authentic" mind Marxism, "is an economic, rather than a philosophical -flying of interpretation of 32 Marxism. They that dialectical materialists system." Marx, however, as is known, called his teaching ^allege break away from the,real spirit of Marxism, since its founders have done away with materialist, criticised the philosophy of Hegel and other idealists philosophy once and for all. from the position of a materialist conception of history. Marcuse, It would be naive to believe that the conclusion about the naturally, did not reject these facts; instead of rejection he used hostility-of Marxism to every other philosophy was made as the "interpretation", according to which the term "materialism" did result of an oversimplified interpretaiion of-the above-mentioned not carry a philosophical meaning for Marx. He alleged that Marx statelnents of the founders of Marxism. The substance of the had not recognised any philosophy, slighted philosophy as an matter is much deeper and is therefore worthy of closer ideological logomachy, etc. consideration. H. Marcuse alleged that the deveiopment of Marx and Engels brought the construction of materialism "up philosophy, inasmuch as its main iategory is the concept of reason, to the top", extended it to the comprehension of social phenome- necessarily_culminates in self-negation. Let us try t.a.i hir train of na, created a qualitatively new form of materialism. Naturally, this thought. He said that philosophy had always heralded and was a negation (however, it was definitely a dialectical negation) of substantiated the task of a reasonable reorganisation of the world the entire preceding philosophy, including the preceding material- and that this presupposed the recognition 6f its, at least potential, ism. However, contrary to the allegations of Frankfurt theorists, rationality. Marcuse wrote: "Philoiophy has associated with the this was not a negation of philosophy in general. It is necessary to word 'reason' the idea of a certain being which unites all distinguish the specific, dialectical negation from abstract, irreconcilab.le opposites (subject and object, s.r6sta.r.e and appear_ metaphysical negation. ance, thinking and being). This idea his been associated wiih the However, let us make a reservation. We are not inclined to belief Marcuse the inability of distinguishing a _that though the existing is not immediately reasonabre, it ascribe to a thinker like phould be made reasonable."30 dialectical negation from metaphysical. On the contrary, we wish Marcuse reduced philosophy to one of its main ideas and to uncover the grounds which in this case forced Marcuse to thereby tried to substantiate 1ts global characteristic, which turns ignore this essential delimitation. It is, therefore, necessary to go out to be an oversimplification of both the notion of philosophy directly to the elucidation of intentional grounds of the conception 190 t9l which, contrary to historical facts, declares Marxism a non- philosophical teaching. laimed: "If reason,-precisely as a reasonable organisation of The matter at issue is that Marcuse,while claiming the denial of mankind-is in fact realised, philosophy thereby becomes point- "conventional", oversimplified interpretation of Marxism, declared less. Indeed, philosophy, inaimuch as it represents- something greater than business-or a profession within the existing division as essentially necessary the "delivery" of Marxism from the alien 33 "idealistic" orientation towards a reasonable reorganisation of 3f lubo,l., exists only until ieason has not become reality." "critical" concept of society, which, allegedly, is more than dangerous-it is catas- It is not difficult'to understand that the the idea of reasonable remaking.of trophic. Just as other "critical theorists" Marcuse was not in the philosophy's death rejects -a. least embarrassed by the fact that philosophical irrationalism iocial. and'natural conditions of human life, since the reason which slights reason as the cause of all historical misfortunes of mankind. they are criticising is nothing but a historically-confined, antagonis- Opposing the "extremes" of irrationalism, they, just as all tic rationality of capitalist management. Production mana-gement the philosophers of the eclectic trend, are continually infetted by the at every capitalist enterprise is planned and rational within same teachings which they themselves subject to criticism. In limits oi capitalist profitibility. The system of capitalist enterprise, social particular, the Frankfurt "critical" concept of reason and progress the capitalist sysfe*, however, represents- a111chy of is associated with this. produciion, the unavoidable co-n-sequences of which are not only its objectivisa- Thc adepts of the "critical theory" are attacking the non- an economrc crlsls, alienation of human activity and conditions of critical understanding of reason. They contend that the reason, tion but also the increasing destruction of the natural the development and realisation of which was the great hope mankind's existence. Since this contradiction in between the social of is in classical philosophy, is simply non-existent and has never existed. nature of production and the private form of- appropriation Owing to the real division of labour in society there are but the field of vision of "critical theorists", they interpret it as reasonable specialised, functional varieties of reason, adjusted to the im- irrationality. Every attempt at organising society. on view, plementation of specific tasks which, far from being coordinated principles proves'to be,- from this- point o{ -functional, iechnital ut d b,rt.urrcratic, leaving the foundation of the social with universal humanitarian ideals, directly contradict the latter. if There is an instrumental (both practical and theoretical) reason, entity intact. Hence the f indubitable'l conclusion: -philosophy, not merely technical and even bureaucratic reason, but the integral, com- *. hur. in mind its humanistic dedication and do are not the subject- prehensively developing reason, the image of which-has been ponder about some general questions which created by classical philosophy, is but a myth, self-illusion, fraught -utt." of specific,sciences, is not only impossible.but is absolutely with a world-wide historical catastrophy unwanted. To uphold philosophy, to develop philosophical prob- human emancipation, Marcuse alleged that a reasonable remaking society had lems, to philosophically justify the ways of _ of to been already implemented through the scientific ind technoiogical means ta cultivate iilusions, to entrench misconceptions, forced- upon the reader progress. Bourgeois rationalisation of production was described aggravate social evil. To follow this logic by than him as reasonable in itself regardless of historical conditioni. b!"Ma.cuse, one has to discard philosophy and even more variety of the social Hence the conclusion that the realisation of reason has nothing in that, one has to abolish it as the most refined common with the humanisation of the conditions min's evil against which it allegedly acts. of (they definitely existence and of man himself. All reason, in accordance with Th.-e main illusion of Frankfurt philosophers they which social reality is remade, is instrumental, technical, bureauc- are philosophers though they negate philosophy) is that and the scientific and ratic reason. Therefore a society built on the principle of reason is ..guid the capitalist -ode of production medal. In other words, a manipulated society in which the depersonalisation and aliena- tec"hnological firogress as two sides of one existence of tion of the individual attain such proportions that his very contrary to obuiout facts, they do not admit the existence becomes increasingly problematic. scientific and technological progress outside its capitalist, an- of Thus, the great philosophical idea of a reasonable tagonistic social form. fherefore, the accelerated development _ remaking of critics of the world to be, in keeping with the, "critical theory; of roZiulirt production is viewed by these petty-bourgeois -proved following. the capitalist road the Frankfurt school, a utopia, and a utopia of a type which has capitalism as evidence of socialism The radical been realised and conrinues to be realised. Consequently, human- u.rd, in the final count, becoming supercapitalism. the capitalist ism, if it can exist in the world of total alienation, shouid become opposition of the socialist mode of production to representatives an anti-philosophy, an anti-utopia. Accordingly, Marcuse proc- .rroa. airrppears from the field of vision of these of philosophical-sociological romanticism... The only thing that r92 rc*aar. 1522. r93 exists for them is the "modern industrial society", or "technical 3 R. Descartes, Diseours d.e la mithode, Paris, 1969, p. 45. civilisation", which profanes both the external and internal human nature. The scientific and technological progress is, 1 I l,l-."i]"3;IKr;#'ifJ; rlffi Jio'83,r..,. or ph,osophy,,, phitosophy therefore, depicted as the main source of social-evil in its:modern of Marxism and Contemporary Scientific and, Technological Reaolution, Moscow, (in historical form. Inasmuch as the process of production is 1977, p. 10 Russian). 6 characterised as basically technological,- independeni of any social G. Picht, Der Cott der Phi.losophen urul die Wi.ssenschaft der Neuzeit" Stuttgart, 1966, form, the conclusion drawn is unequivocalll pessimistic: p. 17. no social 7 reforms can avert the fatal catastrophic prospects. Ibid., p. 16. 8 E. Fromm, The Rerolution of Hope. Touard a Humanised Technology, New York, 1968, ir. 28. ,<{<* e E. Fromm, The Dogma of Christ and, Other Essays in Religion, Psychology and Culture, New York, 1973, p. 100. Let us draw some conclusions. The myth about philosophy's r0 M. Heidegger, Was ist d,as-d.ie Phi.losophie, Pfullingen, 1956, p. 13. death is a reflection, jocial mystification of a historicalry definite rr Ibid., p. 20. reality. Philosophical negativism, just as any nihilisiic mood in any r2 Ibid., p. 44. sphere of social consciousness represents an authentic expression 13 M. Heidegger, Zur Sache des Denkens, Tiibingen, 1969, p. 63. of the^ spiritual crisis capitalist- of society. The causes of degrada- ra Ibid., p. 65. tion of Western philosophy- are not in philosophy piop.r, r5 M. Heidegger, Phiinomenologie und, Theologie, Frankfort on the Main, 1970, p. 14. but socio-economic -rooted in its foundation. The critics or'pditosoprry, rG M. Heidegger, Was ist Metaplrysik?, Frzinkfort on the Main, 1955, pp. 26-27. however, while admitting its actual degradation look foi its sources r7 M. Heidegger, Was ist das-die Phrlosophie?, p. 43. specifics of philosophical thinking rather il lh.. than in its class ts Die Philosolthie im 20. Jahrhundert, Ed. by von F. Heinemann, Stuttgart, 1963, p. limitations and idealistic insolvency. Thlse critics, in principle, 265. refuse to distinguish.bourgeois- and non-bourgeois philoiophy. re Ibid., p. 266. -prritosophicai tn other words, the sociological characteristic of teach- 20 H. Lenk, Philosophie im technologischen Zeitalter, Stuttgart, 1971, pp. 21,23,24. ings is regarded by them as absolutely out of place.^This proves 2r from the book of H. Lenk. Wozu Phtlosophie, Munich, 1974, p. 98. that Quoted .modern .lgurggojs. philosophy, d'espite thl fact that'by its 22 H. Lenk, Philosoph.ie im technologischen Zeitalter, p. 9. criticism of-philosophising it delivers iti own verdicr, is actually 23 C. D. Broad. ?-uro Lectures on the Nature of Philosophy. CLarity Is Not Enough, Ed. incapable of genuine, sober-minded self-criticism. Therefore, th! by H. D. Lewis, London, 1963, p. 45. myth about philosophy's death corroborates this conclusion 24 Ernst Gellner, Words and Thingq London, 1959, p. 220. without fail. 25 Proceedings of the 14th International Congress of Philosophy, Vienna, 1969, p. 147. The emergence of philosophy is rightly described by many 26 J. F. Revel, Pourqoi des philosophes et la cabale dcs d6ztots, Paris, 1971, p. 246. researchers as the transition from myth-to iogos, to a reasonable 27 M. Heidegger, Kant und das Problem d.er Metaphysik, Frankfort on the Main, 1934, comprehension of However, inasmirch as philosophy p. 235. -reality. 28 point view Revel seeks prove in his book Histoire de la philosophie remains a world outlool<. of the propertied, the exploiting classes, This of to it has never succeeded in doing away with myth;logy "*f,i.h occid.entale. La lthilosophie dassique, Paris, 1970, Chapter 1. i, 2e Ibid., p. 177. continually-revived in the new forms of idealistic philoJophising in 30 H. Marcuse, Kultur und, Gesellschat't, Vol. 1, Frankfort on the Main, 1968, p. 103. lile with the changed conditions. Modern bourgeois piitoro[t y 'reason 3r Ibid., p. 104. develops not from a myth to reason but f-rom to 32 pp. 102-103. plthologl. concept philosophy,s lbid., -Accordingly,.rhe of death, though 33 it does. reflect definite "is Ibid., p. 103. ^quite facts, rimains' a' myth'of which convincingly refuted by the creative development dialectical materialism. NOTES I A. de Waelhens, "Philosophie et non-philosophie,', Reuue philosophique de Louaain, 1959, Vol. 57, p. 5. 2 P. Bayle, Dictionnai,re historique et critique, paris, 1820, Vol. l, p. l9l. t94 environment which spring from human activity. A case in point is pollution and the resulting hazards. I could name the destruction of the soil Iayer in the process of mineral mining which requires recultivation and other instances of man's negative impact on the environment. A fundamentally new orientation in the functioning MAN AND NATURE of our Committee is control over the state of the environment in the broad sense of the word, above all, pollution control. Q: But if you want to take appropriate steps you have to know the state of the environment. Do you have necessary information? A.: A special nationwide environmental observation and pollution conirol service has been at work in the Soviet Union for years the basis data Party and state several .already. On of our Keep agencies, various ministries and departments adopt preventive the Sky, Land and Water Clean! measures geared to reduce pollution and improve the natural environment. But in major industrial centres, industrial discharges get mixed so rapidly that it is difficult to identify their sources and From the Edltors: ln 1978, the soviet Government formed the ussR state those responsible and it is one of the new tasks of our Committee. committee for Hydrometeorology and Environmental control. ln-rgig. ine cC At present, jointly with other agencies, we are engaged in hygienic CPSU and the ussR councii oi'rr,riniitJrs proirin"o a blcision";on'lao'rtionat protection Measures .1o .lntensify Nature and lmprove the UsL of- Natural rating, primarily of discharges into the air. Tepgylges':. Why this was done is discussed ln an interview given to scheme is already under way. State All-Union standards A udaltsov. c.glrglpo.ndent The .g of Literaturnaya gazeta. by correiponding calculating pelmissible discharges into the air Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences'yuri lzrael, bhairman'of th6 for establishing and Committee. have been discussed and adopted. Now, together with the agencies concerned, we are to set rates of discharges into the air for enterprises in various regions. Question: You were in charge of the Weather Service Administ_ In doing this we are to be guided by the need to preserve a ration under the USSR Council of Ministers and are now high-quality environment and consider the technical facilities of chairman of the newly established ussR State committee for industrial enterprises and other possible sources of pollution. Hydrometeorology and Environmental you Control. retain the Won't these rates be identical for all districts, cities and same office housed in the same building, pavlik Q.: Morozov street in industrial enterprises? Moscow, and supervise the same sta{f. what basically new tasks are set before your Committee? A.: No, because much depends on weather conditions, local relief, the type of discharge and pollution in specific areas. The Answer: I should like first to emphasise that although the Weather Service enterprises that go up in developed areas, which are already is no .longer in existence, providing" hyd- have much more rigid rates than rometeorological information partially polluted, naturally, must to the national economy con-stitutes those comparatively clean areas. This policy helps preserve an one of the main tasks facing in our new Committee. Ai before, we even load on the environment within the limits of its ecological are to'o.btain all possible data about the natural state of the environment and potential. issue warnings about unfavourable changes in Committee is also to supervise the observation of this state or, on the contrary, promote Our its utilisation whei it is permissible rates of discharge. conducive to national economic-development. - Our job is thus primarily concerned with problems of Q.; It was our great satisfaction to read the Decision of the hydrometeorology that arise from natural changes in the state of the CC CPSU and the USSR Council of Ministers "On Additional environrne,t-changes in temperature, pressirre, the amount of Measures to Intensify Nature Protection and Improve the Use of precipitation and cloudiness. we must be iware of all these changes Natural Resources". Could you offer a brief comment on the and give timely relevant warnings to the population and the national extremely timely Decision citing cases of unsatisfactory nature economic bodies. protection situation in individual industries? Recent years-in the Soviet lJnion as well as in the rest of the world-have brought noticeable changes in the state of the 197 196 A.: Most important, the document represents a direct sequel to Q.: How can this adverse situation be eliminated? What a Decision "On Intensifying Nature Protection and Improving powers are given to your Committee and how can the public the Use of Natural Resourcei", which was issued by the CC CPSU help in this noble endeavour? and the USSR Council of Ministers in 1972. Continuity between these two documents consists in the fact that the past six years A.: We have already touched on the control system. The have brought new information and new research findings making complete elimination of such phenomqna can be achieved by it possible to specify some provisions of the previous document. instituting a reliable system of moniporing. As regards the A crucial section of the new Decision discusses the protection sanctionary authority of our Committee, it is to adopt various of atmospheric air. With a view to ensuring it, for instance, decisions on monitoring the quality of the environment, in other officials of our Committee have had it made their responsibility to words, extensively carry on the already mentioned ecological supervise industrial enterprises and, when necessary, apply ap- investigations. Now the realisation of any project requires our propriate sanctions. consent. Currently, a standard routine is being worked out. We A major theme of this new decision is monitoring the state of are developing hygienic rates for the enterprises of each particular the air basin, including planning the location of industrial ministry or department. When they endorse those rates their enterprises with an eye.to the quality of natural environment and enterprises whose functioning involves pollution will have it made the interests of the ministries and departments concerned. Our bound on them to observe the established rates and in the case of Committee can actively interfere because one of its jobs now is to violation rigid sanctions, up to halting production, will be applied. conduct ecological investigations to be in a position to decide Now what help can we expect of the public or, more broadly, whether the given enterprise can function in the given area and at the entire Soviet people? Nature conservation is everybody's the given technological level. concern. The public and its organisations play a major role here As regards environmental pollution I will single out three but the important thing is that each worker, from the machine problems which arouse particular concern. operator to the plant manager, especially the one whose enterprise First, the cleanness of the air in big cities, with their constantly has an impact on, and possibly even pollutes, the environment, growing number of transportation means. Our traffic arteries, take a responsible attitude to the question realising that his job especially in rush hours, are not only overloaded physically, as it consists in more than turning out appropriate products. In our were, but also polluted with noxious fumes. At street crossings, days it is euerybody's duty to protect the environment which extends where the engines are idling, the level of pollution rises, and rises far beyond the bounds of any factory, plant or power station. Any substantially, presenting a serious problem. worker, whatever job he does and whatever post he holds, should Second, rivers where waters contaminated with toxic chemicals bear in mind this vital necessity and intensively join in protecting from farm fields still find their way. the natural environment. Third, the seas and the World Ocean, which has no frontiers. The hazardous substances which are dumped from the territories Literaturnaya gazeta has done about of various countries and from aboard ships can trigger off tense Q.: a lot of writing environmental protection cities. has discussed noise situations for the ocean as a whole and, still more, for landlocked in the It seas. abatement and is now debating the relationship between the Could you give examples? engine and the environment as well as integral problems of urban Q.: ecology. What in your opinion are the main tasks and the main A.; The worst influence on the environment is exercised by enterprises of the USSR ministries difficulties in these fields? What is the contribution of your of non-ferrous metallurgy, Committee? chemical and petrochemical industries. A "notable contribution"-.3[qu1 60 per cent-to the pollution A.: I will say first that the problem of environmental protection of the air in the cities by sulphur dioxide is made by enterprises of in the cities holds, and will continue to hold, a place of the USSR Ministry of Electric Power Development and Electrifica- prominence in our work. It has many aspects but air pollution is tion. the main thing here. In major cities the problem presents Far from all problems of effluent purification are resolved by particularly great difficulties. If all people are to enjoy clean air it several ministries. The Severny Donets, the Irtysh and some rivers is to be purified within the bounds of a city or an industrial area. of the Kola Peninsula are still being fouled by their enterprises. This creates substantial difficulties. r98 199 job , We constantly intensify control over the state of the atmospheric even if specialised. I would make it a of the Ministry of air monitoring its pollution in 350 Soviet cities. Besides, we are Agriculture, the State Committee for Forestry, the USSR Academy setting up automated monitoring systems in Moscow, Leningrad of Sciences, and several other agencies. and several other large cities and conducting an integral experi- Our Committee will carry out intensified integral research on ment as part of a detailed study of the quality of atmospheric air the basis of biosphere reserves with a view to obtaining complete in the capital. information about the background state of the environment in areas uninfluenced by man. Such reserves have been, or are being, When will this project become Q.: completely operational? instituted in Byelorussia, the Caucasus, Soviet Central Asia, the A.: The task is to make measurements of ingredients more and Soviet Far East, and several other areas. The appropriate findings more efficient. This is what we are striving to attain. It is therefore will reveal the extent of change in the background (fundamental) difficult to say when the project will be realised. In Leningrad and state of the natural environment because the level of pollution in Moscow it is already at the test stage. In Moscow, a number of some "hot spots" alone does not reflect the general state of checks have clearly ievealed which pirts of the city are exposed to nature. pollution worst and where the most vigorous measures should be adopted. Incidentally; more than 300 industrial enrerprises have Q.; The very title of the Decision suE{gests that its aim is been moved out of Moscow. nature protection as well as a better use of natural resources. In Scrious steps are being taken with a view to combating traffic my opinion, the most significant problem in this field is that of pollution. Underground pedestrian passages are being built in energy resources. To date, it is common knowledge that the order to secure pedestrian safety and facilitate traffic as well as in reserves of coal, oil and gas are not unlimited. Besides, there is order to reduce the idle run ol engines thus enhancing the puriry some bias against atomic power engineering. Apprehensions as to of the air. its harmful impact on the environrnent are being expressed in the Regrettably, noise abatement has not yet gained adequate West. What is your view of the question? attention. True, the law on atmospheric air covers this problem. A.: Of course, it is vital to take a master-like attitude to natural, There is no discounting the significance of urban problems, especial energy, resources. It follows that the question of Q.r power engineering really warrants careful of course, but in recent times townspeople have been exhibiting a developing atomic mounting urge for communion with nature. Readers of Literatur- consideration. In our country it develops very rapidly. As a na)a gazeta complain about the slow pace of setting up national conseivationist I can say with authority that an atomic power pollutes less a one, per unit energy parks in the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the Decision devotes station the air than thermal of generated. words, thermal electric power station much space to sanctuary schemes. What is your view of the In other a situation? requires much more clean air for thinning pollutions into completely safe concentrations than.an atomic one. The question A.; The Soviet Union now has more than 100 reserves, which of combating the "thermal pollution" of the environment by claim a total area of almost 10 million hectares, and will expand. atomic power stations is being successfully handled. Another However, I assume that the question of national parks is an imperative is to develop solar and wind energy. important one. To my mind, this form of conservation and popularisation of Q.; Have any practical results been achieved in this field? nature's values is extremely promising and vital. At present some A..' Yes. In Turkmenia, for example, serious efforts in the use Union republics, for example Lithuania, are taking iteps towards of solar energy have been launched. The question has been opening national parks. This initiative deserves every possible discussed in the Soviet Union, in other countries, and in the support. World Meteorological Organisation, and interesting recommenda- tions have been issued. Whose responsibility is it to create narional parks? Perhaps .Q.; it problem rational utilisation of natural resources is closely will be assigned to your Committee? The of related to that of nature conservation. Valuable products are A.; I am positive that the supervision and handling of all nature frequently dumped into the air and other media. The combustion conservation projects should not be commissioned to one agency, of ordinary fuel is accompanied by the losses of large amounts of 200 201 sulphur, valuable heavy metals and other products which are also well as bilateral contacts with the United States, Britain, France dangerous pollutants. This is what makes the problem of and some other capitalist countries. protecting air and water from pollution closely connected with that A large number of joint technical and engineering projects are of thrifty use of natural resources. At present large quantities of being carried out. Joint research into combating sulphur dioxide necessary elements and materials, which could well be used in the and other harmful discharges into the air is under way. American national economy, run to waste. experts are enthusiastically studying the Soviet methods of conservation of wild plants and animals and the organisation of Q.: What are the international aspects of the problem? Soviet nature reserves. On the other hand, national parks, which A.: In surveying environmental questions it is difficult to we have mentioned above, are extensively developed in the United confine oneself to national bounds. For instance, sulphur dioxide States. In this field the Soviet Union is learning from America. which spreads with the air across vast expanses and national Joint fundamental research is also in progress. For example, Soviet frontiers, substantially damages the environment. The problem scientists cooperate with their American counterparts in the study has already become pressing in Europe: many of its countries of man's impact on the earth's climate, in forecasting earthquakes (Scandinavian, in particular) now suffer mostly from the pollution and genetic consequences of polhrtion. which comes from other countries. I believe that such cooperation warrants develbpment. My last question. What international organisations for propagandists emphasise the Q.: Q.: Bourgeois stubbornly that environmental conservation have extended membership to the hand identical matter where they arise, in problems in are no Soviet Union and how does it observe its international commit- socialist capitalist society. They claim that the socialist and or in ments? capitalist worlds face similar troubles, that dust and dirt in both worlds are the same and so are the ways of their removal. A.: In addition to the multilateral and bilateral forms of l{owever, the differences between the two social systems suggest a cooperation I have named, the Soviet Union shares in the efforts different approach to these problems. What do both systems have of several international organisations which directly or indirectly in common in this field? What can we learn from each other? And promote environmental protection projects. what is the basic distinction of the nature protection policy of the Pride of place belongs to the UNEP-the United Nations socialist world? Environment Programme-within the framework of which a number. of interesting projects, including a global monitoring A..' Dust and dirt are really identical in both worlds but there is system, are being carried out with Soviet participation. a fundamental difference of approach to environmental conserva- UNESCO is another major contributor to these projects. tion: while in the socialist countries there are no substantial Currently, it is implementing the "Man and the Biosphere" contradictions between the interests of society and those of an Programme. Supporting its activity, the Soviet Union has advanced individual, in the capitalist countries they are to be found in and substantiated a project known as "The Study of Environmen- plenty. Private entrepreneurs, in their drive for profit, disregard tal Pollution and Its Influence on the Biosphere". the interests of society. All efforts in the Soviet Union and other Besides, our country is an active member of the World socialist countries are directed at meeting the interests of all Meteorological Organisation. At the first World Climate Confer- society. ence, which was held under its auspices early in 1979,24 experts read papers on the impact of human society on the climate and systems can learn something from However, whether the two the possible influence of climatic changes on human activity- question: can. Because this, each other is a good they really of :rgriculture, fisheries, etc. Some papers were devoted to modelling preventing international cooperation is wanted, not only in the climate and forecasting its possible changes and fluctuations. (for instance, atmospheric which pollution of the environment air), Four Soviet papers aroused an intense interest and the conference knows frontiers, also, resolving purely scientific and no but in as a whole was a success. engineering problems. Such integration efforts is beneficial to of It adopted a declaration which stressed the importance of a wide both the. Soviet Union and other countries. range of research into possible changes and fluctuations of the In this field the Soviet Union maintains extensive fruitful <:limate (including those caused by man) and into the influence of relations (bilateral and multilateral) with other socialist countries as such changes on man's economic activity. It also emphasised that a 202 203 climate conducive to man's life can be preserved only if there is peace. Incidentally, the Soviet Union took the initiative in signing a Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Other Hostile Uses of the Environmental Modification Techniques. After the 1963 Moscow Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapons Tests in the Atmos- YOUTH AND SOCIETY phere, in Outer Space and Under Water came into force the amount of radioactive fallout has been substantially reduced all over the world. The Communist P:rrty and the Soviet state give constant attention to the vital problern of environmental conservation. Part of this policy was a proposal, made in 1975 bv Leonid Brezhnev, on holding a top-level all-European conference on cooperation in environment protection. Romantic Consciousness Such a conference. was held in Geneva in November 1979. It in the Western Youth Counter-Culture was attended by almost all European countries, the United States, Canada and some 10 international organisations and has become a major practical step towards the implementation of the Final Act KSENIA MYALO of the Helsinki Conference on Security ancl Cooperation in Europe. The all-European Conference on cooperati 205 But a calmer and unbiased analysis of public opinion polls will the human mind what does not find expression within the reveal that though there has been a certain radita[sation of the framework of reality. There can also be seen a direct continuity in masses, it should not be overestimated.2 the use of certain themes outlined by the Jena romanticists: A Gallup poll in the autumn of 1970 showed that youth, and unconscious infatuation and instincts, illness as an equal form of particularly student, radicalism, was grossly exaggerated. Com- being, uncontrolled psychical conditions. menting on the poll, Nezuszr;eek magazine said thai a substantial This complex of problems clearly stands out even in a terse majority of the students accepted puritan ethics as the most description of the external features of the counter-culture made suitable way of life. The situation is much the same in other by an ideologist of the movement, Th. Roszack. He writes: Western countries. "...interests of our college-age and adolescent young in the Youth opinion, as a rule, is to the right of the student psychology of alienation, oriental mysticism, psychedelic drugs and movement and basically coincides with the prevailing majority communitarian experiments comprise a cultural constellation that attitude, with its ingrained hostility even to the idea of straert radically diverges from values and assumptions that have been in unrest and youth revolt. the mainstream of our society at least since the scientific revolution In this context, it is interesting, both theoretically and of the seventeenth century." 3 It was this revolution, the counter- ideologically, to highlight the core of the youth counter-culiure of culture ideologists believe, that laid the foundations of the the 1960s, its underlying ideas, which have generated hostility in one-dimensional, technicist philosophy and technocratic organisa- the.society, and on a_ number of questions pushed public opinion tion of society. !"_ j!. right. Interesting, too, is how these ideas developed in the Campus polls conducted in the 1970s showed that the principle 1970s. "everything natural is good, everything artificial, bad",a exerts a very strong influence. But they also revealed at least 18 interpretations of the natural. Essentially, they can be reduced to three central contr4sts which, I think, are expressive of the very spirit of the counter-culture as an alternative culture: A feature of youth movements in the 1960s was their effort to 1. Intuitive knowledge, instantarleous enlightenment as opposed resolve the spiritual crisis of modern bourgeois society by securing to analytical-discursive knowledge, usually rejected as Newtonian. mass acceptance of some of the fundamental propositions of the 2. The principle of living intercourse within an organic romantic .mentality. This applies to a totality oi id-eas and images community, as a counterweight to traditional Western individual- that ascribe a special role to intuition, imagination and fiee ism. And such intercourse was to be promoted by fhe pop self-revelation of the individual as a continuouJ process of search festivals, which began in the mid-1960s, and communitarian and .ventur.. T!. Jena school has described all ihis in the single experiments. word "romanticism". 3. The East as counterposed to the West in the traditional, The Je-na scholars interpreted the term very broadly, not only though somewhat modified, romantic symbolism as light opposed as a trend in art, but first and foremost as a world outlook and to darkness, spirituality to materiality, land of my birth to land of correspgl_ding way of life, distinguished by its open atitude ro the my exile. world. This interpretation of romanticism, i.e., as a definite Allen Ginsberg, the American poet who was a central figure of .Weltanschauung, is addressed both to the past, in which it looks for the beat and hip culture, interprets counter-culture as a desire to its origins, and to the future. The rominticists were near to the break out of conventional reason and individual self- ideas of the ancient Natiirphilosophie and German mysticism. By understanding and realise in full one's psycho-physical poten- bringing to the fore an understanding of what exists, but has not tialities, perform a veritable "anthropological" leap equal in its yet taken sh-ape a1! form, nor even always visible, they anticipated implications to the emergence of Homo sapiens. Nietzsche, the. "philosophy of life", and the aesthetic theoiy of The whole problem of individual self-assertion at the emotion- surrealism with its accent on the second, veiled patrern of being. al-instinctive level in the sphere in which deformation of the In treating the spiritual searches of the 1g60s-in the context 6f psyche caused by the hyporophic rationality of contemporary historical and cultural traditions, we are inclined to see this "mode bourgeois civilisation is most keenly felt, became a major factor of of sensitivity" as a latter-day modification of romanticism in the the youth counter-culture and youth lnovements of the 1960s. To sense given above, i.e., as a movement directed at bringing out in quote Roszack: "The counter-culture is... that healthy instinct 206 207 which refuses both at the personal and political level to.practises against the hard line of division between the male and female such a cold-blooded rape of our human sensibility." The roles and springs from a panic fear of homosexualisrr; demonstra- counter-culture programme is determinedo above all, by its tive disregard for cleanliness is a protest against an obsession with negation of the dominant criterion of rationality and effectiveness hygiene; communitarism is a protest against traditional individual- that weighs so heavily on the individual. "In order," Roszack ism; play is a protest against "seriousness"; mysticism is a protest writes, "to root out these distortive assumptions, nothing less is againit impe.ative mundane Protestant ethics.s required than the subversion of the scientific world view, with its - HowevCr, behind these external dependencies there is a much entrenched commitment to an egocentric and cerebral mode of more common and integral aim; while rejecting one set of ideas of consciousness." 6 modern times, in particular the basic postulates of imperative The French sociologist G. Ellul, whose attitude towards the ethics and the Newtonian analytic science, they take up a culture youth revolt and counter-culture is anything but one-dimensional, based on the mystical romantic ideals of intuition, unity, four- likewise believes that the revolt is, essentially, the action of dimensional vision of the world and figurative and integral spontaneous forces of life, the rising of the spirit of creativity conception-should of the world. against the domination of rationalism. It is in this that he sees the It be observed that even a superficial examination of in-depth content of the identification crisis and of the young the "protest ideology", that mosaic of bits of existentialism, generation's failure to acquire an integral individuality within the surrealism, M4rxism, elements of Western and Eastern mysticism, framework of the prevailing value judgements. At present, Ellul etc., will reveal a desire, at mass level, to counterPose to the argues, the most pressing problem is how to socialise the "savage", bourgeois-progressist vision of the world an irrational conception a term which, he says, applies, to one or another degree, to every of life and tb complacent consciousness, the consciousness of young person (in the sense that he is nearer to the primordial, misery. The integral nature of the protest ideology of the 1960s natural sensitivity layers of the human personality). was neither logical nor systemic but rather an integral basic The gap between these layers and the thoroughly technicist spiritual impulse, the criterion for selecting and combining in civilisation of present-day bourgeois society is too wide for this rnore or less eclectic schemes the elements of widely different socialisation-or, to use Ellul's term, "acculturatisn"-16 be theories. achieved without great upheavals. The child's superficial adapta- E. Mounier wrote that philosophy of the abyss is a happy tion to the world of science and technology at the level of technical antipode to various shades of bourgeois thought, to its dull toys, the automobile and television, has changed nothing in the optimism, its specific idealism and positivist depreciation of reality. depths of the soul where much more complex and uncontrollable The dizziness of standing at the abyss, and everyone has his own forces require satisfaction. In a bourgeois society the youth abyss, is a very strong antidote to bourgeois cornplacency.e "revolts not against a definite structure, nor against the more or Without exaggerating the depth of the abyss that opens to the less obvior"rs form of social oppression... but against the global rnisery consciousness of the masses, it has to be said that one of orientation, against the very spirit of the given civilisation."T the more conspicuous features of the youth protest of the 1960s, An analysis of the youth revolt suggests that it is expressive of especially among young people of bourgeois origin, was elitist the long-maturing protests against the life style created by criticism of society from the standpgint of its inability to cope with bourgeois society and, consequently, against the culture in which it the deep-seated needs of human nature. The very substance of the has taken root. Culture implies everything that is alienated; the counter-culture was non-acceptance of the ethos of capitalism, not only thing that is not alienated is spontaneous self-expression in its partial manifestations. In the final analysis it was not a matter which thought plays a minor role, a sort of vital eruption. of the youth jettisoning the ideal of money or success. To the The categorical way in which this contraposition is formulated, extent that these could be regarded as social values, they were the passionate desire to denigrate culture as something dead and regarded as ordinary, vulgarised expressions of a much more alien to human nature testify to the deep roots of the counter- deep-seated ethic of modern times, the ethic of "achievement" as culture in Western cultural tradition. And despite the efforts of an aspect of faith in cumulative progress. The increasing the counter-culture to begin from zero, this connection is revealed secularisation of bourgeois society gradually obliterated the direct in the form of purely negative dependencies. Thus, even invective transcendant content of the mundane, day-to-day activity that is is a reaction to euphemisms; the cult of nakedness is a reaction to part of the Protestant ethic. Gradually built up and vividly the puritanical fear of nakedness; the "unisex" ideal is a protest expressed in the youth revolt against bourgeois values, the feeling 208 tt - }ar. 1522 209 \ of disenchantment in the unchallenged benefits of science, the loss about two centuries ago has left us with a feeling of bitterness of faith in the power of reason were the basic factors in the rapid rather than of triumph", writes Ellul. "Everyone feels this in his collapse of all other values based on this faith. own way, whether it concerns the uselessnessiof the jobs we have The crisis of the socialisation of the individual, inevitable in to perform, the mediocrity of our recreationb and pleasures and these conditions, assumed the form of an anti-technicism and the instability of our values and our way of life. More than anyone anti-rational revolt, in its way a revolt against reason and this was else Western man feels that he is wasting his life... The current bound to lead to a radical review of the path traversed by demands for participation in responsibility and decision-making, are small change in this European civilisation over the past centuries. the demands for self-management 12but general and overall lack of meaning..." | ; i The feeling that science and techrrology are receding ,further and further from purely human problems; the high degree of scientific specialisation and the specific language it uses which When the rnost general and abstract problerns of the spirit and prevent many from understanding it; lastly, the increasingly of civilisation become catalysts of social movements, this often growing share of the national product swallowed by scientific and indicates that the masses find themselves compelled to grapple Gchnicil progress, and the threat this creates of destroying all life with these problems in their day-to-day life. The crisis of on Earth-this is a far from complete list ofr the factors that widen traditional bourgeois values has penetrated the minds of ordinary the gap between the Western protesting yquth and the ideals of folk as a result of anomia (a term introduced by Diirkheim to technical optimism. The very word "progress" has largely lost its denote loss of value judgements) of the affluent society. original meaning. It is no longer the illusion of progress but In the mid-19th century de Toqueville described the symptoms disillusionment in progress that dominates the new thinking. And of this, now a widespread malady of bourgeois democracy: there is an obvious tendency if not to reverse dependence between instilling in the ordinary man the ideal of prosperity as the main techr-rico-scientific and moral progress, then at any rate to a value of his life and work, and at the same time fostering in the dangerous. slowing down of the latter. individual a feeling of uncertainty, unsettlement, of something The relatively mass spread of disillusionfnent in progress has lacking in life. "It was these reasons," de Toqueville wrote, "that led to a break not only with the positivist idgal of the l9th century accounted for the strange melancholy one so often encounters but also with the euphoric "renaissance" perbeption of science as a among people in democratic counries surrounded as they are by force capable, at one and the same time, of liberating man and of abundance, and the feeling of detestation of life that intrudes into giving him a stable place in the Universe. Irl a certain sense there their calm and comfortable existence."r0 f,m ."*..g.d from ihe spiritual atmospherC of the West a closer It has become common to describe contemporary capitalist link with the philosophy of the Baroque witft its prevalent motives society as a "society without ideals". '"One cannot fall in love with of chaos in a precarious Universe, of doubts and concerns. This an indicator of industrial growth," read one of the May graffiti on more acute suspicion of reason tends to increase the role of myths the walls of the Sorbonne. Apparently that becomes clear when and symbols in interpreting reality which does not lend itself to there is a complete collapse of the philosophical systems within direct understanding. which the "indicator of industrial growth" appealed not only to The acuteness and comparative mass spread of the crisis of the mind but also to the heart. Indeed, one bourgeois researcher bourgeois progressivism have given the protest movements de- suggests that the means at the command of our society are veloping on its basis a peculiar pseudo-religious colouring. The gigantic but its aims are indistinguishable.rr desire within the counter-culture to devise new, non-rational forms Obviously a.movement thus guided is a movement of inertia of consciousness and new types of social ties founded on direct, rather, than a goal-oriented one, and it implies even more emotional, erotic contacts between individuals acquires its real technicisation, automation, "robotisatior-r" on a scale that only meaning and scale only within the framework of a definite widens the gap between society and natural human qualities. tradition. It could be described as a secularised variant of the myth The tragedy of present-day Western society is the collapse of of rebirth, and in its genesis is linked with religious utopianism of an integral social ideal, the ideal of happiness as a personal feeling the Reformation and pre-Reformation periods, with its accent of the fullness of life in a world of steady scientific and technical or1 existential, direct human intercourse and hostility t() all progress. "The great adventure into which we were inveigled institutions and institutionalised ties between individuals. lt is 210 14. 2ll ],m ble... Theosophists and Fundamentalists, spiriiualists and flat- within the framewoik of this tradition that the noble transforming earthers, occultists and satanists... It is nothin!, new that there expectations, once addressed to reason and its creations-science should exist anti-rationalist elements in our midst. What is new is and technology-tf ave been transferred to the unconscious that a radical rejection of science and technologital values should appear so close to the center of our society, rather than on the natural-sensual factor in man. In practice this means above all 16 revival of the original versions of the romantic perception of the negligible margins." world, notably Rousseauism and Fourierism in France and transcendentalism in America. The link between romanticism and mystical and perfectionist ideas can be more saliently seen in the work of W. Blake in which Roszack discovered the principle of the The prominence the J"r;.i of freedom held in the new, sensory intensified and mystically coloured individualistic Renaissance as the right to individual self-expression and self- realisation was largely a reaction to mediaeval theocracl, the experience. J. Passmore, pointing to the kinship between Aldous Huxley's "psychedelic mysticism" which exerted such a strong dominance of a collective-and to a great extent sublimated- influence on the hippie culture and Blake's work with its attacks conscience over the individual conscience. At the same time this on Newtonian science'and abstract thinking, with his glorification era posed in all its sharpness the problem of the limits of such of the infantile soul, inotes that Blake reminds us how much of self-realisation, the boundary between freedom and licence, and what is being preachpd by the "romantic rebels" lies within the also the problem of the foundations of freedom in human nature. mainstream of a long tradition.13 The tendency to separate sensitivity and reason and also set The revival of rorpantic sentiments as a means of resistins the definite moral and legal norms regulating the life of the individual pressure of reality is not something fortuitous. It stems frori the were always part of the Western culture, and they were anti-rationalist and anti-industrial orientation of romanticism from "repressive", to use the word that carries such an emotional its genesis, and also from its close genetic link with religious and irnpact in youth radicalism today. mystical trends in European thought. Besides, as distinct from the In the rationalist teachings of modern times man's dignity and purely philosophical irrational systerns, romanticism not only freedom rests on reasonableness. And in this period, too, there is asserts the need for another being, but also creates the illusion a greater effort to base freedom on the sensual nature of man. In that we are already id this other being, Far from representing one other words, freedom is described either as an attribute of the more cultural style, Roszack writes, romanticism is the first strong individual, interpreted as the spiritual and in that sense as antidote produced bj the organism of our society in response to transcending the individual and natural in man, or as an attribute the prevailing one-dflmensional vision. It holds a very special, of the individual in his direct empirical wholeness as a natural- model place among the precursors of the counter-culture. Hence, sensual being. in our days the bredkaway youth instinctively gravitates towards The traditional conflict between these two standpoints was romantic forms ahd submits to the magic of drink and dreams, aggravated above all by the progressive secularisation of society childhood and licence, occultism and mysticism.ra and the disintegration of the mediaeval system of social ties. This Gary Snyder, a prominent personality of the beat generation deprived all limitations of individual freedom of their meaning. and one of the precursors of the counter-culture, defined the This is how restrictions imposed by society came to be understood. characteristic features of this subculture as a counter-weight to the But that is not the whole problem. The more successfully man prevailing culture of bourgeois society, as tribalism, deep respect counters the pressure of society, the sharper he feels his ultimate for nature and a vision of God in a spirit of the mystical tradition non-freedom and inhibitions as a natural, mortal being ruled by , natural force events. The development a as immanent to all nature. This culture subtly developed in Zen the of of free individual i Buddhism and Taoism. Today, Snyder says, the kids of San consciousness signifies the development of a "misery", fragmen- Francisco and in other parts of the West are taking to this type of tated consciousness aware of its finity and thirsting for infinity. tribalism, and all ,these elements are interconnected. In the view of And implicit in this type of consciousness is the tendency to cast Snyder, Cook says, this attitude comes very close to the American off the oppressive burden of individuality, of isolated existence, freedom. Indians.r5 l the burden of his own Roszack argues in the same vein: "...Western society has, over The humanistic Renaissance philosophy and the German the past two centuries, incorporated a number of minorities whose pantheistic mysticism brought back from antiquity the natural antagonism toward the scientific world view has been irreconcila- 213 212 ,{ l I I concepts counter-culture ideologies were outlined by philosophy urroqlut"d with the theory of emanation, with the of all self-alienating being which Rousseau. iirio., 6t in" Adsolute as a constantly latent power of the human being, the beyond itself only to swallow it, dilute it and Bringing out the creates a multiplicity new parameters in man's existence is seen by the process. The emanation theory is the achievement of enrich itself irr the romantic ideology of counter-culture as the result of the absolute two exteinally contradictory positions which, how- foundation of instinctive-sensual nature and, more, as existential premise: the desire to unfettering, of man's ever, stem from a common bounds individual existence. Thus, the through multiplicity and_-diversity. of the liberation from the of cognise the Absolute American psychologist and psychiatrist Gutmani argues that the complete loss of one's own "I", "dissolved" in naiural world to as the hard and fast boundaries of the "ego" are an world; and the desiie to understand God through mystical inasmuch this obstacle to the "dissolution" of the individual in the collective or passive corrtemplation likewise accompanied by the- annihilation of superconsciousness, hatred of the "ego" finds expression, (Ypseitas, Selbstheit) to use the terms of the cosmic b.r.'r o*, individuality the counter-culture usually in the form is the embodiment of all conceiva- frankly and intensively, in mystics. Everlasting total unity The youth cult of "madness" rests with is the only and natural aim of of distrust of rational thinking. ble good and reuriification it transferred to the sphere of one's life, in it. on a naive Rousseauism any existence divorced from lie, readymade, the 'This with the development of the belief that in the depths of one's self there complex of problems associated integrity awaiting liberation. In this su6jectivism and the emergence of the individual's power, perfection and religious psycho-drama the "ego" is the villain who cuts the individual off the Renaissance and the Reformation conlciousness in the years of love and fullness of life and large its anthropological and from the superpersonal centres of was assimilated to a extent-in inherent treasure-trove of creative aspects-by romanticism to become the nerve centre blocks the path to the psychological and harmony.rT br: alt iti modifications, from the earliest to the latest. Also spontaneity associated with these problems is the triple destructiveness of A similar tendency has been noted by other investigators of the r"omanticism: religious and mvStical aspects of the youth counter-culture. destructive attitude to society which, according to the A. Kopkind, for example, studied the intertwining of the political romanticists,- exercises the most gross and acutely felt pressure on and rbligious-mystical in the "New Left" and established that the individual; current arriong them was the belief in the close approach of a vast . * destructive attitude to nature because through its chain of evolutionary change in the development of mankind-a qualita- . causal necessities it inhibits the unrestricted will; tive leap to the oiher side of what we today understand by the destructive attitude to individual consciousness as the source term "humanity"-into a new and unexplored condition of a of pain,- and especially to moral consciousness as the chief obstacle higher level of existence.18 to the multiformity of self-realisation' The meaning of this higher existence, which comes close to These question; were central to the two main ethical systems what has been describecl by A. Ginsberg, is explained by R. Davis, (which are antinomian at the same time) of the bourgeois era a former activist of the "New Left". According to him, the present elaborated at the turn of the l8th century: the imperative morality Homo sapiens is the "missing link" between mankind's past and its rof Kant and the natural morality of Rousseau. ,ery near future. And the image of this Homo nuouo, Davis Endeavouring to base morality and human freedom on natural believes, will have nothing in common with the individual of todlY , feeling. Rousseau formulated the idea of a natural-sensitive factor but will .represent an "inlegral man", an "integral existence".re ' laid foundations, of romantic inherJnt in man. He thus the The metaphysics of the counter-culture are, in spirit and forms of existence as a means of the regression to the precultural close to the energy variant of the emanation theory, defense against the pressure of the implicati NOTES I The_Changing Views on Campus. Political and Personal Ataitudts of Today's Cotlege Students. A Suruey for YDK 3rd, Round. by D. Yankelouich, Washington,'1g72. 2 F. E. Ambruster, The Forgotten Americans: a Surley of Values, Beliet's and, Concerns of the Majority, New York, 1972. 216 ence and technologY and do not such large-scale projects as the ensure the necessary reserves for plan for the country's electrifica- designing new types of machinerY tion, the creation of heavy indus- SCIENTIFIC LIFE and equipment, more soPhisticated try, the cultivation of the virgin and economical technological pro- lands, the transformation of the cesses. central non-black earth zone and The speaker also gave examPles the construction of the Baikal- of how the best scientific develop- Amur Railway. Now that the na- ments, once introduced in Produc- tional economy has reached coloss- tion, become a mighty lever for the al size and the scope of manage- Qualitative retooling of whole ment has greatly exPanded, the target-oriented plan- GENERAL MEETING OF THE USSR ACADEMY OF SCIENCES branches of the national economy. promotion of Nikolai Baibakov dwelt in detail ning methods is of vital necessity. on the elaboration of the long-term Vice-President of the USSR comprehensive programme for de- Academy of Sciences, Academician Kotelnikov rePorted on The Academy's General Meeting ters and Chairman of the State veloping the transportation system Vladimir work Soviet scientists con- held in Moscow (Decernber 13-14, Planning Committee, dwelt on the which was discussed at the CPSU the of comprehensive 1979) was devoted to the new tasks tasks faced by the country's re- Central Committee Plenum in cerned with the for the country's scien- of fundamental science in boosting search institutions in improving November 1979. The sPeaker als6 programrne and technological development labour productivity and accelerat- planning and economic manage- paid particular attention to the tific next 20 years. irg scientific and technological ment. He said that Soviet scientists reserves available to Soviet science over the report Academician Guri progress in the light of the Resolu- have every possibility to further for expanding the Production and In his pro- Marchuk, Vice-President of the tion of the CPSU Central Commit- contribute to the progress of sci- irnproving the quality of farm USSR Academy of Sciences and tee and the USSR Council of ence and technology. During the duce as well as decreasing croP Head.of its Siberian Division, dwelt Ministers "On Improving Planning past eight years alone the number losses. in detail on the part bY and Increasing the Influence of of research workers in the USSR Academician Pyotr FedoseYev, PlaYed Siberian scientists in the target- the Economic Mechanism on En- has grown almost 1.5 times and Vice-President of the USSR oriented planning of the economY. hancing Production Efficiency and now exceeds 1.3 million. In that Academy of Sciences, devoted his Each large national economic Work same period, the state expenditures report to theoretical Problems of Pro- Quality". ject Siberia, he said, a Taking part in the meeting were for scientific research current socio-economic develoP- in Presents have risen by huge complex of new tasks for CPSU Central Committee Sec- 65 per cent and now amount to 4.7 ment. The question of the ProPor- science and technology, since the retaries Vladirnir Dolgikh and per cent of the country's gross tions and rates of socialist produc- conditions connected with Mikhail Zimyanin, high ranking national income. tion, he underscored, was central objective opening up the Northern areas officials from the USSR State Plan- Nonetheless the efficacy with to econ()mic and social progress. At ning Committee (GOSPLAN), which the powerful every stage of socialist construction require basically new approaches material force solutions. The Long-Term ministries and departments, as well of science is used, Nikolai Baibakov questions of structural policy ha-ve and Programme "Siberia" aimed at sci- as outstanding Soviet scientists. pointed out, srill fails to meet the commanded the attention of the substantiation of the com- In his opening speech Academi- ever-growing needs of the national Party and government. The rates entific exploitation of this ter- cian Anatoly Alexandrov, President economy. The elaboration and, in of economic growth and the Pos- prehensive natural resources will oc- of the USSR Academy of Sciences, particular, the introduction sibilities for accumulation necessary ritory's of the pivotal position in the pointed out that the solution of latest technology and equipment to boost the economY and imProve cupy a activity of the Siberian Division of major economic and social prob- substantially lag behind the re- the well-being of the PeoPle have USSR Academy of Sciences lems in the next few years largely quirements of various branches of largely depended on the solution the the llth and 12th Five- depends upon how effectively the the economy. Many research of these questions. during periods. achievements of science :ind tech- centres misuse funds The speaker singled out, in Par- Year-Plan their and The report by President of the nology will help accelerate the work on secondary problems which ticular, the theoretical aspects of Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, growth of labour productivity. are not in the mainstream of tech- planning and managing the Academician Boris Paton, entitled In his report to the meeting nological progress. Thus, many iconomy. Socialist planning has al- solved "science and Production", con- Nikolai Baibakov, Deputy Chair- USSR rninistlies fail to fulfil state wals,been target-oriented, and provided for tained an appeal to scientists to man of'the USSR Council of Minis- plans for the development of sci- far-reaching tasks 219 218 step up their work in elaborating The discussion held shows that basically new methods for produc- the country's leading research commissions held four meetings by both sides in 1975. It paid a ing and processin'g metals. centres are beginning more actively each. 1977, lor instance, they great deal of attention to the typol- Academician Sergei Vonsovski, to tackle the cardinal problems In of were devoted to the 60th anniver- ogy of feudal relations and peasant Chairman of the Presidium of the scientific and technological prog- sary of the Great October Socialist wars, the place of towns in the Urals Scientific Centre of the ress. Revolution. They were held in historical development of the two USSR Academy of Sciences, de- The General Meeting the of Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, the GDR, countries in the epoch of feudal- voted his speech to the comprehen- USSR Academy of Sciences ended Mongolia, Poland, Rumania and in ism; the revolutionary traditions of sive development of the Ural's with the adoption of a resolution Moscow with historians from the peoples of Poland and Russia productive forces. which reflects the tasks of funda- Hungary. in the lgth century. A special Corresponding Member of the mental science in solving topical' The work of coordinating coop- session discussed the role of the USSR Academy of Sciences Alex- problems connected with the de- eration and choosing the themes working class at the present stage ander Zhuchenko, President of the velopment of the national economy for the meetings show some com- of socialist construction. The Com- Moldavian Academy of Sciences, and outlines a broad programme mon tendencies characterising the mission is also preparing for publi- spoke about the participation of of participation by all researchers state and orientation of historical cation its papers on the social and Moldavian scientists in the develop- in the scientific forecasting of the science in the socialist countries. cultural ties between the peoples of ment of agrarian-induitrial com- country's development for the next these activities have clearly the two countries at the turn of the plexes. decades. Thus revealed the high methodological century, on the changes in the and theoretical Ievel of historical structure of the working classes in THE NATIONAL COMMITTEE OF HISTORIANS studies in Hungary, the GDR and the USSR and Poland in the course OF THE SOVIET UNION Poland; Bulgarian achievements in of the building of socialism and the study of the national liberation communism, as well as a collection movement in South-East EuroPe Russia, Poland, and, the Black Sea The National Committee of His- the national committees of the and in the Balkans; the particular Area in the l\th-l8th Centuries. torians of the Soviet USSR Union unites and other countries. interest of Czechoslovak scholars in The comrnission of historians of historians the research of instiru- In the period between the l4th international and political develop- the USSR and Hungary, besides tions under the auspices of the and 15th ICHS Congresses, the ments in Central Europe. centring attention on such topics USSR Academy Sciences, of of National Committee of Historians The com.mission of historians of as the historical links between the higher educational establishments of the Soviet Union continued its the USSR and the GDR has held a Iiberation movements in the two and also individual scholars work- work along three main lines. number of conferences to discuss countries, discussed the tasks of ing in the field of history. Its The development of rhe cooper- the question of activising the strug- historians in studying methodolo- purposes main include general ation with historians of the socialist gle against bourgeois ideology and gy, and the role of environment coordination of the international countries is one of them. The against neo-fascist theories and and geography in the historical contacts maintained by Soviet his- Ieading role here belongs to the concepts. Its 22nd Conference, process. It held a conference at torians and the strengthening of Soviet sections under the National held in September 1978 in Kiev, which it discussed the crisis of the the cooperation with national com- Committee of Historians of the discussed the problem "Fascism social and political systems of the mittees of historians in other coun- Soviet Union and in the bilateral and Neo-Fascism. History and Our countries of Central and South- tries; dissemination abroad of ma- commissions of historians of the Time". The commission focussed East Europe between the two world terials on the development of the USSR and other states of the on contemporary history. Several wars. In 1978, a joint work was historical sciences in the USSR; socialist communiry, which meet meetings were devoted to the role published under the title Hun- Soviet participation in international annually. Both sides in each com- of the GDR in current world de- garian Internationalists in the Strug- congresses conferences and on the mission outline plans of scientific velopments and the historical con- gle the Establishment and Consoli- historical sciences, for both on a bila- cooperation for a year or a longer tacts between the working classes d,ation Soaiet Goztenr,ment in teral and a multilateral basis; period providing for a wide range of the two countries. Also in 1978, Siberia and"f the Far East, 1917-1922. promotion of the exchange of of eue.rts, and [articularly confe-r- the materials of the commission The commission of historians of books and bibliography between ences and symposiums with due were published under the title Tha the USSR and Czechoslovakia con- Soviet and foreign historians; in- account of the specifics of the Oreat October Relolution and, the centrated on the historical develop- formation about activities science the of development of historical in World Revolutionary Process. ments in Central Europe in the International the Committee of each particular country. In the The commission of historians of 1920s and 1930s and on the causes Historical Sciences (ICHS) and of period under review almosr all the the IISSR and Poland works ac- of the Second World War. It has cording to a five-year plan adopted also considered the ethnogenesis of 220 the Slavs and the role of ar- with historians of Finland, Sweden, lems of the historical processes are on problems of the socio-ecollornlc chaeological science in working out States, FRG, characteristic of the colloquiums of history of the Middle Ages. the United Japan, the 'fhe problems of Slavic literature and France, Great Britain, Italy. historians of the USSR and Japan National Committee of His- culture. The commission is assist- In the period under review, and of the USSR and the FRG. torians of the Soviet Union pays ing in the publication of the many- Soviet and Finnish historians held Each colloquium held two such considerable attention to questions volumed series Soui,et-Czechosloaak four meetings: the 4th and 5th meetings during the period 1977- connected with Soviet participa- Relations. Volume 3 of the series Symposiums on Comparative 1979, and 1976-1978, respectively. tion in the numerous international appeared in 1978. Socio-Economic History, and the The Communique of the 3rd Col- associations and commissions af- The commission of historians of 7th and 8th Sessions of the Sym- loquium of Soviet and West Ger- filiated with the ICHS. the USSR and Bulgaria focused its posium of Soviet and Finnish His- man Historians emphasised the im- Soviet scholars, for instance, are attention on the theory and history torians. They discussed the history portance of the cooperation be- very active in the lnternational of the national liberation move- of trades and of the development tween historians of the Soviet Association of Byzantine Studies, ment in the Balkans, on the role of of the domestic markets and ag- Union and the FRG. of which Corresponding Member Russia in liberating the Balkan riculture of the two countries. The The regular conferences of his- of the USSR Academy of Sciences peoples from the Ottoman yoke, symposium of 1977 highlighted the torians of the USSR and France Z. Udaltsova is. a Vice-President. etc. The conference to mark the role of the Great October Socialist produce papers of a high scientific The international meeting held in centenary of Bulgaria's liberation Revolution in Finland obtaining its standard. The 8th Conference in I{ay 1979 in Tbilisi to discuss the became a major scientific event. In independence. Also discussed at 1978 was no exception. In the history of Byzantine culture was a 1979, a symposium was held on these meetingp were various stages context of a comparative analysis it great success. the theme "Patriotism and in the history of the cultural ties discussed the development of the Soviet historians are also active Internationalism as Historical between the peoples of the USSR village commune in Russia and in the International Association of Categories". The commission is and Finland. agrarian France in the l9th and Economic History, the Internation- preparing for print a collection The dialogue between Soviet and 20th centuries, and also the influ- al Association for South-East Euro- The Contributi,on of Med,iaeual Bul- Swedish scholars is developing ence of the ideas of Voltaire and pean Studies, the European Associ- garia and. Kieuan Ru to the DeueLol> fruitfully, too. Two Soviet-Swedish Rousseau on social thought in the ation of Contemporary History, the ment of Material and, Spiritual Cul- symposiums were held between the two countries. International Centre of Informa- ture and also a collection devoted two congresses of the ICHS. tion on the Sources of Balkan The cooperation of Soviet his- History, and also in the Interna- to the centenary of the birth of At their meetings Soviet and torians with their colleagues in Georgi Dimitrov. American historians touch upon a tional Committee of ICHS on the Great Britain and Italy has also The commission of historians of range problems. Besides History of the Second World War, wide of been developing successfully. USSR Rumania studied (1978 saw and in the International Commis- the and discussing the third such There have been joint discussions the contacts between the peoples of conference in Moscow) questions of sions of ICHS for the History of of problems of the Great October State Assemblies, Slavic studies, the two countries at various stages the social, economic and historical Socialist Revolution and of the historical development, comparative military history, and of their development of the two countries Second Workl War, problems that focusing particularly re- for the history of social movements on tlle in the 19th and 20th centuries, are of interest to scholars in many volutionary struggle early the and social structures. in the historians of the USSR and countries. 20th century and the impact of the USA cooperate fruitfully in apply- The National Committee of His- Great October Socialist Revolution ing quantitative analysis methods in In recent years Soviet historians torians of the Soviet Union makes on the revolutionary movement in historical research. In August attended two major international a worthy contribution to the de- Rumania. One of its sessions was 1979, the National Committee of congresses sponsored by the ICHS: velopment and consolidation of the devoted to the topic "Progressive I{istorians o{ the Soviet Union sent the 7th Congress on Economic cooperation between historians. Thought in Russia and Rumania in a delegation to the first conference History held in 1978 in Edinburgh, the Latter Half of the l9th and the on "Russian America" in Sitka, and the 4th Congress on South- A. Martynov, Early 20th Century as an Impor- which became an outstanding event East European Studies held in Learned Secretary tant Factor in Bringing the Two in the study of Russian-American 1979 in Ankara. They also attend of the National Committee Peoples Closer Together". relations. A joint monograph is to the annual meetings in Prato (Italy) of Historians of the Soviet Union The National Committee of His- be published in 1980 on the basis torians of the Soviet Union pays a of the papers presented at the great deal of attention to expand- conference. ing bilateral scientific cooperation Discussion of theoretical prob- 222 the transition to a policy of plan- are tackled by the countries of Congresses . Conferences o Symposiums ning peace and creating more Asia, Africa and Latin America, favourable conditions for solving the transitory character of many of the global problems of mankind. these countries' developrirent, the They stressed the necessity of tak- acute ideological and political ing fresh steps in this field. struggle within them and attempts The humanism of the theme to thrust alien patterns of develop- "Politics of Peace" determined the ment upon these countries from convergence of viewpoints of many the outside-all this was brought scholars standing on different out in the diversified themes of the ideological platforms. Ftrr example, papers and the contradictory na- E. Jahn (FR.G) tried to prove that tuie of the assessments and conclu- only the recognition of the differ- sions arrived at in them. THE llTH WORLD CONGRESS ences between the two social sys-' Western political scientists pro- OF THE INTERNATIONAL POLITICAL tems and repudiation of the use of ceeded mostly from the theories of scrENCE ASSOCTATTON (rPSA) the processes of social changes "modernisation" or "political de- within each of them to impose velopment" of the Third World one's own model of social structure counries. Hence, R. Sklar (USA) can serve as a real foundation to came to the conclusion that "a new The I lth World Congress of the truth, mutual understanding and the policy of detente. ruling class", called ruling or IPSA was held in Moscow from constructive solutions of the prob- The political scientists also ex- bureaucratic bourgeoisie, is being August l2 to 18, 1979. It was lems common to all mankind. changed ideas and the results of formed in all the developing coun- attended by over 1,500 scholars The major discussions, which their research on global and Euro- tries. This conclusion rests on the from 60 countries. In his message were of a genuinely academic na- pean systems of detente and securi- known antiMarxist tenei that it is of greeting to the Congress Leonid ture, were held by 28 panels ac- ty, the ways and means of ensuring the possession of political power Brezhnev underscored the particu- cording to the following three world and regional stability and the and not the relationship to the lar responsibility resting with this themes: "Politics of Peace", "Poli- factors underlying conclusion of means of production that serves as branch of scientific knowledge tics of f)evelopment and System the SALT-2 treaty and its impact the foundation for class formation which analyses political institutions Change" and "Cumulative Growth on international relations. in societies of this type. Another and structures, processes and in Political Knowledge since 1949". The discussions confirmed the theory founded on disregard for phenomena, everything that is con- In their papers and communica- high prestige of the Marxist- class and socio-economic factors is nected with the activities of states tions the scholars from the Leninist theory of peace and the. thesis on the primacy of ,na- and their relations in the world socialist countries: G. Arbatov, peaceful coexistence and the broad tional-ethnic, cultural and religious arena (Prauda, August 13, 1979). E. Primakov, A. Rumyantsev, recognition of the decisive con- elements in the countries of Africa Scholars adhering to Marxist and A. Gromyko, V. Zhurkin, V. Gant- tribution of the Soviet Union to and Asia. These as well as regional non-Marxist viewpoints, represent- man, F. Burlatsky, M. Lazarev, detente. elements are declared to be the ing various schools and trends of N. Ushakov and other scholars In discussing the second theme, main sources of conflicts in these political thought and having at from the USSR; W. Weichelt and "Politics of Development and Sys- countries (M. Heisler, USA) and times, diametrically opp<>sed con- P. Klein from the GDR; K. Opalek tem Change", the scholars dwelt determining factors in the process ceptual approaches considered and L. Pastusiak from Poland; upon such problems acute for fhe of modernisation and even revolu- about 600 papers delivered at the M. Soukup and J.dup from developing countries as, for exam- tions (C. Young, USA). Congress and discussed a wide Czechoslovakia; A.'Todorov and ple, the avenues of most rapid 'fhe position of Marxist schol- range of problems concerned with M. Mikhailov from Bulgaria; and socio-economic development, the ars (M. Rutkevich, N. Simonia, the vital interests of the present S. Floria and I. Pascu from interconnection of this process with O. Zhidkov, O. Pechatnov, E. Tara- and future generations. As the Rumania analysed the conditions changes in political systems, the brin, E. Berger-USSR; V. Plevza, IPSA President Karl W. Deutsch and factors facilitating or impeding possibility and forms of the "third R. Richta Czechoslovakia; pointed out, the Congress was held the limitation of the arms race, world" countries' participation in J. I etowski Poland; H. Faul- in a creative and businesslike at- settlement of acute conflict situa- such transformations, etc. wetter GDR)- consists not in mosphere of goodwill, mutual re- tions, promotion of international The great variety of concrete negatlng- thcse elements, spect and trust. The participants cooperation with the aim of lessen- conditions in rvhich these problerns but in re{using to recognise aimed their work at the quest for ing the danger of a new war, and t5 -- 3ax. 1522 225 224 their all-embracing character. socialist countries during the past tion of the world's political proces- of statesmen and their decision- The participants in the Moscow years has beeu accompanied by ses, Third, comparative analysis of making in crucial situations. etc. Congress gave particular attentiorr their integration, which has led to the processes occurring in coun- In their papers and talks a to the influence of the economy on the formation of a uniform political tries with different social and polit- number of the participants spoke political ptocesses. The following science in a number of countries. ical orientations and different so- about the extensive use of the problems applicable to the develop- In many developing countries a cial systems is acquiring increasing methods of formal logic and ing countries were considered: the non-Marxist approach exerts a importance. Fourth, the classical mathematics in political science and connection of political stability or noticeable influence on the forma- traditions of political thought, the their increasing role in the elabora- instability with economic develop- tion of a national school of political philosophical and political heritage tion and conduct of fore'ign and ment; the role of the non- science, with the result that, as of the past, are enriched and home policy. This applies, first and alignment movement and the state N. Bose (India), B. Lamounier and developed under the influence of foremost, to three groups of prob- in economic development; the na- F. Reiz (Brazil) and other scholars new political conditions in the lems: the analysis and forecasting ture of the state sector in the pointed out, political studies in world and new political viewpoints. of the political-economic and milit- economy; the influence of technol- these countries often fail to meet Fifth, the problems of forecasting ary-strategic balance between the ogy transfer on the economic and their national interests and some- the political situation in the world major participants (elements) in socio-political development of reci- times serve as a channel for impos- as a whole and in separate regions the system of international rela- pient countries, etc. The Western ing upon them Western patterns and, hence, the simulation of man- tions; the elaboration of "world political scholars often took a for- alien to them. This is all the more kind's political future are becoming models" to analyse global problems mal approach to these problems unacceptable, the scholars under- ever more topical. of our time; and the creation of and displayed biased assessments. scored, since political science is A majority of the problems dis- automated information systems to For example, taking into account capable of accelerating socio- cussed at the meetings of the 17 meet the needs of home and the empirical fact of a high, as a political transformations and prog- research committees and 7 re- foreign policy departments, includ- rule, correlation between political ress. Therefore, one of the major search groups of the IPSA and at ing the elaboration of the structure stability and social and economic tasks facing the dereloping coun- over 40 special sessions were re- whereby information is collected, progress, a conclusion was drawn tries' political scientists is to en- lated to the third theme of the an operational-information service as to the adverse consequences of hance the autonomy of their sci- Congress. The scholars. devoted is organised, and man-computer revolutionary socialist transforma- ence in the context of establishing much attention to the methodologi- dialogue systems are desigried to tions in the countries of this reg- national self-consciousness and cal problems of political science analyse complicated home and in- ion. The scientific groundlessness statehood. Aspirations to such au- analysis. The Congress vividly de- ternational political situations by of such assertions was revealed by tonomy are also stimulated by crisis monstrated the effect of the inter- exPerts. the Marxist scholars (A. Glinkin, phenomena evident in modern relation between the theoretical In general, Western political sci- L. Polonskaya, V. Chirkin, capitalism and its political science. and methodological instruments of ence is ceasing to be a purely Yu. Yudin-USSR; M. Kossack- Western political scientists are the social sciences analysing politi- academic discipline as a result of its GDR; A. Minis-the Mongolian seeking a way out of this crisis cal problems. A broad spectrum of growing role as an applied discip- People's Republic; B. Gurmam, situation by creating "radical", methodologies and conceptual line bordering on sociology. In G. Carles-Cuba; I. Stoyanov- "value", "post-behaviouristic" and categorial data, from philosophical addition, Western political scientists Bulgaria; S. Gebethner-Poland, other variants of political science. to economic and psychological, is are taking an active part in the etc.). In the opinion of V. Semyonov adapted and developed in the organisation and running of elec- The participants involved in the (USSR), despite the contradictory framework of political science. tion and other political campaigns discussion of the third theme dwelt nature of the development of the A number of meetings testified as well as in the work of govern- upon general trends and law- political sciences in the. world, a to the further expansion of the ment bodies. Informative (mostly governed patterns in the develop- number of common trends may psychological approach in political empirical) research is on the upsw- ment of political science in the still be outlined. First, in recent science. This approach figured irg at the expense of purely world over the past 30 years, as years, political knowledge has been prominently in the discussions of methodological studies. This de-. well as certain theoretical and ever more comprehensively aimed political socialisation, the behaviour velopment is accompanied by a methodological problems. at in-depth study of actual political of the electorate, psychological as- rebirth in Western political scien- The creative development of his- practice. Second, the importance of pects of' mass movements, tists' interest in analysing political torical materialism, scientific com- integral, systems theories has been psychological simulation of con- institutions, the state and law. munism,' juridical, historical and a growing in the political sciences as flit ts and foreign policy negotia- Almost the entire spectrum of number of other disciplines in the a result of the closer interconnec- tions, research on the personality fields and trends in contemporary 226 t5* 227 political science'was reflected in the the path of mankind's transition and Vietnarn. More than 1,500 lems of the Pacific Region"), papers and discussions at the Con- from capitalism to socialism, elab- papers were discussed, about 300 Academician E. Primakov ("Prob- gress, including, for example, biol-. oration of the avenues of social pertaining to social sci- lems of Peace and Cooperation in ogy and politics, political geog- progress for former colonial coun- :1.:f", the Pacific Region"), Correspond- raphy, electoral geography, politics tries and, in particular, the ques- A message of greetings issued by ing Member of the USSR Academy and ethnicity, etc. tion of a non-capitalist course of the USSR Council of Ministers to of Sciences Yu. Izrael, A. Simonov A special meeting devoted to the development; profound conclu- the members of the Congress stres- and A. Tsyban ("Scientific Aspects theme "V. I. Lenin as a Political sions about the directions of socio- sed that. "as a Pacific power, the of Complex Study of the Pacific Thinker" recognised the impor- political struggle in the advanced Soviet Union is interested in a Ocean Waters and Problems of tance of I,enin's contribution to the capitalist countries and the pros- broader research into the scientific Preventing Pollution"). Joint pap- theory and practice of Marxisrri pects for struggle against problems presented by the Pacific ers were read by G. Sidorenko, and vividly highlighted the re- monopolies; and the elaboration of Ocean and adjacent areas and a Member of the USSR Acad6my of volutionary role of Marxism- the issues of peaceful coexistence rise in the living standards of their Medical Sciences, and D. Roll Leninism in shaping a new world of states with different social peoples. Claiming almost 50 per (USA) ("Medical Aspects of En- outlook and the political means systems. cent of the world population, the vironmental Protection in the used to attain it and in establishing The Congress participants Pacific region plays a major role in Pacific Region Countries"), a new organisation of human socie- elected a new IPSA Executive the destinies of our planet." V. Kort, Corresponding Member The prominent of the USSR Academy of Sciences, ty. Forty-two papers were discus- Committee. The inaugural address was made Mendes be- and K. Wyrtki (USA) ("The Main sed, whose authors represented all Brazilian scholar C. by Academician Alexander President of the Associa- Problems of Hydrology in the the major regions of the world. In came the Sidorenko, President of the Pacific Shakhnazarov (USSR), its Pacific Ocean") and P. Moiseyev his summarising report Y. Zagla- tion, G. Science Association (PSA) and (USSR) the First Vice-President, and D. Frei (USSR), I. Fukuda (Japan), and din pointed out that Vice-President of the USSR (Switzerland), S. Hurtig (France), D. Alversen (USA) ("Biological Re- essence of Lenin's life and work Academy of Sciences, who also R. (USA), K. Mushakoji sources of the Pacific Ocean"). The had been the organic unity of Merritt presented the main report on the Wiatr (Poland), its concluding report, "Energy Ac- scientific theory and revolutionary flapan) and J. "Natural Re- Congress'i theme: counting in Aquaculture and practice, the analysis of the objec- Vice-Presidents. sources of the Pacific Ocean-for seven days of its F'isheries", was delivered by Bar- tive prerequisites of the struggle During the the Benefit of Humanity". He em- J. discussed dach (USA). for socialism and keen attention to work the Congress phasised that the Leninist principle strug- theoretical and practical problems The Plenary Session was fol- the subjective factor of this of peaceful coexistence of states its achievements of political lowed by a General Symposium. Its gle-the working class and and the with different social systems rnany a decade. The subject was "Scientific Approach to political party. The speaker singled science over formed the basis successful of a Rational Use and Environmental out four basic problems charac- discussions helped not only formu- international economic, scientific tasks fac- Protection of the Pacific Region". terising Lenin's contribution to late new guidelines and and technical cooperation the in The contributors were representa- the development of contemporary ing political scientists, but also region and for effective joint exp- individuals' tives of the Soviet Union, the political thought, namely, theoreti- specify the tasks in lorations of the Pacific Ocean and activities. United States and the United Na- cal, political and organisational practical political closer cultural relations between tions Environment Programme preparation of the first step along the peoples which live on the V- Smirnov (UNEP). Pacific coasts and islands. Its incal- - Work then proceeded in 14 sci- t:ulable mineral and biological entific committees and more than wealth should serve all nrankind, 100 symposiums, sections and sub- the purpose of progress and con- INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC COOPERATION IN THE PACIFIC sections. The committees discussed struction. the following topics: "Conservation Between August 20 and Sep- garia, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, the At the Plenary Session the So.r,iet and Environmental Protection", tember l, 1979, Khabarovsk was GDR, Hungary, the .Korean Union was representecl by four "Solid Earth Sciences", "Geog- the venue of the l4th Pacific Sci- People's Democratic Republic;'Po- reports, which were made by raphy", "Pacific Island Ecosys- ence Congress which attracted land, and Vietnam. The most rep- Academician N. Shilo ("Problems tems", "Marine Sciences", "Coral more than 1,600 participants, resentative were the delegations of of Scientific Investigations in the Reefs", "Botany", "Forestry", arnong them some 500 scientists the Soviet Union, the United l'acific Region"), Acaderniciar.r "Fresh Water Sciences", "Entomol- from 45 countries, including Bul- States, Japan, Canada, Australia, L Gerasimov ("Geographical Prob- ogy", "Social Sciences and 22E Humanities", "Public Health and other forces of aggression called for ensure the effective and rational During their stay in Khabarovsk Medical Sciences". "Nutrition", constant vigilance. use of the World Ocean resources. the Soviet and foreign researchers An analysis of the cornplex de- addressed audiences in 30 industri- and "sciences Communication and The Congress took a solid stand mographic processes in the Pacific enterprises and research Education". in favour of the principles of al institu- region was contained in papers tions. With a view to gaining some Due to the special attention sovereignty and integrity of states, presented by Ya. Guzevaty first-hand knowledge of Soviet life which was given to questions of non-interference in the intenral and L. Rybakovsky (USSR), members of the Congress made 14 interdisciplinary research, the role affairs other states and non- of R. Chaudhury (Bangladesh), trips to various parts of Siberia and of the social factor in the utilisation annexation of their territories and K. Miro (Mexico). Z. Pavlik' the Soviet Far East-the Irkutsk, of natural wealth for the benefit of respect rights of each for the (Czechoslovakia), T. Kuroda Magadan and Sakhalin regions, mankind and the forecasting of people decide its own destiny the to (Iapan), etc. Maritime .Territory and the Yakut international economic relations, a noting that international disputes Ecological problems of the Autonomous Republic. major interest was aroused bY the be settled peacefullY and should Pacific region were discussed in the proceedings of the "Social Sciences use or threat of force should A unanimously adopted resolu- the reports made by, among others, and Humanities" Committee, with he renounced. tion pointed out that, in keeping "Social and Politi- L. Thompson (USA), M. Reay (Au- with the aims PSA, the its four sections: of of the cal Aipects of Studies of the Pacific During the discussion stralia), B. Treide (GDR), who in- participants in the Congress strove facing the Countries", "Economic Problems economic problems dicated the need for a continued to contribute their share to the speakers advo- the Pacific Countries", "Ethno- Pacific countries all fundamental research into the in- enhancement of the prosperity and of cooPera- Cultural Problems in the Pacific cated trade and economic teraction between the social systems well-being of the Pacific peoples, to equality and mutual Research" and "Languages of the tion based on and the environment, between cul- the greatest possible utilisation of discrimination as Pacific Region". The themes of the benefit without ture and ecology, as a basis for the natural resources of their part better use of the sections were discussed by 1l prob- promoting a outlining an appropriate develop- of the world for the benefit of natural riches. For exam- lem-oriented symposiums. Interest region's ment policy. mankind, to peace between the ple, American scientists Stephan, in the Committee proceedings is J. The destinies of the smaller Pacific nations and to solidarity Alexander, etc., stating that they revealed by the fact that there were L. lreoples of the Pacific resion were between the scientists of the the scientists of when drew up to one-third shared the view of surveyed in papers by D. T-umar- region. days it pointed out of all participants in the Congress. the socialist countries, kin (uSSR), Ngt oilt Thi,',h''1vi.t- the importance of the broadening nam),. A. Chapelle (Papua New The members of the Congress The reports made by N. Shas- of mutually advantageous trade be- ()uinea), H. Reynolds (Philippines), sent a reply message to the Soviet .kolsky, A. Mazerkin and A. Mar- tween the Pacific countries, which R. Crocombe (Fiji), etc. The speak- Government, in which they an- kov (USSR) proved convincingly they said would further the inter- ers called for a broader guarantees nounced their complete adherence that the Soviet Union, a substantial ests of peace and cooPeration. Sev- of the rights of the smaller peoples to the concepts of strengthening proportion of whose territory lies eral scientists of Japan, Canada indicating, in particular, the irnpor- world peace and friendly relations in Asia and which is deeply in- and Australia pointed to a mount- tance of preserving their lan- between the peoples that were terested in complete normalisation ing potential for the development guages. and for organising instruc- stressed in the message of grert- of the situation irr the Pacific reg- clf economic cooperation between tion in these t<.rngues where it does ing of the USSR Council of l\{inis- ion, advocates greater security of the Pacific countries and the Soviet n()t exist yet. Graphic evidence of lers, arrd expressed cordial peoples, supports their efforts for Union, especially in view oI the the fruitfulness of the Leninist uratitudc lor hospitable reception. and social prog- national liberation construction of the Raikal-Amur nationalities policy r,r.as furnished For the 1979-1983 period the prevention aggressive ress, for of Railway. lry two communications on the Congress elected Miles of New implementa- J. wars and consistent The participants in the Sym- effect of the environnlent on the Zealand. President of the PSA. The peaceful tion of the principle of posium on problems of the inter- specific features of the culture of subject of the next, l5th Pacific coexistence. national law of the sea- the indigenous population of the Science Congress, whicl-r is to be In his paper Pham Nil Kirong M. Lazarev and V. Mikhailov l)acific Coast in the USSR and the held in New Zealand in 1983, will (Vietnam) emphasised that the situ- (USSR), K. Bruce (Guam), historical destinies of the smaller discuss "Development, Conserva- ation brought about by the victory J. Logue (USA) and others-noted peoples of the Amur Region and tion and Utilisation of the Re- the peoples of Indochina over that to this day regulation of the Sakhalin, made by Soviet scholar sources o[ the Pacific". of (lh. the aggressors had consolidated maritime activity is not coordinated Taksami, himself a rnember of peace in the region, but the in- properly, the irrternational legal ()rle of the smaller Soviet Far. trigues of the imperialists ancl regulaticins in force still failing to Flastern nationalities, the Nivkhs. L Evgrafov 230 231 LOGIC, METHODOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE The discussion of topical prob- years. The new methods of con- lems of rriathematical logic and the structing modal logical calculi were in Sec- covered in the papers by V. Smir- The Sixth International Con- About 600 scholars from almost foundations of mathematics that such a nov (USSR), W. Heitsch (GDR), gress of Logic, Methodology and 40 countries took part in the Con- tions I and 4 showed as O. Serebryannikov (USSR) and a Philosophy of Science held in Han- gress. The Soviet delegation purely theoretical science pos- number of others. The major nover .(the Federal Republic of headed by Academician B. Kedrov mathematical logic has broad practical application. problems of logical semantics were Germany) in August, 1979 was was one of the most representative. sibilities for Nepeivoda analysed in the papers by E. Smir- sponsored by the Division of Logic, Ninety-one papers out of 355 pub- The papers by N. - (Swe- nova '(USSR) and Ch. Parsons Methodology and Philosophy of ' lished prior to the Congress were (USSR) and P. Martin-Liif significance of (USA), the problems of the logical Science (DLMPS) of the Interna- presented by the Soviet scholars. den) revealed the and constructive theory of analogy-in the paper by tional Union of History and The Congress heard about 300 the proof theory for the elaboration of Ch. (Rumania), and operative Philosophy of Science. papers, of which 40 were read by mathematics Joja Also of understanding of the logical opera- The problem "The Role of Soviet participants. problems of prograrnming. bY tion of negation-in the paper by Mathematics in Modern Science" The Marxist papers submitted by great interest were the PaPers Palyutin (USSR) on the model M. Bezhanishvili (USSR). When was central to the programme of scholars from the socialist and a E. (USA) on dynamic the foundations of the probability the Congress. Various a'spects of number of capitalist rountries re- theory, V. Pratt (USSR) the were under discussion this problem were discussed at two flected the progress in the develop- logic, A. Dyogtev on theory R. Solovay I-oS (Poland) drew attention to plenary sessions and at the sittings ment of the problems of recursion theory and J. (USA) set theory. serious difficulties in this theory of the following t4 Sections of the mathematical logic and the founda- on the axiomatic mathematicians L. Maximo- pertaining to the troubles with Congress, namely: 1. Proof Theory tions of mathematics, philosophical Soviet R. Pliuskevicius, as events for an invariant probability. and Foundations of Mathematics; logic, general methodology of sci- va, I. Lavrov, (Poland), L. Cohen (Britain) outlined a Model Theory and its Applica- ence and methodology of special well as L. Szczerba J. 2. Nemeti (Hun- number of new additional argu- tion; 3. Recursion Theory and the sciences; as well as the fruitfulness H. Andr6ka and L (Rumania), ments to suPport his previously Theory of Computation; 4. Ax- of the dialectico-materialistic world- gary), S. Basarab (Yugoslavia), W. Marek submitted concept of the differ- iomatic Set Theory; 5. l'}hilosophi- outlook for philosophical and S. Pre5i6 (Poland) presented in ence between the Baconianist and cal Logic; 6. General Methodology methgdological analysis of modern and others of novel Rayesianist approaches to the prob- of Science; 7. !'oundations of Prob- science. their papers a number further abilitl' theory. ability and Induction; 8. Founda- Three papers generated particu- valuable data vital for the mathematical logic Section 6 of the Congress, which tions and Philosophy of thc Physi- lar interest at the plenary sessions. develo.pment of foundations mathema- discussed general problems of the cal Sciences; Foundations and R. Thorn, a French scholar, found- and the of 9. methodology of science, was the Philosophy of Biology; 10. Founda- er of a mathematical theory of tics. discussed in Sections most representative. Qentral to the tions and Philosophy of Psycholo- catastrophe, evolvecl two main The papers dealt with various asPecls discussion was the problem of the gy; I l. Foundations and goals of science: the first, cognition 5 and 7 philosophical logic and, in par- possibilities of realistic and Philosophy Social Sciences; 12. the world and man, and the of of of materialistic approaches to the con- Foundations and Philosophy of second, the expansion of rnan's ticular, the problerns of inductive foundations struction of the philosophy of sci- I-inguistics; 13. History of Logic, power over nature. He was of the logic and philosophical probability theory. E. Voi- ence. Whereas R. Bhaskar (Britain) Methodology and Philosophy of opinion that ther-e exists a complex of the (USSR) presented the re- and Smart (Australia) who noted Science; 14. Fundamental I'rinci- interconnection between these shvillo J. his research into relevant the difficulties of the methodology ples of the Ethics of Science. goals and that specific mathemati- sults of relation for a series of of realism in their papers, tried, In addition to the hearings and cal means are required to attain implicative propositional logical systems- nonetheless, to defend the basic discussions of various papers two each of them. R. Thom gave a intuitional and certain principlcs of the realistic irrterprc- symposiums were held in two sec- high assessment, in particular, to classical, logics. paper by R. Wo- tation of science, V. Kostyuk tions: "The Role of Constructivity the contribution made by the modal The jcicki (Poland) was devoted to the (USSR) and P. Sztompka (Poland) in Mathematics" (Section 1) and Soviet mathematical school to ap- problems of propositional convincingly showed the advan- other olle devoted to the plied mathematics. The papers by semantic the (Finland) dis- tages of the dialectico-rnaterialistic anniversary publi- W. Hildenbrand (FRG) and calculi. L Niiniluoto l00th of the problems of the logi- approach to the construction of fundamental R. Fogel (USA) dealt with the cussed major catior-r of the exterr- methodology in science. Also of book on mathematical logic- rnethodological problems of the cal theory of truthlikeness, developed by scholars frorn interest were the reports by Ameri- "Begriffsschr-ift" by G. Frege (Sec- application of mathematics in sively various countries ot'er the few c:rrr Marxisl . R. Cohen cotrcerning tion 13). economics and in historical studies. Past 233 232 the problems of a materialistic in- reports were made in the Section philosophico-methodological prob- Frege's notion "value". The paper terpretation of scientific theories on Foundations and Philosophy of lems of psychology discussed at the read by V. Sadovsky (USSR) con- and a Danish Marxist H. Jensen on Biology which, of course, in no way Congress. In his paper Academi cerned with the methodological the theme "Marx, Mathematics and meets the need existing in biology cian B. Kedrov (USSR) Put for- features of systems studies showed Materialism". to elucidate its methodological ward a model comPrising three the long-term emPloYment of the keeping In with the key theme foundations. The cardinal issues of units in an analysis of scientific and ideas of systems aPProach and the of the Congress, the problems the theory and methodology of technological creative work general theory of systems for the of mathematicisation of scientific contemporary physics, namely, the (psychology, history, logic). In the development of problems of scien- knowledge were extensively discus- problem of irreversibility in Section on the Foundations and tific methodology. K. Berka sed in Section 6. Various aspects of theoretical physics, the use of the I'hilosophy of the Social Sciences, (Czechoslovakia) made an interest- this problem were touched upon in probability theory in classical and the analysis of methodological ing report "Bolzano's Lehre von the papers by V. Gott (USSR), quantum physics and the intercon- principles of the construction of den Wahrscheinlichkeitsschliissen ". I. Zapletal (Czechoslovakia), nection of mathematics and economic-mathematical models A. Grigoryan and V. Kirsanov M. Popovich (USSR), E. McMullin theoretical physics were dealt with (E. Malinvaud, France; P. Ham- (USSR) analysed the role of (USA), L. Bazhenov (USSR) and in the papers (Bel- by A. Grecos rnond, Britain) deserved Particular 'mathematics in the evolution of others. In his paper. I. Novik gium), Yu. Sachkov (USSR) and their paPers the classical mechanics. S. Surma (Po- (USSR) r:onsideration. In analysed the epistemologi- E. Bellone (Itaty;. During the dis- Soviet scholars V. Kelle, E. Mar- land), Dipert (USA), H. Rarreau possibilities $. cal of consrrucring cussion emphasis was made on and A. Starch'enko outlined (France) and others presented a models karyan 'number of global development and current research in the field of the basic principles of a Marxist of new findings on the made an attempt to summarise the quantum logic (R. Born, Austria; approach to the social sciences; development of the historY of experience of Soviet scholars in the P. Mittelstaedt, FRG and others). analysed the prob- mathematical logic. The field specifically, they Problems of global modelling. The clas- I. Akchurin (USSR) put forward the relationship between of the choice in the historiography sical problems lem of of methodology of an interesting idea about a new science and society, the problem of of science were dealt with bY science also commanded the atten- type of complementarity in the local variety of cultures, and L. Markova (USSR), and the role scholars tion of at the sessions of physics-the complementarity of presented a model of a functional of the notion "images of science" Section 6, namely, the structure of topology and logic. In his paper analysis of the category "convic- for the philosophical study of sci- scientific theories (B. Chendov, D. Shapere (USA) summed up the The results of the elabora- ence-by N. Yulina (USSR). Bulgaria); tion". methods of formalisa- discussion which had been going tion of game-theoretical pragmatics The paper by P. SuPPes (USA) tion of scientific knowledge on in Western literature for nearly at the Congress bY the aroused interest during the (V. Kurayev, l)resented Sreat USSR); forms of sub- two decades about the structure of Finnish scholars Hintikka and discussion of ethical Problems of ject's activity J. .when constructing sci- scientific revolutions. J. Pinkava fl. Saarinen were among the most science in Section 14. P. SuPPes entific knowledge (G. Klimaszews- (Czechoslovakia) touched upon the interesting toPics raised at the Sec- put forward rational methods for ky, the GDR); methods of idealisa- relation between the theoretical tion on the PhilosoPhical Founda- the allocation of resources to scien- tion in scientific research (D. Gors- and empirical levels of research in tions of Linguistics. tific research. B. Yudin (USSR) ky, USSR); methods of interdiscip- physical chemistry. Of grear inrer- Section 13, like Section 6, was outlined a Marxist aPProach to the (C. linary research Mare, est among the papers about the one oI the most rcpresentative at analysis of ethical problems of sci- Rumania); problems synth- of the philosophical foundations of biolo- the Congress. V. Lektorsky (USSR) ence in his paper published in the esis sciences (G. Kov6cs, of Hun- gy were those by A. Woodfield showed in his paper the relation- Congress Abstracts. The PaPer bY gary) ancl others. (Britain) concerning the problems ship between science and the ePis- S. Stich (Britain) contained an Sections 8 through 12 dealt with of teleological explanation in biolo- regards analysis of the aspects of temology of science as . .ethical philosophical and methodological gy and by A. Lindenmayer and development. M. Finoc- genetrc englneerlng. problems historical of a number of sciences. N. Simon (the Netherlands) which (USA) tried to single out the At a meeting of the General These <:hiaro Sections differed ro a grear dealt with the possibility of gcnerics methodological Assembly of the Division of Logic, extent from one range of Problems another both in reduction to molecular biology. of the historiography of science. Methodology and PhilosoPhY of the number of papers read and in The topical problems of cogni- symposium on Science held during the Congress, the depth During the of the problems touched tive psychology (8. Velichkovsky, held within this Section, tr-oS (Poland) was elected Presi- upon. For G. Frege, J. instance, 30 papers were USSR) and psychological criticism (FRG) gave an account dent of the Division for 1979 to clelivered Ch. Thiel in the Section on the of behaviourism (D. Follesdal, Nor- development of mathemati- 1983. The Council of the Division Foundations of the and Philosophy of thc way and N. Block, USA) figured cal logic from Leibniz to Frege, included two more representatives Physical Sciences, whereas 8 only prominently among the and I. Angelelli (USA) analYsed from the socialist countries- 234 235 V. Smirnov (USSR) and K. Berka showed, are the ideas of "scientific 'the untenability of the separation scored the significance of decolon- (Czechoslovakia). realism", the historical school in of jurisprudence from analysis of a isation and of the progressive Assessing the Congress as a the methodology of science, etc. broad range of social, political and socio-economic and political trans- whole and, first and foremost, its The dialectico-materialistic theory ideological problems. A number of formations for the development of philosophical significance, we can seems to be the only consistent analytical jurisprudence's initiatory law and jurisprudence. say that it pointed to the profound concept of logic and methodology ideas and conceptions were criti- A large number of problems crisis which the methodology of of science outlined at the Congress. cised also by representatives of were examined under theme IV neo-positivism as well as the The problems of this theory were natural law. (Natural Law). The papers on this K. Popper's concept of the growth dealt with at each session and Besides, the papers of some of subject were, on the one hand, of scientific knowledge are current- generated keen interest amor-rg the the Western scholars, who on the polemically directed to some extent ly undergoing. Most popular with participants. whole took a positive attitude to against a whole number of legal- Western scholars, as the Congress V. Sadovsky analytical jurisprudence, contained positivist tenets and, on the other remarks levelled at legal positivism hand, showed a desire to somehow Doubts were modernise the essence, aims, CONTEMPORARY CONCEFTIONS and neopositivism. OT LAW voiced regarding the possibility, methodological, ideological and ideologically, of a "neutral" analyt' theoretical arsenal of traditional From August 26 to Seprember 2, principles of law: philosophical as- ical interpretation of the law, and natural law. In the debates against 1979, Basel, Switzerland, was rhe pects of particular problems of the need was stressed to steP the formalism of the "pure" doc- venue of the 9th World Congress law). Altogether more rhan 150 beyond the narrow framework of trine of law and other positivist on Philosophy of Law and Social papers were heard. legal dogma and turn to problems conceptions the ProPonents of Philosophy. The congress was de- Speakers on Theme I (Analytical of socio-political reality, to study natural law interpreted "natural voted to the 70th anniversarv of Jurisprudence) focused on the pre, not only what is due but what is a law" as designating all non- the International Association' for sent state and prospects of de- fact in the context of legal positivist legal theories. They em- Philoiophy of Law and Social velopment of the juridical-positivist phenomena. In this connection the phasised the importance of study- Philosophy (IVR) which sponsored approach to law, on the methods view was expressed that it was ing the actual phenomena of social the congress. It was attended by of investigating positive law and essential to take account of the and political life for understanding over 400 scholars from more than related tasks. The following prob- value features in law, traditionally the evolution and operation of law, 40 countries of Europe, North and lems were touched upon in this rejected. by adherents of juridical of supplementing rational-logical South America, Asia, Africa and connection: analytical jurispru- positivism as being a tribute to methods of legal positivism by uni- Australia. dence and its place in the system of "metaphysics" and natural law. versal moral values, the ideas of The general theme on the agen- modern doctrines of law; formal- Dissatisfaction with the existing humaneness and justice with which da "Contemporary Conceptions of ism of legal norms and juridical state of analytical jurisprudence operating positive law (legislation, Law" was divided into the follow- operationalism; methods of juridi- was also clearly manifested in the legal precedents, common law, ing four sub-themes: I. Analytical cal experiment; paradigm (pattern, quest for a philosophical base for etc.), must accord. Jurisprudence; II. Oriental model) of legal dogma; analytical the new integral conception of law, Regarding the modernisation of Theories of Law; III. Marxist interpretation and its relation to designed to overcome the one- the natural-law doctrine its propo- Theory of Law; IV. Natural Law. the problem of values; standardisa- sidedness of the former premises nents spoke of the functional con- The work of the congress was tion and formalisation in law with a of legal positivism. ception of natural law, of norma- carried on at two g.re.al sessions view to its autornatised application. The papers on Theme II (Orien- tive falsification (i.e., special (opening and cfosing), at plenary During discussion of ttiis theme tal Theories of Law) centred atten- method of verifying the truth of and special sessions on the four Marxist scholars, while noting the tion on the role of traditions in the norms) as a new "naturallaw" sub-themes, as well as at sessions of usefulness of technicolegal inves- doctrines and legal method of jurisprudence, of the six work groups contemPorary on overlapping tigations, of. studying operating sources of the Afro-Asian countries interpretation of natural law as themes (structure of the legal norm normative acts, legal logic and cur- (in particular in China, EgyPt, historical law, of prognosdcation and the legal order juridical and rent ]egislation at the same time India, Indonesia, Iran,. Japan). A functions of the natural-law aP- argumentation; the law and social subjected to a principled criticism number of papers were devoted proach, etc. A number of papers reality; standards preceding the the positivist philosophical princi- entirely'to the influence of Islam reflected the tendency towards law: moral, justice, human rights; ples and ideological and political and other religious-ethical trends synthesising the ideas of analytical present trends and individual positions of Western analytical on contemporary law and political jurisprudence and natural law, points of view; the fundamental jurisprudence. They emphasised life. The ensuing discussion under- and, accordingly, substantiating the 236 237 premises about overcoming the Conception of Legal Regulation of the variety of forms and ways in Marxist legal theory in the contem- "natural law or legal positivism" the Economy in Developed Socialist which the people participate in the porary world and the heightened dilemma, about the "bridge" link- Society"; V. Kazimirchuk-"Legal drafting of legislative acts, the im- interest in it of scholars of various ing these doctrines, about the new Sociology: Object, Structure and plementation of established norms trends and schools. theoletico-methodological position Functions"; L. Mamut-"Legal and in the maintenance of law and The congress set up the IVR "at the other side of natural and Relations as an Element of Legal order. The Soviet scholars dwelt principal bodies. P. Trappe was positive law", and so on. Understanding". particularly on the close interlink- elected the new President of IVR, Discussion of Therne III (Mar- Various aspects of the Marxist irg of cur-rent theoretico-legal A. Utz-Honorary President, xist Theory studies in USSR with the tasks P. Miiller-Schmid Secretary-Gene- of Law) figureci promi- doctrine of law were comprehen- the - nently in the work of the Congress. sively dealt with also in papers by of putting into effect the provisions ral (all from Switzerland), D. Keri- The main paper on this theme, scholars from the European social- of the new Ct-rnstitution of the mov (USSR), G. Dorsey (USA), "The Marxist Conception of the ist countries, among them: Profes- USSR on the further strengthening D. Raphael (Britain) and M. Reale Essence of Law" was read by Vice- sors V. Peschka (Hungary), of the legal foundation of public (Brazil) Vice-Presidents. President of IVR, D. Kerimov, A. Lopatka (Poland), W. Weichelt, and state life in the country. It was- decided to hold the l0th Corresponding Member of the H. Klenner, and K. Mollnau (all On the whole, the dist ussion on Congress in l98l in Mexico. USSR Academy of Sciences. De- from the GDR), N. Ananiyeva the congress' four themes demon- scribing in depth rhe main the- (Bulgaria), K. Fabian (Czechos- strated both the enhanced role of V. Nersesyants oretico-methodological and socio- lovakia) and others. political aspects of the Marxist- Among the many delegates who Leninist conception, he showed the took the floor in the debate on dialectico-materialist conception of Theme III, were W. Maihofer, A FORUM OF LITERARY COMPARATIVISTS class and -instate will as the principal V. Peter, W. Schild, Ch. Schefold category the Marxist-Leninist and W. Krawietz (all from the The 9th Congress of the Inter- The Belgian scholar summed up analysis of the essence of law ancl fRG), E. Kamenka (Australia), rrational Comparative Literature the development of the compara- its role in the life of society. A. Utz (Switzerland), O. Wein- Association (ICLA) held in In- tive study of literatures and dwelt In his paper "The Correlation berger (Austria), and R. George nsbruck, Austria, in August 1979 upon the possibilities of further Between Law and Legal Order: (usA). was attended by some 500 scholars expanding the sphere of compara- the History of Legal Docrrines and In the course of the debate Irom 36 countries. A Soviet delega- tive studies. The same session the Present" V. Nersesyants, D.Sc. Marxist scholars subjected ro well- tion of 13 literary scholars was heard the reports "Literature and (Law) of the USSR, noted that the reasoned criticism some distorted headed by Pyotr Palievsky. In re- Literary" by R. Wellek (USA) and Marxist conception of the correla- ideas expressed by delegates from (cnt years the ICLA has become "Classical Literature, Classicism, tion between law and legal orcler the West regarding the Marxist- orre of the most influential interna- 'Inhumane Classics' and Human- (legislation) includes knowledge of Leninist theory of law and socialist tional associations of literary re- ism" by.H. Riidiger (FRG). The the mechanism of the ob.lective state-legal practice. In particular sc:rrchers, and its congresses have rnain work was carried out by four conditionality of legal phenomena they showed the untenability of the lrccome forums at which many panels each discussing one of the and the reasons for law-making. It theses voiced that Marxist legal rrrajor problerns of contemporary four themes of the Congress: is directed against voluntarism in theory is allegedly only a modifica- literary study are discussed. These "Literary Communication and Re- the interpretation of Iegislation, tion and a variant of natural law, Iorums mirror a tangible aspiration ception", "Classical Models in Lit- against basically idealistic notions and about the "idealistic" character to broaden the possibilities for the erature", "Literature and Other of legal positivism, metaphysicral of the Marxist approach to law and ( ()rnparative study of literatures by Arts" and "The Evolution of the and antihistorical ideas of "eter- the "dogmatism" of current wly of developing methods and Novel". In addition the Congress nal" and "immutable" natural law. theoretical studies of law in the tt'chniques of analysis. This was had working groups dealing with The Congr.ess also heard the socialist countries, and much else vividly demonstrated at the 9th the literatures of Asia, Africa, following papers by Soviet scholars: in this vein. ( iongress of the ICLA as well. North Africa and tl.re Middle East, V. Tumanov-"Natural Law and In reply to the critical remarks After the inaugural ceremony comparative literary study and Legal Positivism as Assessed by made by some of the Western l{. Mortier of Belgium, the ICLA teaching, the theory of literary Marxism"; G. Maltsev-"The I{is- researchers the Marxist scholars l'r'csident, made a report at the translation, and reviews for com- torical Development of Law"; elucidated the democratic character plcnary session, entitled: "An Age parative literature as well as for B. Topornin-"Soviet Constitu- of socialist law and how it reflected ol Comparative Literary Study: students o{ comparative literature. tional Theory"; V. Laptev-"The the will and interests of the masses, Achievements and Perspectives". 'lhe Soviet scholars read l0 pap- 238 239 ers: on the fi,rst panel- "Transla- In the focus of attention on the (ireco-Rornan tradition, as it were. The work of the third panel was tion as a Means of Literary Com- first panel were the problems of Only a ferv speakers raised the devoted to the interaction and rela- munication" by P. .Toper; on the literary contacts and the relation- (luestion of autochthonal classical tionship between lite rature ancl second, panel-"The Lasting Greek ship of Iiteratures, translation norm of Asian literatures. At the other arts-painting, music and Heritagc: Rhetorical Framework as being considered as one of its sanre tirne, in the final discussion a cinema. The scholars werc at- Synthesis of Traditionalism and major aspects. As is known, trans- number ol scholars attributed t() tracted not only by the opp()rtunity Reflexion" by S. Averintsev; "The lation bpings literary works within the European classical literature to make concrete parallels linking General and the Specific in 'Classi- the reach of people speaking dif- such works essentially alien to any literature with other arts, llrt also cal' Tendencies of Armenian Liter- ferent languages, and this factor, norm as the prose by Marquis de by raising theoretical questions de- ature" by E. Djrbashyan and "The as many scholars underscored, en- Sade. At times, the image of fining the purposefulness of simi- Classical Norm in Arabic Poetry of hances its role in modern world. Greco-Roman literature was a pre- lar comparisons and helping t 242 l6' 243 'flre next Hegel Congress will be (USSR) on "A Comprehensive Ap- The seminar was opened by szrl Laws and Forms of I)evelop- held in 1981,in Mexico City. proach in Moral Education". speeches of L. Erdei, Head of the rnent:', "f)ialectics of the f)evelop- Department of Logic of ttre Eiitvds ment of Knowledge", "The Prob- * Participatir-rg in the Intewrational * Over 100 young scholars from Lor6nd University, J. Luk6cs, Di- lem of Development in Natural School ,f Logi,c arul Scientific Bulgaria, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, rector of the Institute of Science", "Diale<:tics of Social De- Nfethodologl helcl in Erice, Sicily, on the GDR, Hungary, Poland, Pbilosophy of the Hungarian AS. velopment", "Tl.re Critique of the theme "'Ihe Category of Finali- Rumania, and the USSR attended and D. Gorsky, head of the Soviet Modern Idealistic Dialecti<:s" and ty in Science" were about 50 scho- an international philosolthical seminar delegation. "Dialectics of the Creative Process" lars from the FRG, France, Italy, on "The Youth and Social Progress" l{ungarian scholars read the fol- where about 20 papers of Sovict the Netherlands, Spain, Switzer- held in Kishinev, USSR, under the lorving papers: "From Frege to leading philosophers were sub- land, the United Kingdom and the auspices of the Clentral Committee N{odern Intensional l-ogic" and mitted. USSR. of the All-Union Young Commun- "Formal Pragrnatics from a A wicle range of problems re- ist League, and the Institute of I'l'rilosophical Point of View" 8 An A/l-Union Sctentific Confer- lated to the history of teleological Philosophy and the Institute of (A. Madarasz), "A Nerv Approach enu to Mark th.e TOth Annizrcrsary of thinking and to the modern scien- Sociological Studies of the USSR to Modal l,ogic" and "lnterrration- the P'ublitation ,f V. I. Lenin's tific interpretation of 'teleonomy, AS. al l,ogic Without Intensional Vari- " Materi alistn and Empirio-Crr.tic isrn" goal-oriented and purposeful be- The follorving papers were deli- ables" (I. Ruzsa); "Deontic Logic in rvas hdd ir-r N{oscorv unclcr the h;rviour. The Soviet scl-rolar vered and discussed: "Socia] Prog- Practice" (K. Solt); "Natural Lan- auspices of the USSR Ministry of V. Sadovsky, D.Sc. (Philos.), gave a ress and Problems of the llarmoni- gr,rage M<>clelling in the Works of Higher and Sccondary Spccialiscd lecture on purposeful behaviour ous Development of the Youth Il. Montague" (A. Szabolczi) and Education, the Philosophical Socie- and teleobgical explanhti<>n in the Under Socialism" (I. Buyeva); "A l\.Iodified Senrarrtics for Modal ty of the USSR and the Moscou general systelns theory. He also "The Socialist Cultural Progress Propositional Logic" (A. B6rd). State [Jniversity. Morc than 150 attended 8th Congress of the In- ancl the Tasks of Comrnunist Etlu- Soviet scholars prescnted papers: l)ap('rs ar rd < orrrmrrrricat iorrs u'clc ternational Association of Profes- cation of the Youth" (A. Arnol- "New Operators in Tense Logic" presented on the topical problems sors of I'hilosophy orl "The dov); "Value Orientations of the (V. Srnirnov) and "Relevant Logic: of Nlarxist-I-eninist pl.rilosophy. Specific Task of Philosophy in Youth in the Socialist Society" Systerns and "I'heir Unclassical Ex- Schools and Universities", held (I. t,evykin); "Internationalist and tensiorrs" (E. Siclorcnko). {< A x ittrtilit srssion on "Tlte early in Novenrber in Venice. Patriotic Education of the Youth in ()rigins of the Secorul lUorld, War" the Socialist Comrnunity Coun- * An .All-Unigr Srhool for Young sponsored by the USSR Academy * An internati,onal conferente on tries" (A. Sertsova); "The Young I'hilosophers on "T'he Materiali,st of Sciences in Moscow was opened "Ethics, Soctal Cognition, Moral Be- People's Self-Assertion in Life: l)ialcttics as the ()eneral Theory of by its Vicc-I'resident, Acatlernician hauiour" was held in Varna, Bul- Problems of Research" (M. Titrna); l)euelolrment" was held in Gurzuf P. Fedoseycr,. garia, with nearly 50 scholars from "I'erfectioi of the Yourrg People's (Orin'rea, USSR) with 140 particip- 'fhe following main papcrs were the GDR, (N. Blinov); lurrts attending. submitted by Soviet scholars: "The Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Socialist Way of Life" -I-lre Flungary, N{ongolia, Polancl, "The Shaping of Progressive following papers welc read Origin of the Second World War" Rumania, the USSR ancl Vietnam Trends in the Internation:rl Youth :rt the plenary session: "The Main (Acadcmician E. Zhukor'), "Fas- taking part. Movement Today" (P. Reshetov) l)irections of the All-IJnion Young cism-Imperialism's Striking Force The conference was openecl by and "The Critique of Bourgeois ( lomrnurrist League's Wcx"k with in the Unleashing of the Second Academician S. Ganovsky, Director and Revisionist Falsifications ol the Young Scholars in the Hurnanities" World War" (Corrcsponding of the Institute of Philosophy of Problem of Continuity of Genera- (Yu. Sukharev); "Dialectics and the Mernbel of the USSR AS P. Zhilin) thc Bulgarian Academy of Sci- tions in the Socialist Societv" l)t'r,elopment of Sr:ientific World and "The USSR in the Struggle to ences. The main papers were read (G. Karpov). ( )rrtlook" (V. Shinkaruk); "-fhe Avert the Second World War" try St. Angelov (Bulgaria) and l'r'oblem of I)evelopment as an (Corresponding Member of the Z. Szawarski (Poland) on * Budapest 'was the venue of the Irrtcgraterl I'roblenr" (Yu. Sat h- USSR AS S. Tikhvinsky). "Methodological Problems of Ethi- Souiet-Hungarian Symposium on lor'); and "'fhe Conception of The participants hearcl 211 com- cal Cognition", I. t.ick (Flurrgary) Motlal and Intensional logic spon- l)r'r,clopment and the Problems of munications by Soviet and foreign on "The Personality as an Object sorecl by the flungarian Academy l)ialecti<:s in Modern Bourgeois historians including those lry of Ethical Sturly", R. Miller (GDR) of Sciences ancl by the Department I'lrilosophy" (A. Bogomolov). B. Aahslund (Sweden), R. Bourcle- on "Ethical Coenition and Social of Logic, Ei;tviis [.or6nd Univer- 'l-hen the rvork of the school ron and F. Gambiez (Iiranle), Practice" and 1,. Arkhangelsky sity. prrx:eeded in panels: "The Univcr- M. Fltu and l-. Loghin (Rtrrnarria), 244 245 O. Groehler and O. Marx (GDR), system, the creative use of Mar- ogy. They submitted the following Corresponding Member of the A. Hadri and V. Strugar (Yugos- xism-Leninism and the CPSU's ex- papers: "The Right of Ownership USSR AS. lavia), M. Lappalainen (Finland), perience in the activities of the and Right of Possession of Land in C. Madajczyk (Poland), Nguyen Socialist Unity Party of Germany, the Inscriptions of Hellenistic Asia Khanh Toan and Pham Cuan Nam and the consolidation of the GDR's Minor" (E. Golubtsova), "The End * The 2nd, Method,ological Confer- (Vietnam), V. PeSa (Czechos- international positions. of Slavery in the Roman Empire" ence of the International Association lovakia), B. Ramelson (United The participants discussed the (E. Staerman), "Duty and Pleasure for the History of Religions (IAHR) Kingdom), B. Shirendyb (Mon- joint endeavour in the publication in Everyday Life According to in Warsaw was sponsored by the golia), V. Toshkova (Bulgaria). of the I00-volume collected works Euripides and Menander" (V. Yar- Institute of Philosophy and Sociol- The results of the session's pro- of K. Marx and F. Engels. Reports kho), "About the Greek Influence ogy of the Polish Academy of ceedings were summed up by were made by Academician on Ancient Italic Script, the 7th- Sciences and the Polish Society for Academician Yu. Bromley. A. Rumyantsev, Corresponding 4th Centuries B.C." (8. Khodor- the Study of Religions. It was Member of the USSR AS kovskaya) and "On Aegean- attended by scholars from l2 coun- * An intemational conference of the O. Bogomolov and Professor Caucasian Relations in the Second tries, Bulgaria, the GDR, Poland historians of the working-class moue- V. Fomin -of the Soviet Union, Millennium 8.C." (R. Gordeziani). and the USSR included. mmt held in Linz, Austria, was and Vice.President of the GDR AS, The next, 8th Congress of the The participants concentrated on attended by more than 120 scho- Academician W. Kalweit, Professor FIEC is scheduled to be held in the following problems: the defini- lars from 25 countries, including H. Hiimmler and Professor 1984 in Helsinki. tion of the subject of research and Czechoslovakia, the GDR, Hun- H. Gemkov-of the German the relation of the study of relig- gaty, Poland, the USSR and Democratic Republic. * Nearly 350 delegates from 35 ions to other social sciences; the Yugoslavia. "Social and Political countries, Bulgaria, Czechos- impact of social changes on the Changes in the International * Societies of clasSical studies lovakia, the GDR, Hungary, Po- history of religions; sociological Arena by the End of the First from 43 countries, including land, Rumania, the USSR and analysis of individual religious sys- World War, and the Working-Class Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, the GDR, Yugoslavia among them, took part tems (Catholicism, Islam, Hin- Movement (1917-1920, approxi- Hungary, Poland, Rumania, the in the 9th International Nwnismatic duism, Buddhism); the significance mately)" and "Problems of the USSR and Yugoslavia, took part in Congress in Bern. of literary sources on the history of Critical Approach to Source Mater- tlae 7th Congress of the lntemational Besides plenary sessions, where religions. ials in Preparation for the Publica- Federation of the Societies of Classical four main lectures were delivered The basic paper was delivered by tion of Complete Works by Promi- Studies (FIEC). Sorr5e 560 delegates by L. !.obert (France), W. Metcalf Professor A. Nowicki, President of nent Figures of the Working-Class and almost as many guests at- (USA), R. Kiernowski (Poland) and the Polish Society for the Study of Movement" were the keynote tended. H. Eichhorn (FRG), the work of Religions. The Soviet scholars pre- themes at the conference. Soviet Sixty-two papers and 54 corn- the congress proceeded mainly in sented the following papers: "The scholars A. Malysh, I. Undasynov munications on various problems the following sections: primitive 'Rebellious Church' in Latin and K. Shirinya presented papers of history, literary science, linguis- forms of money; coins in the his- America at the Present Stage" and communications on both tics, philosophy, archaeology and tory of their time; coins and art (I. Grigulevich, Corresponding tiremes. 'ancient art were delivered. Three history (iconography); coins and Member of the USSR AS), "Religi- sections-"Archaic Greece Be- art history (portraits); coins and ous Traditions and the Problem of * A scientific session to celebrate the tween 650 and 550 8.C.", "The economic history; money circula- the Mobilisation of Popular Masses 30th Anniuersary the German Mediterranean World in the Hel- tion; coin finds and coin hoards; in the Developing Countries" (Pro- Democratic Republi.c"f was organised lenistic Age" and "The End of the minting technology and coin pro- fessor L. Polonskaya) and "Religi- in Moscow by the USSR Academy Roman Empire", as well as panels duction; medals; new methods of ous Faith and Social Development" of Sciences, the Institute of Mar- "Duty and Pleasure in Ancient research. Some 140 papers and (Professor V. Garadzha). xism-Leninism and the Academy of Thotrght and Life", "Studia communications were heard. Marxist methodology in the Social Sciences under the CC Mycenaea" and "Papyrological The Soviet researchers submitted study of the history of religions was CPSU. Participating in the session Novelties"-worked at the con- papers "The Use of Coins in An- dealt with in the papers submitted were scholars from the GDR. gress. <'ient Rus. Economic and Ethnog- by Polish scholars M. Nowaczyk, Cooperation between the USSR The Soviet delegation,.headed by raphic Aspects of the Problem" Z. Poniatowski and W. Tyloch. Of and the GDR was emphasised as a E. Golubtsova, D.Sc. (Hist.), con- (V. Potin) and "Graffiti on Orien- interest were communications 'by major factor facilitating the de- sisted of 20 scholars specialising in tal Coiris" (I. Dobrovolsky).'faking K.Adamus-Darczewska (Poland), velopment of the world socialist ancient history and classical philol. part in the congress was V. Yanin, V. Lanternari (Italy), J. Waarden- 246 247 burg (Netherlands), H. Penner in Africa: Some Problems". and The participants discussed the and historico-demographical inves- (usA). "On the History of the National following papers subn.ritted b1' tigations rvere carried out rvith the The discussion revealed various Liberation Movement in Africa: Soviet scholars in which the use of qnantitative methods and approaches to the study of the Problems of Leadership. Sonre methodological and theoretical data machine-Processing. history of religions that are current Theoretical and Methodological as principles nf application of quan- At the next meeting, u4rich is to be in the West. Some scholars widely rvell as Historical Aspects"-were titative analysis in historical science held in the Soviet UIrion, American used the term "phenomenology of delivered by A. Pegushev of the were formulated: "Models in His- histolians' papers will be discussed. religion" and insisted on the au- USSR ancl Th. Biittner of the torical Processes and Plrenolnetta" tonomy of religion, on its being GDR, respectively. Three Soviet (I. Kovalchenko, Corresponding; * Scholars from Canada, the USA isolated from social, economic and researchers submitted the following Member of the USSR AS, head of and [he L]SSR took Part in the political changes (".9., U. Bianchi papers: "On the Role of Leaders in the Soviet delegation); "Quarrtita- Conferenre on Russian America it't of Italy). This view was opposed by the History of the National Libera- tive Methods itr Research on Rus- Sitk:r, Alaska, sponsored bY the scholars from socialist countries tion Movement in Rhodesia. The sian Agrarian History at the 'furn American I'Iistorical Association who advanced the idea of the End of the l9th Century-1965" of the 20th Centuly" (N. Seluns- ancl the Wilsort Ccrltre of the dependence of the history of relig- (N. Ksenofontova), "Lamine Sen- kaya, I. K 250 25I methodology of planning in the Twenty-four papers were heard A round-table conference within * Tashkent, USSR, was the venue developing countries; the elabora- at the conference, including those the framework of the symposium of the Indo-Souiet seminar on tion of short-term plans with the delivered by A. Dinkevich, was held to discuss urgent prob- "Transfer o.f Technology, and Nation- use of computer techniques; Soviet V. Sheinis, A. Shpirt and V. Yash- lems of West European integra- nl Self-Rclianre". The parti(ipants studies of the present-day prob- kin (all from the USSR), J. Soltyn tion: the currency policy of the discussed the problems of transfer lems of Africa; trends in, and (Czechoslovakia), I. Nenov (Bul- EEC, the energy and raw materials of science and technology within prospects of. the development of garia), B. Rudowicz (Poland), problems of the EEC, rep;ional and the framervork of different socio- science and technology, and their H. Grtinig and W. Schmidt (both social problems, the elections to the political systems, establishment of a . influence on the solution of con- from the GDR). European Parliament, the (lcxn- new international economic order, temporary global problems; plan- mon Market's expansion, etc. cooperation of the USSR with de- ning of the national economy of * Thirty scholars from Bulgaria, Soviet delegates M. Bunkina and veloping countries, trirnsfer of sci- the Georgian and Uzbek Soviet Czechoslovakia, the GDR, Hun- Yu. Yumashev took part in round- ence and technology in individual Socialist Republics. Lectures were gary, Poland and the USSR met at table discussions. branches of industry and agricul- delivered by scientific workers of the symposi,um "Neu Phenomena in Simultaneously, a sessior-r of the tule of the Soviet Union ancl Inclia, the Institute of Africa and execu- the Et:onomic Relations Betuem the working group for lnvestigatirrg the role of multinational corpora- tives of the Soviet planning bodies. Three Centres of Rittalry-the EEC, the problems of economic'integl.a- tions, etc. I"rom the Soviet sicle, In Georgia and Uzbekistan, the the USA and, Japan" in Berlin. tion under monopolistic capitalism papers were subrnitted by participants visited.factories. collec- Delivered at the symposium were was organised by the Problenr G. Kotovsky, [.. Zevin, V. Pavlov, tive farms, research centres, higher the following papers: "The Place Commission for Multilateral Coop- A. Medvedev, A. Karagodin, educational establishments; they of the United States in the World eration of the Socialist (lountrics' S. Pavlov, R. Aminova and Kh. met with representatives of the Economy in the 197Os-early 1980s" Academies of Sciences on "The umarov; frorn the Indian side, by ministries of education, of higher (A. Anikin, the USSR); "The Inner Study of Present-f)ay Capitalisrn". f). Narula, S. Goyal, T. Papola, and secondary specialised educa- Contradictions in European Com. S. Flashim, G. Bhalla, M. Nadkarni tion, of culture, of health, and of munities, and Their Influence on * A "summer school" t'or young and R. Sadananda. social security. the Relations Between the Three economists.of the socialist tountries on Centres of Rivalry" (T. Palankai, the theme "The Crisis of State- * An All-tlnion conference on "The Hungarv); "Japan as One of the Monopolistic ReguLation at the Present Deulolmrcnt and Crisis of Capitalism An international srienlifir cont'er- * Three Cientres of Irnperialist Rival- Stage" :was held in Po- in th,e Latin Arnerican Countries" in ence on "Problems of RelrothLction Jablonka, in ry" (Ya. Pevzner, the USSR); "On land. .Specialists from Bulgaria, N{oscorv was sponsored by the In- Deaeloping tlu , Countries" u,as held the Correlation of Forces of the Czechoslovakia, the GDR, Hun- stitute of l-atin America the Moscow of in at the Institute of EEC and the USA" (S. Tikal, gary, Poland, Rumania and the USSR AS and the Editorial Boartl Oriental Studies USSR AS, of the Czechoslovakia); "Inter-Imperialist USSR took part. 252 'zig Latin America", "Specific Features of Calculation of Economic Dam- * Parallel to the UNCSTD, an Academician J. Gvishiani, head of of the Development and Crisis of age to National Economy Caused intemational forwn ,f non- the Soviet delegation. Besides, Capitalism in Latin America" and by Pollution of the Environment" goternmental organisations (NGO, Soviet scientists-Academicians 1'The Dependence Problem, and (O. Balatsky), and others. on "Sctence and, Tethnology for De- E. Velikhov, R. Sagdeyev, the Critique of Rourgeois Theories More than 30 papers were sub- wlopment" was held in Vienna. M. Styrikovich, N. Emanuel and of Latin American Capitalism". mitted at the panel discussions on Taking part in it were nearly 1,400 Professor D. Venediktov-took "The General, Territorial and In- representatives of 366 NGOs from part in r,r'orking groups of the * An All-Union seminar on dustrial Problems of Controlling 5l countries, Czechoslovakia, the colloquium. "Method.s of Planning and, Controlling the Use of Nature", "Planning and GDR, Hungary, Poland, Rumania, Natural Resources (Planning and Control over the Quality of Water the USSR and Yugoslavia included. * Moscow was the venue of the Controlling the Qualitl of the Enai- Resources" and "Planning and At the plenary session, Corres- International Sci.entific Seminar on ronment)" was held in Tsahkadzor, Control over the Quality of Atmos- ponding Mernber of the USSR AS Disarmament and, Enaironment spon- Armenia. It was sponsored by the pheric Air". T. Timofeyev, head of the Soviet sored by the World Peace Council. Economic Sectlpn of the Scientific Nearly 150 scholars took part in delegation, delivered a paper on Taking part were prorninent scho- Council of the USSR AS on the the seminar. "Science and Technology for the lars and public figures from 23 Problems of the Biosphere, the Welfare of Mankind". Other Soviet countries, and representatives of Scientific Council of the USSR AS * About 4,000 delegates from l4l scholars also read papers: 10 international governmental and on the Complex Problem "Op- countries attended the UN Confer- Academician E. Velikhov, Vice- non-governmental organisations. President USSR spoke timum Planning and Economic ence on Science anil Technology for of the AS, The seminar was opened by Management", the Central DeueLopment (UNCSTD) in Vienna. at three panels on various aspects Acadernician E. Fyodorov, Vice- Economico-Mathematical Institute Among the Soviet delegates were of energy development; Acaderni- President of the WPC and Chair- N. Emanuel the of the USSR AS, the Joint Com- Academicians J. Gvishiani (head of cian spoke at man of the Soviet Peace Com- mission of the USSR Academy of the, - delegation), E. Velikhov, panel on "Environment and De- n-rittee. Sciences and the USSR State Com- A. Ishlinsky, Corresponding Mem- velopment"; Professor The major part of the seminar's mittee for Science and Technology bers of the USSR AS, S. Mikulins- L. Klochkovsky, at the panel on work proceeded in panels: the on Economic Estimation of Natural ky, T. Timofeyev, and others. "New International Econornic arms race and protection of the Resources and Measures for Pro- The conference was opened by Order, and Science and Technolo- environrnent; military activities and tection of the Environment, and Kurt Waldheim, UN Secretary gy for Development"; Ya. I-omko, their effect on the environment; the Armenian Branch of the Re- General, and greeted by Rudolf at the . panel "Arms Race and nuclear weapons, nuclear energy search Institute of Planning and Kirchschldger, President of Au- Development". The participants and the environment; pressing Standards under the USSR State stria. Messages of greeting were ernphasised the necessity to real- global problems and international Planning Committee. received from Alexei Kosygin, range the system of international cooperation for their solution. Delivered at the plenary sessions cconomic relations along just and Chairman of the USSR Council of -l'lre were the following papers: "Princi- Ministers, and from other heads" of rlemocratic lines and to establish a * 12th Internatiorml Congress ples of Determining Economic Effi- states and governments. The Soviet new economic order, and emphas- on Penal Lau held by the Interna- ciency of Measures for Nature delegation circulated an extensive ised the close relationship benveen tional Association of Penal Law Protection" (K. Gofman); "Plan- report, the main ideas of which rlevelopment and disarmanrent. (IAPL) in Hamburg was attended ning and Fixing of Expenditures were set forth by J. Gvishiani in his by representatives of more than 30 for Protection of Nature in the communication at the plenary * An international colloquium on countries, Bulgaria, Czechos- Present Conditions of Science and session. "Science, Technology and Society" in lovakia, the GDR, I{ungary, Po- Technology" (G. Khachatryan); The action programme adopted Vienna was attended by more than land, Rumania, the USSR and "Problems of Long-Term Forecast- by the conference supported the ll00 scholars from 96 countries, Yugoslavia among them. ing of Changes in the Environmenr policy of detente, of equitable, irrcluding Bulgaria, Cuba, Czechos- The work of the congress pro- Under the Impact of Economic mutually advantageous cooperation krvakia, the GDR, Hungary, Po- ceeded in four sections: l. Crimes Activity" (A. Gusev); "Problems of between states and discontinuation land, Rumania, the USSR, Vietnam of Carelessness. Prevention and Economic Stimulation of Measures of the arms race; it denounced irnd Yugoslavia. Treatment of Offenders; 2. The for Protection of Nature" discrimination barriers which At the plenary.session, a lecture Environmental Protection Through (V. Shkatov); "Planriing of Meas- blocked the way to cooperation and ()r'r "Science and Tecl"rnology: Penal Law; 3. The Protection of ures for Protection of the Environ- condemned selfish practices of 'l'heir Interaction with Global Hurnan Rights in Criminal Pro- ment" (V. Markov); "The Methods multinational coiporations. I)rotrlems" was delivered by ceedings; 4. Irnmunity, Exterritori- 25t 255 ,T! ality and the Right of Asylum in tional Congress of the International instituted by the Soviet Govern- of the'Theory of Culture,.Literary Rus- ment and presented by the deci- Science and Art History. International Penal Law. Association ,f Teachers "f In Section One, the general re- sr,an Language and, Literature sion of the MAPRYAL. The next At the plenary session, the par- port lvas submitted by V. Klochkov (NIAPRYAL) in Berlin, the GDR. Association's congress will be held ticipants heard a paper by a Soviet of the USSR, Vice-President of the The theme of the congress was in Prague in 1982. scholar, Yu. Lukin, on "The IAPL; in Section Two, by "The Theory and Practice o{ Leninist Ideas of the Popular Crea- Russian Language tive Activity and the Educational V. Gubinski of Poland; in Section Teaching the. * The 9th International Congress ol Three, by S. Trechsel of Switzer- and Literature. The Role of the In- Phoneti,c Potential of Culture Under Marure Sciences, held in Socialism". In "Theoretical land; and in Section Four by Th. structor in the Process of Teach- Copenhagen, the and was attended by Methodological Problems of Vogler of the FRG. ing". Academician M. Khrapchen- nearly 600 scholars from about 40 Aesthetic Education" panel, the Soviet criminalists and ko (USSR), President of the Bulgaria, countries, including Soviet delegates submitted fol- criminologists submitted the follow- MAPRYAL, r'ead a rnessage of Czechoslovakia, the the GDR, Hun- lowing communications: "Elite, ing papers and cornmunications: greetings from the CC CPSU and gary, Poland, Rumania, the USSR Mass and Popular Culture, and Secti,on Onls theme-- "La lutte the USSR Council of Ministers. The and Yugoslavia. .! Problems of Aesthetic Education" contre la criminalit6 d'imPru- congress was also welcomed by At plenary session, the the main (V. Baskakov), "Problems dence" (V. Klochkov, national E. Honecker, General Secretary of paper aims of the on the and tasks of Development of Socialist Artistic paper), "Criminalisation of Actions the CC SUPG, Chairman of the phonetics was read by B. Lindblom Committed by Negligence" GDR State Council. Culture, and Ideological and of Sweden. The work of the con- Aesthetic (G. (V. Kuclryavtsev, Corresponcling The congress noted that during gress proceeded Education" Berd- in symposiurns nikov, Corresponding Member of Member of the USSR AS), "Re- the past three years after the 3rd and panels where following the the USSR AS), "On the Interaction sponsibility for Careless Crimes as Congress, the specialists in Russian problems were dealt with: phonetic Part of Criminal Policy" (A. Yakov- philology made a careful study of of Literature and Readers" universals in phonological systems (Yu. Kuzmenko). In the "Art,'the lev), "Problems of the Effectiveness the role of instructor in the process and their applications; perception of Criminal-Law Measures to Com- of teaching; mapped out the ways Mass Media and the Moulding of of speech; acquisition of the the Personality" panel, the particip- bat Careless Crimes" (NI. Kovalev). of improving the instructor's train- phonological system of tlre mother Sectton Ttuo's theme-"Criminal irg anti continuous education; ants listened to papers "On the tongue; temporal relations within Educational Function Law and Protection of the Environ- brought into proper correlation the speech of Literature units; motor control of and Art" (Academician M. Khrap- ment" (P. Dagel, national paPer), theory and history of the language, speech' gestures; perception of "Wissenschaftlich-technische Re- general philological data, and chenko) and "Art and Aesthetic speech'versus non-speech; relations Education Soviet volution und die Bekimfung cler specific knowledge and skills in between of the Man" sentence prosody and (M. Kotovskaya). In the round- 6kologischen Kriminalitdt" connection with the nature of the word prosody; production of . (N. Kuznetsova), "Some Problems audience; defined the harmonious table discussion on "Education of speech; acoustics of speech; the Young Artistic Intelligentsia in of Criminal-Law Protection of the cornbination of professional and phonology; prosody; applied Environment" (O. Dubovik). educational tasks in the process of Sociirlist Society", M. Kotovskaya phonetics; sociophonetics, etc. delivered a report on "Aspects of Section ThreCs theme- teaching. Soviet linguists submitted more the Formation a New Genera- "Protecti,on of Personal Rights in The congress demonstrated that papers of than 30 and communica- tion in Soviet Art". Soviet Criminal Procedure" the learning of Russian promotes tions problems on the major dis- Some 50 delegates took part in (V. Savitsky, national paper), "Die rnutual understanding among cussed. Garantien der Personlichkeitsrech- peoples in the name of peace, the conference, and more than 40 te bei Priifung von Rechtmissigkeit friendship and progress. About 20 papers and communications were und Begrtindetheit der Strafurtel- million people in 97 countries rnere {< Delegations from Bulgaria, submitted. le" (P. Lupinskaya). studying the Russian language, and Czechoslovakia, the GDR, Hun- Section l-our's theme- almost 500 million people had mas- gary, Mongolia, Poland, Rumania, * A Soai,et-American symposr,um on "1,'immunit6, l'exterritorialit6 et le tered it to a certain degree. the USSR and Vietnam took part literary hi,story was held in Moscow droit d'asile dans le droit p6nal At the congress, for the first in the International Conference on at the Gorky Institute of World "Artistic international" (V. Shupilov, nation- time, l6 specialists in Russian Culture and, the Moulding of Literature. Its theme was "The al paper). philology from 15 countries were Man in the Socialist Countries" held Principles of Elaboration of the awarded the A. S. Pushkin Medal in Sofia within the framework of History o[ a National Literature". * Some 2,000 delegates from 65 "For Outstanding Services in Dis- the Multilateral Commission of The symposium held within countries attended t}:.e 4th Interrut- seminating the Russian Language", Socialist Countries on the Problems the framework of the Programme 256 r? -3ax.1522 257 'the of Scientific Cooperation Between tnam. The Soviet delegation was of the unconscious; uncon- ty"; "Psycho-Physiological Charac- the USSR Academy of Sciences headed by B. Lomov, Correspond- scious and the higher forms of teristics of Operators' Activity"; and the American Council of i.rg Member of the USSR AS, mental activity; the problem of "Engineering Psychology as a Base Learned Societies was chaired by Director of the Institute of Psychol- scientific methods and general for Projecting the Man-Operator's V. Shcherbina, Deputy Director of ogy of the USSR AS. methodology of the study of the Activity"; "Ergonomics"; "Profes- the Institute. The participants exchanged in- unconscious. Besides, two round- sional Screening and Orientation"; Soviet scholars delivered the fol- formation about the development table sessions were held: on the "Professional Training of lowing papers: "Theoretical Princi- and prospects of psychological ser- correlation of consciousness and Operators"j "synthesis of the In- ples of Elaboration of the History vice in their countries, shared the the unconscious mind, and the formation Reflection Systems"; of National Literatures in the His- experience of their joint scientific technique and methods of "Operator's Group-Activity"; "Re- torl of World Literature" (Yu. Yip- cooperation and coordination of psychoanalysis. liability of 'Man-Machine' Syr- per); "Theoretical Foundations of research, mapped out the major The introductory speech was tems"; "Speech Communication"; Elaboration of the History of the spheres of application of their sci- made by A. Prangishvili, Vice- and "Space- and Air-Psychology". Multinational Soviet Literature" ence in the interests of societY. President of the Georgian AII in all, over 130 papers were (G. Lomidze); "Theoretical Princi- Academy of Sciences. About 170 heard and discussed in the panels. ples of the Development of Soviet * Tbilisi, the capital of the Geor: scholars, including 70 guests from Literature" (A. Ovcharenko); gian Soviet Socialist Republic, was abroad, took part in plenary ses- of the venue of the Intemational Syrn- sions and panel discussions. * Prominent scholars from Bul- "Comparative Characteristics garia, Czechoslovakia, Methodological Principles of posium on the Problem of LJnconsci,orls the GDR, the Hungary, Poland, Rumania, the the Literary History of the United Mental Actiuity sponsored by the * The Sth All-Union Conference on USSR and Yugoslavia attended a Stares Published in the USA and Georgian Academy of Sciences, the Engineering Psychology in Leningrad conference of the heads Literature Tbilisi State University and the of archaeologi- the Hi,stor'1 of Ameri,can was sponsored USSR Paris ientre of Psychosomatic by the cal research institutes of socialist coun- Published in the USSR" Academy Sciences, Medicine together with the USSR of the Institute tries in Budapest. (Ya.Zasursky); "Methodological of Psychology of the USSR AS, rhe the Academy of Sciences, the USSR The Institute of Archaeology of Principles of Elaboration of USSR Society of Psychologists and (With Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, the USSR AS was represented by History of Russian Literature the Leningrad State University. its Deputy Direcror, Reference to the Russian Litera- the USSR Academy of Medical Dr. R. Mun- More than 400 scholars attended. chayev. The ex- ture of the 19th Century)" Sciences, the Moscow State Univer- participants changed information the (P. Paliyevsky). sity and numerous research centres At the plenary session, about field and research work their American scholars submitted the and higher educational establish- B. Lomov, Corresponding Member of institutes 1978-1979, papers: "Discovery and Rediscov- ments of France, the USA, Italy, of the USSR AS, Director of the in and spoke of their plans 1980 ery: the Course of American Liter- Poland, the United Kingdom, the Institute of Psychology, made an for and the ary Histories" (R.Ludwig); "Em- GDR and other countries. introductory speech.,The following following years. They discussed the piricism and Theory in British More than 250 scholars attended papers were submitted: "Engineer- problems relating to bilateral and multilateral cooperation the in- Literary Historiography" (P. Fus- the symposium which was an event ing Psychology in the USSR: Its of sell); "Historicism and Anti- unprecedented in scientific history. Present State and Prospects" stitutes, as well as preparations for Historicism and the History of The largest delegations were the (8. Lomov, A. Krylov, V. Ganzen); the publication of Encyclopaedia of the Early History French Literature" (A. Sonnen- American and French, each num- "The Impact of Scientific Ideas of ol European Peoples. feld); "Gogol and the History of bering 30 people. Engineering Psychology and Er- gonomics Russian Literature" (D. Fanger); The participants discussed the on Labour Productivity * A sci,entific conference on "The "Predictions from the Past in Liter- following topics: the problem of and Production Perspectiveness" Ethnic History of Slaus and Ethno- (G. ary History: Some Spanish Exam- the unconscious within the Zarakovsky) and "Analysis of Cultural Ties of the Peoples of Central ples" (G. Guill6n). psychological conception of set; the the Main Concepts of Engineering and Eastern Europe" held in Cher- role of the category of the uncon- Psychology in the Soviet Union and nigov, the Ukraine, was attended * A meeting ,f the heads ,l scious within the system of modern Abroad" (Yu. Zabrodin). by scholars from Bulgaria, psychological instr.tutions of socialist scientific knowledge on the mind; Then the conference continued Czechoslovakia, Poland and Yugos- countries in Warsaw was attended formation of scientific concepts its work in panels on "Theory and lavia. by delegates from Bulgaria, within modern psychoanalysis; Methodology of Engineering The main papers were deliver-ed Czechoslovakia, the GDR, Hun- modern neurophysiological and Psychology"; "Psychological by Academician Yu. Bromley on gary, Poland, the USSR and Vie- clinical appr,oaches to the problem (lharacteristics of Operators' Activi- "Friendship of the Peoples of the 258 17. 259 USSR as a Manifestation of the The participants discussed four Triumph of the Leninist themes. The theme "The Archives * The 4th Congress of the Associa- of the Ottoman Urban Economy in Nationalities Policy" and by and Documentation": I6 informa- tion of South-East European Studies the l4th-l6th Centuries" (G. Litav- P. Tronko, Member of the Ukrai- tional papers were presented on (AIESEE) in Ankara was attended rin); "Ethnographic Study of the nian AS, on "The Historic Signifi- the search, collection and publica- by some 380 scholars from 2l Turkic-Language Population of cance of the Unification of the tion of documents referring to the countries including Bulgaria, South-East Europe" (M. Guboglo); Ukraine with Russia". history of the labour movement in Czechoslovakia, the GDR, Hun- "On the Substratum Stock of the The participants. heard and dis- various countries. The theme "The gary, Rumania and the USSR. The Contemporary Balkan Languages'l cussed almost 20 papers and com- First Celebration of the First of Soviet delegation was headed by (L. Gindin. I. Kaluzhnaya, munications including "Some of May": 16 papers were submitted Academician A. Narochnitsky. V. Orel), and "The Typology of the Ethno-Cultural Problems of on the wide range of questions- The congress discussed a wide the East Romance Wedding Rites" Western Slavs" (M. Gladysz, Po- from episodes of the origin of the range of problems relating to his- (V. Zelenchuk). land); "Problems of the Ethnic May Day tradition to the broad tory_(the primitive society, antiqui- At the AIESEE Commirtee's Processes in Connection with the generalisation of the role of May ty, the Middle Ages, modern and nieetings, held during the con- World-View of Slavs in the Period Day in the consolidation of the contemporary history), archaeolo- gress, Soviet scholars were rep- of Early and Mediaeval Feudalism" working class and in the movement gy, ethnography, literary science, resented by V. Vinogradov, Vice- (E. Horvatova, Czechoslovakia); of international solidarity of the linguistics, folklore, arr. The con- President of the Association, Depu, "The Contemporary Ethnic Proces- proletariat. The theme "Disarma- gress work proceedod largely in ty Director of the Institute of ses in the Czech Socialist Republic" ment and the Labour Movement. panels, by themes. Soviet scholars Slavonic and Balkan Studies of the (A. Robek, Czechoslovakia); "The Social Aspects": 15 speakers dealt submitted the following papers: USSR AS. Academician P. Zepos of Formation and Development of with this subject in a lively discus- "Russia and the Greek Niational Greece was elected President of the Ethno-Cultural Ties of the Czechs sion. The theme "The Results of Liberation Movement in the First AIESEE. The next congress is ro with the Peoples of Eastern and Investigations": communications Quarter of the lgth Century,, be held in 1984 in Yugoslavia. Central Europe" (K. Fojtik, were delivered on the current re- (A. Narochnitsky); "The Balkans Czechoslovakia); "Problems of the search into the history and contem- and European International Life in 8 Participating in the 3rd Alt- Na- problems working- Formation of the Bulgarian porary of the the l5th-Beginning of the 20th Union Conference of Africanists on tion" (V. Khajinikolov, Corres- class movement. Centuries" (E. Naumov, G. Arsh, "Africa in Modern World" in Mos- ponding Member of the Bulgarian Soviet scholars submitted the fol- I. Dostyan, V. Vinogradov); "The cow were some 600 scholars, in- AS); "On the Role of Folk lowing papers: "The Working National Liberation Movement in cluding 250 gqests from African Culture in the Formation of the Class and lts Struggle for Peace the Balkans in the First Quarter of countries, as well as Bulgaria, Bulgarian Nation" (S. Genchev, and Security" (Corresponding the l9th Contury" (G. Arsh); "The Czechoslovakia, the GDR, Hungary Bulgaria); and "Problems of the Member of the USSR AS Socialist Movement in the Balkans and Poland. (M. Ethnogeny of the Croats" Mar- T. Timofeyev and B. Koval), "The in the Sixties-Seventies of the lgth The conference was opened by kovi6, Yugoslavia). Working Class in the Struggle for Century. Its General Features and Acadbmician A. Rumyantsev. pro- Peace and Detente in Latin Ameri- Specifics" (V. Grosul); "The Na- fessor An. Gromyko, Chairman of * Taking part in the 2nd Congress ca" (E. Yerusalimskaya) and "The tional Liberation Movement in the the Scientific Council for African of the World, Associatron of Centres for First Celebration of the First of Balkans and Popular Masses in Problems of the USSR AS, Director Historical and, Social Studies of the May in Russia" (T. Zagladina). Russia During the Middle Easr of the Institute of Africa of the Labour Mouement (AMCEHSMO) in During the congress, meetings of Crisis of l 875-l 878" USSR AS, read a paper "Africa in Oaxtepec (Morelos, Mexico) were the Association's Executive Com- (L. Narochnitskaya); "The Labour World Development and African researchers from 20 countries, iir- mittee were held. E. Su6rez Gaona and Socialist Movement in the Bal- Studies in the USSR'I. The work of cluding Bulgaria,. Cuba, the GDR, of Mexico was re-elected President kans in the Late lgth-Early 20th the conference proceeded chiefly Poland and the USSR. The Soviet of the AMCEHSMO for the next Centuries" (Yu. Pisarev); "Histori- in sections on: economic problems; delegation was headed by B. Koval, tcrm of office. By a unanimous cal Ties of Armenia with South- socio-political and ideological prob- Deputy Director of the Institute of vote of the Association's Executive Flast Europe" (Ts. Agayan, lems; international relations o1 Af- the International Working-Class Committee, the Institute of History Academician of the Armenian AS); rican countries; history, ethnog- Movement of the USSR AS. At the under the Comnrittee for Social "The Soviet-Turkish Cultural .and raphy, literature and language; opening ceremony, President Sciences of the Socialist Republic of Scientific Relations in the 1920s- geography and distribution of prb- J. L. Portillo of Mexico delivered a Vietnam was 'admitted into the 1930s" (I. Chernikov); "Compari- ductive forces. More than 2a0 pap- speech of welcome. AMCEHSMO. sons Between the Byzantine Mode ers and communications were of Life and Organisational Forms heard and discussed. 260 26r of the World" by N. Korletianu, the Institute of Language, Litera- Automated Control SYs- * Scholars from 30 countries, in- Role of Desheriev Ir{. Guboglo; ture and History of the Karelian the DeveloPment of Metal- Yu. and cluding Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, tems in National and Branch of the USSR AS, the Insti- (N. Laman) and "The De- "The Unity of the the GDR, Hungary, Poland, lurgy" the International in the New Soviet tute of World History of the USSR velopment of Optical Communica- Rumania, the USSR and Yugos- Rites" by D. Ursul and V. Zelen- AS, and the Institute of the His- Systems" (V. Gurikov). lavia, took part in the 3rd Interna- tion chuk; "Socio-Cultural Development tory of the USSR of the USSR AS. session devoted Leonardo tional Congress of Turcology in Is- A to 150 Soviet scholars, as well in the and the Drawing Together of Na- Nearly tanbul. da Vinci and his Place and guests from the GDR and Fin- technology was held tions" by Yu. Arutyunyan; as The participants worked in the history of "The National and the Interna- land, attended. the framework of the sYm- sections of linguistics, literary sci- within tional Formation and Con- At the plenary session, the fol- posium. Among the sPeakers on in the ence, history, and art' Soviet scho- solidation of the Soviet Statehood lowing papers were delivered: subject were Soviet scholars lars submitted the paPers: "The ihis of the Moldavian Peoplel by "V. I. Lenin and the Bolshevik the and N. Laman. The Study of Turkic Languages in I. Apokin A. Lazarev. Party's Revolutionary Ties in Fin- ICOHTEC sYmPosium was Soviet Union: Main Results" next Then the work of the conference land (According to Materials of scheduled to be held in 1980, in 'Archives)" (Academician A. Kononov); "The proceeded in the sections on Finland's State by Yu. in Czechoslovakia. Areal Integration Processes "Theoretical Aspects of the Na- D.ashkov; "Aspects of Political De- the History of Turkic Languages" tional and the International in velopment of Finland After the (N. Baskakov); "About the Oldest * An Att-urtion Scientific Confer' Socialist and Communist Construc- Second World War as Reflected in Turkic Standard Language" ence on "The National and, the Inter- tion", "The National and the In- Finnish Historiography" by L. In- (E. Tenishev); "Berdah: Most national in the Contemporary World" ternational in Soviet Cultural De- gulskaya; "Countries of Nopthern Prominent Turkic Poet and in Kishinev was sPonsored bY the velopment", "The Nationalities Europe in the East-West Economic (M. on Nationalities Thinker" Nurmakhamedov, Scientific Councils Question in the Contemporary Relations" by Yu. Piskulov; and Acadernician of the Uzbek AS) and Problems under the USSR World and the Ideological Strug- "The Problems of Periodisation of "Central Asian Shamanism and Academy of Sciences and the Mol- gle", and "The National and the the History of Finnish Literature Folklore" (V. Basilov). davian Academy of Sciences. International in Soviet Historiog- of the 20th Century" by E. Karhu. At the plenary sessions, ParticiP- raphy", where more than 40 pap- In the panels on contemporary * "Technological Systems: Their ants read the following PaPers: ers and communications were history, economies, modern hiq- ImPle- Development, Utilisation, Control" "The Role of the PartY in heard and discussed. tory, mediaeval history, literary sci- was the theme of the 7th SlmPosium menting the Leninist Nationalities ence, art and linguistics, nearly 130 of the Intenrational Cooperation i.n Policy" by L BodYul, First Secret- * Petrozavodsk, USSR, was the papers and communications of History ,f TechnologY Commr,ttee ary of the Central Committee of venue of the 8th All-Union Confer- Soviet researchers were presented (ICOHTEC) in Sofia. It was at- the Moldavian Communist PartY; ence on the History, Economy, Lan- and discussed, as well as papers in tended by 70 scholars from Bul- "Internationalisation Processes guage antl Literature of Scandinartian by !t.Menger and K. Schmidt of garia, Canada, Czechoslovakia, the the World TodaY" bY Academician Countnes and Finland, sponsored by the GDR, and by Ftr. Kirkinen FRG, the GDR, Hungary. ItalY, Yu. Bromley; "The UnitY of the the USSR Academy of Sciences, and T. Polvinen of Finland. Japan, Poland, Spain and the National and the International in USSR. Dr. Vylchev of Bulgaria, the Communist Education of the Chairman of the Organising Com- Working PeoPle" bY I. Kalin; mittee, Professor C. Maccagni of "Dialectlcs of the National and the Italy, President of the ICOHTEC, International Under DeveloPed and M. Germanov, DePutY Chair- Socialism" by M. Kulichenko; man of the Committee for Culture "The Correlation of the National of Bulgaria, opened the sym- and the International in the De- posium. velopment of the Socialist Com- Soviet scientists submitted the mrrrity" by F. Konstantinov; "The following papers: "The Main National and the lnternational in Stages in the Development of the the Development of National Lib- Means of Controlling Technologi- eratron Movements" by cal Systems" (S. Shukhardin, Vice- G. Starushenko; "The National President of the ICOHTEC, and the International in the Ling- I. Apokin, A. ChapovskY); "The uistic Development of the PeoPles 262 applies to the USSR Foreign Minis- N. Markin. Between December try Archives. 19l7 and February 1918 seven The documents and materials of collections of documents were put REVIEWS the USSR Foreign Ministry Arch- out: The Collections of Secret Treaties BOOK ives ar,e an invaluable source for from the Archiaes of the Former studying the principles and Foreign Ministry. December 1917- methods underlying Soviet foreign February -l918, Issues l-7 (Moscow, policy, the founder of which was l9l8). The publication of the sec- Lenin. The archivists have found ret treaties showed to the whole quite a number of documents world the predatory nature of the showing Lenin to b.e the founder First World War and played a of Soviet diplomacy, including a positive role in the Soviet govern- number of documents written by ment's struggle for a just and PUBLICATION ACTIVITIES Lenin himself. democratic peace. Otr'THE IIISTORICAL AND DIPLOMATIC DEPARTMENT Frorn the very out'set the Soviet The valuable documentary ma- OF THN USSR OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS MINISTRY government started widely pub- terials of the Foreign Ministry Ar- (Survey) to licise documents of Russian and chives were extensively used in sci- foreign diplomacy, first and fbre- entific research iu subsequent years most, the secret treaties of the tsarist as well. Publication activity was and Provisional governments of stepped up during the postwar The 1960s and 1970s marked a It is natural that the scientific Russia with the Entente, thereby years, when a considerable amount qualitatively new stage, when the analysis underlying the Soviet unmasking the imperialist ends of of documentary collections were alignment of forces on the interna- Union's foreign policy is possible the First World War. published. Mention should be tional scene changed radically and only if .the necessary documentary made of Documents of the Souiet trends in the world politics shaped base is available. The documents On October 26 (November 8), Uni,on's Foreign Poli,cy (Moscow, 1917, during the preceding decades were and materials preserved in the in his closing speech on the 1957-1977) being put out by the report translated into life. The transition USSR Foreign Ministry Archives about peace at the Second USSR Foreign Ministry Commis- from the long "cold war" to de- are a component part of this base. All-Russia Congress of Soviets. sion on the Publication of Diploma.-soviet tente became the leading trend of The Ministry's Archives contain l,enin .declared that the "secret tic Documents headed by ptrblished". this period. a wealth of material; not only irs treaties must be Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko. The struggle for peace and de- own staff often make use of thern, On November l0 (23), 1917, The 21 volumes that have already newspapers and tente is the cornerstone of the but also people working in other the Prauda come off the press cover Soviet Iutestia started publication Sicviet Union's Leninist foreign pol- ministries and departments, as well TsfK foreign policy from 1917 to 1938 icy. Leonid Brezhnev said in his as Soviet and foreign scholars. The of the secret diplomacy docu- and contain about 10,000 docu- (De- report at the joint session of the Soviet Union as a signatory to the rnents. On November 22 ments, of which over 6,000 have CPSU Central Committee and the Final Act of the Conference on <'cmber 5), 1917, Lenin in a speech not been published before. The Supreme Soviets of the USSR and Security and Cooperation in at the First All-Russia Congress of documents are supplied with com- the Russian Federation which was Europe, remains loyal to its com- the Navy pointed out that by pub- mentaries and notes (the total dedicated to the 60th anniversary mitment "to promote, by approp- Iishing the secret treaties the Soviet number of which is over 4,000). of the Great October Revolution: riate means, the extension of op- government had embarked upon joint Volume 22, which comprises docu- "Soviet Power was established portunities for specialists from the the road of work with the ments dating up to August 1939, under the sign of Lenin's Decree other participating states to work revolutionary class of the working i.e., up to the beginning of the on Peace, and ever since our coun- with materials of a cultural charac- pcople of all countries Second World War, has treen pre- try's entire foreign policy has been ter from film and audio-r'isual ar- (V. I. Lenin, Collected Worhs, YoL pared for publication. This volume one of peace. Objective historical chives, within the framework of 26, p. 345). will be concluding in the above- conditions have dictated its con- the existing rules for work on such In December of l9l7, secret mentioned series of documents. It crete expression as the peaceful archival materials" (Final Act of the treaties began to be published as a should be noted that the collectipns coexistence of states. with different Conference on Securi,ty and Coopera- scparate edition. On Lenin's in- contain not only official foreign (L. social systems" I. Brezhnev, tron in Europe, held, in Helsinki, st headed docu- 'Course: ructions this work was by policy documents but also Our Peace and Soci.alism, Moscow, 1975, p. 62). We have tlre legendary sailor Communist ments of the USSR Foreign Minis- Moscow, 1978, pp. 183-184). every ground to say that this fully 265 2M try (correspondence with ambas- Of great interest is the work material showing the tireless efforts the Conferences in Dumbarton sadors, minutes of talks, etc,), being done on problems of Soviet of the Soviet Union and its allies to Oaks and San Francisco (1944 and which proves the peaceful, honest foreign policy and international Prevent a return to the cold war, 194b). and consistent character of Soviet relations on the basis of archival and to pass from confrontation The collections vividly demon- foreign policy. documents. In its social and politi- with the capitalist states to con- strate the possibilities which effec- Over the period from 1957 to cal importance this work goes far structive talks to lessen internation- tive cooperation offers states with the present time there have been beyond the framework of the ar- al tension. different socio-political systems. published eleven volumes of Rus- chival work itself. A monograph The book contains a wealth of The published documents show the sia's Foreign Policy Between the 19th entitled A History o/ USSR Foreigr, factual material about Soviet- tangible contribution of Soviet dip- and the Beginning of the 20th Cm. Poli.cy (in two volumes: Vol. I American relations, the victory of lomacy to the victory over nazism tury. Documents ,f the Russian ll9l7-19451; Vol. 2 [945-1976], the forces of peace and socialism in and the role of the Leninist foreign Foreign Ministry (Moscow, 1957- Moscow, 1977), written with the Southeast Asia and other Problems policy of the CPSU and the Soviet 1979). The documents cover the use of hitherto unpublished origi- related to ensuring peace and sec- state in elaborating the principles period from 1801 to l92l; 90 per nal materials, has evoked wide urity in the Asian continent. Much for a democratic and just postwar cent of them are published for the response in the Soviet Union and attehtion is given to international world. first time..Volume l2 of this edition abroad. The publication of the relations and diplomacy in the Far The documents and materials of is about to come out soon. fourth and fifth volumes of A East and the diplomatic historY of The Moscou Conference of the Foreign Hi"story of Diplomacy (Vol. IV, Dip- aggression in the Near Experience in solving compli- imperialist Ministers ol the USSR, USA ant lornaq Duri.ng the Second World War, Middle East. For the first time cated foreign policy problems, that and Great Britain, October 19-30, 1943. Moscow, 1975; Vol. V. Book I, systematic research has been done (Moscow, faced the Soviet state, has been A Collection of Documents Moscow, 1974; Vol. Book 2, diplomacy of Latin Ameri- a accumulated in diplomatic docu- V, on,the 1978) convincingly prove that Moscow, 1979) was greeted less states, and the ments, which may be used in no can and African broad exchange of opinions at the warmly. The concluding Book 2 of move- elaborating various foreign policy role of the non-alignment Conference laid the foundation for Volume 5, which has recently been ment as a major factor in world actions. To cite some examples. expanding cooperation between put out, covers the period between politics. the three states in bringing the war From the time it was set up in the Plenary Meeting of the CPSU Of €freat importance is the against nazi Germany to a victori- 1943 under the USSR Foreign Central Committee in October analysis. of the activities of ous end. The issue of providing Ministry right up to 1947, i.e., 1964 and the 25th Congress of the Soviet diplomacy during the Sec- for universal security in the post- when the Paris Peace Conference CPSU. As is known, this period ond World War. In this connec- war period was widely discussed on the conclusion of peace treaties was marked by the transition to tion, a six-volume documentary and the foundation was laid for with former nazi allies ended its detente and a remoulding of inter- edition entitled The Soaiet lJnion at cooperation in the conditions of work, the Commission on the Prep- national relations. International Confermces During the the postwar settlement. It was at aration of Peace Treaties (the Book 2 of Volume 5 of A Hi.story Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945 this Conference that the Soviet so-called Litvinov Commission) of Diplomacy covers a period which (Moscow, 1978), is of particular Union proposed to set uP a com- widely used archival documents was marked by the irreversible interest. The edition, which con- mission consisting of representa- in preparing draft peace treaties weakening of international im- tains many hitherto unpublished tives of Great Britain, the United (1946-1947) with the assistance of perialism, which, nonetheless, re- archival materials, shows the role States and the Soviet Union to the USSR Foreign Ministry archiv- mains a rather active force posing of Soviet diplomacy in the struggle jointly work on the issues con- ists. The well-known reference a threat to world peace. In these to bring the Second World War to nected with the establishment of a work Falsifiers of Historl. Historical conditions, peaceful socialist diplo- a speedy, victorious end, establish a universal international organisa- Note (Moscow, 1948) was based on macy is of particular importance. lasting peace and elaborate the tion. The Moscow Conference laid materials stored in the Foreign The concrete foreign policy ac- principles for a just and democra- the groundwork for the first sum- Ministry Archives. Archival materi- tivities of the world's socialist coun- tic postwar settlement. It incorpo- mit meeting of the three allied als were also used in preparing a tries encompass practically all the rates the documents and materials powers, which was held in Teheran booklet The Truth about the Westcrn continents and take the form of the Moscow Conference of in 1943 and as a result of which Powers' Poliq in the German Ques- of a number of positive measures, Foreign Ministers of the USSR, the leaders made public a declara- ti.on. Historical Note (Moscow, and countermeasures directed USA and Great Britain (1943), the tion voicing their resolve "to work 1959), jointly published by the against the intrigues of imperialist 'Ieheran, Crimean and Berlin Con- jointly both during the war and in USSR Foreign Ministry and the circles. The two decades embracing ferences of the heads of the three peace time" (The Teheran Confer- Foreign Minisry of the GDR. the 1960s and 1970s offer rich allied powers (in 1943 and 1945), ence of the Heads of the Three Allied 266 261 two-volume collection in English CPSU Central Committee, the Powers-the USSR, USA and, Great not to let it be used against one (Moscow, 1977). Soviet Communist Party attaihes 'attach Britain. Nouember 28-December 1, another. Military historians have widely and will continue to 1943. A Collection of Documents, The Dumbarton Oaks Confer- used archival matdrials related to paramount attention to strengthen- Moscow, 1978, p;, 175, in Russian). ence prepared the convening of Soviet foreign policy to elucidate ing the socialist community. It will The Conference in Dumbarton the San Francisco Conference in major issues of the Second World do this, first and foremost, by Oaks convened on Soviet initiative the spring of 1945. This marked War history. The published ten expanding political, economic and served as an example of fruitful the foundation of the United Na- volumes of History of the Second military cooperation, promoting cooperation between the states of tions, which has been playing an Worlil War, 1939-1945 (in twelve and deepening international ties. the anti-nazi coalition for the sake outstanding role in international volumes, Vols. l-10, Moscow, 1973- Therefore, a huge project jointly of a peaceful future. This Confer- life throughout the postwar 1979) vividly demonstrate the ef- undertaken by the Ministry for ence's decisions laid the foundation period. fectiveness of military historians' Foreign Affairs of the USSR and for the United Nations Organisa- Of great scholarly value are the cooperation with exPerts in inter- the Foreign Ministries of socialist tion. three-volume documentary publica- national relations and the impor- countries involving the publishing The documents given in the tion Soaiet Foreign Policy During the tant role of the Soviet Foreign of documentary collections about collection The Conference of Rep- Creat Patri,otic War of 1941-1945 Ministry archives in analysing both the bilateral and multilateral resentatioes of the USSR, USA and, which was put out in the first major issues of the Second World relations of the socialist countries is Great Britatn in Dumbarton Oaks. postwar years: Vol. I (June 22, War history. of major importance today. To August 2l-September 28, 1944,Mos- l94l to December 31, 1943), Mos- The foreign policy activities of mark the 20th anniversary of the cow, 1978, show that despite dif- cow, 1946; Vol. 2 flanuary I to the CPSU and the Soviet state are Warsaw Treaty, a collection of ferent class positions and Decernber 31, 1944), Moscow, also reflected in many other collec- documents entitled The Warsaw ()rganisation ideologies, the Conference particip- 1946; Vol. 3 (January I to Sep- tions of documents .which have Treaty (1955-1975). ants were united in their common tember 3, 1945), Moscow, 1947; been prepared on a wealth of Documents and Materials (Moscow, conviction that cooperation was and Documents and Materials of the archival materials. A collection en- 1975), published in Russian and necessary for achieving a lasting Eue of the Secunil World, War. The titled The Soaiet Union in the Strug- the languages of the Treaty peace. The understanding reached Archiues ,f the German Foreign gle for Di,sarmament. A Collecti,on of member countries, has been pre- about the aims, principles and Mi,nistry, in two volumes: Vol. I Documents (Moscow, 1977), has pared jointly with the Foreign main organs of an international (November 1937 to 1938); Vol. 2, been put out by the Soviet Foreign Ministries of Bulgaria, Hungary, security organisation laid the basis Dirksen's Archiues (1938 to 1939) Ministry Historical and Diplomatic the German Democratic Republic, for setting up the world organisa- (Moscow, 1948), as well as the Department jointly with the De- Poland and Czechoslovakia. tion most universal in its aims and collection The USSR in the Struggle partment of International Organ- The collection The Quadripartite scope, whose multilateral activity for Peace on the Etti of the Second, isations and Legal and Contractual Agreement on West Berlin and Its over the subsequent three and a World War (September 1938-August Department of the Ministry. This Implementation, 1971-1975 (Mos- half decades has convincingly con- 1939). Dotuments and, Materials collection contains all acting mul- cow, 1977) has come off the press. firmed the possibility of fruitful (Moscow, l97l). tilateral and bilateral treaties and It contains documents of the cooperation of states with different A scholarly publication of a ,gree*ents on disarmament with USSR, GDR and other fraternal social systems. The guideline for collection of important documents Soviet participation, namely, docu- socialist countries as well as the this organisation's activity proc- entitled Correspondenre Betueen ments of an international character three Western signatories to the laimed at the Conference, namely, the Chairman of the Council of Minis- adopted in recent years on Soviet agreement and the FRG which the maintenance of world peace ters of the USSR and the Presiilents of initiative and containing major in- encompass all the most important and security and the adoption of the USA and, the Prime Mini,sters of ternational legal commitments and aspects of the Agreement's im- effective collective measures to Great Britai,n During the Great Pat- understandings as well as docu- plementation and reflect the above avert any threat to peace as well as riotic War of 1941-1945 was a ments pertaining to the basic initia- Parties' positions. The collection to suppress acts of aggression or worthy reply to premeditated fal- tives in the field of disarmament incorporates 228 documents, a ma- other violations of peace and to sification of the Second World War undertaken by Soviet diplomacy in jority of which have not been settle international disputes which history in a number of Western carrying out the decisions of the published before. These docu- might lead to war by peaceful publications. The second edition of 24th and 25th CPSU Congresses. ments show the consistent struggle means, set the powers which in- this collection has come out with a As is indicated in the decisions of of the Soviet Union and the Ger- itiated the formation of the world foreword by A. Gromyko (in twq the 25th CPSU Congress and sub- man Democratic Republic for strict security organisation the task to act volumes, Moscow, 1976). Progress sequent plenary meetings of the observance and full implementa- jointly within its framework and Publishers fras put out the above 268 Documents and Materiak, tion of the Quadripartite Agree- and the Institute of Marxism- tute of Slavonic and Balkan Studies 1922- 192 5. ment and outline their desire to do Leninism under the CPSU Central of the USSR Academy of Sciences, in two parts, Moscow, 1977. their utmost to make this agree- Committee, the USSR Foreign the Institute of Marxism-Leninism The Soviet Foreign Ministry also ment serve the interests of further Ministry has put out a two-volume and the Main Archives Department publishes collections of foreign pol- improving the international cli- collection entitled Souiet-Mongoli.an of the USSR, the Soviet Foreign icy documents jointly with capitalist developing countries. At the mate. The documents also give an Relations, 192 I - 1974. Documents and, Ministry is continuing to PrePare and exhaustive picture of the efforts Materials (Vol. I [92]-1940]; Vol. subsequent volumes of collections of end of 1976 a collection of docu- made by the USSR, GDR and 2 |941-19741, Moscow, 1979). A documents being put out jointlY ments came out entitled Soaiet- other fraternal socialist countries to collection of 180 documents enti- with the Academies of Sciences of French Relati.ons. 1965-1976, Mos- counteract various attempts to ar- tled Soai.et-Bulgari,an Relations, the respective countries on Soviet- cow, 1976, published at the same and Russian and French in bitrarily interpret and violate the 1 97 1 - 1 976. Docummts and Materials, Polish, Soviet-Czechoslovak time in The sec- Moscow and Paris. Quadripartite Agreement. In addi- Moscow, 1977, has also come off Soviet-Bulgarian relations. tion, the USSR Foreign Ministry the press. It was prepared by the ond volume of the collection Docu' The book Ecanomic Re\ati,ons Be- has published jointly with the Soviet Foreign Ministry Historical ments and Materiak on the Hi,story of tween Sweden and Russia in the 17th (Documents Soaiet Ar- Czechoslovak Foreign Ministry a and Diplomatic Department jointly Soaiet-Czechoslouak ReLati,ons, Augtut Century. from (Documents collection entitled Documents on the with the Foreign Ministry of Bul- 1922-June 1934, Moscow, 1977, has chiues, Moscow, 1978); History of the Muni,ch Deal, 1937- garia. come off the press. Together with from Suedi,sh Archiaes, Stockholm, 1939 (Moscow, 1979). The collec- The bilateral collections of docu- previously published materials, the 1978), contains interesting material tion came out 40 years after the ments Souigt-Hungarian Relations, collections that have already been about the economic ties between signing of the Munich agreement, 1971-1976, Moscow, 1977, and put out and those in PreParation Sweden and Russia at that time. the nazi Germany's occupation of Souiet-Czechosloaak Relations, 1972- contain a wealth of new archival The Soviet publication involves and Czechoslovakia and the beginning 1976, Moscow, 1977, have also documents giving an extensive ac- documents in Russian, Swedish of the Second World War. The been put out jointly by the Soviet count of various asPects of the German taken from the Central book is a most complete collection Foreign Ministry and the Foreign Soviet Union's relations with these State Archives of Ancient Acts, the History of Soviet and. Czechoslovak archival Ministries of the respective coun- socialist countries. Archives of the Institute of documents, many of which have tries. The collections comprise 208 Among recent publications are of the USSR Academy of Sciences also been published for the first and 166 documents respectively. the three-volume The Liberation of (international division) and the ar- time. The documents vividly show These are joint declarations, com- Bulgaria from the Turkish Yoke. chives of Estonia and Latvia; and the cynicism with which the West- muniques, reports about talks be- Docum?nts (Vol. l, Moscow, 1961; the Swedish publication contains and German ern powers betrayed the Czechos- tween party, and government, par- Vol. 2, Moscow, 1964; Vol. 3, documents in Swedish lovak people's interests and went liamentary and other delegations, Moscow, 1967) and The PoltcY of the taken from the collections of the into collusion with the aggressors; speeches, interviews of party and European Powers in Southeast Asia State Archives of Sweden. their actions culminated in the government leaders and officials; (the 1760s-the 1860s). Documents The material presented in this signing of the Munich agreement. letters, messages, telegrams of lead- and Materials (Moscow, 1962- 1967), edition has been selected from a The materials in the collection ers of the Soviet Union and these and others. A number of collec- large number of documentary confirm the consistent policy of the countries; documents of ldgislative tions have been put out jointly with sources. Data are given about diP- CPSU and the Soviet governmenl bodies and public organisations. All the Foreign Ministry of the GDR. lomatic relations between Sweden aimed at establishing a collective these materials give a broad ac- These are Sooiet-German Relations and Russia and the role of the front to defend peace and avert count of growing and deepening in the Perioil from the Peace Talhs at Russian market in Sweden's PolicY. the aggression. These documents bilateral cooperation between the Brest-Litousk to the Signing of the The oldest documents date back to also convincingly prove that the socialist countries in political, Rapallo Treaty. A Collection of Docu- l6l7-1618. Soviet position during the Czechos- economic, scientific, cultural and ments, in two volumes: Vol. 1 Work is under way together with lovak crisis was determined by its other areas, and reflect their coop- (1917-1918), Moscow, 1968; Vol. 2 the US National Archives, the State readiness to give a helping hand eration on the international scene (1919-1922), Moscow, 1971; For Department and the Woodrow Wil- to the working class and people of in carrying out the decisions of the Anti-Fascist Democratic Germany. A son Institute on a collection of Czechoslovakia and to save them 24th and 25th CPSU Congresses Collectron o.f Documents. 1945-1949, documents entitled The Establi'sh- from the threat of nazi enslave- and Congresses of the fraternal M 270 27r also involved in this work. The Work is nearing completion on are closely connected with the ma- numerical strength of this or that collection Sooiet-Afghan Relattons, Volume 3, which will comprise terials of the High Command, give front, but by its importance in the 1919-1969. Documents and Materials, over 300 documents. us a deeper insight into the de- various periods of the war. Moscow, 1971, has been published The collections of documents velopments of those years and into Documents of the supreme Red jointly with the Foreign Ministry of from the archives of the USSR Lenin's role in the guidance of the Army organs are supplemented by Afghanistan. Among other publica- Ministry for Foreign Affairs have armed struggle. Of great interest Lenin's notes and materials of the tions are The IISSR anil African won wide recognition among scho- are the High Command reports CC of the Russian Communist Countries, 1946-1962. Documents Iars and the general public both in which tell about the strategic posi- Party. This combination makes it and, Materials (Vol. I [1946- the Soviet Union and abroad. tion of Soviet Russia in this or that possible to fully reveal the decisive September 19601; Vol. 2 [Sep- period. They help the reader un- role played by Lenin, the Com- tember 1960-19621, Moscow, 1963). S.T. derstand how the plans of indi- munist Party Central Committee vidual operations or campaigns and the Soviet Government in A COLLECTION OF DOCUMENTS were elaborated. Many of these slrategic leadership of the military ON THE HISTORY OF THE CIVIL WAR reports were unknown before or actions and the High Command's (Survey) published only in part. The docu- activity in executing the missions ments acquaint the reader with the assigned to it. These documents course of combat operations, the convincingly show that all the The fourth and completing vol- fence and the Central State Ar- reasdns for certain setbacks, the major issues of the Soviet people's ume of the serial publication of chives of the Soviet Army. This situation at the fronts, the state of armed struggle were discussed at documents on the history of the publication is intended for resear- resources and reserves in the coun- the meetings of the Russian Com- Civil War and foreign armed inter- chers and differs from other try, and the situation in the rear; munist Party Central Committee vention Directiues of the Red Army documentary collections on the his- they also contain data on the or- under the direct leadership of Fronts' Command, 1917-1922 has tory of the Civil War which were ganisation of the Red Army antl Lenin and that it was he who took been put out. The series includes either thematic publications or Soviet military construction at the the most active part in elaborating Directiaes of the Red Army High "readers". Now we have a com- time. all the major plans for routing the Command, 1917-1920. A Collection prehensive collection of the main The chfonological framework of enemy. The edition consistently of Documents (Moscow, Voenizdat documents concerning military or- the three volumes of Directiles of reveals the role of each front in Publishers, 1969, 883 pp.) and ganisation and operations issued by the Red, Army Fronts' Command cor- every period of the Civil War and Directiaes of the Red Army Fronts' the High Command and the com- respond.s to the accepted periodisa- gives an exhaustive interpretation Command,, 1917-1922. A Collection mands of the fronts. tion. The fourth volume comprises of the operational and strategic o{ Documents in four volumes is- This publication is a remarkable data on the combat and numerical missions performed by each front. sued by Voenizdat Publishers. Vol- event in Soviet historiography. It strength of the Red Army during The documents in this series ume I covering the period from substantially expands the source the Civil War as a whole and at the enable historians dealing with the November l9l7 to March 1919 was base for research into one of the fronts and armies in different problems of the organisation and published in 1971, it contains 787 most important periods of the periods of the waf, as well as a list development of Soviet military art pages; Volume 2 covers the period USSR history. The collections com- of large formations and units of during the Civil War to determine from March 1919 to April 1920, it prise 3,239 documents grouped the Red Army, a Iist of army and the character of the control of the was published in 1972 and contains according to the fronts and the front commanders, members of the Soviet troops' operations in the 803 pages; Volume 3 published in periods of the war. An overwhelm- revolutionary military councils, light of the specific conditions of 1974 covers the period from April ing majority of the documents are army and front chiefs-of-staff. The the Civil War and the means of 1920 to 1922 and contains 367 given in their entirety. Many of volume also contains a name index warfare existing at the time. pages. The last volume was pub- them have been published for the to all volumes of the series and As is known, the control of lished in 1978, it contains 728 first time. other reference material. strategic operations is one of the pages. It is mostly a reference Directi,ues of the Red, Army Hi.gh In almost every volume, the total most important fields of military volume. Command, 1917-1920 is the most amount of the.documents incorpo- art. The collections' materials and This project was undertaken by complete collection of the Com- rated therein is distributed uneven- documents give an exceptionally the Main Archives Administration mand's main documents on the ly according to the various fronts complete picture of the distinguish- under the USSR Council of Minis- organisation and conduct of armed and this is quite justified. In rackl- ing features of Soviet strategy dur- ters, the Institute of Military His- struggle. There are 144 Lenin's ing this problem, the compilers ing the Civil War, namely, unity of tory of the USSR Ministry of De- documents in the collection, they were guided not by the combat ar.rd political and military leadership, 272 rc--3ax. 1522 273 exploiting contradictions in the ence index which brings out the Underlying all the nine chapters riotic forces in the above countries enemy camp, profound analysis of interconnection of the documents of the monograph is the idea that under the leadership of the Com- all the factors determining thb and makes for a closer understand- from the very outset of the war the munist and Workers' Parties, and course and the outcome of the war ing of the material. On the whole Soviet people set themselves the the successful operations of the and their consideration during the we have an excellent example of task not only to liquidate the mor- Soviet armed forces, on the other. strategic planning and control of cooperation of archivists and his- tal danger hanging over the Of particular interest are the combat operations, choice of the torians. world's first socialist state, but also pages telling about the lofty liberat- direction of the main effort, flexi- Thorough commentaries are to render assistance to the millions ory mission of the Red Army. ble manoeuvring of reserves, opti- provided for many of the docu- of people in the countries of Numerous documents cited in the mal use of available resirurces in ments. In the case of previously Europe who found themselves monograph testify thar the Soviet operations, and concentration on published documents which are in- under the yoke of nazi tyranny. troops carrying out their historic decisive sectors culminating in the cluded in the collections, the place The authors regard the major mission entered the territory of complete rout of the enemy. of their first publication is indi- stages of the resistance movements foreign countries in keeping with The researcher will find a useful cated. Copious notes to each vol- in Central and South-East Europe intergovernment treaties and ag- list of documents not included in Lrme add much to its scientific as a component part of the free- reements, thus acting in strict con- these volumes. Most of them sup- value. As a rule, most of the notes dom-loving nations' great battle formity with international law. plement important directives and refer to the sources thus giving the against nazism. Drawing on a It is to the authors' credit that instructions, Thus, historians now researcher the access to unpub- wealth of factual material, the au- they reveal the allround interna- actually have a comprehensive pub- lished data. thors present a panorama of the tionalist support by the Soviet lication of documents by record The publication under review ar.ti-r^azi movement in all its man- Union to the peoples of Poland, groups which meets their request provides broad opportunities to ifestations. They underscore that Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, that source materials be published considerably raise the scientific the successes of the Soviet armed Rumania, Bulgaria, Albania, Hun- in whole sets. Another attractive level of the research and to obtain forces exerted great influence gary, Greece. The facts presented feature is the integrated system of valuable material to combat fal- on all aspects of the resistance in the book vividly show the scale numbering throughout the three sifiers of history seeking to distort movement despite its specific fea- of this support. Yugoslavia alone volumes. And still another positive this complex period of Soviet tures in individual countries. received from the Soviet Union aspect, especially of the Dtrectittes of history. The book vividly shows how over 155,000 rifles, 38,000 sub- the Red Army High Command,, 1917- these sucpesses, in particular, in the machine guns, more than 15,000 1920, is the extensive cross refer- Ya. Gorelik battles of Moscow, Stalingrad and machine guns, 5,800 guns and Kursk, facilitated the upsurge of a mortars, 69 tanks and 491 aircraft. mass anti-nazi movement which During the war the Soviet Union reached its height during the rendered assistance in raising na- Coeemexuil, Coroe u 6oPa6a uaPodoa Sciences. It is a fundamental piece popular uprisings in Czechos- tional Czechoslovak and Polish lJexmpanmoir u IOzo' of research which gives a com- lovakia, Bulgaria and Rumania. units which, like the People's Bocmoq*ofi, Eaponw ru caodody u prehensive assessment of the The monograph also contains Liberation Army of Yugoslavia, tt$a6ucttwocn1.a. 194 I - I 945. M., USSR's role in the development of interesting facts about the partici- fought shoulder-to-shoulder with 434-Bo .Hayxa", 1978, 449 the anti-fascist struggle for the pation of Soviet people in the the Red Army against the nazi crp. liberation and independence of Po- liberation war waged by other invaders. In additiorl, the national land, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, peoples against the nazi invaders. formations of Bulgaria, Rumania Union and the StruggLe ol The Souiet Rumania, Bulgaria, Albania, Hun- The resistance movement in and Hungary, with a total strength the Peoltles of Central and South- gary, and Greece during the Great Central and South-East Europe of 555,000 men, joined the Red , East Europe for Freed,om and, Patriotic War of 194l-1945. On the made a tangible contribution to the Army at the final stage of the war. Independ,ence i,n 1941-1945, basis of vast archival material, the complete rout of nazi Germany. The Soviet Union handed over Moscow, Publishers, 'l'his Nauka latest documentary publications conclusion is convincingly gratis 960,000 rifles, carbines 1978, 449 pp. and memoirs, the authors have proved in the book. The authors and submachine guns, 40,627 succeeded, in our opinion, not only show the interionnection between machine guns, 16,502 guns and The monograph under review is in synthesising the findings of two major factors leading to the mortars, 1,124 tanks and self- written by a team of scholars of the Soviet historiography, but also in liberation of these countries from propelled guns, 2,346 aircraft, and Institute of Slavonic and Balkan making a fresh contribution to the the nazi yoke, on the one hand, the other weapons to the above coun- Studies of the USSR Academy of study of this problem. (:ourageous struggle of all the pat- tries for their fight against nazism. 274 lE. 275 The cooperation of the Soviet Friendship, Mutual Assistance and yses the ideology of the autocracy roDor but, followiqg the occupation Union with the countries of Centr- Post-War Cooperation between the and the monarchy with estate rep- of Moscow by the troops of inter- South-East Europe in USSR and Czechoslovakia (signed al and resentation, which was then taking vention, it had lost its importance. foreign policy figures prominently on December 12, 1943), between shape, and provides insights into This period, it is shown in the in monograph. The Soviet the USSR and Yugoslavia (April the the question of the oprichnina and monograph, saw a growth the Government retognised and politi- ll, 1945) and the USSR and Po- of the zemshy sobor convened in importance of the local estate or- democratic land (April 21, 1945). cally supported the January 1565, following the tsar's ganisations. People's governments which appeared in The merits of the monograph militia units departure for Alexandrovskaya were formed. Then zemshie in beyond doubt. At the same the the course of the revolutions are Sloboda. This sobor, which included soDorl wer,e revived interna- remark is to be made. It but the initia- these countries. At every time one the posad, (trading quarter) elite, tive in their reconvening tional forum and conference it is regrettable that the authors did now canre was not a conference under the from the grass-roots level. From a consistently de- not say anything about the anti- resolutely and tsar, but a body which conducted body convened by the government fended their interests, sovereignty nazi movement in Austria, which negotiations with him. In the au- the sobor, at least temporarily, out lies in the region under review and and independence, coming thor's opinion, rhe fact that the changed into a body against the attempts of the im- in the liberation of which the which di- " system of oprichni.na-based military rected the government's activity. perialist forces to interfere in their Soviet Union, as is known, played dictatorship was adopted by a body The soDors operated in first internal affairs and providing them an important role. the of estate representation did not (1611) and the second (16ll-1612) with the maximum favourable con- It should be noted in conclusion indicate a transition from one form people's militias. The liberation of ditions for their independent de- that the team of authors has pro- of the state to another, from Moscow sure to raised the question of velopment. The militant unity of duced a book which is monarchy with estate representa- choosing interest among his- a tsar. To this end, a the Soviet, Czechoslovak, Yugoslav evoke both tion to the autocracy. Already in sobor was convened. torians and broad readership. It was at- and Polish peoples found its em- 1566 a zemsky sobor was convened tended by members bodiment in the Treaties of D. Meltser of different in order to discuss whether the estates from different parts of Rus- Livonian War should be continued. sia. In February l6l3 the soDor In the 1570s, rhe rsar had on proclaimed Mikhail Romanov rsar. several occasions convened assemb- According y\. B. TIEPEfIHHH. 3encxue co6optt tween the assemblies and the in- to the author, this sobor lies of the estares (in 1b71, 1b75, ushered in zocydapcmea a XVI- stitutions of the previous periods a new period in the \ccxozo 1576, etc.). The death of Ivan rhe history ee. ns4-no (princes' assembly, d,uma, wche, of the soborq which were XVII M., "Hayxa", Terrible was followed by a weaken- 1978,417 crp. court of artiitration, etc.). The for- now mature bodiqs of estate rep- ing of the tsar's power, with the resentation mation of the monarchy with estate playing an active role zemskie sobory growing in impor- L. V. CHEREPNIN, "Zemskie Sob- representation began long before in handling questions of Russia's tance. internal and qxternal ory" of the Russian State in the the mid-l6th century, when the policy and in The fourth essay discusses zenxs- other state 16th and 17th Centuries, Mos- zemskie soDory (the estate assemblies) affairs. The monarchv hie sobory during the civil war and cow, Nauka Publishers, 1978, scene. The first with estate representation restoreA appeared on the the Polish and Swedish interven- 417 pp. such assembly named in the book after the period known as the tion. In those years, the author Time (1605-1613) was that of 1549. "The activity of of Troubles was e.mphasises, the people's active par- a form of feudal The book under review, which the popular masses, which so vivid- state which contri- ticioation in the electoral campaign buted more to social consists of an introduction, nine ly manifested itself in the Moscow progress than influenced its course and resulis. the serfdom system that followed. essays an afterword, was the uprising of 1547," the author and At times, old ueche traditions were A factor contributing last come the pen of writes, "forced the government to to the de- to ,from revived during popular movements velopment of monarchy reckon with them as a major social with estate Academician Lev Cherepnin. which influenced the estate com- representation The first essay is devoted to force. To this force with its body- was the peasant war position of the so6ors. of the early 17th historiography, source materials, the oeche-was opposed a new century which The fifth essay is entitled " Zems- retarded the formalisation research political body-soDor, or assembly, of serf- methodology and kie Soborl During the Popular dom and second essay "From representatives of various the transition to ab- methods. The of Struggle Against Foreign Inteiven- solutism. Political Disunity to Monarchy with groups of the feudal class." tion". The recognition of Wladys- The sixth essay is devoted to the Estate Representation. The The third essay, " Zemshie Sobory law on the throne was an anti- soDors held in the Emergence of Zemshe Sobory", de- During the Institution of Oprichni- first decade of national act. The government Mikhail's rule (1613-1622). this scribes the genetic relationship be- na and After Its Abolition", anal- In sought the support of the zemsky period they functioned almost 276 277 wifhout interruption. The govern- resentation. The last soDor met in H. N'l./PY}I{\[[{LI}{. Pyccxaa depea- forms were an example of the ment made an effort to subordi- 1684. "It proved to be fruitless, 1l"fl Ha nepenoMe. 1861-1880 zz. autocracy's futile attempts to pre- nate their activity to its own plans contributing nothing positive to the M., lz36-B0 "Hayxa", 1978, serve feudal relations and at the and rely on them in carrying out Russian state. This was not a Pure 287 crp. t'" find a wav out of the its own schemes. Therefore, while accident or a mere failure. A new :?r,:. recognising the sobor as a body of epoch had set in, which required N. M. DRUZHININ, The Russian The monograph under review is (1861- estate representation within the more prompt and flexible forms of Village: Years of Change concerned with the abolition of monarchy, the tsarist authority handling foreign-policy (and other) .1880), Moscow, Nauka Pub- feudal-serfdom relations in Russia, lishers, 1978, 287 pp. took no measures to legalise it as questions," the author writes. Some which took the shape of agrarian an independent institution. researchers also speak of a sobor reforms, and the transition of the The sobors from the 1630s to the held in 1698, but the author was Despite the attention which countryside to capitalist develop- mid-1640s are the subject of the inclined to believe that it had not Soviet historians have devoted to ment. seventh essay. The period between been convened. The essay closes the period when capitalism took The author regards as his main 1622 and 1632 saw a break in the with discussion of the interpreta- root in Russia, there remain gaps task a study of the socio-economic sobors' activity, which the author tion of the question of the zemskie in our historical literature on indi- processes which took place between says was due to a stabilisation of sobory in the journalistic literature vidual aspects of social develop- l86l ancl 1880 in the Russian Russia's situation. In the early at the turn of the l8th century. rnent in those years. For instance, countryside, which in those years 1630s, because of the Smolensk The afterword outlines the the situation in rural Russia, its formed the core of the Russian War and peasant disturbances, major problems posed by the his- trends of development and the state, and thus it determined the the .sobors were reconvened. tory of zemski,e sobor). According to specific features of this develop- type of the agrarian system of the 'I'he eighth essay, "People's UP- the author's estimates, a total of 57 ment in different parts of the reform period and exercised an risings of the Mid-l7th Century sobors were convened. In terms of country have been Iittle studied. influence on the mass peasant arrd the Zemskie Sobory", discusses their socio-political character .they Suffice it to say that there was not movement, on the development of the close 'relationship between the can be divided into four groups: a single comprehensive wor:k deal- social thought, and on the policy,of convocation of the sobors and the those convened by the tsar, those ing rvith the socio-economic situa- the ruling classes. Here the author social events of the time. The sobor convened by the tsar on the initia- tion of rural Russia drrring a criti- shows his usual ability to isolate, of 1648-1649 was called on the tive of the estates, those convened cal period.in its history-the 1860s for the purpose of analysing the initiative of gentry and Posad by the estates on their own initia- :rnd the 1870s. general regularities and trends of people, 'rvho exploitecl the grass- tive in the tsar's absence, and The present monograph b,l development, the aspect of histori- roots action. At the soDor the gen- elective ones. A study of the reP- Acarlemician Nikolai Druzhinin cal reality (the category of peas- try and the townspeople ctemanded resentation of estate groups led the frrlfils the need for such a study ants, as in the monograph State- the cornpilation of a new Code of author to the conclusion that Russia ancl marks a new stage in research Ouned Peasants,-or part of the Laws (I-llozhennaya kniga). The had a stable system of estate hierar- irrto this crucial phase in thc for- country, as in the present book) soDor announced a Posad' relorm chy and that there was a contradic- :,,rilion of Russian agrarian capital- rvhich reflects this development in and formalised serfdom. The de- tory process of the cor-rservation of isrn. The book is a seqnel to the the most distinct forms. The mands of the gentry and the Posad the fragmentary character of social author's well-knorvn and irnportant period under study is chosen on an elitc were met in the main and the groupings and of the consolidation rncrnograph State-Owned Peasants equally sound basis. The initial government used these estates to of the social estates. DurinEl their and the Reform of P. D. Kiseleu (Yol. stage of development of the new strengthen its apparatus. 150-vear history zemshie sobory, al- l, Moscow-Leningrad, 1946; Vol. formation, says the author, con- In fris ninth essay, "Zemskie Sob' though they constituted representa- II, Moscow, 1958), in whi 278 27E that marks these years as a distinct, combination of analysis of general together and given in 60 tables. a deep and longJasting influence separate period, and it is necessary regularities and characteristics with These tables offer an insight into on the entire course of socio- to study this relationship from both a description of their regional the essence of the phenomena and economic development of rural the economic and political angles. specific features, as well as in a processes in question and are of Russia rather than a simple finan- The said problems predetermine comparison of the overall statb of value in their own right; these data cial measure or a mode of plunder- the content and structure of the the economy and the situation of can also be used in exploring other ing of the peasants by the land- book. The first part considers the the peasants with the distinctive questions. A consistent theoretico- lords and the autocratic state, underlying principles, content and features of the development of the methodological approach has ena- which is an oversimplified interpre- conduct of the agrarian reforms of rural areas previously owned by bled the author to concentrate on tation sometime found in litera- the 1860s (as applied to privately the landlords, the state and the the most important processes and ture. owned, state and tsar-owned peas- tsar's family. phenomena. In this sense the The author introduces important ants and lands), the newly intro- The monograph is also disting- monograph is also a corrective for corrections in the interpretation of duced system of rural manage- uished by comprehensiveness of the traditional pattern of research the question of how the l86l ment, the government policy on treatment of the subject studied, into this period. For example, re- reform influenced provision of the peasant question and the coun- which reflects the' author's search ihto the implementation of land to peasants. As is well known, tryside's respo+se to the reforms. methodological principles. jlhe au- the 186l peasant reform usually the reform worsened the situation The second part is a survey of thor describes the prerequisites for, focused on the introduction of by cutting off portions of land, and the conditions, character and reg- and the preparation, content and temporary peasantJandlord con- by landlords' appropriation of land ional distinctions of the coun- implementation of, the agrarian tracts. Undoubtedly this marked a bought by peasants, and by other tryside's socio-economic develop- reforms and their influence on the major stage in the carrying out of measures. All this has been de- ment following the reforms. The socio-economic development of the the reform. But, as is shown in the scribed in detail in many works on closing chapter of this part discus- countryside as well as the effect of present monograph, the key el€- the reform. But in describing how ses the socio-political crisis which this development on the peasant ment of this process was the going the peasants were robbed of their erupted in the late 1870s and its movement, the policy of the autoc- over of the peasants to a system of land, researchers frequently neg- influence on rural Russia. ratic state and the struggle waged land redemption. The author gives lect to show the final result of this The monograph is marked by by socio-political forces around the a comprehensive survey of the process-the size of the allotment profundity of analysis and a pain- agrarian-peasant question. This en- course and results of the redemp- which the peasant received as part staking theoretico-methodological abled the author to show the de- tion operation demonstrating its of the reform. The author of the approach to the phenomena and velopment of rural Russia in its dual effect on the countryside- present book concentrates his at- processes under investigatioq. All period of ' change as a complex the emancipation of the peasant tention not so much on the cut-off students of the peasant reform of intertwining of both objective and from the system of feudal relations of portions of land as on the actual 1861 speak of its bourgeois charac- subjective historical factors and and his becoming an owner of allotments offered to the peasants ter. Flowever, in discussing its im- forces, and this in turn opens the land-the basic means of produc- and the changes in their size dur- plementation many writers do not way for a more detailed study of tion, on the one hand, and his ing the period in question. He go deeply enough into the question the essence of the phenomena and being plundered because of exor- shows the estate and regional dis- and give their attention mainly to processes under examination. bitant redemption payments for tinctions in the apportionment of the plunderous effect of the re- Finally, the monograph, like all the limited land allotment, on the land to the peasants, and the over- form which largely benefited the other works by Druzhinin, stands other. On the whole, the author whelming preponderance of the landlords. Then there is also an out because of the comprehensive believes, the redemption operation, aggregate area of lands allotted to opposite trend in historical studies 'character of the sources used and while dealing a blow at the previ- state-owned peasants over the whereby the bourgeois develop- the meticulousness with which con- ous semi-subsistence economy, for- aggregate area of lands belonging ment of the Russian countryside is crete historical information derived cibly ushered in the process of to peasants owned by the landlords pictured as an almost serene Pro- from wide-ranging sources is ex- primitive accumulation, thus clear- and the tsar's family. State-owned cess. Druzhinin's dialectical ap- amined and analysed. The author ing the way for the victory of the rural areas, which had not _known proach to this transitional period in takes a comprehensive approach to new, capitalist system-in its landlord oppression before the re: the history of the Russian coun- the sources, but, as in any socio- bourgeois-conservative, landlordly form, were also incomparably less tryside, therefore, constitutes an economic investigation, the basis or Prussian (see "Our Glossary") dependent on the landlord after important contribution to scholar- for analysis is formed by various variant. This operation is shown as the reform. Thus, bourgeois ag- ship in this field. This allround statistical and other quantitative a crucial, complex and contradic- rarian evolution could take place approach is most vividly seen in a data, which are carefully brought tory phenomenon which exercised here only on the basis of peasant 280 28r qt holding, in other words, the the end of the period covered in the 1800-1850 period have been dreds of service records preserved "American" way (see "Our Glos- the book, the socio-economic de- discovered so far. Future resear- in the Central State Flistorical Ar- sary"). The prevalence in peasant velopment of the countryside be- chers will therefore have to devise chives of the USSR (record groups landownership of lands belonging came subject to the laws of com- methods of making a statistical of the State Chancellory, the Se- to former state-owned peasants modity capitalism, with bourgeois analysis of Russia's state apParatus nate, the ministries of Internal shows that this pattern of relations, still underdeveloped and of the first hall of the l9th cen- Affairs and Justice and a collection bourgeois agrarian development entangled with many survivals of tury. But the period which lasted of service records). As a result data was also present in the Russian serfdom, striking roots in the coun- from shortly before the Crimean have been obtained which, it is to countryside. In Russia this was tryside. War to almost the first Russian be hoped, will soon be included in more than a possibility. as solne Thus, the monograph, which fills revolution is studied by the author general courses, study guides and researchers have thought; it was a a gap in the study of the Russian in detail. popular works on l9th-century socio-economic reality, notably in countryside in a complex historical For a number of decades books Russia. the north and south and on both epoch and contributes much that is and articles by Soviet historians According to the author's esti- sides of the Volga. Such is one of new to a study of Russia's transi- were concerned mainly with socio- mates, the number of officials in the author's important conclusions. tion from feudalism-to capitalism, economic and historico- 19th-century Russia, with account The author's analysis of the state is a model of a comprehensive, revolutionary subjects, which had taken of the counry's population of farming and the situation of the allround historical investigation been underrated, distorted or pas- growth, increased almost sevenfold. peasants gives a clear picture of the performed on a high theoretico- sed by in silence before the revolu- Of considerable interest is the technical level of the farming methodological level and based on tion. Problems relating to the do- analysis of the composition of the economy and the socio-economic a wide range of sources and a rninant classes and the internal State Council, the Committee of changes taking place in it, and of careful handling and analysis of policy of the autocracy came to be Ministers, the Senate and various the conflicting trends of oppression concrete data. Its importance goes underestimated, and this led to an categories of the gubernia ad- of the peasantry, on the one hand, beyond the framework of the au- imbalance in Soviet historiography. ministration (age, social and class and the progressive developrnent, thor's self-imposed task. Bringing Fortunately, in recent years the origin, property status, and educa- however slow, of the peasant to a higher level the study of the balance has been restored. tional level). A comparison of the economy, on the other. The latter development of agrarian capitalism The study of the state of the officials of the same departments trend became predominant ancl in Russia and opening up a new government apparatus, the author in lB53 and 1903 indicates a rise in found expression in a deepening stage in this study, the monograph justly observes, presupposes the their educational level, and a sub- stratification of the peasantry. The helps raise the level of investiga- study of two questions. One is the stantial decrease in the amount of author shows the distinctive fea- tions in the field of socio-economic system of state institutions and its real estate owned try them. High- ttrres of this pr 282 283 q lives did the jobs of officials. ment views. However, there was an Painstaking statistical research is yaminov-Zernov, who saw several their Ivan Pushchin obvious ideological division within combined here with an interesting reigns in his lifetime. "In the l8th The active service of is justly re- the bureaucratic forces. The ques- personal approach to history. The century," said the senator, "it was in the Moscow court act of Decembrism, tion of the social, cultural and author cites fascinating data on the as easy to replace the tsar as to garded as an particularly political make-up of the official- family budgets of officials and the replace a minister but in those days which appears to be the background dom remains a subject for re- land possessions of the "pillars" of it was much more difficult to remarkable against contempt (noted by the search. the empire. Diverse typical replace a minister than now" (-Fris- of the shown by high-born noble- Owing to the novelty and signifi- episodes characterising the Russian torical Collecti,on of the Free Rtusian author) service. cance of the problems discussed, bureaucracy are described. True, Press, London, 1861, Book Two, p. men for civil fairly complex question the amount of new material in- here and there attention to certain 27.) ln general, from 1801 to l9l7 Another political views and cluded, the high quality of the individuals, in this reviewer's opin- the Russian autocratic machine be- is that of the social stand the officials. is on analysis of this material, and, final- ion, Ieads the author to subjective came less unstable, changes in it of It 1850s-1860s a ly, the prospects for further re- appraisals. Pavel Kiselyov, for in- were made "softer" than before. record that in the large number of officials search into the subject outlined by stance, is presented as being sharp- There were no more palSce con- fairly valuable materials unmask- the author, the work under review ly different from the other figures spiracies, and no minister (except passed government deeds to the represents a notable contribution of the Nicholas I epoch. This state- Mikhail Speransky, in 1812) was irg the to the study of l9th-century ment, however, warrants a qualifi- exiled. magazine KolokoL Naturally, Russia. cation: in the Nicholas I govern- There definite reason for majority of the officials of the is a to ment, reactionary and ignorant this: alarmed by the people's and autocratic apparatus tried strengthen and reflected govern- N. Eidelman ministers (such as Alexander Cher- revolutionary movement, the nobil- it nyshev, Alexander Benkendorf, ity and the bureaucracy refrained Petr Kleinmichel, etc.) for decades from staging palace revolutions worked side by side with compara- which, they feared, could weaken tively moderate, cultured and flexi- the monarchy and the state ap- B. A. TEOPII4EB, H.C. KI,IH,'I- Russo-Turkish relations proper as naturally, reactionary paratus. factors had an ble ones; The said fIPIHA, M.T. IAHI{EHKO- well as Turkish policy and the trends and retrograde ministers undeniable effect on the formation BA, B. I,I. IIIEPEMET. Bocmoq,- political goals of the West with were in the majority but this com- of the bureaucracy, and the ques- uwil aonpoc eo erueuueil notaumu- regard to the Ottoman Empire. bination for some time enabled tion of the number and form of te Poccuu. Kouet4 .XVIII- The specific nature of the problem Nicholas I to manoeuvre in conduct- resignations and of important gov- Ha\,ano XX aexa. M., ze4-ro required the authors to give a external internal dis- irg his and ernment officials falling into 1978, 433 crp. scientific definition of the geog- policies. "Hayxa", grace calls for special considera- raphy of the Eastern question since An extensive analysis of various tion. Incidentally, another sign that V. A. GEORGIYEV, N. S. KINYA- to date there is no unanimity of careers" made possible PINA, PANCHENKO- "brilliant it the book is a serious piece of M.T. views on the subject. The authors to touch on the question of stability research is that it lays no claim to VA, V.I. SHEREMET, The Eas- rightly think that its geography autocratic tern Rissia's Foreign and reliability of the being an exhaustive study of the Question in should not go beyond the bound- standpoint of Policy (the End the l8th-the apparatus from the subject. The author points out in of aries of the Ottoman Empire's pos- the tasks which were set to it. But introduction his book does Beginning of the Centurfl, the that 20th sessions. then, seems to this reviewer, the aspects prob- Moscow, Ptblishers, it not cover all of the Nauka A more precise definition of the rela- 1978, 433 pp. author slightly underrates the lem but rather charts the main territories involved in the Eastern viability of the feudal state lines for a more thorough investig- tive question makes it possible to give a machine: despite obvious ele- ation. all A variety of archival material, critical assessment of the works of ments of backwardness and decay Apparently, one of such lines, Soviet and foreign publications West European scholars who reduce which he points out, had for a barely touched the book, is it on in served as sources for the monog- the problem to the struggle between long period successfully suppressed problem participation of the of raph under review. The authors Russia and Turkey for the Bosporus the majority the population in country's socio- of officials in the also drew extensively on periodi- and Dardanelles while at the same interests landowning political and cultural life. will be the of the It cals, memoirs, diaries and letters. time saying nothing about the an- nobility, who were in the minority. recalled that many Russian public As they point out, apart from nexation policy which the Western this connection one may note figures, beginning with the first In Russia's policy in the Eastern ques- countries conclucted with regard to the curiods observations made in Russian revolutionary, Alexander tion, their task was to analyse the Ottoman Empire. This accurate the early 1830s by Senator Vel- Radishchev, in different periods of 285 284 definition also helps avoid another century, when the solution to the Western state's actions against this settling the Eastern question coin- extreme wl.rereby historians unjusti- Eastern question began to hinge division. cides with the end of the Crimean fiably include the Middle Eastern largely on Russia's position, and The monograph is the first in War and the establishment of countries in the sphere of the the Great Octobei Revolution of Soviet historiography to have de- capitalism in Russia. The authors Eastern question, thereby making 1917, which radically changed Rus- scribed Russia's policy in the East- regard the struggle to repeal the the problem. unmanageable and sia's foreign policy principles. After ern question according to periods. shackling provisions of the Paris stripping it of its scientific value. It is the Revolution, the Soviet govern- The Marxist-Leninist principle of Treaty of 1856 as Russia's foreign sair[ in the monograph that at ment, as is known, rendered all- the development of society accord- policy aim in the Eastern question. certain stages not only the European round and disintefested support ing to social formations, and the They underscore that, beginning but also the African and Asian to the peoples of the Ottoman dependence of foreign policy upon with the 1870s, the Balkan prob- possessions of the Ottoman Empire Empire in their aspiration to free internal socio-economic processes lem became central to the tsarist were drawn into the sphere of the themselves frgm imperialist op- served as the criterion for this government's Near East policy. epoch of imperialism has interstate struggle. Presslon. periodisation. The As to Russia's policy in the East- In analysing Russia's fdreign pol- In keeping with this periodisa- been singled out as an indepen- ern questiorr, the main topic of the icy within the said period, the tion, the first period, as has already dent, third, period when world monograph, the authors believe authors have come to the conclu- been said, begins at the end of the contradictions began to influence that of primary importance here sion that throughout this period its lSth century, and concludes with the solution of the Eastern ques- were problems related mostly to Near East aspect was one of the the end of the Crimean War. tion. This period begins with the the Ottoman Empire's European most important. They point out Russia's policy at the time was signing of the Russo-Austrian Con- possessions. These were the Balkan that Russian tsarism's policy in the affected by the disintegration of vention of 1897, and ends with question, the problem of the Black East, like that of the Western the feudal system which. had just Soviet Russia's withdrawal from the Sea Straits and Russia's patronage states, was aggressive in nature and started and whictr turned into a imperialist world. of Orthodox subjects of the that the methods and nreans used crisis in the second quarter of the Thus, according to the given Porte as a means of political influ- in conducting this policy varied lgth century. In thc authors'opin- periodisation the research com- ence on it. depending upon the alignment of ion, gaining access to the Black Sea prises, structurally, three large sec- The authors do not regard Rus- forces on the world arena, the and consolidating the Southern tions, namely, the Eastern question sia's policy in the Caucasus as a country's internal situation, alrd the border,. colonising the country's in Russia's foreign policy between component part of the Eastern position of the Ottoman Empire South and expanding its influence the end of the 18th and the first question, and merely limit them- and the peoples it had enslaved. among. the Balkan peoples were half of the 19th century; in the selves to taking it into account in The Russo-Turkish wars, which the first priority tasks of Russia's second half of the 19th century; their analysis of Russo-Turkish re- occupy a special place in the foreign policy in the Eastern ques- and in the period of imperialism. lations. In this they follow the same monograph, are regarded in this tion in that period. By the 1820s The authori show the complex principle which they used in light. At the same time, the authors this policy had been carried out in evolution of Russia's policy in the elucidating the geography of the point out that these wars were of general. In view of the crisis in the Eastern question beginning with Eastern question. Yet this apploach positive nature in their objective Eastern question caused by the her struggle to repeal the shackling to the assessrnent of the essence of consequences, since they speeded national movements in the Balkans, conditions of the Paris Treaty of Russia's policy in the Eastern ques- up the liberation of the Balkan and Russia included the question of 1856 up to the Near East crisis in tion makes the picture of the other nations under Turkish rule navigation rules for the Straits into the 1890s. Russian government's foreign poli- from the Sultan's oppression. Be- her plans. The 1833 Hunkar- It is stressed in the book that of cy conducted within the framework sides, it is necessary to underscore Iskelesi Treaty, which was diploma- all the European states only Russia of the Eastern question somehow that Russia's policy in the Eastern tic victory for Russia, allowed her came out in support of the national incomplete. At pertain stages of question was in line with that of to take warships through the movements in the Balkans. Russia history, as is known, the rivalry the West European countries. The Straits. The problem of the Straits, acted in the same manner during between Russia and Turkey to authors mention the tendency of however, remained unsettled. The the Eastern crisis of the 1870s possess the Caucasus, where the Western historiography to disguise London Conventions of 1840-1841 when she insisted, within the Sultan's government periodically the Western powers' aggressive which weakened the positions of framework of the Triple Alliance, held sway over certain areas, was policy with regard to Turkey and tsarism in Turkey eventually led to on granting autonomy to the Bal- no less acute than in the Balkans. to emphasise the allegedly specific the Crimean War. kan peoples, while the West Euro- The monograph spans the interest of tsarism in the struggle The second period of the tsarist pean governments confined their period between the end of the l8th for the division of Turkev and the government's foreign policy in demands only to reforms for the 286 287 non-Turkish population of the Bal- also raises questions related to the was stage world- kan Peninsula. tratle a of the shipped out or died during the West European states' Near East process Besides tackling problems historical and a major slave-trade wars. con- policy. period of the history of Africa, cerned with Russia's policy in the As a rule, the strongest and Europc and America, and that this healthiest Eastern question, the morrograph M. Bliyev young men and women calls for a scientific evaluation of its were sold in slavery. Slave traffic role and place in the destinies of upset the developrnent of the pro- many colrntries ancl regions ABPAMOBA. A$puxa: States), of the duction and other social relations C. rc. but it actually ended with world. uemw.pe cnl,onernufl pa6omopeoa- the outbreak of the French over a large part of the continent. Revolu- The author traces the relation- The book nu. M., Lrasna-s peAaKrIH.s tion of 1789. This period saw the contains an extensive ship between the developrnent of investigation socroqHofi r-rreparypbr ptl4-Ba expansion of the plantation of these two crucial capitalism and slave trade, confirm- aspects 1978, 284 crp. economy in America and the West of its influence on Africa. "Hayxa", ing well-known st.aternents by Marx Indies, which required a Slave trade, it is emphasised, did sharp rise on the role of slavery in .the more S. Yu. ABRAMOVA, At'rica: Four in the inflow of African slaves. In than hamper and interrupt formation and developrrent of the independent development Centuri.es of Slaae Trad,e, Mos- the third period, which came to a of European and American capital- Africa. cow, Nauka Publishers (Centr- close in the 1870s, there was con- It largely directed the de- ism. The immense profits and velopment al Department of Oriental Lit- traband slave trade, which was of the continent along other forms wealth derived erature), 1978, 284 pp. conducted on a large scale. In of abnormal lines, for which there T from slave trade made it one of the these decades slaves were brought were no prerequisites in African li key factors in the process of prim- The study under review, which from East Africa as well as jrr society. lt subordinated and from ary accumulation. consists of a preface, eleven chap- West Africa, as in the earlier ;i adapted the overall process of this The book contains an analysis of development ters, a conclusion, bibliography and periods. The author gives a de- to its own needs. ir. the reasons for the ban imposed on an index of geographical names, tailed description of the slave trade The anti-slave-trade movement i slave trade in the early l9th cen- covers a period of more than 400 according to periods and regions, which followed the official ban on tury, the gratlual decrease of out- slave was years-from the mid-l5th cenrury singling out in each period specific :,! trade exploited by the l flow of slaves from Africa in the almost to the . end of the l9th phases and outlining their features. European powers as a pretext for second half of the l9th century taking century. Geographically, it em- In describing slave trade the control of many state forma- in and thq int reasingly vigorous 'fropical braces practically all Tropical. Afri- main regions (the Congo and An- tions and peoples of Afri- J rnovement against contraband slave ca, North and South America, the gola, West Africa and East Africa) t ca and for their subsequent colon- ,t trade. In the view of the author isation. West Indies, Europe and the Arab the author characterises the system these reasons are to be found in Slave slave-trade areas of Asia. of slave trade organisation and trade, it is justly observed the changed world political and -harsh The author divides the history of analyses the slave-traile policy of in the book, also had economic situation and the desire psychological European-American slave trade in the European powers and the Un- rili consequences for Af- of the European states to preserve ricans. Africa into three main periods.'In ited States, noting that Russia One was a decline in the Africans as a labour force in the the first period, which lasted from never was a party to slave trade. African peoples' resistance to the I colonies which were established the early 1440s to the mid-l7th Several chapters are devoted to Europeans: slave trade, in the au- on their continent rather than in century, the Portuguese brought to the struggle against slave trade- fr thor's view, considerably held back the philanthropic sentiments thar the development Europe from West Africa the first the Africans' own resistance, the ,.fl of the national allegedly prevailed among the rul- hundreds of Africans they had abolitionist movement in Britain liberation movemenr. But its most { ing classes. dreaclful legacy taken prisoner and sold them as and other countries, official politi- /.\ is racism. The au- The author describes the role slaves. In the early l6th century cal and military actions various of thor shows that ever since it came of slave trade in Africa's own history the main destination of slave tra{fic states-and the ideology and tac- into existence racism has per- and the terrible price Africa had to shifted to America, where the tics of the supporters of slave trade, forrned the function of justifying pay for the progress and prosperi- Europen powers had already been ranging from the "theoreticians" slave trade, the enslavement of ty of many countries of Europe Africans founding their colonies. The sec- of racism in Europe and the Un- and their exploitation by and America. It is shown that for whites. ond period-that of "free", unli- ited States to the slave-captains and Africa the epoch slave mited slave trade-lasted from the African slave-merchants. of trade was The book is important both an epoch of violence and mid-l7th century to 1807-1808 On the basis of a large body of owing to the extensive factual ma- bloodshed when it was forciblv (when slave trade was officially facts, the author draws one of her terial it conrains and to its high robbed of its productive forr:es': lbvel banned by Britain and the United principal conclusions that slave of analysis. alltrost 100 rnillion people were S. Kozlov 288 ts-sa* 1522 289 ! genetic plays important role in that B. C. A"TIMVH. leozPaSua u o6- tween geography and societY: the would be placed in the an matter's process. l4ecmso, M., ras4-so uMrrc"tr,", last two chaPters deal with this tri order of the forms of 1978, 309 crP. issue in detail. However, the li,l movements between the biological "Therefore," the author ob- methodological cornerstone of and social ones, and that would serves, "the existence of a specific V. S. LYAMIN, GeograPhY and Soci- Lyamin's work is his attcmPt to contradict both scientific {acts and geographic material system consist- ely, Moscow, MYsl Publishers, specify the place of geograPhY in existing theories since the biologi- i.g of opposing components is 1978, 309 pp. the system of sciences and substan- cal form of the movement of mat- beyond doubt. This system is tiate the concept of the geographic ter itself, without any intermediate formed, on the one hand, of the gives rise to a social form elements the hydrosphere (riv- Science develoPs unevenlY. Some form o[ the movement of matter. elements, of of its branches forge ahead now The author is far from being a and makes up a part of it through ers, lakes, seas oceans, glaciers and and then while others lag behind trailblazer in this resPect, and he man who is both a biological and snowfields) and, on the other, of for a time. This fact was noticed never aspires to this role either. On social creature at the same time. the elements of the troposphere there is the conirary, he thoroughlY anal- Consequently, for the biological (air masses, cloud systems and cli- long ago. However, (of form of uneven deveioP- yses practically all the mos_t-imPor- form of movement there is no mate) and terrain non-tectonic ment"nothe. linked with the first one, tant ptorrotrncements on this score other higher form except the social origin)" (p. 41). And the presence material sys- although not always directlY.- We in Soviet philosoPhical and geog- one. of a self-developing is One can also and derive the tem, whose mode existence is are reierring to the tackling of the raphic liteiature. Much attention trv of philosophical problems of various given to the views of the most geographic form' of movement the given form of the movement of natural- sciences. Unlike physics, prominent Soviet geograPher, from the lower form which pre- matter, constitutes, in Lyamin's view, one principal dialec- chemistry or biologY, geograP\ A. Gtig.r.y.r, which. in our oPin- ceded it in the course of.the of the has been very unluckY in this ion, is only justified. Grigoryev was development of nature. Grigoryev's tico-materialistic criteria of singling Soviet literature to idea of the pre-organic stage of the out such forms of movement. respect. Just a short while ago even the first in sPecificallY "physico-geographic" form of the This interpretation of the geog- rather well-versed PhilosoPhers advance the idea of a of the movement movement of matter seems to be raphic for.m of the movement of frowned at the verY idea that there geographic form 'enables might be such things as the of *atter (as far back as the earlY very productive in this respect. matter the author to ap- "philosophical problems of geog- 1930s); in addition, he was one of According to his views, before life proach the solution of a number of earth the of vital theoretical problems geog- raphy". lhe most profound theoreticians on appear€d on integrity in the physico-geographic envelope of raphic science in his own way. in' the meantime meaningful -geography. theoretical discussions continued W1 shall try to reProduce brieflY our planet was secured by the These problems deal with the interaction and interpenetration features geographic unabated among the geograPhers Lyamin's arguments in favour of of specific of the upper layers of the lithosphere, space and time; the principles of themselves, and more often than the geographic form of the move- hydrosphere arid lower inner classification geog- not they touched uPon rather Pro- ment of matter. the the the of in layers of the atmosphere (the raphic science; the subject of geog- found philosophical Problems. As Most of the attempts made . components raphy and the correlation between for the philosophical works proper, this field proceeded from the mod- troposphere). These physical geography they invariablY all the geog- ern contants of the geograPhic of the envelope are not of equal and economic Put importance. leading one (the says "general raphical problems into the Procrus- science which studies the interac- The author that tein bed of the concePts of the tion and interpenetration of vari- among them is the hydrosphere. physical geography is as general to geographic environment (where ous spheres (the lithosPhere, the Its formation led to a qualitative economic geography as it is to any and change in the lower layers of the other geographic science" (p. 163). i=h.-totio., was used in a PurelY at-osphe.e, thq hydrosPhere atmosphere and the emergence of This view is very interesting, in our sociological sense) and of its ability the biosphere) on the surface of troposphere. According to opinion; the common features and either to speed uP or slow down the Eaith as a whole and, in the Lyamin, the hydrosphere and the differences between the notions of social develoPment. particular, in its individual sectors troposphere, which are linked by and Now we have before us a rather br landscapes. However, this would "geographic environment" heat and water exchange, are the "geographic envelope"; the voluminous book bY V. LYamin, a signify thal the geographic form.of and principal opposing components of unity geographic science. The geographer (a geomorphologist) by the movement of matter also in- of the Earth's superficial envelope. author maintains that this unity Eduiati,on and a PhilosoPhcr bY cludes the biological form of move- profession, devoted to methodolog- ment in addition to the PhYsical The third component of that en- stems from the existence of the geographic velope, terrain, is a product of the geographic form of the movement ical problems of modern I,eog- and ctremical ones. The The author considera- form (or the "landscaPe" form as interaction between the planet's air of matter, which is a common basis raphy. PaYs water itself the ble attention to lhe relations be- some atrthors call it) seen that way and envelopes, and, for all the components of 19. 29r 290 "c[; geographic envelope. And it is this water down) the almost universal basis that makes for the community concepts of the (:ontent of geog- of the geographic laws. raphic science. l'irst of all, we are The author attaches considerable referring t() the aulhor's contention BIBLIOGRAPHY attention to the place geography that geography ranks among the should occupy in the system of basic scierrces of inanimirte nature sciences. He observes that the de- (p. 125). However. both in rhe velopment of inorganic nature on history of geographic thought at our planet could be visualised as a least since A. Humboldt's time, and succession of various forms of the in modern interpretations geog- movement of matter deriving one raphy has always been regarcled as from another: the group of the the science of the inseparable links physical forms of movement- and interaction of solid matter and BOOKS HISTORY chemical geological geographic life, and the inorganic and organic ON (the sciences- studying- these forms types of nature, on the surface of cir- of movemenr are placed in the the Earth. In view of this From the Editors: Below is an annotated tist of books on history put same order in the general classifi- cumstance some of the geog- out by Nauka Publishers in 1975-1979. The list has been prepared by cation of sciences). It would be raphers prefer to use the term Nauka Publishers. Ihe /ists of books by Soviet Americanists and wrong to stop there, however. The "biogenosphere" to denote the Orientalists published in recent years can be found in Soctal Sciences author underlines that in the geographic envelope, meaning a No. 2, 1980 and No. 2, 1979, respectively. course of the clevelopment of the sphere where life emerged, de- Earth's nature the branch of the veloped and is being reproduced. inorganic forms of movement The last chapters o{ the book 'L-he Acad.emy ,f Scienres and The monograph analyses the so- (geological and geographic) created deal with the interconnection be- Siberia. 1917-1957, Novosibirsk, cial content of the Spanish- specific geological and geographic tween nature and society ancl the 1977, 320 pp. American revolution, the sources conditions for the development of role of geography in the scientific Chronologically collectiotr :lnd class essence of the dictatoria,l another branch of the chemical and technological revolution. At spans forty years-the period of leginres in the epoch under review. form of Inovement. As a result, this point we would like to call the expeditions, establishment and ac- A. V. Artsikhovsky, V. L. Yanin, there emerged tife and, later, readers' attention to the fact that tivity oI the Siberian Branches of Nougorod Birch,-Bark Scrolls human society. the author has made more specific USSR Academy of Sciences The the (From Excarations of L962-1976), This, in brief outline, is Lyamin's the notion of the "geographic envi- which culminated in the organisa- the Moscow, 1978, 192 pp. view on the geographic form of the ronment" (pp. 232-2a2). tion of the Siberian l)ivision of the 135 birch- movement of matter. In analysing In conclusion, it must be ob- USSR Academy of Sciences. It The authors present scrolls found Novgorod i( one cannot but give due credit to served that the author does not outlines various aspects of the bark in ancl Staraya Russa. The scrolls date the author's consistency. EIe seeks ahvays succeed in conveying ade- Academy's work in Siberia, and its frorn the llth to the 15th century to review many complex theoretical quately the essence of the major achievernents. problems of geographic science in methodological function of :urcl each is supplied with a com- 'l'opical the light of the approach he has philosophy in relation to scientific Proble'ms of Soti.et His- mentary and a glossary. The book proposed. At the same time it is knowledge. We are referring t 293 volution on the political strategy of Institute of Marxisrn-Leninism, the 19th Century), Moscow, 1976, 420 movement of the Cuban people, the West European bourgeoisie Academy of Social Sciences, and pP. the bankruptcy of bourgeois par- and on international relations as a the Higher Party School under the The book comprises the articles ties in pre-revolutionary Cuba, the whole. CPSU Central Committee and at- on the views of Owen, Fourier, country's economy, the consolida- patriotic The Great October Reuolution and tended by outstanding Soviet and Saint-Simon, Weitling and other tion of democratic and the Reuolution in Cuba, Moscow, foreign scholars, public figures and representatives of socialist thinking forces. 1977, 298 pp. representatives of more than 70 of the first half of the l9th century V. I. Gulyaev, The Maya Citl- The monograph traces the his- communist, workers', national- in Western Europe. Srates, Moscow, 1979, 302 pp. torical connection between the democratic parties. After the ple- V. P. Volgin, The Deuelop'ment of On the basis of archaeological, Great October Socialist Revolution nary session the work was con- Soci,al Thought in France i'n the 18th ethnographic and historical materi of 1917 in Russia and the Cuban tinued in the panels. The present Centut), Moscow, 1977, 372 pp. als the author makes a conclusion revolution and contains research collection carries the materials of The author analyses the views of about the nature of the Maya cities into the manifestation in Cuba of the plenary session. the founders of bourgeois ideology comparing them with the urban centres of other early class societies, general laws of a socialist revolu- The October (Voltaire, Montesquieu), physioc- Great Reuolution and for example, Egypt, Sumer, etc. tion revealed during the Great Contemporarl Efioch. The Internation- rats' economic theories, encyc- V. P. Danilov, The Souiet Pre- October Revolution and the al Significance of the Great October lopaedists' works, as well as demo- Vtllage: Population, Land- specific features of the first socialist Reuolution and the Building of Social- cratic and egalitarian theories and Kolkhoz Hemis- (Jse, Economy, Moscow, 1977, 318 revolution in the Western ism and Communis'm. Materials of a cooperative projects. phere. pp. Panel's Meeting, Moscow, 1978, 358 V. P. Volgin, French, Utopian author analyses the socio- The Great ()dober Reuolution of pp.; The Great October Reuolution Communism, Moscow, 1979, 336 The economic history of the Russian 1917 in Rwsta and Reuolutions of the and Contemporary Epoch. The October pp' village prior to collectivisation, the 1940s in the Countries of Central and Reuoluti,on and th? Working Class, 'Ihe author traces the develop- struggle socialist and capitalist South-East Europe. The Experience of National Li,beration and General ment of communist ideas prior to of trends in the village development, the Comparatiue Study Socio- Democratic Mouem.ent. Materials of a and following the French Revolu- major factors of the objective Economic Transformations "fin a Re- Panel's Meeting, Moscow, 1978, 448 tion, the dissemination of these necessity for a socialist transforma- uolutionarl Process, Moscow, 1977, pp.; 'The Creat October Reuolution ideas in connection with the grow- agriculture. 542 pp. and Contemporary Epoch. I'he De- ing woikers' and republican move- tion of 250 Years of the USSR Academy of The book analyses the historic aelop'ment of SociaLi:st Society at the ment 'developmentin the 1830s and 1840s and significance of the experience of Present Stage. Materials of a Panel's their in the years Sci,ences. Documents and, Matertals of the Great October Socialist Revolu- Meeting, Mosc<.rw, 1978, 335 pp. directly preceding the 1848 revolu- Jubilee Meetrngs, Moscow, 1977, 585 tion for the world and the impact These collections carry the ma- tion. pP. major of this experience on the revolu- terials of the panel's meetings of L. I. Gintsberg, The Workers' and, The collection shows scientists, tions in Central and South-East the conference "The G.reat Oc- Communi.st Moaement in C)ermany in achievements of Soviet Europe in the 1940s, confirming tober Revolution and Contempor- the Struggle agai,nst Nazi,sm (1919- the progress of science under the worldwide relevance of the ary Epoch". 1933), Moscow, 1978, 380 pp. socialism and its growing role in Leninist teaching about major laws The book outlines the reasons of communist construction. The Oreat Oetober Reuolution, the of the transition from capitalism to the unfavourable outcome of the V. A. Demidov, The October Re- Working Class a,n(l Conte'mporary socialism. tense class struggle of the German aolutr.on and the National Questi,on in Bourgeoi:s Histori,ography, Moscow, Novosibirsk, The Great October Reuolution and proletariat and all working people Siberia, 1917-1923, 1977, 128 pp. pp. Contemporary Epoch. The Trtumph of in the 1920s and 1930s, exposing 1978, 365 Attention is focused on such examines vari- Lenin's ld,eas. Materials of a Plenary the social forces responsible for The monograph questions as the social character of Meeting, Moscow, 1977, 222 pp. establishing the Hitler dictatorship. ous asPects of the national move- the Russian working class, its role An international scientific and E. A. Grinevich, Cuba: the Road, ments i-n Siberia, the Soviet Gov- as the leader of the socialist revolu- theoretical conference "The Great to the Triumph of the Reuolution, ernment's efforts to implement the tion, the dictatorship of the pro- October Revolution and Contem- Moscow, 1975, 238 pp. l.eninist nationalities policy, of the letariat, the struggle for the aboli- in porary Epoch" was held in Moscow Drawing on a wealth of national-state construction tion of private capitalist ownership. between Noverr,rber l0 and 12, documentary mater-ial the author Siberia. 1977. It was sponsored by the V. P. Volgin, Essal.s on the History elucidates the revolutionary tradi- Europe tn International Relati,ons. USSR Academy of Sciences, the of Socialist Ideas (the tr'irst"Ilalf of the tions of the national liberation 1917:1939, Moscow, 1979, 438 pp. 295 294 ,1 ,u ri 1 I ,i Thc collect.ion deals with key durirlg.:rnd alter the Second Wbrlcl A History of the USSR Foreign A Source Stucll of the Hi,story of Lhe problerns development of I ()ttober of the War; strategy and tacti<:s of the I I'ol,iry. 1917-1975 (in two volurnes: G.reat Reuol,ution. A Collet- European diplomacy betrveen the (lommunist and Workers' P:rrties i Vol. l-1917-1945, Moscow, 1976, tion oJ Arti,cles, Moscow, 1977, 2U8 two world wars, with the impact of in these cotrntries in the struggle 1-rl8 pp.; Vol. Mos- pP. I 2-1945-1975, the October Revolution on the for establishing the people's clenrcr- 296 297 The author examines popular of Soviet science before, during V. S. Lelchuk, Socialist Industrial- Edition (in three volumes: Vol. l, ideals of a classless society and and after the Great Patriotic War isati,on in the USSR and Its Reflection The Ouerthrou of Tsarist Autocracy, their evolution which is inseparably of 1941-1945 and its present-day i.n Souiet Hi.storiographr-, 1\{oscow, Moscow, 1977,784 pp.; Vol.2, The linked with peasant wars and upris- achievements. 1975, 310 pp. Ouerthrou of the Proaisional Gouern- ings, elucidates the experience of Yu. Kh. Kopelevich, The Founda- The author {ocuses on three ment. The Establishment of the Dic- establishing "socialist" cqmmunity 'industrialisation in tatorshtp the Proletariat, Moscow, tion of the St. Petersburg Acad,emy of questions: of living, the historical roots of popu- Lenin's works; the Communist 1978, 1,008 pp.; Vol. 3, The lar Utopias, the interrelations be- Sciences, Leningrad, 1977, 210 pp. The monograph deals with the Party's elaboration of the policy to Triumph of Soriet Gouernment, Mos- tween the theories of Russian mighty pp.). emergence of the idea to found an transform the USSR into a cow, 1979, 902 popular Utopians and those of state; analysis re- 1 contains academy of sciences in Russia, the industrial an of Volume a comprehen- representatives of foreign social levant scientific literature (from the sive analysis of socio-economic and Lltopianism. election of its first members, the Academy's first steps in organising end of the l9th century to the political prerequisites for the Great Yu. V. Knorozov, Hieroglyphic scientific research, the develop- early 1970s). October Socialist Revolution. Vol- ume is devoted to the victory of Maya Manuscripts, Leningrad, 197 5, ment of management system and The Lenin Decree on Land in 2 the Revolution spanning the period 27\ pp. the attempts to bring scientific Actian. A Collecti,on of Articles, Mos- from March to October 1917. Vol- The book is a translation of the activities in line with the practical cow, 1979, 310 pp. ume 3 covers the victory of Soviet three survived manuscripts of the tasks of the state. The collection shows the redis- Government in Moscow, the rout Maya Indians dating from the tribution of lands under this De- P. A. Kropotkin, The Great of first anti-Soviet mutinies, the 12th-l5th centuries and written in cree in various regions of the I-rench Reuolution. 1789-1793. development of the socialist revolu- hieroglyphs (the other Maya's man- country, its results and socio- ("The Monuments of Historical tion at the front and across the uscripts are known to have been economic consequences, burnt by the Inquisition following Thought" series), Moscow, 1979, entire vast territory of the former the Spanish conquest in the l6th 575 pp. B. R. Lopukhov, A Historl of the Russian empire. The book was first published in Fasci.st Regime tn ltoly, Moscow, century). The translation is based G. P. Murashko, The Struggle of on the author's interpretation of 1909 in France. As compared to 1977,294 pp. analyses the Working Class t'or the Nationah.sa' the Maya hieroglyphic writing, as other works devoted to this theme, The author the history it gave a more complete picture of of the fascist dictatorship in Italy, tion of Ind,ustry. T'he Expertence of the described in the preceding publica- the Coun' the role of the masses, in particu- its peculiarities as compared to Reuolutions of the 1940s tn tions, and is supplied with a com- tries ,f Central and South-East mentary. The introductory article lar, the peasantry at all major German' nazism, the relations be- Europe, Moscow, 1979, 318 PP. Maya stages of the Great French Revolu- tween Italian political parties in outlines the data about the The monograph deals with .a literature. tion. It is for this reason that Lenin that period, the struggle of the highly assessed the book and in- Italian Comnrunist Party against range of problems linked with the class under G. D. Komkov, B. V. Levshin, sisted that it should be reprinted. fascism. struggle of the working L. K. Semyonov, I'he USSR The book written in a lively lan- the leadership of the Marxist- Academy of Sciences. A Short History, guage and based on a wealth of A. Z. Manfred, The Forrnati,on of Leninist Party to abolish capitalist the Russo-French Alliance, Moscow, means produc- 2nd Revised and Enlarged Edition. sources retains its importance even ownership in the of (in two volumes: Vol. 1, 1124-1917, today. 1975,37a pp. tion in the countries of the region. 'Ihe monograph examines one Moscow, 1977. 382 pp.: Vol. 2. Societl and the State I'eud,al of the bright pages of the history of 1917-1976. Moscow, 1977, 545 N. I. Lebedev, The Great October Russia. A Collection of Articles De- of the relations between the two PP.). and, the Restructuring of International uoted to the 70th Birth Anniuersary of great powers rvhose cooperation in Irr Volume I the authors, draw- Relations, Moscow, 1978, 456 pp. Academician L. Cherepnin, Moscow, the past (the end 19th- irg extensively on documentary The author analyses the efforts of the 1975, 350 pp. beginning of the century) materials, trace the ernergence of of the CPSU and the Soviet gov- 20th The collection contains the arti- and, in particular, today-in abso- Russian science and the work of ernment to establish a just and cles of Soviet scholars analysing the lutely different historical condi- many outstanding scientists. Voi- democratic world peace, to restruc- class and social-estate structure of tions-played and is playing a ume 2 is devoted to the Soviet ture international relations accord- feudal society, its reflection in period. It outlines Lenin's role in ing to Lenin's Decree on Peace. major role in European and world politics. socio-political thinking and the. im- drawing the country's leading re- Much attention is given to the pact of the socio-estate structure search institution into Soviet con- foreign policy programmes of the I. I. Mints, A History of the Great and class struggle on the evolution struction, shows the development 24th ancl 25th CPSU Congresses. October Reaolution. 19 I 7- 1977. 2nd of the Russian state. 298 299 !t{ A. M. Orekhov. T'he Formation oJ' V. D. Polikarpov, A Prologue of Russia and the National Liberation fascism and war in the 1930s, Polish Socialist Mouem.ent, Mosct-rw, the Ciai,l War tn Ru.s.sia. Ortober, Struggle in the Balkans. 1875-1878, about a creative employment of a 1979,374 pp. 1917-Februarl 19I8, Moscow, 1976, 454 pp. new strategy and tactics bY the 'Ihe Moscow, 1978, book shows the emergence 414 pp. 'fhis jubilee documentary Publi- Communist Parties in the countries and formation of first groups of The author describes the st.rug- cation, prepared to commemorate of Central and South-East EuroPe. Polish socialists, the organisational gle of the new-born Soviet Repub- the centenary of the 1877-1878 The Sot:ialist Reuolutions in structure of Polish libcration move- lic against the bourgeoisie in the Russo-Turkish war, shows Russia's Lithuania, Latuia and Estonia in governlnellt ment, Polish socialists' views on period when the new aid to the national liheration move- 1940. The Restoration tf Souiet social revolution and revolutionary had neither yet organisecl the work ment in the Balkans during the Pouer, Moscow, 1978, 532 pp. tactics, their attitude towards the of the state apparatus, nor created Eastern crisis and considers the The book deals with the prere- problern of Poland's national inde- nerv arrned forces. position of various social and politi- quisites of tl're socialist revolutions' pendence and connections with the B. F. Porshnev, The Thirty-Years' cal circles in Russia and the uP- in t,ithuania, Latvia and Estonia, as Russian revolutionary movernent. War and the Entry of Sueden and, the surge of rnass lnovement there in well as with their main features, Moscout State into 11, Moscow, 1976, the Ralkan Slavs. specific features' An OutLine of Cuban Hisloryr, Mos- support of comrnon lirws and pp. cow. 1978, 604 pp. 434 I]. A. Rvbakov. Herod,otean. A. M. Stanislavskaya, Russia and' Relyir-rg Engels' statement The rnonograph deals with fun- on Scythia. A Htstorical and Geographir Greece at the End of the l8th-the about the importance of the Thir- damental problems of Cuba's his- Analysis, Moscow, 1979, 248 Beginning of the 19th Century. Rus- intro- PP. since the pre-Colurnbian ty-Years' War, the author The author analyses the data sia's Polt,cy in the lonian Republic. tory new into the history epoch to the present day, and duces much collected by a Greek geograPher 1798-1807, Moscow, 1976,37a pp. role Moscow traces the major stages of the and genuine of the and historian Herodotus (5th cen- The author shows Russia's role national liberation struggle and re- state in this war. tury B. C.) about the tribes living in creating the national Greek volutionary movement of the The Working Class and Socialist in Eastern Europe in the lst mil- state, the efforts by Russia, l'rance, Cuban people culminating in the Construction in the Countries of Cen- lennium B. C., and on the basis of Britain and Turkey to dorninate establishment of the first socialist tral and South-East EuroPe, Moscow, the recent archaeological dis- the Eastern Mecliterranean Area, state in the Western Hen-risphere. 1977, 38,1 pp. coveries proves the authenticity of the importance of the Ionian Re- The monograph analyses the Herodotrrs' in lormation. public as a national centre of the History of Souiet- An Outline of role of the working class and its V. V. Sedov, The Origin and struggle to liberate Greece from Polish Relattotts. 1917-1977, Mcts- Marxist-[,eninist parti€s in imple- Early Historl of Slats, Moscow, the Turkish yoke. 1979, pp. cow, 584 menting revolutionary transforma- 1979, 158 pp. Strikes: Past arul Present, Moscow, shows the role of the The book tions, creating the material and The author examines the stages 1978, 344 pp. restorins October Revolution in technical basis of socialism, in de- of the formation and settlernent of 'ftie book analyses strikes as. a as well as Poland's independence, veloping the society's political sys- pra-slavic and Slavic tribes on the peculiar social phenomenon and a the political. diplomatic. economic, tem and moulding socialist ideokr- territory of Central . and Eastern weapon of the proletariat's class scientific and cultural relat.ions be- gy. The book also analyses struc- Europe from the middle of the lst struggle, the historical evolution of their com- tween the two countries, tural changes in the working class millennium B. C. to the end of the the forms of striking and their radeship-in-arms during the Sec- and society as a whole. lst millennium A. D., and sum- present-day featnres. ond World War and postwar coop- ()en- marises the results of the many The Centenarl of Bulgaria's Libera' eration. A. I. Razgon. Thr .4//-Russia tral Executiue Oomnttttee of Souiets years of work on this problem bY tion frorn the Ottoman Yoke. 1878- Slavists. pp. Essals on Retolutionar) 'fies Be- During the First Months of the Dic- both Soviet and foreign I978, Moscow, 1978, 288 examines the heroic tueen the Russiari. and the Polish tatorship of the Proletariai, Moscow, The 7th Congress of the Comrnunist The book struggle the Bulgarian people Peoples. 1815-1917, Moscow, 1976, 1977, 335 pp. International and the Struggle for a of 604 pp. "fhe author examiues the history People's Front in the Countries of for their freedom, shows Russia's the The book is the first of its kincl of the Committee of Second Con- Central and South-East Europe, Mos- role in liberating Bulgaria, to give such a complete picture of vocation (Octobel 1917-January cow, 1977, 375 pp. exploits of Russian and Bulgarian the relations between the Russian l9l8): the sources of its forrnation The monograph tells about the soldiers in fighting against Turkish and the Polish revolutionary forces and its composition, the dynamics elaboration of a new political orien- troops. at every stage of the liberation of its structure, the efforts to tation of the communist movement T. T. Timofeyev, The Worki.ng movement up t() the ()ctober Re- consolidate the gains of the pro- by the Communist International in Class in the Centre of Id,eological and' volution. letarian revolutiotr in Russia. view of the increased threat of Theoretical Struggle, ("The Ideas of 300 301 the October Revolution and World The author focuses on Lenin's The author describes'and the als were published in Stockholm). Development" Series), Moscow, role in the Russo-Polish revolutio- Czechoslovak working class its It contains the charters of Russian 1979, 382 pp. rlary cooperation, the connections development during popular- tsars to Swedish Kings; reports on The author deals with ideological between Russian and Polish re- democratic transformations and trade relations between the two and theoretical problems of the volutionary parties and organisa- socialist construction. states, and Swedish import of Rus- struggle of the proletariat, differ- tions and personal contacts be- sian grain; excerpts from the docu- ent tendencies in interpreting its tween Russian and Polish re- Economic Relati,ons Between Russia ments concerning the stay of Swed- history, various anti-Marxist "doc- volutionaries. and Suerlen in the 17th Century. ish Ambassadors in Moscow and trines" concerned with the theory Sotiet Archiaal Documents, Moscow, their Russian counterparts in V. T. Fomin, Nazi, Germany Dur- and history of the workers' move- 1978, 296 pp. Stockhohn;. and information on ing the Second World, War (September ment. The collection is a part of the the work of Swedish craftsmen in 1939-June 1941), Moscow, 1978, joint Soviet-Swedish edition (Swed- Russia. Almost M. N. Tikhomirov, Old Rus, all the documenrs 326 pp. ish archival documents and materi- are published for tlre first time. Moscow, 1975, 428 pp. The book deals with questions of The collection comprises articles nazi Germany's internal, external on the .formation and development and economic policies insufficiently of feudal relations in Otd Rus, its studied in Soviet historiography, place and role in international rela- and shows the preparations of nazi tions at the time, as well as on the Germany for the war against the Russian people's struggle against USSR. foreign invaders-the Kulikovo Battle, the Battle on the Neva L. V. Cherepnin, Zemskiye Sobory River, and the Battle on the Ice of in the Russian State of the 16th-17th Lake Peipus (Chudskoye). Centuries, Moscow, 1978, 418 pp. V. A. Tishkov, Liberation Mote- Drawing on a wealth of sources ment in Colonial Canad,a, Moscow, the author is the first in Soviet 1978, 384 pp. historiography to have summarised The author examines the prere- the history of social-estate institu- quisites, principal motive forces, tions in Russia. fle examines such forms and character of the Cana- problems as zemskirye sobory and dian liberation movement, the na- the people, zemskiye sobory and ture of the national question in the Russian state's international Canada, the 1837 anti-colonial re- 'position. volution, and criticises the concep- The USSR: Si,xty Years of Stru,ggle tions of foreign historiography. Jor Peace and. Securi.ty, Moscow, The Participation Yugoslau 1979, a38 pp. Working People i.n the"f October Re- T'he monograph examines the aolution anrl the Ciail War in the Soviet state's activity in the post- USSR. A Collection of Documents and, revolution and prewar years, the Materi,als, Moscow, 1976, 555 pp. conditions and prerequisites of the The collection contains docu- formation of the anti-Hitler coali- ments and materials from Soviet tion, the USSR's decisive contribu- and Yugoslav archives, publications tion to the victory over nazi Ger- from periodicals. The documents many, the importance of this con- have been prepared jointly by tribution in the postwar settlement. r{I Soviet and Yugoslav historians. N. A. Shlenova, The Working S. M. Falkovich, The Proletariat of Class af Czechoslouakia in the Years of Rtusia and Poland, i,n a Joint Re- Laying the Foundations of Sociali,sm. aolutionary Struggle (1907-1912), Its Strength, Composition and, Struc- Moscow, I975, 378 pp. ture, Moscow, 1977, 116 pp. 302 \ "Problems of the Contemporary World" Series THE USSR ACADEMY OF SCIENCES PUBLICATIONS Already published: Published by the 1977 'osocial Sciences TodaY" sclEl{TlFlc Editorial Board Philosophi,cal Concepts tn Natural Sciences-Enf1., Fr., Ger., Span. of the USSR AcademY The World Population Today (Ethnodemographic Processes)-Eng., Sciences THEMATIC of Ger., Span. are the following series Theoretical Aspects'of Linguistics-Eng., Ger., Span. ctlLLECTItIl{S of scientific thematic collections: Souiet Studies in US History-Ene., Fr., Span. French Studies by Soui,et Scholars-Fr The Lau of the Sea: Topical Problems-Eng., Span. Ethnography and Related Sciences-Eng. WORLI) PROBLEMS OF THE CONTEMPORARY Resources and Economi.c Growth-Eng., Fr., Span. in Engtish, tr'rench, O'ennan, Portuguese, and Spanish - Souiet Studies in the History of Sci.ence-Eng., Fr., Ger., Span. WORLD PEACE AND DISARMAMENT Historical Materiali,sm: Theory, Methodology, Problems-Eng., Fr., in English, French, Gerrnan, Portuguese and Spanish Ger., Span. - Remaki,ng of Nature Under Sociali,sm-Eng. THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: The Great October Socialist Rerolution and, the World Social Progress- PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS Eng., Fr., Ger., Port., Span. in Englrsh, French, Portuguese and Spanish - ORIENTAL STUDIES IN THE USSR r978 in EngLish anel I'rench - AFRICAN STUDIES BY SOVIET SCHOLARS I-und,amental Law of the Socialist State of the Whole Pe'ople-Eng., Fr., French, and Portuguese G,er., Span. - r,n Engtish, Pages from the Htstory of the Anti-Fasci.st War-Eng., Ger. SOVIET ETHNOGRAPHICAL STUDIES Bourgeoi,s Democracy and Human R'ights-Eng., Fr., Ger., Port., - in, English, French and German Span. LATIN AMERICA: STUDIES BY SOVIET SCHOLARS No! to Raci.sm and Aparthei.d-Eng., Fr., Port., Span. in Spani,sh Youth in the Modern Society-Eng., l-r., Ger., Port., Span. - From the Hi,storical Experience of the Leni,nr.st Komsomol-Eng., Fr., Span. collections acquaint readers with the latest studies of Soviet The The October Reuohttion and, the Youth-Eng., Fr., Span. scholars in philosophy, history, economics, sociology and other fields of the social sciences, with Marxist-Leninist approach to the The Uni.ty of Social and Scientific Progress und,er Socialism (2nd, present-day problems of world development. enlarged ed.)-Eng. The Second World War an,d Our Time-Eng 'fhe Worki,ng Class and Social Progress-Eng. Collections may be ordered through bookstores and firms handling the lr{on-Alignment: lts Frcends and Aduersartes tn World Poli,tics (2nd, Soviet publications in your country and doing business with V/O cnlarged ed.)-Eng., Span. "Mezhdunarodnaya Kniga" (121200, Moscow, USSR). 2o * eax.1522 304 Phi,losophy and, World,-Vtews in Modern Science-Ens', Fr', Ger', "African Studies by Soviet Scholars,, Series Span. Aesthetics and, the Deuelopment of Li,terature-E'g'' Fr', Ger', Span' Already published: Constitution of the USSR: 'I-heory and Policy-Eng', Fr', Port', Span' The Deuetopment of Soxiet Lau and Juri,sprwdence-Eng', Ft' r980 Souiet Studies r,n Ethnography-Eng Present-Day Deaelapment of Afri,ca-Eng., Fr., Ger., port., Span. Ethnography and Ethnic Processes-Eng' The USSR: Sr,x\ Years of Struggle for Peace-Eng' Sotttet Studies r,n Socr,oloay-Eng., Fr., Ger., Spap. 'oOriental Studies in the USSR, Series Being 1979 prepared for press: Fr., Ger., Port', Span' I Soai,et Oriental Studies Tod,ay (in two parts)-Eng., Fr., Ger., porr., Soci,ah,sm and Human Rights-Eng., Span. Souiet Economic Studie.s: Nzzu Researches-Eng., Fr', Ger', Port', Span. Archaeology and Ancient History of Siberia-Ger' "Latin Arnerica: Studies by Soviet Scholars, Series (in Poli,cy of Peace-Eng', Fr., Ger., Port., Span' Sour.et il Spanish). Polotical Systems: Deueloltment Trends-Eng., Fr', Port', Span' I Potitrcat Theory and Poli'tical Practr,ce-Eng', Fr', Span' i I Already published: Strategy" and Internatr,onal Situation-Eng' "Confti.ct qi The comparati,-e Historical Method in soui,et Medtaeual studies-Eng. ,I#r 1978 Penal Law in the USSR-E.g. Nl Studies .i,n the History of Cuba. parr period, Soci,ali,sm: Some Aspects of the Soctal and Economr'c Deuelopment- One. The Coloni.al Span. Anci,ent Ciuilisa,tions of America r979 1980 Studies in the History of Cuba. part Two. Bourgeois Cuba Ethics. Communist Moraltty-Lng., Fr., Ger', Span' Puerto Rico: Problems af the History and ptesent Deublopment post-Mao Maoism. Part One. The ldeologl and Policl of Great-Pouer and' Expansionism- Chauuintsm. Part Two. Beijing's Hege'monism Being prepared for press: Eng., Fr., Ger., Port., SPan. puitl, Oprnion Speahs Out Against Ractsm, Aparthet'd and' Col' Studies in the History of Cuba. part Three. Reuoluti,onary Cuba onralism-Eng. Reuoluti'on and Counter-Reuolution i,n Chile Y"l. ! Papular Llnity" The Struggle for power. vol. II. The Historical and Interiitional si,gnificance of the Experi:ence Being prepared for Press: Soaiet Latin American Relattons (Collection of Documents) Historical Science in the Socialist Countne.s-Eng", Fr' Hi,storical Science tn the USSR: Neu Research-Eng', Fr' {< USSR: Sport and Way of Life-Eng., Fr., Ger', Port', Span' Leo Tolstoy and Our Times-Lng., Fr., Ger., Port', Span' 306 the Late 19th Century and K'ang Yuwei: Sun yatsen. Foreign- Policy Views and Activities; The History of China and Our Times and of other works on the modern and contemporary history of the East and on the history of international relations. V. PASHUTO, Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences, associate at the lnstitute of the History of the USSR, USSR Academy of Sciences. Author of the monographs Forelgn Policy of Old Rus, The Formation of the Lithuanian State, An Outline History ol Galicia-Volhynian Rus, and of other works. E. KAPUSTIN, Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Director of the lnstitute of Economics, USSR Academy of Sciences, member of the Editorial Council of this journal. CONTRIBT]TORS TO THIS ISSUE Specialises in the development of the socialist relations of production, economic problems of labour, the socialist way of life, etc. Author of a number of works, including The Quality of Work and Wages, The Socialist Way of Life: Economic Aspect, The Economics of Developed Socialism (in co-authorship). INoZEMTSEV, Academician, Director of lnstitute of the world Economy N. ^the member and'lnternaiionii netations, USSR Academy of Sciences' N. KOLPINSKY, D. Sa. (Hist.), associate lnstitute Marxism-Leninism the monog.raph.s of the of of tf," eOitoiiai bouniit of this lournal. Author of under the CPSU- Central Committee. Specialises in the history of is lmieiiiiis^ 1-na iie GermAn Questian, Up forelgn. Po-ticv in and author of the First lnternational, the work of Marx and Engels in the tn7'Efoin_oi imieiiaiism and of other works. Editor 1850s-1860s. Author of. the works Engels in the Years of the First the main ciidpiEii ot tnternationat Retations Atter the second The Political lnternational, The Role of the Newspaper "La Emancipacidn" in WortO Wai,":ti-1niee uotumes, and of the book Propagating the ldeas of Marxism in Spain (1871-1873), The Economy ol Contemporary Monopoly Capitalism' Development by Marx and Engels of the Teaching on the modern Dictatorship of the Proletariat on the Easis of the'Experience of E. ZHUKOV (1907-1980), Academician, author of more than 200 works on the Paris Commune. 'and contempoiarv nistory, Editor-in-chief of the multi-volume works World Histijrv aid The' Soviet Historical Encyclopaedia Deputy (Philos.), philosophy, the K. DOLGOV, D. Sc. specialist in contemporary Western chairman oiine t/|ain Editorial commission ol A History ol aesthetics, literature and culture, author of many works in this SEcond World War. 1939-1945. fietd. . of Sciences, l. KOVALCHENKO,--- Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy. V. YAR.TSEVA, Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Eoitoi-in_ctiiei ot ihe"iournat /storia sssP, member of the Editorial the.history of Author of many works in linguistics, including The Development ot Councif ot this-iournhl.-the Author of many works on the National Literary English Language, Grammar Foundations of Russia and on methodology of historical research (see' ln 1, 1978)' Language Description, Modern Typology and lts Links with pirticurar, boiial stiences no' 2, 1970; No. 2,1975; No' Contrastive Linguistics. world History, G. KUCHERENKO, D. Sc. (Hist.), associate of the lnstitute of N. SEMENYUK, D. Sc. (Philol.), associate of the lnstitute of Linguistics, USSR USSnncaOemvof'sciences,specialisesinthehistoryofsocialthe Academy of Sciences. Specialist in Germanic studies, author of a thouoht ana ifre culture of Western Europe' Author of number of works on the history and theory of languages, including ii6"dgi"phJ rie-Destiny ot Jean Meslier's "Testament" in the 18th the 19th Centurv' The Problem of Norm Formation in the German Literary Language Ceiiii'siint-simonism in So9i3! Tho.qofit of. of the 18th Century, "Norms" (a chapter in the book General studieS in the History of social Thought in Brita.in ancl .France tn and of other Linguistics. Forms of Existence, Functions, the History of Lan- the 16th aii ine iiist Halt of the 10th centuries, guage), From the History of Functional and Stylistic Differentia- works. tions in the German Literary Language. His.tory: A. CHUBARYAN, D. Sc. (Hist.), sector Head at. the lnstitute of world S. AVERINTSEV, Cand. Sc. (Philol.), associate of the Gorky lnstitute of World USSR ecaciemv "oi SCiences, Vice-Chairman of the National the Literature, USSB Academy of Sciences. Author of works in the committee of iiistorians of the soviet union. spe.cialises..in philology, philosophy and culture of Late Antiquity and Early internitionat relations and foreign policy' Author of hGi;ry-;a ol Middle Ages, including the monograph Poetics of Early Byzantine manl'worxi in inis tieto, includi-ng Leninism and the S.hqing Literature. iov'iet for*gn Policy, P6acelul Coexistence: Theory and Pructice; Editor of Volume Two of lhe World History' M. VOLKOV, D. Sc. (Econ.), Sector Head at the lnstitute of the World Economy and lnternational Relations, USSR Academy of Sciences. Special- s'TIKHvlNSKY,CorrespondingMember,USSRAcademyofSciences,Editor-in. young -'-- History. chiel of ises in the economic development of Asian, African and cniet ot t[J ioui"nat uodern and contemborary'the Latin American states. Author of many works in this field, the Historiio'-biplomati-c Department of USSR Ministry of this including The Role of lndustrialisation in Building Up an lndepen- Foleign Attiirs aird mefrber df tne Editorial Council of iournal. dent National Economy, Developing Countries: Science, Technolo- for Reforms in china in Author or irrl-monographs: Ihe Movement g^y, Economy (in co-authorship), Ihe Collapse of the Cotonial System of lmperialism. 308 Sciences' V, DAVYDOV, full member of the USSR Academy of Pedagogical Director ot'ihe-Academy's lnstitute 6f General and Educational :m:1"^'*':ffi ?i,l':"0'"i?.."+H:"83,1"f;t"J!*nl"?J1iff"rvpes ,-"i'1iff., "d;;;; i"iilii ;;; ii'iiistiii ig ualnert atics, or Generatisati on in lnstruction, and of other works' Sciences' Th. OIZERMAN, Corresponding Member .of the USSR Acadgmy oJ of tn" of the History of Philosophy ol the countries of Head s;cioi 'of ' USSR Western euio-p'e--b-ciui.r"us' anO' A*eiical tnstitute Philosophy, Academy Ji Autroi. of works on the. history of pf,ifosofifty,- tf," lneoty of the historico-.philosophic-{-Process' a philosophy and ;iiiiqt.i ,ji cont"rp.itary'Eiii's- bourgeois 'Phitosdpiv'. .ideology'- including ti6' oi- udrxist Probtems of uistorico-piiiisoiii'i[i't'"sci"nce, Dialectical Niat6rialism and the History of Philosophy (a trilogy)' OUR GLOSSARY Yu. IZRAEL, Corresponding Member of the USSB Academy.of Sciences' chairman u'ssn state committee for Hydrometeorology.and "iir.lE nuinor of the book Ecology and En.viron' Environmeniai'bJntroi. problems. mental cortil ana oi.more than 100 articles on these PHENOMENOLOGY is a'theory about phenomena, that is, about lnternational K. MYALO, Cand. Sc. (Hist.), associate.of the lnstitute of the it .ru*r. of philosophical concepts assbciated with the sensually uSsR Rcaoemv. of sciences' Author of Woir.in-g-crli;'ili.;;;;t' of " experie.tce but not limited to perception alone' works on tie voijtlt moJements in capitali6t countries' co-author perceived the coilective'i.,inogriph bitntre aha the tdeological struggle. ' 1;.Ph..ro..renology, in one of its meanings,-is.a.-philosophical of a discipiine treated d1ferently in- the tristory .philosophy: -as ,ci.ric. criticising sense knowledge (German philosophers of the 18th century, pa-rticularly Johann Heinrich Lambert who was the first to use the term "phe.tomenology"; Immanuel Kant); as a i.u.t i"g about the formation of philosophy and historical forms of des Ceistes, l80J); as a conscioisness (Georg-d.t.tibi.,g Hegel, Phiinomenologie part of psychology -tBgS-tgt7;p-tl:!"Jt^q,Sal phenomena (German philorop'h.. Fraiz Brenta.,J, Austrian philosopher Alexius Meinong, 1853-1920). 2) An idealiJtic philosophical trend and method of cognition were elaborate! by the German^ philosopher whose principles - . idealist na*""a Husserl (1859-1938) in the early 20th century. Phenomenology appears as an opposition to, on the one hand' psychologism li, tti.i theory of knowledge which regards- cognition identicat"with sense-exp.ri..r.", and, on the other hand, "histori- .ir-" ,t.uring philosopfty ut a description of historical types of world crutloolis. The purpose of phenomenology- is to reveal the primordial experienci oi conscibusness through th.e. reductive irocedrrr. (ebichT-abstention from any statement), which implies ln intentional s.rspension of belief in reality in order to get^a clear ,rrJe.stn.,di.tg its nature and achieve a sort of final i.rdiriribt. ,nIty"i of consciousness in its intentionality. Husserl's early theories are marked by a turn from objective reality to intentionality of consciousness (he regarded intentionality as a Dure srructure of consciousness free from individual- psychological. social and other-characteristics. Phenomenology 3rt I was one of the sources of existentialism and other trends in / modern Western philosophy. I PRUSSIAN AND AMERICAN WAYS OF AGRICULTURALI DEVELOPMENT. Under pre-capitalist formations, agriculturel was unintensive, low-produitive and had a character of natural economy. As capitalist commodity production began to develop on the basis of the social division of labour, agriculture became a branch of the national economy in a full sense of the word. The replacement of feudal relations in agriculture by capitalist relations was accompanied by an exodus peasants agriculture. of from I Engels noted that "... small peasant, like every other survival of a past mode of production, is hopelessly doomed. He is a future ) Our Mailbag proletarian" (K. Marx, F. Engels, Selected Works, Vol. 3, Moscow, I 1970, p. 460). As social conditions differed, capitalism in .l agriculture developed in two ways, Prussian and American. The first way consists in a slow modification of the pre- I Below we capitalist relations, in the embourgeoisment of the landlords publish some'excerpts from our readers, letters, in the who were adapting themselves to capitalist conditions. Semi-feudal i original or translated into English. features remain in the capitalist system of agriculture for a long ! time and the differentiation and proletarianisation of peasants "I regqtly ordered seueral tr,tles in your 'Problems of the Contempor- lasts I for long years and assumes forms that are most tormenting ary World' series through one of your (JS distributors, and I uant to tell for the peasants. According to Lenin, the main content of the I ,I you that I enjoyd them aery much. I am not a communist, but I was evolution is "transformation of feudal bondage into servitude and pleasantly surprised by the quality of scholarship of most of the articles and capitalist exploitation on the land of the feudal landlords- hy their absence of dogmatism'" Junkers" (V. I. Lenin, Collected, Worhs, Moscow, Vol. 13, p. 239). { Capitalism in agriculture developed Norton Wheeler, along this path in Prussia after { the revolution of 1848 and, to a considerable extent, in tsarist Tucson, USA Russia after the Reform of 1861. I I The second way is distinguished by a rapid introduction of capitalist relations in agriculture, the emergence of the class of "f arn a regular reader of your tteriodical Social Sciences, which I capitalist farmers, a relatively free development of farming find ttery i;nteresting and ualuable." economy, which was unhampered by pre-capitalist forms of Professor exploitation. This way was followed agriculture Leif Johansen, by in the United Oslo, Norway States and some other countries where bourgeois revolutions abolished landlord property rights and serfdom. Lenin emphas- ised that the main background of the American way is "transfor- mation of the patriarchal peasant into a bourgeois farmer" "l haue been reading your jburnal for some time now with great (Ibidem). i,nter.est. The comprehensi,ue character of the articles on uari,ous disciplines ol the soci:al sciences mahes it most i,nformatiue and sti;mulates further studi,es in this t'ield. And besides that, the section of sci,entific information t:ouers major li aslrc.cts of research and other scienttfic worh i,n the USSR." H.-D. Klein, M artin-Luther-U nivesitit, Halle, the GDR 3t3 "In my opiniorr, Social Sciences proztides a basis for studying the issues of the day: economi,c deuelopment and the struggle agai.nst Subscribe to SOCIAL coloni,alism, neocoloni,ali,sm, imperialism and, racism. Social Sciences also orients tts readers touards major soctal, SCIENCES economic, political, philosophical and histortcal problems." Andr6 Ndiwu, Luanda, Angola Subsriptions can be placed with the firms "social Sciences is one of the best pubtications of its hind. It is and bookshops handling the distribution interesti,ng and ualuable from the potnt of ui,ew of scientific i.nt'ormatrom, of Soviet periodicals: prouiding well-documented ana\sis, which is extreme\ useful. The authors treat of the most cornttlicated problems most conxpetentQ." Telesforo Fuentes Su6rez, AUSTRALIA BURMA Las Palmas, Spain C.B.D. Library Trade Corporation No. 9, and Subsription Service, 5501552 Merchant Streer, Box 4886, G.P.O., Rrugoorr. Sydney, N.S.W. 2000; New Era Bookshop, CANADA 531, George Street, Ukrainska Knytaa, Sydney, N.S.W. 2000; 1162 Dundas Street Spring Bookshop, West Toronto 3, Ont. Room 5, lst Floor, 37 M 6y lx4; Swanston Street, Melbourne, Victoria 3000; Troyka Lirnited, 799 College Str., New World Booksellers, Toronto 4, Ont.; 425, Pitt Street, Sydney, N.S.W. 2000; Northern Book llouse, P.O. Box 1000, Gravenhurst, Ont; International Bookshop, Pty, Ltd,, 2nd Floor, People's Cooperative Bookstore 17, Elizabeth Street, Association, 353, Melbourne, Victoria 2000; West Pender Street, Vancouver 3, 8.C.,; Pioneer Bookshop, 75, Bulwer Street, Perth, Progress Books, West Australia 6000. 71 Bathurst Street, 3rd Floor, Toronto, Ont., M5V 2P6; Librairie Nouvelles Frontilres, BANGLADESFI 185 Est., Ontario, Montreal PiQue. H2xlH5. Sreejani, 74, Station Road, Chittagong; CYPRUS Jatiya Shahitya Prakashani,' 10, Purana Paltan, Dacca-2; Sputnik, Ltd., fnternational Books Const. Palologou 19, Nicosia; and Periodicals Center People's Agency, l7; Motijheel C.A., Dacca. Tricoupi Str., .53c, Nicosia. 315 Magazine Centre, NETHERLANDS DENMARK INDIA 56/5-6 Shatranji Mohal Boekhandel, (P) Kanpur India "Pegasus" Akademisk Boghandel, People's Publishing House Leidsestraat 25, Amsterdam. Universitetsparken, Aarhus-C; Ltd., Prabhath Book flouse, Rani Road, Head Office Prabhath BIdg. International fmport Ihansi Sputnik New Delhi-55; 'frivandrum-24; NEW ZEALAND Og Boghandel, Magazine Centre, Vijay Stores, Vester Voldgabe 11, SocietY Ltd.' Floor, M.C.D. Buildings 62, Kalyan Bhuvan, Progressive Book 1552 Copenhagen K; 2nd Auckland I.; D.B. Gupta Rd. Paharganj. Ahmedabad- l; 2l Elliott Str., Rhodos International Ltd., New Delhi 110055; Vijay Stores, Technical Books, Subsription Agency, Lambton Wellington; Lok Vangmaya Griha, Rajni, lst Floor, Bhupendra Road, 262 Quay, 36, Stradgade, New Zealand Tribune, DK-1401 Copenhagen K. 190-8 Khetwadi Main Road, Rajkot-l; Bombay-4; Punjab Book Centre S.C.O. P.O. Box 19-114, Auckland. People's Book flouse, 1126-27 Sector 22-8, FINLAND Piramshah Manzil, Relief Road, Chandigarh-22. NORWAY Ahmedabad; Akateeminen Kirjakauppa, Litteraturtejenste, Vijay Stores, A/S Narvesens Postilokero 128, Helsinki 10; JAMAICA vei 2, Station Road, Anand 388001; Bertrand Narvesens Kasankulttuuri Oy. Independent Book Stores, Postboks 6140, Oslo 6; Simonkatu 8, Helsinki l0; Magazine Centre, 2, Wildnran Street, Kingston W. l. 2nd Floor, Ganapathi Bldgs, Tanum-Cammermeyer Oy, Centre, Rautakirja B.V.K. Iyengar Road, JAPAN Subscription Vantaa 64. PL l, 01641 Bangalore-560053: Karl Jahansgt. 43, Oslo l; Nauka Ltd., Norsk-Sovjetrussisk Samband, People's Book House, 19, Minami-Ikebukuro, GHANA 2-30- Ridhusgt, 8-V, Oslo; Opp. B.N. College 2-chome, Toshima-ku, 171 Tokyo; Universitetsbokhandelen Patna-80 000, Bihar; Ltd., Science Spot Book Shop, Nisso Tosho 507, Blindern, Oslo 3. P.O. Box 10331, Accra North. Manisha Granthalaya (P) Ltd., l-5-16, Suido. 4/38, Bankim Chatterjee Street, Burrkyo-ku Tokyo; Calcutta-12; Kaigai Publications Ltd., PAKISTAN GREECE National Book Agency (P) Ltd., P.O. Box 5020, llouse, No. 2 Surya Sen Street Standard Publishing ttPlanet" Co., Tokyo International, Bonus Road, Calcutta-70001 2; Marian. Hotel, C. Camarinopoulos, Tokyo 100-31; Karachi-4. Asklepjiu, 33 Athens. Bingsha Shatabdi, Far Eastern Book-Sellers, 22lA, Arabinda Sarani, Kanda, P.O.B. 72, P.D.R.Y. Calcutta-5; Tokyo, 101-91. GUYANA Visalaanhdra Publishing House, The 14th October Chandram Bldgs, JORDAN Printing Publication, GNTC, Vijayawada-520004, A.P.; 45147; Water Street, Distribution Magazine Centre, Jordan Distribution AgencY, P.O. Box 308, Georgetown. P.O. Box 375, Amman. and Advertising CorPoration, 54 Abid Shopping Centre Lane, P.O. Box 4227, Aden. (Chirag Ali), Hyderabad, 500001; NEPAL HONG KONG New Century SINGAPORE Book flouse (P) Ltd., Baje Ko Pasal, Apollo Book Co., 41lB Sidco Industrial Estate, Bank Road, Biratnagar, P.O. I, New Soviet Gallery Pte., Ltd., 27, Kimberley Road, Madras-600098; Biratnagar; Shop No. 1.66-1.68, P.O. Box 95710, Kowloon; Navakarnataka Publications, International Book llouse, lst Floor Lucky Plaza, Great Eastern Book Co., Sarpabhushana Mutt Compound, l1/20, Kamalakshi, Post Rox 32, 304 Orchard Rd., 123 Henessy Road, Kernpegowda Circle, Katmandu. Singapore-9. l3lF.P.O. Rox 20005, Hong Kong. Bangalore-9; 317 316 SRI LANKA TANZANIA THE ALL.UNION "LICENS!NTORG" People's Publishing Ilouse, Tanganyika Standard ASSOCTATION 124, Kumaran Ratnam Road, (Newspapers) Ltd., Colombo-2; P.O. Box 9033, estabtished in 1962 and today incorporating eight export- Lake llouse Bookshop, Dar es Salaam. import firms, se//s and buys on-behalf of Soviet industrial and 100, Chittampalam Gardener reiearch organisations /,censes for the latest inventions in Mawatha, Colombo 2. "fURKEY science and technologv. SUDAN Temel Dagitim, The Association: spheres of Sudanese Intercontinental Himaye-i Etfal sokak Sells licenses for Soviet inventions in all Marketing Co., Orhanbey Ighani, No. 6i l, industrial production. P.O. Box 1331, Khartoum. Qa$alofly, Provides qualified assistance. Isranbul. Provides linow-how and technical specifications in con- SWEDEN formity with license agreements. UNITED KII\GDOM Provides engineering services on a commercial basis. Wennergren-Williams AB, Box 30004 Central Books Ltd., Llcenses for Soviet inventions and technological processes are 5-104 25 Stockholm 30; 14 The Leathermarket, utllised ln all contlnents and in all branches of industry' Gumperts Bokhandel AB, I-ondon SEI 3ER; to: S6dra Hamngatan 35, Apply Collet's floldings, Ltd., V7b'"Licensintorg", 37 Kakhovka St., Moscow 113461, USSR. Giiteborg; Denington Estate,. Almqvist & Wiksell, Wellingborough Northants, 26, Gamla Brogatan, Box 62 NN 82 Qr. iF* S-101 20 Stockholm; Gleerupska Universitets-Bokhandel, USA Lund; Four Continent Book Corporation, Fiirbundet 149 Fifth Ave., New York, Sveri ge-Sovj etunionen, N.Y. 10010; Katarinavigen 20, I tr., trmported Publications Inc., I 16 45 Stockholm. 320 West Ohio Street, Chicago, Illinois 60610; SYR.IA Stechert-Macmillan, Inc., Maysaloon Bookshop, 7250 Westfield Avenue, P.O. Box 2675 Maysaloon Street, Pennsauken, New Jersey 08110; Damas; EBSCO Subscription Services, Dar-al-Fair Edition l7-19 Washington Avenue, et Distribution, Tenafl1,, New Jersey 07670; Rue Al-Kouatly, Znanie Book Store, En Face du Cercle des Officidrs, 5237 Ceary Boulevard, Alep. San Francisco, Ca. 94118. "OBIIIECTBEHHbIE FIAyKI4" Ne 3, 1980 r xa auzluil,cxon nsmxe RBAD This year TRAVEL TO THE USSR THE USSR the Statistika AND RECOMMEND IT TO OTHERS IN FICURES FOR 1979 Publishers, Moscow, will continue Thc magezlne wlll tcll you about: the publication of handbooks * the most interesting sights and tourist centres in the of statistics Soviet Union: "The USSR * monuments of th_e history and cultute of the peoples in Ftgures" inhabiting the Soviet Union and their national in English, customs and arts; Frcnch, German and Spanish. {. museums and art exhibitions, theatres and sports events; "The USSR ,t Soviet economic and scientific achievements; in Figures lor I979" * the amazing diversity of the country's natural (about two beauty; hundred pages), * news about foreign tourism in the Soviet Union. compiled by the USSR Central lo thc USSR is an illustrated magazine published Statistical Board, . .Tnvct will appear six times a_year. lt is read in 60 countries, inEnglish, French, in the third 9erman.or Russian, by allwho are interestdO in trivet!ing about quarter the Soviet Union. of 1980. you wish to visit the Soviot Union magazine Approximate pricti: { the wilt tell 95 kopecks you when and where !o go and the best way to g-et there, what to see, and how to make your trip convenieni and-comfortable. 'l'he Trtvcl ,o ah. USCR will be your competent guide and 1979 handbook contains: kindly friend and adviser during your stay in ihe Sovi6t Union. basic statistics on the economic and social development of- the USSR in 1979; You can subscribc 19 Trgvclto t}e USSR in your country. -- comparisons with the I940, Ig70 and some other indices; We will bc plcascd to providc dctails on rcqucst. statistical data on the population growth and the impro. vement- of the Soviet people's welfare; the development of Thc addrcss of the cditorial office of Travel ro rhe USSR: t, I\hgllnotyt ulltre, Molcor X.31, USSI. lndustry, agriculture, transport, communications and capital construction; llgures showing the development of some other socialist countries;- cornparative statistics on the economic and cultural de- -veloprrrent of the USSR, the USA and other capitalist coun- I rles. Thc handbook is intended lor a wide range of readers. The huntlbook can be bought or ordered at the bookshops of the firms Itt 11our routtlrg, ahich haae business dealings aith VIO Printed br Naufta Publishers @