Expression of Ladakhi Cultural Regionality: ラダック文化にみる地域
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Kanazawa Seiryo University Bulletin of the Humanities Vol.3 No.1, pp.25-38, 2018 Expression of Ladakhi Cultural Regionality: Viewed from Language and Local Rituals Takako YAMADA† Abstract Ladakhi culture cannot be discussed without reference to its relations to Tibet and Tibetan culture. The Ladakh dynasty started its rule by one of the three sons of Skyid lde nyima gon (or Nyima gon), the great-grandson of Lang Darma who was the last emperor of the Old Tibetan Empire, also known as an anti-Buddhist king. Later, various Tibetan Buddhist schools have spread subsequently to Ladakh and converted its residents to Tibetan Buddhism. However, when viewed in terms as its polity as a kingdom, Ladakh has not always maintained friendly relations with Tibet, as exemplified by the war that took place in the 17th century between Ladakh and a joint Tibetan-Mongolian army. Rather, Ladakh has been ruled by an independent polity different from that of Tibet, and has maintained its cultural identity. This paper aims to reveal the regionality of contemporary Ladakhi culture as well as its Pan-Tibetan aspects, dealing with how the cultural identity of the Ladakhi is expressed in terms of language and religion, specifically basing on local ritual tradition as well as activities engaged in by the Students’ Educational and Cultural Movement of Ladakh (SECMOL) in order to maintain Ladakhi culture and language. Keywords Ladakhi culture, regionality, language, local rituals ラダック文化にみる地域性の表出 ─ 言語とローカルな儀礼実践から ─ 山田 孝子† キーワード ラダック文化，地域性，言語，ローカルな儀礼実践 † [email protected] (Faculty of Humanities, Kanazawa Seiryo University) － 25 － Expression of Ladakhi Cultural Regionality 1. Introduction another was opened in the Changtang area in 1989. Often called Western Tibet or Little Tibet, Ladakh Although contact between Ladakh and Tibet was has been an area that has developed historically formerly confined to such occasions in which a with a close relationship with Tibet. However, when Ladakhi novice monk would learn Buddhism in the viewed in terms of its polity as a kingdom, Ladakh great monastery or that a lay Ladakhi would visit has not always maintained friendly relations with Tibet with a trading caravan, the opening of Tibetan Tibet, as exemplified by the war that took place in the refugee settlements in Ladakh has made Ladakhis 17th century between Ladakh and a joint Tibetan- come into contact with Tibetans in their everyday Mongolian army. Moreover, the Leh District in lives. Ladakh has a history of majority Buddhist Ladakhi Taking the historicity of Ladakh into living side by side with a minority of Ladakhi consideration, I discuss the expression of regionality Shia Muslims, Sunni Muslims, and Christians of contemporary Ladakhi culture in terms of its (Moravians). Therefore, it is better to consider that intimate relationship with Tibet, dealing with how the Ladakh has been ruled by an independent polity cultural identity of the Ladakhi has been expressed different from that of Tibet and has maintained its in terms of language and religion. Specifically, the cultural identity, while it maintains a cultural and focus is on local ritual traditions as well as activities economic relationship with Tibet. engaged by the Students’ Educational and Cultural The independence and partition of India and Movement of Ladakh (SECMOL) to maintain Pakistan has greatly changed the religious and Ladakhi culture and language. political landscape of Ladakh. The closing of the border between Ladakh and Tibet has stopped 2. Historicity of Ladakh and its Relationship the communication between them, while the with Tibet incorporation of Ladakh into the Jammu and Western Tibet, which includes the Ladakh, Zanskar, Kashmir State of India caused a revolution in the Baltistan, and Purig areas, has a common history and political dynamic between Buddhists and Muslims. culture where local populations speak dialects of the The Ladakhi became under political control of the Tibetan language and Buddhism once flourished. dominant Kashmiri Muslims. Thus, the Buddhist The history of Ladakh has a close relationship with Ladakhis have often launched heated political the Old Tibetan Empire. The Ladakh dynasty began campaigns calling for Union Territory Status for with one of the three sons of Skyid lde Nyima gon Ladakh and Scheduled Tribe Status for the Ladakhi (or Nyima gon), the great-grandson of Langdarma while the Jammu and Kashmir government has who was the last king of the Old Tibetan Empire and promoted a policy with disproportionate emphasis known as an anti-Buddhist. on Muslims. The anti-Buddhism of Langdarma had dissipated On the other hand, the establishment of the within the family by Nyima gon’s time and Tibetan Government-in-Exile and the influx Buddhism began to restore gradually in the Guge of Tibetan refugees into India have reactivated Kingdom. As a result, Tibetan Buddhist schools communication between Ladakh and Tibet. In spread throughout Ladakh and residents converted. 1969, a Tibetan refugee settlement was opened Today, the major Tibetan Buddhist schools of in Choglamsar in the precinct of Leh town, and Gelug, Sakya, Drikung Kagyu, Drukpa Kagyu, and － 26 － Kanazawa Seiryo University Bulletin of the Humanities Vol.3 No.1, pp.25-38, 2018 Nyingma prevail in Ladakh. The history of Ladakh the great lama of Drukpa Kagyu, Taktsan suggests that these schools were introduced due to Rachen, to Ladakh, who opened monasteries in the following close linkages with Tibet: Hemis, Chimle, Tashigon, and Hanle (Francke 1) ‘Jig rten mGon po, the founder of Drikung 1998[1907]: 97; Sato 1982: 19). Since Hemis Kagyu, who constructed Drikung Monastery in was the royal family’s monastery, it had become Central Tibet in 1179, sent monks to Ladakh in the most important Drukpa Kagyu monastery 1215 to established Drikung monastery (Jina & in Ladakh. However, after the death of Lama Konchok, 1995: 21, 24; Petech 1977: 166). When Taktsan Rachen, the Gelug school backed by the Drikung school was introduced in Ladakh its flourishing in Central Tibet had gradually during the thirteenth century, the king of Ladakh gained more power than Drukpa Kagyu in became an adherent. Lamayuru Monastery then Ladakh. became a center of the Drikung Kagyu school in 6) In the latter half of the fifteenth century, the Ladakh. Sakya school was introduced by the opening 2) During the reign of King Lhachen nGorub (ca. of Matho Monastery, which is the only Sakya 1300-1325), novice monks to Central Tibet were monastery in Ladakh. first dispatched (Francke 1998[1907]: 68) . 7) It can be said that the Nyingma school was 3) The Gelug school was introduced during the introduced when Padmasambhava visited reign of King Trak Bunde (‘grags ‘bum lde) Ladakh; however, the only Nyingma monastery (ca. 1410-1440) who received a mission sent to was built in Taktak village by Lama Padma him by the great reformer Tsong ka pa (Petech Thinley in 1430. 1939: 114). Lama Lawang Loro (lha dbang blo The religious homogeneity of Western Tibet gros) rebuilt Spituk Monastery, which was drastically changed after the Islamization of the a monastery of the Kadampa school, as one Balti people who lived in the lower Indus River belonging to the Gelug school; therefore, Gelug region and then of the Purig people in the Suru River was greatly influential in Ladakh during Trak region. Islamization is considered to have started in Bunde’s reign (Petech 1939: 114). Today, the Baltistan around the late fourteenth century. Thus, Gelug school, encompassing the monasteries of Ladakh was bordered by the Tibetan Buddhist state Tikse, Rizon, Saspol, Saboo, Sankar, and Spituk, in the east and Islam chiefdoms in the west. In fact, has competed against the Drikung Kagyu school in Ladakh and Zanskar districts today the majority in Ladakh. are Buddhists while Muslims are the majority in 4) During the reign of King Trashis Nyamgyal (ca. Baltistan and Purig districts. 1500-1530), the Drikung Kagyu monastery of Since the establishment of the Islamic kingdoms Phiyang was constructed. The king contributed of Baltistan, Purig, and Kashmir, Ladakh kings had greatly to disseminate Buddhist teachings: faced several wars against them. Between 1560- namely, introducing the formality of Drikung 1590, King Jamyang Namgyal was defeated by the Kagyu liturgies, transcribing complete Buddhist Skardo King, Ali Mir Sher Khan, and was forced to sutras of Kangyur and Tengyur, and constructing marry his daughter (Franck 1972[1926]: 106-107). stupas (mchod rten) (Yoritomi 1982: 48). Many Shia Muslims accompanied her and settled to 5) King Senge Namgyal (ca. 1590-1635) invited build a village now named Chushot, which was the － 27 － Expression of Ladakhi Cultural Regionality first Muslim village in Ladakh. During the reign of 177). In June 1715 during the reign of King Nima King Deldan Namgyal, father of Delegs Namgyal, a Namgyal, Jesuit Ippolito Desideri visited Ladakh peace treaty was contracted with Sultan Aurangzeb on the way to Lhasa in Tibet (Franck 1998[1907]: of the Mogul Empire, promising him to construct a 118). Desideri was received warmly by the king and mosque in Leh which was completed around 1666-7 stayed in Ladakh for two months (Yakushi 1991: (Jina 1999: 19; Srinivas 1998: 21). 119-129). The incorporation of Ladakh into the Although trade also played an important role in colonial polity of the British Empire made it easier the forming of a relationship between Ladakh and for Christian missionaries to access Ladakh. In the Tibet, there were violent conflicts between them mid nineteenth century, the Moravian Church began over trading interests. At the time of King Delegs missions in the Himalayan Region. A Moravian Namgyal (ca. 1640-1680), Ladakh was invaded by missionary named Wilhelm Heyde visited Leh In a joint Tibetan-Mongolian army led by a Mongol 1855, established a missionary station at Keylong lama named Tsang. The great Mongol wars lasted in Lahul district bordering Ladakh in 1856, and from 1679 to 1685.