Brigham Young University BYU ScholarsArchive
Theses and Dissertations
1997
The Geography of Polynesians in Utah
Adam M. Frazier Brigham Young University - Provo
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BYU ScholarsArchive Citation Frazier, Adam M., "The Geography of Polynesians in Utah" (1997). Theses and Dissertations. 4695. https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/etd/4695
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THE GEOGRAPHY OF polynesians IN UTAH
A thesis presented to the
department of geography brigham young university
in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree master of science
by
adam M frazier april 1997 this thesis by adam M frazier is accepted in its present form by the department of geography of brigham young university as satisfying the thesis requirement for the degree of master of science
M r richard H jackson committee chair
alan H grey committee memberber
7
77 1 am date JTnttheatthenattheww shumway comlruneeco e member
11 acknowledgments
I1 am truly grateful to all those who have helped improve this thesis I1 especially wish to thank my wife vikki for her endless love support and patience without her constant encouragement I1 never could have written this thesis I1 also wish to thank dr richard H jackson for proposing this topic and dr alan H grey and dr J matthew shumwayShurnway for their insightful suggestions and editorial assistance
iniii TABLE OF CONTENTS
page
page 1 acceptance I ii acknowledgments iii list of figures v chapter 1 introduction I11 chapter 2 the history of polynesians in utah 9
chapter 3 polynesians in the united states 1 16
chapter 4 polynesians in utah 0 o 27
chapter 5 polynesians in salt lake city 0 0 0 41
chapter 6 polynesian migration to utah 0 0 52
chapter 7 conclusions 0 o 61
references 0 o 0 0 0 0 64
ivIV LIST OF FIGURES
page figure 11iili1.11 1 migration factors 4
21 1 figure 2122.1 JonjonatanaJonatjonatanahatanaanaHH napela loio 10.10
22 .12 figure 222.2 exodus to losepajosepa 1889 12 12 figure 232.3 original settlers of losepaiosepaiokepa 13
31 1 figure 3313.1 polynesians in the united states 1980 17 17.17
32 .18 figure 323.2 polynesians in the united states 1990 18 18 figure 333.3 polynesians by selected states 1980 and 1990 19
34 figure 343.4 number of polynesians by state 20 20.20
35 .21 figure 353.5 polynesian density by state 1980 21 21 figure 363.6 polynesian density by state 1990 2222.22
37 figure 373.7 population change in the united states and utah 1980 to 1990 23 23.23
38 figure 383.8 population change by state 1980 to 1990 25 25.25 figure 393.9 ethnicity of polynesians by selected states 1990 2626.26
41 1 figure 4414.1 polynesians in utah 1860 to 1990 28 28.28
42 figure 424.2 polynesians in utah 1980 30 30.30 figure 434.3 polynesians in utah 1990 3131.31
44 figure 444.4 polynesians in utah by county 32 32.32 figure 454.5 polynesian density in utah 1980 3434.34
46 .35 figure 464.6 polynesian density in utah 1990 35 35
47 .37 figure 474.7 population change in utah by county 1980 to 1990 37 37
48 .39 figure 484.8 ethnicity of polynesians in utah by county 1990 39 39
51 1 figure 515.15 polynesians in salt lake city 1980 42 42.42
52 figure 525.2 polynesians in salt lake city 1990 43 43.43
53 figure 535.3 polynesians in salt lake city by census tract 44 44.44
v figure 545.454polynesianpolynesian density in salt lake city 1980 46 figure 555.555polynesianpolynesian density in salt lake city 1990 47 figure 5656population5.6 population change in salt lake city by census tracts 1980 to 1990 49 figure 57ethnicity575.7 ethnicity of polynesians in salt lake city by 1990 census tracts 50 figure 61migration616 1 migration causes and components 53 figure 62factors626.2 factors and obstacles in polynesian migration to utah 54 figure 636.363populationpopulation of tonga 1945 to 1995 57
viVI CHAPTER 1 introduction
utah has long been known as an enclave of peculiar people originally inhabited by utes Gogoshutesshutes Paipaiutesutes and cavajosnavajosNavajos utah was colonized in 1847 by mormon pioneers of primarily european ancestry seeking religious freedom although still predominantly mormon and caucasian other religions and ethnic groups have contributed to utahs uniqueness yet few have ever been studied of utahs rarely studied minorities polynesians have a unique history and geography this lack of research is surprising according to the 1990 census of population and housing utah has the third largest number of polynesians in the continental united states 71871811 moreover utah has the greatest concentration of polynesians per capita of any state about I11 per 250 excluding hawaii thus their particular history and geography need to be better understood objective this thesis will explore the history and geography of polynesians in utah specifically this thesis will examine and analyze the historic and current migrations of hawaiiansHawaiians Sasamoanssammansmoans and tongans to utah to illustrate recent trends this thesis will map the 1980 and 1990 distributions of polynesians at three scales in the united states by state in utah by county and in salt lake city by census tract finally this thesis will explain why polynesians migrate to utah and why utah has a relatively high concentration of polynesians compared to other states literature review very little has ever been written on the migration of polynesians to the united states indeed their recent migration to utah has never been studied moreover their
I1 current distribution within utah has also never been studied at any scale significantly only one comprehensive book has ever been written on the various peoples of utah papanikolas 1976 and it omits polynesiansPolynesians
As opposed to the lack of information on current polynesian migration to or
distribution within utah the early history of polynesians to utah in the late 1800s is fairly well understood dr R lanier britsch 1986 in his comprehensive work unto the island of the sea chronicles the history of latterlatterdayday saints in the pacific and dr S
george ellsworth 1994 in seasons of faith and courage meticulously records the history of the church in french polynesia more specifically the saga of early polynesian pioneers in utah is documented by dennis atkin 1958 in A history of losepajosepa the utah polynesian colony and tracey panek 1992 in life at losepajosepa utahs polynesian colony these works are of particular interest to this study and are discussed in detail in
chapter 2
although the history of polynesians in utah is known neither their geography nor
their demography is currently known nevertheless at least for 1980 the polynesian
population of the united states has been generally described herbert barringer et al
1993 as part of the comprehensive study asian and pacific islanders in the united
states based on 1980 census statistics analyzed the demography of polynesians in the
united states in general although polynesians only constitute a minority in this study it
is the only demographic study of the entire united states in which polynesians have been
included since this study is somewhat applicable to utah polynesiansPolynesians it will be
discussed in chapter 6 aside from a brief mention in barringer et al 1993 polynesian migration to utah has never been specifically described however migration has been modeled in general indeed over the years many researchers have attempted to model migration and codify the causes and although notable most of these studies assume a rational decision
making process a condition that does not always exist nevertheless these factors still
2 influence most migrations and will be incorporated into this studys conceptual framework the original model of migration as conceptualized by EG ravenstein 1885 and 1889 in his seminal work the laws of migration included seven simple laws of
migration distance steps current and countercurrent urbanruralurban rural differences gender
selectivity economic dominance and technology indeed since then most researchers have only expanded upon this model significantly everett lee 1966 in his well known work A theory of migration added four more important concepts of migration behavior to ravensteinsRavensteins model positive attractiveness negative attractiveness neutral attractiveness and intervening obstacles and recently using various asian and pacific islander immigration statistics elliot barkan 1992 in asian and pacific islander
migration to the united states conceptualizedreconceptualizedre these laws of migration to better fit the
global nature of contemporary migration and formulated 27 migrationmigrationinfluencinginfluencing factors the migration of other minorities to particular areas of the united states has been studied although many diverse works could be cited one recent work is of particular interest to this study richard jones 1995 in immigration reform and migrant flows compositional and spatial changes in mexican migration after the immigration reform act of 1986 assesses the changes in mexican migration to south texas between the census years of 1980 and 1990 in addition by extending research done by lee 1966 and other more recent researchers jones 1995 proposes a new typology of migration
based on causes and components figure 11iili1.11 1 illustrates this typology and summarizes
factors which are generally believed to influence migration
3 figure 1liii111.1 1 migration factors
EG ravenstein richard jones 1 distance 2 steps 3 current and countercurrent causes components 4 urbanruralurban rural differences 5 gender selectivity volume 6 economic dominance obstacles 7 technology everett lee origin demographic 1 positive attractiveness Desdestinatdestinatedestinationtinat selectivity 2 negative attractiveness factors 3 neutral attractiveness 4 intervening obstacles personalpersona spatial elliot barkan factors selectivity 1 circumstances of migration 2 selection of family members source jones 1995716 3 factors affecting migration decisions 4 networks and skilled migrants 5 information channels and migration distances 6 female migrants 7 nonrefugeenon refugee female migrants 8 information networks and diversity of migrants 9 migration from urban areas 10 age and gender variations 11 homeland promotion of emigration 12 diversity of migrant skill levels 13 variations affecting migration between specific nations 14 new seed migration chains 15 refugee migration patterns 16 stepwise migration 17 multiple migration 18 circular migration 19 the intervening variable of national immigration policies 20 regional economic evolution and migrant types 21 noneconomic factors 22 multipolar ethnic communities 23 countermigrationcounter migration streams 24 conditions influencing migrant adjustment 25 homeland conditions and return migration 26 impact of migration on sending areas 27 impact of migration on receiving nations
sources ravenstein 1885 and 1889 lee 1966 barkan 1992 and jones 1995
4 conceptual framework
the migration typology proposed by jones 1995 will form the foundation of a simple conceptual framework which can be used to analyze the salient factors which influence polynesians to migrate to utah using jones typology this thesis will attempt to discover the causes and components of the current migration of polynesians to utah because no published data exist which describe why polynesians immigrate to utah unpublished materials and personal sources such as autobiographies journals interviews and oral histories of polynesian immigrants will be used many of the materials studied herein are deposited in the archives at brigham young university and have been collected by the charles redd center for western studies as part of an ongoing project to specifically document the oral histories oflasofldsof LDS polynesian americans after searching these unpublished materials for common migrationmigrationinfluencinginfluencing factors using jones typology of migration chapter 6 will report the findings thus common causes and components of polynesian migration to utah can be determined from what polynesians themselves identify as important factors influencing their migration
based on physical characteristics of cold winters hot summers and semiariditysemi aridity at first glance utah seems a strange destination for polynesiansPolynesians nevertheless utah has long been a focal point for polynesian immigration to the united states in fact utah is the only major nonnonpacificpacific noncoastalnon coastal destination for polynesian immigrants in the world why would island peoples migrate to utah in order to place this extraordinary migration in its geographic context the succeeding four chapters will describe the historical and current distributions of polynesians in utah in light of these descriptions the motivations behind this migration will be investigated in chapter 6 based on anecdotal evidence it is hypothesized that polynesians primarily migrate to utah for purposes of family religion education and employment
5 data
there are few current data on polynesians in utah most previous works on polynesians have been limited to historical studies indeed their distribution within utah has never been studied except at the early polynesian settlement of losepaiosepaiokepa southwest of salt lake city lacking other material most information used in this study comes from census andprivateand private sources the US bureau of the census collected limited information on various polynesian groups for the years of 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1980 and
1990 unfortunately the censuses of 1940 1950 1960 and 1970 tabulated no applicable information the gap in the data and the differences between the enumerations are very interesting for example in 1870 1880 and 1890 pacific islanders and sandwich islanders hawaiiansHawaii ans were specifically enumerated however in 1920 only pacific islanders were enumerated and US possessions such as hawaii were not included yet in 1930 hawaiians and samoans were each specifically enumerated then following an important 40year40 year period during which polynesians were simply lumped into other categories hawaiians and samoans were once again enumerated in 1980 most recently in 1990 hawaiiansHawaiians Sasamoanssammansmoans and tongans were each individually enumerated only some of this information is published in addition some of the 1980 census is available on micromicrofiche andfiche the 1990 census is available onlineon line and on CDROMCD ROM although census information is limited it is still useful however because of differing reporting practices and changing territory and state boundaries few statistics are equivalent from one census to another nevertheless this information must help explain the migrations and distributions of polynesians in utah over time
in addition to census data private sources such as diaries and oral histories are important sources of information on polynesians in utah early LDS missionaries from utah who went to polynesia kept detailed diaries and the charles redd center for western studies located at brigham young university is currently conducting an ongoing
6 project to document the oral histories ofoflasofldsLDS polynesian americans many of these diaries and oral histories are available in the harold B lee library archives this sample however is necessarily limited and does not include significant numbers of non LDS polynesians nor those who chose not to migrate nevertheless the information contained in these early diaries and recent oral histories will help explain why certain polynesians migrated to utah when they arrived where they settled how they assimilated and what they did or are currently doing methodology
for the purposes of this study race is defined as a group of people who classify themselves on the basis of a common history nationality or geographic distribution in addition ethnicity is defined as relating to a racial subgroup of people who classify themselves on the basis of a common racial national religious linguistic or cultural heritage therefore because race and ethnicity inherently reflect self identification and since US census data are currently categorized as such a polynesian is defined as anyone who identifies as hawaiian tongan samoan or other polynesian
using the aforementioned sources of census data and personal information this study examines analyzes and maps the historic and current distributions of polynesians in utah to illustrate distribution changes a series of maps is presented for the more recent census years of 1980 and 1990 polynesians are mapped by state then in utah by county and then more specifically in salt lake city by census tract using these maps the historical distributions are then compared and contrasted with current distributions
in addition to mapping the distributions of polynesians in utah and charting their change throughout time the reasons why polynesians migrate to utah will be explored using unpublished data and personal sources of polynesian immigrants such as autobiographies journals interviews and oral histories using jones 1995 typology of migration common migrationinfluencingmigration influencing factors will then be identified furthermore
7 the reasons why utah has a relatively high concentration of polynesians compared to other states will be examined overview
the following five chapters are primarily organized by geographic area and time specifically the contents of the chapters are as follows
chapter 2 presents a brief history of early polynesian immigration to utah and explores changing polynesian settlement patterns from about 1860 to 1920 the role of conversiconversionconversiontoontoto the LDS church is identified and the unique polynesian colony at losepajosepa is examined
chapter 3 examines the current distribution of polynesians within the united states with particular attention to utahs rank among the other states polynesians are mapped by state and specific polynesian ethnicities are proportionately compared the changes in distributions from 1980 to 1990 are also analyzed and utahs uniqueness is explored
chapter 4 explores the distribution of polynesians in utah polynesians are mapped by county subgroups are proportionately compared and distribution changes are examined current polynesian settlement trends are also explored
chapter 5 focuses on polynesians in salt lake city why most polynesians in utah reside in salt lake city is discussed polynesians are mapped by census tract subgroups are identified proportional comparisons are made and distribution changes are analyzed causes of and results from increased concentration are also examined
chapter 6 investigates why polynesians migrate to utah using jones 1995 typology of migration oral histories and personal sources are surveyed for common factors which historically motivated and currently influence polynesians to migrate to utah
8 CHAPTER 2 the history of polynesians in utah
polynesias relationship with utah has been historically religious specifically the conversion of individuals to the church of jesus christ of latterlatterdayday saints LDS the Morcormonsmormonsmons or the church followed by migration to utah in accordance with early church policy the mormons have long been recognized for their worldwideworld wide missionary activities and until the twentieth century it was church policy for all converts to immigrate or it gather to utah warren 1966 today converts are encouraged to build up the church in their native countries but most early converts migrated to utah fortunately early LDS missionary efforts in polynesia have been well documented britsch 1986 ellsworth 1959 and 1994 in fact LDS missionaries were first sent to the sandwich islands hawaii in 1843 but for various reasons were diverted to french polynesia where they arrived on april 30 1844 at the island oftubulitubuaioftubuai about 400 miles south of tahiti britsch 1986 ellsworth 1994 eventually LDS missionaries arrived in hawaii on december 12 1850 in samoa on january 24 1863 and in tonga on july
15 1891 britsch 1986 often when these missionaries returned home to utah they brought with them their converts
hawaiians were the first polynesians to immigrate to utah dennis atkin 1958 and tracey panek 1992 chronicle the interesting history of these early polynesian immigrants to utah at first the hawaiian government did not allow emigration to utah while they waited the hawaiian converts gathered at lalawaipalawai on lanai beginning in 1854 but because of various leadership problems in 1865 the colony moved to laie on oahu for extended discussions of these early colonies see beck 1970 and britsch 1986 nevertheless many still desired to go to utah where they could be near the salt lake temple and help complete its construction eventually the law was relaxed and in 1867 the first polynesian arrived in utah territory he was a hawaiian native and influential
9 judge named Jonjonatanaatana H napela reported to have been the first hawaiian ever baptized into the LDS church by joseph F smith waddups 19519566 and to have helped george Q cannon translate the book of mormon into the hawaiian language britsch 1986 napela eventually returned home and convinced others to emigrate to utah those figure 212.1 Jonjonatanaatana II11 napela source utah state historicalifistorical society photo archives desiring to emigrate to utah continued to return with missionaries and primarily settled in northwest salt lake city around the warm springs area where they continued to gather until 1889 pack 1896 in 1889 there were about 75 hawaiians living in salt lake city but for various reasons they had not assimilated well into the local population in utah the climate the language the culture the work and the food were very different from that to which they were accustomed the immigrants found they could only obtain the least desirable jobs and many socioeconomic problems ensued this prompted the church to seek out a more suitable gathering place which could be colonized by these hawaiians and by those polynesians who would arrive later thus the losepaiosepaiokepa colony in skull valley tooelethoele county was founded waddoups 1956 losepaiosepaiokepa pronounced yo see pa is the hawaiian word for joseph interestingly the colony was not named to honor joseph smith jr founder of the LDS church but rather in honor of joseph F smith a beloved missionary to the hawaiian islands and later the sixth president of the church the site for the colony was chosen by the first presidency of the church in conjunction with a selection committee made up of former hawaiian missionaries and hawaiiansHawaii ans accessible only by foot or on horseback and located about 80 miles southwest of salt lake city and about 30 miles west of Grantsgrantsvilleville between the cedar
10 mountains and the stansbury range the land had been owned by john T rich and was a fully stocked ranch complete with buildings the property covered about 1920 acres of range and farm land which contained sufficient water for irrigation under the auspices of the losepajosepa agriculture and stock company the church purchased the land for 35000 and the cattle for 12279 the articles of incorporation in accordance with the laws of utah territory were filed in tooelethoele on august 7 1889 the first settlers arrived in losepaiosepaiokepa on august 28 1889 and as long as the colony lasted this day was celebrated as hawaiian pioneer day complete with traditional feasts songs and dances in fact this holiday is reminiscent of the general pioneer day celebrated in utah on july 24 in commemoration of the arrival of the first LDS pioneers immediately harvey H cluff first leader of the colony and a former hawaiian missionary laid out a onemilesquareone mile square townsite the settlers drew lots for their parcels and if they were satisfied with their selection they paid 250 for it apparently about 49 of the original 55 settlers were polynesian mostly hawaiian figure 222.2 illustrates this exodus and figure 232.3 lists the names of these original settlers
11 figure 222.2 exodus to losepaiosepaiokepa 1889
12 figure 232.3 original settlers of losepajosepa
H H cluff makaopiapia widow fred A mitchell wm coles white man elihu barrell john mahunaliiMahunalii frank W marchant victoria wife F M lyman jr elizabeth child J W kaulainaKaulaina kalawao kapukini wife kapainueKapainue wife john makaula J K N mahoe meria makaula wife hanna child kapela lucey child chrischrls naau david mokulimaMomokuilimakulima jane naau wife hookala wife emily S naau mary child haik david child moke kalima john makakao aleoaoleoa lucy K wife joseph kekuku joseph kakekokakuko miliama wife W K halemanu hattie loie ellen wife viola child james lemanahalemanahalemanuHa son edwin child capehanapeha peter kealakaihonua mochas wife kahianakahiona wife hattie daughter pelekane child george kamakaniauKamakaniau peteropioPeteropio child kealohanuikealohanueKealohanue wife N pomaikai child geo W niau solomona piipiilani harvey alioaolioa moses solomona grandson
source autobiography of harvey cluff august 28 1889
13 one year later on august 28 1890 LDS church president wilford woodruff dedicated losepajosepa as the churchs official gathering place for the natives of the islands of the sea thus the exodus to losepaiosepaiokepa continued and by 1900 no polynesians were left in salt lake city pack 1896 apparently a few returned and lived awhile in murray but by 1904 all polynesians living in utah were in losepajosepa waddoups 1956 after the first few years the colony was selfsufficientself sufficient and produced cattle sheep wheat oats barley comcorn potatoes hay squash and many other fruits and vegetables eventually in 1908 a
260000 aqueduct was constructed to carry irrigation and culinary water from the nearby mountains water was even piped into each house the colony was finally a modem city the settlement was unique it was a blend of LDS polynesian and western ideals most settlers were hawaiian however there were also a few Sasamoanssammansmoans tongansTongans tahitiansTahitians fijiansFijians laorismaoris and other south sea islanders deseret evening news september 1 1908 salt lake herald republican august 31 1914 this blending of cultures was most apparent in their types of food dress and entertainment for instance poi along with pork was their staple food but since taro from which poi is commonly made could not be grown in utah wheat flour was substituted comcorn husks replaced ti leaves and since sea food was not available they planted carp in several ponds around town to supplement their diet they also wore clothing common to both utah and the islands in the winter warmer utah attire was more appropriate however in the summer cooler traditional type dress was more popular especially with the women also not only did they sing their native songs and dance their native dances but they also sang and danced local favorites in fact performances were continually requested by
surrounding communities
for 28 years losepaiosepaiokepa served as the gathering place for polynesians in utah then in 1915 church leaders announced the construction of a temple in hawaii at laie on oahubahu the former site of gathering upon hearing this many hawaiians wished to return
14 home to help build the temple and strengthen the members there church leaders granted their permission and shortly thereafter losepajosepa was vacated today nothing but a few rundownrun down houses and a small isolated cemetery remain of the once proud and prosperous colony for contrasting images of losepajosepa see florin 1963 and panek 1992 according to thomas waddoups the last leader of the colony losepajosepa contained at its height approximately 226 polynesians shortly before it finally closed in 1917 and had increased its size to almost 5000 acres thus the official gathering of polynesians to utah was over
by 1920 utah was virtually devoid of Polynepolynesianssians not until several years later would a new wave of polynesian immigrants arrive this time they would arrive mostly from tonga and samoa in addition they would not reside in a stable self sufficient rural colony but rather most of them would now settle in the bustling metropolitan area of salt lake city just as the original polynesian immigrants had first done from these early religious cultural and familial ties utah became a primary destination for polynesian immigrants to the united states
15 CHAPTER 3 polynesians in the united states
polynesians are a very small minority within the united states and so have seldom been studied indeed polynesians currently make up only about onetenthone tenth of one percent of the total population of the united states but they are not evenly distributed among the states excluding hawaii they constitute only about onetwentiethone twentieth of one percent of the continental population using census publications this chapter maps their distributions by state indeed polynesian subgroups other then hawaiiansHawaiians particularly tongans and Sasamoanssammansmoans were only first specifically enumerated in the 1980 census though this chapter only compares and contrasts changes from 1980 to 1990 several trends are apparent
today most polynesians live in the west figures 313.1 and 323.2 illustrate the distributions of polynesians by state for the census years of 1980 and 1990 respectively most polynesians continue to reside in hawaii california washington utah and texas the important differences between these five states are highlighted in figure 333.3 with 7181 polynesians in 1990 utah ranked third in absolute numbers of polynesiansPolynesians excluding hawaii although this represents less than three percent of the total polynesian population in the united states utah ranked first per capita among the continental united states with 414.1 polynesians per 1000 persons in 1990 for a comparison with these five dominant states figure 343.4 lists statistics for every state
16 Pol01yneslansians mth united states 1980
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19 figure 343.4 number of polynesianspo ynesiansyneynosiansslans byy state
1980 1990 change
AJI persons state allailajlAJI persons popolynesiansnesians Poepolynesianssiansslans per 1000 allailaliAJI persons Ponepolynesianssiansslans Poneponesianspolynesianssiansslans per 1000 allail Poepoesianspolynesianssiansslans allailajlalp US 226545805 220278 10 248709873 283885 11 98 289 continental USU S 225581114 85591 04 247601644 129609 05 98 514 alabama 3894025 621 02 4040587 321 01 38 483 alaska 401851 532 13 550043 1487 27 369 1795 arizona 2716546 10631083 04 3665228 2179 06 34934 9 1012 arkansas 2286357 218 01 2350725 196 01 28 101 california 23667764 45366 19 29760021 70475 24 257 553 colorado 2889735 985 03 3294394 laelam1863 06 140 898911 connecticut 3107564 74 00 3287116 513 02 58 5932 delaware 594338 82 01 666168 99 01 121 20720 7 flonda 9746961 1812 02 12937926 3035 02 327 675 georgia 5462982 942 02 6478216 1201 02 186 275 hawaii 964691 134687 1396 11982291108229 154276 1392 149 145 idaho 944127 457 05 1006749 602 06 66 317 illinois 11427409 1052 01 11430602 1227 01 00 166 indiana 5490214 583 01 5544159 776 01 10 331 iowa 2913808 375 01 2776755 363 01 47 32 kansas 2364236 406408 02 2477574 660 03 48 618 kentucky 3660324 500 01 363685296H 550 01 07 100 louisiana 4206116 695 02 4219973 490 01 03 295 aq maine 1125043 112 01 1227928 172 01 919 1 536 maryland 4216933 731131 02 4781468 762 02 134 42 massachusetts 5737093 445 01 6016425 581 01 49 306 michigan 9262044 990 01 9295297 901 01 ol0401 90 minnesota 4075970 379 01 4375099 418 01 73 103 mississippi 2520770 421 02 2573216 296 01 21 297 missourmissounmlssoun 4916766 1144 02 5117073 1570 03 41 372 montana 786690 146 02 799065 190 02 16 301 nebraska 1569825 225 01 1578385 371 02 050 5 649 nevada 800506800508890508 812 10 1201833 2246 19 501 1766 new hampshire 920610 94 01 1109252 144 01 205 532 new jerseyjerse 7365011 691 01 7730188 1098 01 50 589 new mexico 1303302 287 02 1515069 544 04 162 895 new york 17558165 2192 01 17990455 1964 01 25 10410 4 north carolina 5880095 1086 02 6628637 1349 02 127 242 north dakota 652717 71 01 638800 119 02 21 67667 6 ohio 10797603 890 01 10847115 824 01 05 74 oklahoma 3025487 812 03 3145585 1045 03 40 287 oregon 2633156 1785 07 2842321 2953 10 79 654 pennsylvania 11864720 1064 01 11881643 1321 01 01 242 rhode island 947154 63 01 1003464 89 01 59 413 south carolina 3120729 532 02 3486703 601 02 117 130 south dakota 690768 80 01 696004 153 02 08 913 tennessee 4591023 557657 01 4877185 794 02 62 425 texas 14225513 2852 02 16986510 4466 03 194 566 utah 1461037 4206 29 1772850 7181 41 213 707 vermont 511456 25 00 562758 49 01 100 960 virginia 5346797 1260 02 6187358 1638 03 157 30300 0 washington 4132353 4839 12 4866692 8897 1618 178 639839 west virmniavirgniavirginia 1950186 117 01 1793477 128 01 80 94 wisconsin 4705642 350 01 4891769 423 01 40 209 wyoming 4695571469557 116 02 453588 154 03 34 328
20 sgbsas
eigure35 crolplesiaabensity
misia
19 29
affpff 1000 mathitms sgnsattsi lnotehaw6aie hanafihawafi excluded 1396139 eolnisiatoltoiEolynislabislanisianesiananesian ensltv by staitestatte 990
WA
OR
NT
RX
koynoy
aS 19 29 3 alaska 4 pa h&6kuu tivefive the proportion of polynesians tothetptal population of the x figures 35 and 36 illustrate the concentration of polynesian
the west still dominatesdominatesthethe distribution yet proportionally U
the continental united states indeed with 292.9 polynesians per 1 980and then 41 polynesiansperPolynesiansper 1000 personsin1990utahco hest proportion of polynesians of any state excluding hawaii ough the polynesian population of the united states has changed
m the last several years so has the general population from 19 hiationmiation of the united states increased only 98 percent yet the P hcreased 289289percentpercent figure37Figure 37 compares this growth with the
AP0palationulationulatibnulationibnlon chahchanchanseednm the united states andandututahah19804o1980 toltoi19
M aiipersons
D 60 N
40
20
U tilte d S ta te s utah areaanea of the five states with relatively large polynesian populations utah ranks second with a phenomenal 70770.7 percent growth in its polynesian population from 1980 to 1990 for comparison figure 383.8 illustrates the change in the number of polynesians compared with the change in total population from 1980 to 1990 for each state in all but a few states polynesian growth from 1980 to 1990 far surpassed growth in the total population the greatest growth rate of 5932593.2 percent was sustained by connecticut over 100 times the average growth rate in that state however this is unrepresentative of the states true situation where there still remains only about I11 polynesian per 5000 persons overall in the united states from 1980 to 1990 polynesian populations grew about three times as fast as the general population thus utah is only a little above average with polynesian growth about 333.3 times the growth in the general population in addition to changing polynesian populations in the united states the distribution of constituent ethnic subgroups is also changing the primary polynesian subgroups in the united states are hawaiiansHawaii ans Sasamoanssammansmoans and tongansTongans figure 393.9 illustrates the proportion of these ethnicities in the continental united states and in selected states for 1990 hawaiians comprise a clear majority of polynesians in the united states even outside of hawaii and samoans make up most of the remainder however utah is again anomalous in utah tongans constitute the majority of polynesiansPolynesians in fact more tongans reside in utah than in any state except california moreover although utah comprises only about sevententhsseven tenths of one percent of the entire US population approximately 22 percent of all tongans in the united states reside in utah the reasons for this will be discussed in detail in chapter 6 nevertheless compared with other states the polynesian population in utah remains quite unusual
24 a population change bystatc 8
alabamaala barnlamnlamm a i alaska iwyv4s ararizonaizonaleona avsfrfis arkansasarkahsasas ssw8ss8j a i ioadoa ixa ya C aliforniacalifornia 5ffiaassss CcblaradoCbl61 oradoarado coC onneoticutn n e oti out sasntesifila D& elauvareelaifliarelaufare florida eorgi3ie 0 a H aw aailgilH i rairraiggriir aap idaho riir ii&sa&aaasafeiiisss&aaatieki ASS minillinois indiana iokiiokwleinialoiniaa kansas7 kekentuckyntuantu oky louisloulslouisianaianaibanai mamalsiein e maryland N maimadwassmasss aachusch us ettiettsbitsbibs S MhiohlomichiganmiehiganMieic hhigan1 a apnp besaksgssk minnesota sawslirfbehaiy miss iss ippi ssftetgateaisy hismissmismls sou ouriri montanamo llnaelna N abrasebrasebraskaabraska sc3sce nevadaN e vadagada neime hampshirea M P s r e newN ewi ijarrjerrjarse rs eeyY N eveuievieuk mexico n7na neiaiyork0 rk ew 7 Nnorth0 rth Ccarolinaa ro in a N ith Ddaitak oiaoladiadibota igwnrth0 0 ohiohl 0 xyaxy fttftbbbbs5 oklaakloklokiaa h 0 m a ore g on pennsylvaniannsanns yteaniayteynn aniagnia rho de islandislands sb8bftshtevsS ruthcouthc0 uth C a ro linin a southbouthS 0 uth D akakotaaeotaota tentennessness ee texasT exas uliaulahutahuta h vermontyermontverm ont virginia wwasas hhingtonin ito610 n weswestvlrginiat virg in W vwwisirs econs0 ns I1inn ipolynesiaisboyrpoyr wyosyonwyonwyomm in g ing 1 I adladd PIEpersons
7
licinticin ftipatip ssaiaagiwbbyswvssysiw Sse abissssssiisaslsxsasbss MH awaiiar samianosamoano mtongmaong ans leothe rpoapo CHAPTER 4 polynesians in utah
utah has one of the most distinctive polynesian populations in the united states indeed their unique history within utah and longstandinglong standing relationship with the LDS church have contributed to their current geographic distribution this chapter explores these unique characteristics in utah and maps their distributions by county most data in this chapter derives from 1980 and 1990 census publications however some reliable population estimates of polynesians in utah exist back to 1867 when the first polynesian arrived in utah the number of polynesiansPolynesians their ethnic compositions and their areas of concentration within utah have varied greatly over the years compiled from all available data figure 414.1 illustrates the growth of the polynesian population within utah from 1860 to 1990 there is an unfortunate lack of data for the period from 1930 to
1970 nevertheless the general trend is apparent growth began slowly at first and peaked in about 1917 at the height of the losepajosepa colony the distribution proportion and ethnic makeup of polynesians in utah would probably be very different today if the colony had never closed but because most of the hawaiians returned to hawaii polynesian residents in utah dwindled almost to zero shortly after the colony closed in
1917 finally after world war II11 polynesian immigration again increased since then growth has been dramatic for instance in 1980 there were 4206 polynesians in utah or about I11 per 350 persons but in 1990 there were 7181 or about I11 per 250 persons this represents about a 71 percent increase in the polynesian population within utah over the decade whereas the general population in utah only grew about 21 percent nevertheless current distributions contrast sharply with the historic concentration at losepajosepa in tooelethoele county
27 0 1380 figures 424.2 and 434.3 illustrate the distributions of polynesians in utah by county for the census years 1980 and 1990 respectively in addition figure 444.4 lists each countys specific statistics the areas of polynesian concentration generally follow trends in the overall population with most living along the wasatch front consisting of salt lake utah and davis counties with lesser numbers in weber cache and washington counties few live elsewhere in the state two notable differences in the distributions occur in duchesne and emery counties in 1980 there were sizable polynesian populations in these areas however in
1990 there were no polynesians left in duchesne county and few left in emery county according to eileen hansen 1996 and roseanne fillmore 1996 directors of economic development for duchesne and emery counties respectively these exoduses were most likely caused by declines in extractive industries which historically supported these areas specifically the oil industry in duchesne county and coal mining in emery county the fading of these enterprises especially affected polynesians living and working in these areas because polynesiansPolynesians particularly male polynesiansPolynesians tend to gravitate towards these types of occupations chapman 1972 in fact according to the 1990 census most polynesians in utah are laborers concentrating especially in the construction and mining industries consequently much polynesian employment tends to be sporadic and follow fluctuations in the economy barringer et al 1993 thus when the labor market in these areas stagnated in the 1980s the workers moved on
29 N figure 424.2 polynesians in utah 980
key emdEMI 0
loo100 499 ricrid 500 999 m1000 4999 M 5000 35 0 70 miles
sumrtutmatut
wistahwistch
beaverbewver alxl
&eieiai&
0O kiiiikiiji MEN figure 434.3 tolynesians in utah 1990
key 0 99 100499loo100 499 500- 999 1000 4999 5000
35 0 35 70 miles m6ma
01 m
alpeanpe
am
pp en hw CO 0 0 na 0 h 0 n 0 na na 0 CO 0 5na 0 0 00 na na na 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ans 70770.7 33333.3 50750.7 83383.3 1 1 1 50050.0 90090.0 62062.0 3000300.0 1000100.0 1000100.0 CO 3978397.8 7800780.0 900 1000100.0 3846384.6 CM c 333 3250325.0 007 n 500 g i 0 mrm 0 233332333.3 0 0 R 40009000 00 CO 9000 00 D 0 s s 0 0 in 04000 CO T- s r CO M s CD 0 baasszamc 0 po0 change0 Q CD 00 CO N 00 en 0 D 00 h 00 N w CO 0 CO N 00 M CO 0 CO 0 in 0 8.8 989.8 8.8 0.6 989.8 8.4 5.2 t 393.9 0 03.0 484.8 222.2 838.3 t 959.5 21321.3 88mm mm 22.7 88 10310.3 28328.3 06om mw84 19.7 49819819.8 52 28528.5 26326.3 12412.4 17917.9 17317.3 30 11211.2 wm 52208252.2 mm 20920.9 18418.4 86386.3 13913.9 mo 88 98 227 06 84 197 ob02 CN CO30 wam 48 22CM 83 CO CO 95 00 0 N mm00 98mm 00 0 0 V 00 D 39mm00 0 00 484 863 0 c 88 1030 0 wms grm 0 0 0 N s T- T CM M V N r 8 T persons2 0
d eod A 1 r r 00 0 CD w CO 00 y in 0 V 0 D M s CO CD CM 4.1 040.4 080.8 191.9 040.4 0 161.6 0 050.5 0 030.3 181.8 0 0 050.5 0 0 696.9 050.5 090.9 060.6 020.2 171.7 0 434.3 0 262.6 0 121.2 ww41 pm wmpm cm om wmpm www om mm mm mm wb wm nm aggg 41vf 04 0849T- 04 T 05 03 14114.1 05 69 05 09 06 02 47T 43 26CM 1000azem 0 0 0 0 0 t- t 0 0 0 0 0 0
aalaarperD Q 0 answasmasC 0 0 Q ynesc
county po0 Q
N V N CO CO 1 n 2 28 00 0 5 0 2 37h 0 73 0 D 15in 90 00 44 0 0 0 3 0 l wnm s 136S 8 306 CO fsas 0 0 s 6 3 8126426 0 s196imm 7181 5038 1144r siansc 2 19900 0 0 in ynesians r- 0 0 0 szamzayne by c po0 Q
4.4 T m CM hw 00 hw 0 00 ho 44 0 gomm g g 08 S 690090 CO hw in C S hw s n 3980 maco 4765 S s s s6620 5817 5169 55280028 1277 s1725 in s wm 2177 70183 20228 10332 20789 11333 16259 0 36485 12645 15518 c c4ca CO CD hw 00 N 12621 N 15431 26601 22211 10089 48560 CO 0 187941 725956 in 0 263590 158330 1772850 ts 0 CO s s s si S D a in D s 8 8 5 CO utah persons t g 0 0 V h a 00 T T CN N N N 0 r T V fm CD d A figure
in CD CM rs N D tf 0 00 D N 00 0 CO 292.9 070.7 020.2 0.6 0 0 1.4 2.4 262.6 080.8 0 0 0 0.7 0 0 0 0 1.6 0 0 0 0.2 0.2 0 2.8 0.6 01.0 0 0.8 mm cm06 ww14 nw24 mmgm mn07 16wm 02 02 mm28 06 10 08 29N 07 02cn 06 44 bwN M 08 07 46 02 02 CN28 06cm 10 08mm 1000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 D 0 0
aalawkperQ Q 0 aasansmasC 0 M
ynesD polynesians Cszam
po0 Q
0 00 hw N CO CO M CM N 05 S 7 n in 3 CO32 0 0 203 30 30 3 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 5 0 wog 5 26 0 aasansacm 4206 8 8 602 S 121461c 1980X C N 1012 0 CO 0 D 0 0 rh ynesc po0 Q
00 V CO r CO 10 N 0 0 0 h CO CO 00 D CM S s 470 a CM 00 CM h4378 3673 s S 05305530 4024 8970 4917 1329 82100 8241 0 8523 1911 33222 57176 22179 12565 17349 12253 14620 14727 10198 26033 20506 1 c 11451 CO 5 26065 s 146540 8 rs 5 0 619066 a 5 218106 1 0 in 144616 1461037 0 5 0 CN s 00 N 00 00 0 a persons R te h if f t 5 D 5 a V T- s a- erxerm T D CN CD rf CL A
c X- lodhod 0 agtonngton0 derCD 0 C c Q j county J ID CO lakenakoname juan0 CO d0 c E u c 3 CD c 0 D 0 utahclam CD LU S 0 0 3 t Q 0 duchesne er E e q E 0 5 0 CD ard2 Q J 0 wasatch c c daggett s CD sanpeteQ Q atahntah0 Q 0 JQ morgan beaver carbon sa 0 ashwsh 5 cacheonoma emery jei s3 clautezza summ 0 wayne .0 0 1 weber x J garfiee grand zam C C C E 0 0 0 1 0 kanemacamaze ch C 0 D CD boxmox 0 0 0 aasams B lazkazronc CO 3 0 san D hooe0 S utah 0 dav 0 3 0 sat0 0 ronrovsev 3 0 SP CD 0 0 Q Q Q hi 0 0 iM 2 Pn rfR rn m rn rn faf0 Us
32 to reveal a better view of the true changes in concentrations of polynesians in utah figures 454.5 and 464.6 map the proportion of polynesians per 1000 persons by county for 1980 and 1990 respectively with these distributions the changes in the compositions ofduchesneofduchesne and emery counties are even more dramatic however even more remarkable is the change in kane county which is not evident from the other maps
kane county went from 3 polynesians in 1980 or 7.7 per 1000 to 73 in 1990 or 14114.1 per 1000 this represents over 2300 percent growth today although kane county only
has 5169 residents about I11 person per 70 is polynesian which is the highest concentration of any county in utah and even greater than salt lake city according to jim madson 1996 director of economic development for kane county some of this
increase is spillover from washington county resulting both from suburban growth and
construction in st george and less expensive housing in kane county in response to this increased housing demand many polynesian construction workers migrated to the area thus kane county currently contains the highest proportion of polynesians in utah overall utah continues to have the highest proportion of polynesians of any
continental state with 292.9 per 1000 persons in 1980 and 414.1 per 1000 persons in 1990
33 figure 454.5 polynesian densityin utah 1980 key
016901 69 1 19 NEW 2 39 cache 239 ma4 59 m6pear loo100 W b 35 0 35 70 miles me
I1 summit
atch fiarefimre 464.6gg polynesian density in utah 1990 key
1 19 39 4594 59 6 per 1000 hih&hmts 35 0 35 70 miles lyloIVIO
caiboh
leraeierneberne
eaver
e v although polynesian populations in some utah counties have dramatically increased or decreased so has the general population of these counties for comparison figure 474.7 contrasts the change in the number of polynesians in each county with the change in the countys general population from 1980 to 1990 most counties increased their numbers of Polynepolynesianssians indeed a number of counties increased their numbers of
Polynepolynesianssians but their rate of growth could not be calculated because they did not have any polynesians in 1980 seven counties kane tooelethoele iron salt lake washington box elder and cache experienced great growth in their polynesian populations however five counties lost polynesiansPolynesians with duchesne garfield and wasatch counties losing their entire polynesian population despite the fact that their overall population grew emery county was the only county to decrease both in general and polynesian populations As a whole utah sustained 21321.3 percent growth in its general population but its polynesian population increased by 70770.7 percent at the same time the polynesian population increased statewide some counties lost their polynesian residents while others gained overall in the decade 198019901980 1990 polynesians became more and more concentrated along the wasatch front and even more specifically in salt lake city
36 fiauifigui 6 4 popponU ionlon Change in utdh by Coun
beaver loam B ozelderoxelderox eiderElder C ache C aibarbhib on D aggett D avis D acheuche sneane emery 0 arfieldaffield randzandzana em aioniion cm juab K ane M illard M organ plute S altailall laklek e S an juanjwan S aapanp e te S ealierevlier surasitsuramit tooelethoele T J letah U tah iwasatch w a slaington mpiampi0 Yneynesianssiansslans W ayne mwajiperscns W eber loo100 0 200 300 4 0 0
Z polynesian chan9e undefined percent C anrewangew the polynesian population in utah is made up of several distinctive groups historically hawaiians were the first to migrate to utah but since the close of the losepajosepa colony in 1917 most subsequent immigrants have been tongansTongans though Sasamoanssammansmoans hawaiiansHawaiians and other polynesians are also currently immigrating into utah indeed most of these polynesians have migrated to utah since world war II11 particularly since 1970 figure 484.8 illustrates the ethnicity of polynesians in utah by county for 1990 note that the various polynesian subgroups are not distributed evenly throughout the state all polynesian subgroups have their largest numbers in salt lake county but different ethnic groups are distributed differently throughout the state notably most tongans are in salt lake utah and kane counties Sasamoanssammansmoans on the other hand although also primarily located in salt lake and utah counties makeup the majority of polynesians in weber washington and tooelethoele counties additionally although the bulk of hawaiians is also located in salt lake and utah counties they constitute the majority of polynesians in davis cache box elder and iron counties other polynesians mostly tahitians and french polynesiansPolynesians reside in small numbers along the wasatch front there are many reasons why certain polynesian ethnic groups dominate particular counties however most compositions are historically based for example because of their longer residency and prior status as united states citizens hawaiians are more scattered throughout utah and better integrated with the main population barringer et al 1993 likewise samoans are now dispersed throughout many counties but tongans still remain predominantly concentrated in salt lake county partially because many are very recent immigrants and most new immigrants to utah first settle in salt lake city barringer et al 1993 kinikini 1996 in addition the conspicuous segregation of samoans from tongans manifests the historical animosity between the two different cultures tong 1991 barringer et al 1993 kinikini 1996
38 morgan patelpktel I1 even though there are important differences between utahs various polynesian ethnic groups like the colonists at losepajosepa who historically kept much of their culture polynesian immigrants today also keep as much of their culture alive as possible indeed the samoans are particularly noted for keeping their traditional family structure intact
barringer et al 1993 there is also cooperation among the different polynesian ethnic groups during cultural celebrations currently the various polynesian groups in utah gather together once a year for a polynesian day celebration tong 1991 in fact this celebration is very similar to the old hawaiian pioneer day celebrated in losepaiosepaiokepa complete with traditional food song and dance
overall utah has one of the most distinctive polynesian populations in the united states and although there are important differences between the various polynesian ethnic groups they have shared a common history within utah with 7181 polynesians in 1990 utah has the third highest number of polynesians in the continental united states the greatest concentration per capita of any continental state about I11 per 250 and a growth rate of over 70 percent although different polynesian ethnic groups tend to settle in different areas in utah altogether they tend to follow trends in the general population and continue to concentrate along the wasatch front and even more specifically in salt lake city ultimately the interesting geography of polynesians in utah can be explained by longstandinglong standing religious cultural and familial ties between utah and the aforementioned polynesian countries
40 CHAPTER 5 polynesians in salt lake city
of all the areas in utah salt lake city clearly contains the most polynesiansPolynesians in 1990 salt lake city had 2146 polynesians mostly tongansTongans almost one third of the entire polynesian population in utah indeed about I11 person in 75 in salt lake city is polynesian however these statistics are not surprising since salt lake city is also the most populous city in the state the world headquarters for the LDS church and an historic magnet city for minorities immigrating to the state nevertheless the distribution of polynesians in salt lake city has changed over the years and become more concentrated in very specific areas of the city
figures 515.1 and 525.2 map the distributions of polynesians in salt lake city by census tracts for 1980 and 1990 respectively other than alterations in tracts loo100looi10011 1002 and 100410049 which do not especially concern this study since they do not contain substantial numbers of Polynepolynesianssians all other tracts remained geographically equivalent and are directly comparable for 1980 and 1990 for comparison figure 535.3 lists statistics for all salt lake city census tracts for 1980 and 1990
most polynesians reside in the general area bounded by 12151 215 1700 north 1151- 15 and 21002 loo100 south specifically tract 1003041003.04 continues to contain the greatest numbers of polynesians in salt lake city not surprisingly this is the same area where the first polynesian immigrants settled after migration recommenced following world war II11 kinikini 1996 eventually as other family members and friends joined those already in utah this area developed into a stable polynesian neighborhood indeed this type of chain migration to a particular area is very common among minority migrations barkan
1992 jones 1995 knowles 1995 today as a result of this established polynesian community polynesian immigrants continue to be attracted to this area
41 firure5y olynesiansolynesiansslans in saltsait lake city 1980
rosDOS
xiixit innainnw I1
m0ma
6 XXX
4 key f IN EM oosDOS 1 29 scale 48 30- 99 loo100 199 200 399 m400 10030403.04 19 80 ensue tract gure rolyiiesiansin oi V salme3itvy
0 13 008009 xi
loi101 jot101got
031 ax figure 535.3 polynesians Min salt lake city by census tract
1980 1990 change tract all persons polynesians polynesians per 1000 all persons polynesians polynesians per 1000 all persons Pnepnesianspolynesianssiansslans AIISLCallail SLC 163034 339 21 159928 2146 134 191 9 5330 1001 2100 1 05 1458 0 0 306 1000 1002 1005 0 0 897 0 0 108 0 100302 234 4 171 123 0 0 474 1000 100303 76 0 0 49 0 0 355 0 100304 5638 72 128 8563 476 556 519 5611561 1 1004 3729 3 08 3270 0 0 123 1000 1005 5306 6 liii111.11 1 5356 58 108 09 8667 1006 5452 12 22 4967 83 167 89 5917 1007 2855 3 liii111.11 1 2807 8 29 17 15671667 1008 2201 3 141.41 4 2202 3 141 4 01 0 1009 2097 1 05 2552 2 08 217 1000 1010 3514 6 itlt171.71 7 3185 0 0 94 1000 1011 5134 14 27 5031 0 0 20 1000
1012 1 4320 3 07 3951 0 0 85 1000 1013 1718 0 0 1873 5 27 90 na 1014 4831 17 35 3648 25 69 245 471 1015 3093 2 06 3147 0 0 18 1000 1016 3595 4 iili111.11 1 3454 22 64 39 4500 1017 3226 1 03 3102 11 35 38 10000
1018 1 2904 2 07 2606 18 69 103 8000 1019 2156 3 141.41 4 1774 0 0 177 1000 1020 2838 9 32 257212572 43 167 94 3778
1021 1 1287 4 31 1100 0 0 145 1000 1022 455 0 0 578 0 0 270 0 1023 2160 1 05 2659 0 0 231 1000 1024 1067 1 09 521 0 0 512 1000 1025 704 0 0 929 0 0 320 0 1026 3420 16 47 3238 298 920 53 17625
1027 1 5703 40 70 6166 302 490 81 6550 1028 7178 30 42 7519 467 621 48 14567 1029 3306 2 06 2744 31 113 170 14500
1030 1 3010 10 33 2790 42 151 73 3200 1031 4167 11 26 4065 8 20 25 273 1032 4711 8 171 7 4506 15 33 4444.44 875 1033 3691 9 24 3567 0 0 34 1000 1034 4289 6 141 4 4245 33 78 10 4500 1035 4318 1 02 4155 104 250 38 103000 1036 2843 0 0 2852 0 0 03 0 1037 2605 2 08 2634 0 0 111 1 1000 1038 1 2366 0 0 2323 0 0 18 0 1039 3756 4 ii111.11 1 3601 0 0 41 1000 1040 3378 0 0 3184 6 19 57 na 1041 3025 1 03 3121 0 0 32 1000 1042 6676 0 0 6583 0 0 14 0 1043 2934 1 03 2625 9 34 105 8000boogroog 1044 1 2050 0 0 2111 0 0 30 0 1045 1430 0 0 1431 6 42 01 na 1046 1157 0 0 1053 60 570 90 na 1047 4758 2 04 4862 0 0 22 1000 1048 4953 212 04 4910 6 112 09 2000 04 104911049 2863 0 1 010 2901 0 0 13 0 not geographically equivalent
44 to get a better understanding of exactly where polynesians are increasing in concentration within the city fiauresfigures 545.4 and 555.5 map the proportion of polynesians per 1000 persons by census tracts for 1980 and 1990 respectively tract 1003041003.04 again stands out however tract 1026 has the greatest concentration with 92 polynesians per
1000 persons nearly I11 person in I111I1 is polynesian in tract 1026 the highest proportion of polynesians anywhere in the state the other area of increased concentration not apparent on the preceding maps of absolute numbers is between 900 south and 22100loo100 south overall the change in patterns displayed by these maps exhibit increased concentration in a few key areas while other areas have been depopulated of Polynepolynesianssians
even though these tracts may be anticipated to be ghetto areas because of the high concentration of minorities in these districts they are not following field surveys of these neighborhoods and interviews with local residents these tracts appear to be average middleclassmiddle class areas most of the houses in these tracts are older and located on small lots but they are wellweilweli maintained singlefamilysingle family dwellings there are also a few well maintained apartment complexes many homes are owner occupied although tenancy is common kinikini 1996 for example of housing occupied by polynesians in tract
1003041003.04 about 64 percent is owner occupied and the average homeh0me is worth about 63000 US census 1996a religion and culture also remain closely connected as evidenced by several LDS and free wesleyan churches in these neighborhoods although both of these religions are prevalent among polynesiansPolynesians particularly among tongans and Sasamoanssammansmoans only the LDS religion directly affects migration to utah furthermore crime is not a serious concern in these areas kinikini 1996 nevertheless segregation between different polynesian groups is apparent overall these areas appear as clean established communities
45 fiauifigui 5 r aelianaesian denmty in saltsait lake city 1980
01- 49 5 99 scale i 0 29 9 bpliesianfderisime lanian donsityinsalt eabeaklab City 1 99 polynesian populations in some areas of salt lake city increased dramatically from 1980 to 1990 but not all tracts have sustained growth evenly indeed the overall population of these areas either decreased or only moderately increased and some tracts lost all of their polynesian population for comparison figure 565.6 illustrates the change in the polynesian population compared with the change in the total population by census tracts from 1980 to 1990 however the rate of growth could not be calculated for some tracts because they did not contain any polynesians in 1980 for example tract 1046 experienced tremendous growth but its percent change could not be calculated moreover many tracts sustained phenomenal growth in their polynesian populations but lost population overall tracts 1017 1026 1028 1029 and 1035 all experienced over
1000 percent growth in their polynesian populations and tract 1035 increased its polynesian population an enormous 10300 percent As a whole salt lake citys population declined 2 percent from 1980 to 1990 however its polynesian population increased 533 percent during the same period although the majority of polynesians in salt lake city are tongan this is not true for all areas in the city for comparison figure 575.7 illustrates the ethnicity of polynesians in salt lake city by 1990 census tracts indeed most tongans are located in tracts 1026 1027 and 1028 however samoans comprise the majority of tract 1003041003.04 hawaiians dominate tract 1005 and other polynesiansPolynesians mostly tahitiansTahitians dominate tract 1035 As mentioned these different districts correspond to the original areas settled by particular ethnicities kinikini 1996 interestingly like the segregation exhibited across the state chapter 4 the different polynesian ethnic groups are also segregated from each other throughout the city
48 figure 565.6 population changeinchangminChangeingeln saltsait lake C b census tradtraa 1980 to 1990
1100 1002 100302 100303 10 0304 1004 auramrmug 5 loo100 1006 1007 1008 rakrahNMI 1009loog 1010
1012 10 13 10 iai4 loi1015 1016
1018 1019 1020 1021 1022 F 1023 1024 me 1025 1026 1027 1028 1029 1030
1032
40341034
1036 103t 1038 1039 1040
1042
1044 1045 1046 1047 poltpollpoitmesiansevians 1048 calmngam naal allail dersonsersons
0 200 400 600goo 800 1000 12 polynesian change undefjundef ined permiitpermint cham- ot figure 5 7 ethnicethnidityliy ofpolynesians in saltsait lake citcliY by 1990 census tracts
1002 1003m 1003031003.03 100304 004 10051006 1006loog loot1007 lolo1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015
1017 01 1019 1020 1021 1022 1023 saltsait lae city 4
7 in 1028 029 1 03 0 1031 1032 1033 1034 1035 1036 1037 1038 1033 o 0 I1 0O i 0 o 4 1043 emtongans 1044 1045 elsarft6ang 1046 1047 chawmhawallans 1048 alother polkpoly siansslans 1049 z3za
0 10 200 300 400 00 M number
50 the conspicuous geographical segregation of the various polynesian subgroups manifests historical animosity between their different cultures particularly between tongans and samoans tong 1991 barringer et al 1993 kinikini 1996 again the hawaiians appear better integrated with the other ethnicities probably because of their longer residency and prior status as united states citizens barringer et al 1993 nevertheless being relatively large salt lake city has the same social and urban problems as any city of its size animosity between these different polynesian groups today is further evidenced by increasing racespecificrace specific gang activity tong 199iggi19911 for example in 1990 lou tong the director of the office of asian and polynesian affairs for the utah state department of community and economic development estimated at least 100 tongan gang members in the salt lake area there is also a smaller samoan gang nevertheless more polynesians are becoming law enforcement officers that same study counted four polynesian peace officers in the salt lake area essentially salt lake city remains the locus of polynesian immigration to utah particularly for tongansTongans although increasing numbers of polynesians are migrating elsewhere in utah furthermore although most polynesians historically migrated to utah for religious reasons things are changing today although many polynesian immigrants to utah are still LDS many are migrating for reasons other than religion nevertheless salt lake city and utah remain important destinations for polynesian immigrants
51 CHAPTER 6 polynesian migration to utah
As illustrated in the preceding chapters in several ways utah is culturally different from other states in fact utah is the only major nonnonpacificpacific noncoastalnon coastal destination for polynesian immigrants in the world however utah has long been a focal point for polynesian immigration to the united states because of the proselyting activities of the LDS church although many reasons currently influence polynesians to migrate to utah a few prominent factors can be identified from various unpublished personal sources available for study including recently obtained oral histories following a search of these materials for common migrationmigrationinfluencinginfluencing factors this chapter identifies the reasons why polynesians migrate to utah and explores why utah has a high proportion of polynesians compared to other states
in addition to the historical sources previously discussed in chapter 2 cluff 1889 waddoups 1956 all available polynesian oral histories collected by the charles redd center for western studies at brigham young university covering the period 1969 to
1990 were surveyed for common reasons for recent migration to utah tulimafuaTulimafua 1992 mounga 1992 wolfgramm 1992 matalelematabeleMatalele 1993 atoa 1992 fano 1993 apart from these written histories additional supporting information was generously supplied during interviews by maile kinikini 1996 a lifelonglife long tongan resident of salt lake city although all of these sources represent individual case studies and are limited in number
and scope together they exhibit several common elements using jones 1995 typology
of migration figure 6166.1gi 1 these elements can be examined for specific causes and components
historically as discussed in chapter 2 the main reason for polynesian
immigration to utah was clearly religion cluff 1889 warren 1966 waddoups 1956 this is an often overlooked reason for migration but remains a powerful factor both as a
52 reason to migrate and as an important migration causes and components consideration in selecting a particular components destination indeed both utah and parts W volume obstacles of polynesia have proportionally large
LDS populations for example origin demographic Desdestinatdestinatedestinationtinat selectivity according to the deseret news church factors almanac 199519961995 1996 tonga is about 38 personalpersona spatial percent LDS and utah is about 75 factors selectivity percent religious figure 616.1gi migration causes and components LDS although source jones 1995716 factors do not currently push polynesians to migrate to utah the existence of the LDS church in utah attracts many LDS Polynepolynesianssians who without the common religious bond would probably not have chosen to migrate to utah in fact according to early polynesians in utah religion compensated for the many negative factors incidental to life in utah compared with life in polynesia cluff 1889 today however the influencing factors are more varied based on a survey of seven recent interviews the principal factors and obstacles which currently influence polynesian migration to utah can be identified figure 626.2 although the LDS religion still remains an important personal factor most of the current growth in the polynesian population in utah is a direct result of family members joining other relatives already established in utah tulimafuaTulimafua 1992 mataele 1993 kinikini 1996 for example pitr tulimafuaTulimafua who immigrated from tonga in 1986 at age 36 expressed his reasons for migrating to utah as follows
I1 tried to come to the united states because my younger brother came here I1 really liked to see him he came ten years before I1 did I1 missed him that is why I1 wanted to come I1 heard from tonga that in the united states people have a lot of money I1 heard this was a rich country that was why I1 wanted to come and see how to be a rich american my young brother lived in provo he said that utah was the only state in america that was a very good state we came here because there were a lot of mormons tulimafuaTulimafua 19923
53 figure 626.2 factors and obstacles in polynesian migration to utah
polynesian islands PUSH FACTORS PULL FACTORS poor economy good economy
low wages family ties
land shortage LDS religious ties
population pressure educational opportunities
OBSTACLES
great distance
great cost
different culture
different climate
utah
54 in addition to family and religious ties many polynesians also migrate to utah because of the prosperous economy educational opportunities employment opportunities low crime rates compared to other states and already established polynesian communities for example T lui wolfgramm who immigrated from tonga in 1971 at age 26 said
the thing I1 like about utah is that it is one of the few places where you can raise your family in a good wholesome environment utah is a wonderful place everything is right here at your fingertips wolfgramm 199217 furthermore luisa manu mataele who immigrated from tonga with her family in 1978 at age 4 stated
A primary advantage to living in utah I1 think is education I1 know that the education system here is a lot better than in tonga monetarily the quality of life is better here theres more work here definitely because most of the tongans in tonga are subsistent farmers mataele 19938 ironically many of these same reasons also lure criminallymindedcriminally minded individuals to salt lake city where they easily join the established polynesian gangs tong 199iggi19911 besides salt lake city there is also a large established polynesian community in the ProvoprovooremOrem area because brigham young university located in provo is an affordable private LDS college many polynesians come to utah for educational or athletic purposes but since they usually remain only temporarily their numbers are unknown because they may not be counted in census statistics however many who first come for educational or athletic reasons marry or obtain employment locally and end up staying permanently for example mote mounga who immigrated from tonga in 1969 at age 19 expressed his reasons for staying in utah as follows
I1 came here as a student to BYU I1 have lived here since then I1 married an american that is one of the main reasons why I1 came here it was the quality of education plus for my wife mounga 1992199211
55 in addition although many polynesians in the united states feel discriminated against most polynesians in utah report feeling accepted atoa 1992 wolfgramm 1992 fano 1993 kinikini 1996 for example T lui Wolfgramwolfgrammrn stated
I1 have never had anybody say anything negative to me about being polynesian being different than them they have treated me with a lot of respect I1 cantcanftcanet recall a time that I1 felt that I1 was an outsider I1 have always felt right in with them nobody has ever snuffed at us they treated me equal just like them I1 have never had any problems wolfgramm 199215 overall although there are several reasons why polynesians migrate to utah family religion and education remain predominant
besides positive personal and destination factors there are also negative origin factors which increase migration from polynesia particularly from tonga for example a poor economy lack of jobs low wages population pressure overcrowding and a
shortage of land induce many to migrate maude 1973 pulu 1990 according to the
europa world year book europa 1996 much of tongas economy is subsistence based
with agriculture and fisheries employing about 70 percent of tongas workforce As a
result tonga ranks among the lowermiddlelower middle income group of developing nations with a
per capita income of only 1610 world bank 1996 in addition according to the international database JDBIDB 1996 70 percent of tongas population is under age 30 and
with 13 percent unemployment europa 1996 many young people do not have jobs
furthermore tongas population doubles about every 20 years IDB 1996 figure 636.3
illustrates the increase in tongas population from 1945 to 1995 moreover tongas
landtenureland tenure system is very unusual and by law entitles every taxpaying male aged 16
years and over 828.2 acres of agricultural land and 343.4 acres in a village for his home maude 1973 however in a country of 106000 people 394 per square mile with only
43000 acres of arable land spread across 169 volcanic and coral islands europa 1996 this allotment system cannot be fully implemented and often increases political
economic and social dissatisfaction which also increases migration pulu 1990
56 vitcalyrragpiitca jleigure63 syiwisasw population oftonga 1945 f
1 1 1 1 Z currently about I11 percent of tongas entire population migrates each year IDB 1996 however it has been estimated that about 40 percent of tongas adult male population migrated between 1969 and 1974 mostly to new zealand australia the west coast of
the united states and hawaii pulu 1990 today about 45000 tongansTongans nearly one
third of all ethnic tongansTongans reside outside of tonga world bank 1996
in addition to pull and push factors there are also obstacles to polynesian
migration to utah such as great distances great cost different cultures and different
climates interestingly however these obstacles do not seem to prevent polynesians from migrating to utah this conclusion may be overdrawn though because the significance
of these obstacles to those who chose not to migrate is unknown nevertheless about 10 percent of all polynesian outmigrantsout migrants eventually migrate to utah for example based on their net number of migrants in 1996 about 1017 people currently leave tonga each year JDBIDB 1996 and based on their average number of yearly entries to utah from 1980 to 1990 about 94 foreignbornforeign bomborn tongans currently migrate to utah each year US census
1994 moreover there is very little return migration to the islands especially among the
young perhaps because of the high cost although these findings seem unusual they are
not necessarily peculiar to polynesiansPolynesians indeed among most pacific island societies the
trip has been historically important young voyagers would leave their homes to
explore and settle distant islands not knowing when or whether they would return
historically they moved readily between islands and valleys in search of new land diseasefreedisease free sites wives trading goods etc connell 198412 thus polynesians have always migrated far distances and faced unknown challenges today for many utah
simply lies at the end of the trip
besides various reasons for migrating to utah polynesians arrive from various locations both international and domestic and although some polynesians migrate directly to utah many do not today most polynesians in utah were bomborn in the united states for example in 1990 about 62 percent of the entire polynesian population in
58 utah was bomborn in the united states US census 1994 however this percentage is skewed because of hawaiis status as a state indeed of ethnic hawaiians in utah nearly
99 percent were bomborn in the united states how many of these were actually bomborn in hawaii is unknown however only 48 percent of the tongans in utah were born in the united states while 69 percent of the samoans in utah were bomborn US citizens furthermore many of these polynesians did not migrate directly to utah according to barringerBamnger et al 1992 western samoans tend to migrate to american samoa and then on to the united states because of the lower standard of living in western samoa yet persons born in american samoa although not US citizens are considered US nationals and thus have free entry into the united states however tongansTongans like western Sasamoanssammansmoans do not have free access to the united states and many also migrate to american samoa and then on to the united states moreover some polynesiansPolynesians particularly western Sasamoanssammansmoans also reside awhile in new zealand another locus of polynesian immigration before immigrating to the united states stringer 1992 wolfgramm 1992 barringerBamnger et al 1993 many polynesian immigrants also first reside awhile in hawaii before moving on to the mainland atoa 1992 mounga 1992 mataele 1993 some also reside awhile in san francisco los angeles or seattle all of which have sizable polynesian populations barringerBamnger et al 1993 eventually usually after several steps some move on to utah
although the preceding migration scenario is very common among polynesians in utah some migrate directly from their native countries tulimafuaTulimafua 1992 the exact percentage of polynesians who migrate directly to utah is unknown nevertheless most migrate to salt lake city where there is the largest established polynesian community in utah others primarily students migrate directly to provo fano 1993 many of those who move to provo return home yet some stay mounga 1992 either way their presence strengthens established polynesian communities
59 polynesians in utah as elsewhere particularly the tongans and Sasamoanssammansmoans feel a strong sense of community indeed many maintain extended family and economic structures chapman 1972 moreover most polynesiansPolynesians especially foreign bom immigrants keep strong ties to their native countries both physical and psychological
barringer et al 1993 this is frequently expressed as a desire to return home or as a nostalgia for the traditional lifestyle mounga 1992 tulimafuaTulimafua 1992 indeed most polynesians in utah miss their homelandshomelands especially the warmer climate the ocean and traditional foods for example when asked to describe her greatest challenge to living in utah luana atoa who immigrated from western samoa in 1990 at age 28 replied
winter snow it has just been physical things it is not being able to go to the beach greenery ethnic foods utah is very dry ethnic foods are expensive over here atoa 199219921010 in addition some polynesians return frequently to the islands usually to visit relatives
atoa 1992 even polynesians bomborn in utah who have never known life on the islands express a longing for what they feel is a simpler more innocent way of life kinikini 1996 thus there is eventually some return migration to the islands especially among a few of the elderly who wish to die on their homeland mounga 1992
overall current polynesian migration to utah fits jones 1995 typology of migration and is predominately based upon strong personal factors positive destination factors and negative origin factors although many causes and components influence the migration of polynesians to utah based upon available personal sources polynesians continue to leave their homelands because of poor economies low wages land shortages and population pressure they overcome great distances great cost different cultures and different climates ultimately polynesians choose to migrate to utah because of family ties LDS religious ties educational opportunities and employment opportunities As a result of this extraordinary migration utah is a popular destination for polynesian immigrants both foreign and native LDS and non LDS
60 CHAPTER 7 conclusions
this thesis has explored the history and geography of polynesians in utah and has attempted to explain why polynesians migrate to utah and why utah has a relatively high concentration of polynesians compared to other states specifically this thesis has examined and analyzed the historic and current migrations of hawaiiansHawaii ans Sasamoanssammansmoans and tongans to utah and mapped the 1980 and 1990 distributions of polynesians at three scales in the united states by state in utah by county and in salt lake city by census tract from this inquiry several conclusions can be made
historically polynesias relationship with utah has been found to be primarily religious specifically of conversion to the LDS church followed by migration to utah indeed the first polynesian convert arrived in utah in 1867 and until 1889 polynesian converts gathered in salt lake city then from 1889 to 1917 the church colonized all polynesiansPolynesians mostly hawaiiansHawaii ans in losepajosepa eventually after this colony was disbanded most polynesians either returned to the islands or to salt lake city thus although utah seems an odd destination for islanders it has long been a focal point for polynesian immigration to the united states because of the proselyting activities of the LDS church furthermore since religious cultural and familial ties were forged early utah is now a primary destination for polynesian immigrants regardless of religion overall utah has one of the most distinctive polynesian populations in the united states in fact utah is the only major noncoastalnon coastal continental destination for polynesian immigrants in the world indeed although polynesians currently constitute only about onetwentiethone twentieth of one percent of the continental population of the united states or about I11 polynesian per 2000 persons utah contains about I11 polynesian per 250 persons moreover with 7181 polynesians in 1990 utah ranks third in the continental united states in absolute numbers however per capita utah ranks first with 414.1 polynesians
61 per 1000 persons furthermore since world war II11 utahs polynesian population has continued to increase dramatically in fact of the continental states with relatively large polynesian populations california washington utah and texas utah ranks second with 70770.7 percent growth in its polynesian population from 1980 to 1990
although there are important differences between the various polynesian ethnic groups their cultures are similar and have a shared common history within utah indeed the particular ethnic makeup of polynesians in utah can be primarily explained by long- standing religious and familial ties between utah and specific islands ie hawaii tonga and samoa As a result of these longstandinglong standing relationships utah is currently experiencing chain migration although hawaiians historically dominated utahs polynesian population today tongans constitute the majority of polynesians in utah yet there are also many Sasamoanssammansmoans hawaiiansHawaiians and other polynesians scattered throughout the state although different polynesian ethnic groups tend to settle in different areas in utah altogether they tend to follow trends in the general population and continue to concentrate in the salt lake area and along the wasatch front of all areas in utah salt lake city clearly contains the most polynesiansPolynesians the majority of whom are tongan in 1990 salt lake city had 2146 polynesiansPolynesians almost one third of all polynesians in utah moreover about I11 person per 75 in salt lake city is polynesian in fact as a result of family members joining other relatives already established in particular areas most polynesians in salt lake city now reside in established polynesian communities located on the west side of the city between 1151- 15 and
12151 215 thus salt lake city remains the locus of polynesian immigration to utah particularly for tongansTongans although increasing numbers of polynesians are migrating elsewhere in utah in the end many paths lead to utah and the trip takes many forms historically polynesians migrated directly to utah solely because of the LDS church today however things have changed current polynesian migration to utah fits jones 1995
62 typology of migration and is predominately based upon strong personal factors positive destination factors and negative origin factors although the LDS religion remains an important factor the exact percentage of polynesians who are LDS in utah is unknown today many polynesians report migrating to utah because of family ties educational opportunities and employment opportunities in addition many polynesians leave their
homelands because of poor economies low wages land shortages and population pressure there is also very little return migration especially among the young furthermore many seemingly negative obstacles such as great distances great cost
different cultures and different climates do not appear to prevent current polynesian migration to utah all told utah remains a unique destination for polynesian immigrants
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64 fillmore roseanne director 1996 telephone interview by author november 12 emery county economic development council florin lambert 1963 ghost town trails seattle washington superior publishing company hansen eileen director 1996 telephone interview by author november 6 duchesne county economic development board hinganobinganoHingano casimipasimi 1987 united states and south pacific islands an avenue towards better relations unpublished masters thesis brigham young university jones richard C 1995 immigration reform and migrant flows compositional and spatial changes in mexican migration after the immigration reform act of 1986 annals of the association ofamericanof american geographers 8571573085715 730 kinikini maile 1996 personal interview by author august 4 lee everett S 1966 A theory of migration demography 314731475757 madson jim director 1966 telephone interview by author november 6 kane county economic development mataleleMatmatabelealele luisa manu 1993 oral history interview by esmeralda meraz january 22 LDS polynesian american oral history project charles redd center for western studies brigham young university provo utah maude alaric 1973 land shortage and population pressure in tonga in the pacipaclpacificFITimnc in transition ed harold brookfield 163185163 185 london edward arnold mounga mote 1992 oral history interview by mark ahmu september 18 LDS polynesian american oral history project charles redd center for western studies brigham young university provo utah pack marvin 1896 the sandwich islands county and people A series of eleven articles the contributor 17212172 12 panek tracey 1992 life at losepajosepa utahs polynesian colony utah historical quarterly 60646064776016477 77 papanikolas helen editor 1976 the peoples of utah salt lake city utah utah state historical society
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68 THE GEOGRAPHY OF polynesians IN UTAH
adam M frazier
department of geography
MS degree april 1997
ABSTRACT
this thesis explores the unique history and geography of polynesians within utah in particular the historic and current migrations of hawaiiansHawaii ans Sasamoanssammansmoans and tongans to utah are examined and the 1980 and 1990 distributions of polynesians are mapped and analyzed at three scales in the united states by state in utah by county and in salt lake city by census tract
historically polynesias relationship with utah has been religious specifically of conversion to the church of jesus christ of latterlatterdayday saints followed by migration to utah today however things are changing nevertheless polynesians continue to migrate to utah primarily for family religion education and employment
currently 1990 utah ranks third in the continental united states with 7181 Polynepolynesianssians per capita however utah ranks first with about I11 polynesian per 250 persons furthermore of the continental states with relatively large polynesian populations california washington utah and texas utah ranks second with over 70 percent growth in its polynesian population from 1980 to 1990 indeed although different polynesian ethnic groups tend to settle in different areas of utah salt lake city remains the locus of polynesian immigration to utah particularly for tongansTongans 7 COMMITTEE APPROVAL ajxacx f J richard H jackson cbrdtteec6jthittee chair
L lgL g y v r alan H grey committeecommittedcommittekme meahmemh y iiiuuiiiuliuit UUV a J Ntntthewutthewnatthewthew shumway committee cemperMmemper