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Home , Dazhao Temple (Hohhot), Mandala, Mo (divination), Prayer flag

92nd ACSA ANNUAL MEETING MIAMI FL MARCH 18-21, 2004 143

The as a Cosmic Model: Integrating Architecture within the Tibetan Buddhist Landscape

PING XU University of Colorado at Denver

Key n ords: in Inner Rlongolia in . Also. there are increasing numbers of belie\erb in 3orth America and Bestern Europe. mandala cos~nicmodel 9 mbolisni micro to macro scale In . el eq citj . tov n. 1 illage. and el en ex erq home has its spatial organization circumambulation own temple. \\hich pro~idesa focus for the social and spiritual integration temple architecture lifr of the Tibetan communitj. Tibet once had oxer 6000 Tibetan Buddhist landscape . E\ erj i~nportanthistorical el ent. often linked to a religious re~olution.left hehind a great temple as an historical mark. Fanlous temples ere concentrated in Tibet. but many \$ere also located in the surrounding regions: Gansu. Qinghai. INTRODUCTIOX Sichuan. and Jongnan Prolinces. Farther off. manj famous temples Mere located in Inner Zlongolia. Beijing. and Chengde. The mandala as a Buddhist cosmic model of oiganizing the spiritual \+orldhas receixed great attention worldnide. especial- The wide distribution of Tibetan temples throughout China mas 1) for its iole in Tibetan Buddhist practices and its s!mbolism in the result of historical arid political factors. During the Yan religious architecture. Surprisinglj . among the \ olumes written Dynast! (1271-1368 AD). the emperors, u ho Mere descendents about the mandala. fen stress the integration of temple of Genghis Khan of Mongolia. adopted Tibetan as architectuie mith its surrounding landscape. Emphasizing the the national religion of China. During the Kng Djnastj (1368- integratk e relationship between architecture arid landscape 1644 AD). to keep peaceful relations with. arid to control Tibet based on field irir ebtigations of Tibetan temples throughout and Mongolia, the emperors encouraged the building of Tibetan China. thib paper discusses hou the mandala. as cosmic temples in these two regions. During the Qing DJnastj (1644- model. wab utilized to shape the Tibetan 1911 AD). again became the national and the cultural landscape. and sened to interl+ea\e it ~ith religion. imperial Tibetan Buddhist ten~pleswere built in nature. architecture. religious meanings. and man's \ ements. Beijing and Chengde (northeast of Beijing) (Figurel).

Tibetan Buddhism is a branch of Tantric Buddhism originallj The contents of the Buddhist cosmic model \+ere explained in from . lihich has been infused with the Ben reli,'~1011. the Ahhzdl~al-rnclh-osa.an ancient text nritten b\ 1-asubanhu indigenous to Tihet. This branch emphasizes the path arid (fourth or fifth centun AD). During priinexal times. it was practices of the Buddha of enlightenment. arid also follomb a belie~edthat the polier of rollecti~eactions brought about the common Buddhist theme: humanit! is suffering the torments of unixerse ~\ithwinds from the four cardinal directions. The being caught up in the cycle of death and : and onl! the minds filled the empt! space and helped to form the clouds. Buddha. with his great wisdom arid compassion. has the ahilit! from which water poured. From the water, hurricanes shaped to help humans transcend and 11e liberated from this c!cle. in the golden earth. In the center of the golden earth rose a order to leach ultirnate enlightenment (Po~ers.1995. P.208). mountain called Mount \Ieru. In the middle of the square 4s a liling religion. Tibetan Buddhism is practiced in Tibet. sumrnit-region of 2Iount Meru la! the palace of the leader of and in it? surrounding region* on the Qingzhang Plateau. and the thirty-three chief Buddhas. -It halt the height of Zlount 144 ARCHIPELAGOS: OUTPOSTS OF THE AMERICAS

Jleru. the sun and moon traleled their orhits borne by the beckoned m! leturn. I re\ isited Tibet in 2002. I also extensi~el! nind. Around Mount RIeru nere sel en golden mountain ~zalls. in~estigatedTibetan temples and villages outside Tibet in the each lower than the one inside it. Between the mountains. the Gansu. Qinghai. lunnan. Inner ;\Iongolia. and Sichuan Pro\ - rain created the *.inner sea" of fresh nater. Outside the louest golden mountain nail stretched the '-great outer ocean" of saltwater. In the ocean, the t\\el\e continents floated. the southern most of 11hich was inhahited b! human beings. The great outer ocean. with its t\\el~econtinents. was in turn encompassed b! an iron mountain mall (Brauen. 1997. P18).

This cosmic model is represented both in three-dimensional and two-dimensional . The three-dimensional manda- la. in ~arioussizes. represents a geographic model of the Buddhist cosmos. Mount Aleru (Figure2): tr~o-dimensional mandalas are painted on cloth or leather. or ;prinkled on a flat surfare with colored powder. demonstrating Vount RIeru in the plan-xiew. I painting of a mandala. "Tan Cheng'or literall! .-the cit!" is a s!mmetrical diagram built up of nesting squares around with concentric circles. presenting the cosmic model in the plan-xieu (Figure S). ?Iandalas are otten aids to . \isualization. and liberation in ritual cerernoniea. as ell as in the Tibetan dail! life.

This re

inces. These field investigations greatlj enhanced rn! under- architecture of the Buddha tower and the great chant hall. standing that Tihetan architecture. landscape. and religious Surrounding these main structures are moriasteq court\ards beliefs are \\oIen together. forming a sacred realm. In the vhich take the shape of flat-roofed ~ernacularhouses. Follow Tibetan cultural landscape. the theme of the mandala \+as ing the mandala model. . built up with nesting squares present everphere I T\ent. \\hich in turn inspired me to and the 1 ertical structure in the center. are cornmonh. -placed at speculate that the mandala. as a spiritual ~ehicleand model. the entrancr of the temple or a illa age. syml~olicallyto guard shaped Tibetan Buddhist architecture and its relationship to the gate (Figure 4): and stone landrnarlts. called .'hIani Dui". the landscape. indicate the important turning points along the path to~ardthe temple (Figure 5). Carqing out this ner\ thought and adding to the existing literature on the mandala. this paper presents the mandala as a The Buddha toners and the great chant halls are painted red or cosmic model that shaped the structure of spatial organization !ellox. M ith gilded roofs. surmounted by tu o deer on either side of Tibetan architecture and cultural landscape with sjmbolic of a golden wheel. Other building< are often painted uhite. an systems at multiple lekels: a hol! mountain. landscape setting. auspicious color belieked to ha\ e the power to mard off ex il and temple complex. Buddha hall. . and stone landmark. to attract luclt. On the surrounding hills coloihl flag* are \Ian's movements uithin architectural spaces are also included. often placed. inscribed with Buddhist . chanting uith the ninds and prajing for the ~orld(Figure 6).

A Tibetan Buddhist place of \\orship has three essential THE TEMPLE IS A MANDALA ingredients: a statue of the Buddha. an open floor space in front of it. (in which \\orshippers ma\ praq indilidually and/or Just as the uni~erse is organized around hlount Ileru. a Tibetan groups of monlts ma! chant). and a perimeter enclosed bj thiclt temple complex is organized around the highl? intensile walls nith paintings of the mandala. Around the perimeter. 146 ARCHIPELAGOS: OUTPOSTS OF THE AMERICAS

risiting ~orshipperscircumambulate in a cloclwise direction. at the northern bank of the k7aluzangbu River. a high mountain Large temple complexes have square. niultiston Buddha in the north. xith mountain peaks in the southern distance. and touers. and great chant halls with single-story structures and a sacred rrlourit in the east (Figure 7). Buddha chambers in the rear section. Buddha to~lersand great chant halls often face south. which s!mholizes the Buddha's Tlle Temple outer uall talies the shape of a circle. compassion for the huniari inhabitant< of the southern conti- symbolizing the iron mountain. In the four cardinal directions nent. The main axis of these structure. often aligns uith are halls that represent the four main continents. Four stupas landscape features. such as mountain peaL or the center oi a are set in each corner. sjmbolizing the four dixinities uho forest. here deities are helie~edto dv ell. pard the Buddha's lands. Tlle small Imildings on the north- south axis s!mbolize the sun and moon. The central Buddha Historiralh. man) famous Tibetan Buddhist temples through- to~ertalies the shape of a square. uith a court!ard surrouriding out China were established under the ad~iceof leading it. The main entrance is on the east (Figure 8 arid 9). Buddhist masters. The! follomed tlle mandala model. not onl! in selecting the temple sites. but also in directing the plan's layout and architectural design. The Sarn!e Temple uas built in 779 AD under the adlice of the Buddhist Master Jihu. The mandala plan later became a model for other Tibetan Buddhist temples. The Samye Temple is located in tlle center of a valle! 92nd ACSA ANNUAL MEETING MIAMI FL MARCH 18-21, 2004 147

Fig. 7. The Snniw T~mpleit] Tsedang. Tibet. (Sketch Ping Xu)

Fig. 8. 777r c.~l~tl-nlR~rdrlho iower- oj hr Son?-r Trvq~le (~'/~OIO~~Z~/~Vb,\' /';/lg ,h. 1998) 148 ARCHIPELAGOS: OUTPOSTS OF THE AMERICAS

Fg. 12 ?he plan of the Uozhcio I'en~~le.(Source: kunp.1996. P 149)

Fzg. 13. The Buddhu tort rl of thc Burlala Palate. (tJhotopapl~~bx Ping Xu. 1998)

Fig. 11 Colomude-\ ole o~owidThe Buddha torter of tlrr Brrdala Palatr (Figure 12). with their spatial patterns of a box-in-a-box. creates (Pliotog~a~h~h\ Pntg Xu. 1998) an ordering sequence ~hichencourages one to seek the center. CENTER: THE BUDDHA TOWER BUILT UP WITHIN KESTING SPACES Corresponding to the lertical axis of Rlount hIeru, in Tibetan temples the xertical axis is emphasized in the center of the Buddha's tower. At the Budala Palace in Lhasa. the red palace The center is the most barred space in the mandala. In the tahes the shape of a square enclosure within a square enclosure. temple. as a spiritual core. the Buddha touer built up \tithin nesting >paces is in the center. The Buddhd statue is placed in The rloser to the center. the smaller the room is, the higher the the tenter of the Buddha tower. surrounded I]! an drnhulato~~ floor is set, and the more intense ib the . until one passagella! for circuinarnbulation by man. The 'central-statue- reaches the top center. a flat roof pro\iding open rie~tsto the plu>-colonnade' pattern ma! be repeated on each floor. or the last horizon where nlountains rim the deep blue slq. The center of the to~! be an open atrium containing a single sequential experience of the building creates both a plilsicdl rer! large statue. uith ~nultistor! colonnades on all four nallb and mental climax. Thib hierarchal s~stemin the design of the (Figure 10). temple'e architectural space. -!mholizing the lertical axis of IIount RIeru, forms a ~ehiclefor obtaining ultimate liberation. The ye\ enth-centur) Budala Palace in Lhaqa. Tihet. (Figure 11 emptiness. and subsequent enlightenment (Figure 14). and 13) arid the qeventh-centur) Dazhao temple in Lhaba. Tihet 92nd ACSA ANNUAL MEETING MIAMI FL MARCH 18-21, 2004 149

Frp 13. The center at the top of the Budala Palute,. T~brt.(Photog7aph h~ Pmg lu. 1998)

T\+o eighteenth-centu? imperial Tibetan temples. built on the influenced bj the Buddala Palace in Lhasa. Tibet (Figure 15 south slope of the hills north of the Chengde Summer Palace. and 16): the Xumifushou Temple. Mas greatl! influenced bj the provide excellent examples of the nesting spaces in the center Jashlunbu Temple in Shigatse. Tibet (Figure 16 and 17). Both of the mandala model. The Putozongcheng Temple was greatl! temples are dominated bj a Buddha hall in the center. and 150 ARCHIPELAGOS: OUTPOSTS OF THE AMERICAS

Fig. 16. Pl(ci~s nf the Putozonpcheng tm~plr(Ir/i). und /Ire I~uri~~/ijiczlzou trr~q~lr(I-igl~t). Fig. 1 7. 771e Xu~nifushoutrnyl~ (Pl~oto~nplz hv Ping Xu. lW8) (SOIIITP: C~LPII1903. P.218 uitd P.11.5) hale open space bet\\een tlie main hall and the surrounding colonnade. temple complexes hale developed a dualitj intended to aid VERKACULAR ARCHITECTURE AS A TRASITIOK people in the understanding that the sacred Buddha land is a place \+here eteryone can arrile. if they follo~+Buddhist As in the mandala model. in the Tibetan temple. farther from practices. the center. less intense architecture \\as utilized. more natural LAKDSCAPE SETTINGS DEFIRE A LARGE-SCALED landscape is present. and the more secular is the place. Set on MAKDALA SPACE the temple rim. monasterq courtyards. taking the shape of a vernacular house. are usuallj clustered randornlj on the slope In Tibet. the vast plateau. deep blue skies. snou-covered of the land. thus creating a transition bet\\een the central mountains. unpredictable eath her. simultaneous beauty arid architecture and the surrounding landscape (Figure 18). danger. richness and emptiness. all form a complex matrix which together affect the design of temples. In turn. the The alchitectural design of the Joslllonhu Temple and the Buddhist temples are belieled bj Tibetans to pro1 ide the pover Labuleng Temple hale a homelilie feeling beranse they imitate to suppress and subdue the demons and elil energ in the land. the architectural ~ocabularjof Tibetan \illages ~ithflat roofs. rnaliing the land itself hol!. thick tla! or stone walls. often painted mhite. tapeled up tuo or t1l1ee flools high \+ith trapezoidal \+ indows (Figure 19). The Corresponding to . as a reference point fol random organization of monasteij court!ards foirns a twisted concentrically arranged continents and oceans. the temple access to dieelent sections of the temple. 4s one uallis bet\+een embodies the sacred places of the Buddha. providing for the ~ards.the angled pat11 proxides rich images that change at the worshipper. Tibetan temples are oiten located in a central elen tuining point (Figure 10). The contrast ~+itllthia simple spot: instead of constructing the temple itself as an architectural lernarulai architectural mat~ixmakes the Buddha halls stand mountain. Tibetans place the temple uith the summit of a out. elen while it mixes the secular mith the sacred. mountain behind it. Borrouing the lie\\ of the mourltairi summit and integrating it into tlie slope. the te~nplewith its Temple complexes were created to help people \isualize the surrounding landscape is lietved as a mandala. an un-separated temple ds a s~nih1of the sacred land- of the Buddha. On the spatial unit (Figure 21). other hand. in Tihetan temples particularl!. tlie monaste? court!ards often proxide an atmosphere of "home." Inheriting R7ater is Lery important. not just to the temple communit!'~ the hnowledge of the Tibetan \ernacular \illage. Tibetan suni~al.hut for its religious sigriilicance. In correspondence 92nd ACSA ANNUAL MEETING MIAMI FL MARCH 18-21, 2004 151

Fig. 18. l'ernaeulur ur-chitectuw forms a transition IIPIIWPII /~mple

% of the temple. with a road opposite. B hen ualhing on the road. ueonle looh at the temple across the rixer. The scene of the

The fifteenth-century Jashlunbu Temple in Shigatse (Figure 24) arid the eighteenth-century Labuleng Temple in Gangsu Prolir~ce(Figure 25 and 26) both were built on the south side of a hill ~itha gentle. \+ide-open slope. the surnnlits of the \+ith the mandala. the temple represents the Buddhists' sacred mountain behind it resembling the embracing form of a lotus land beyond the salty ocean separating the human continent flower. and a rixer meandering in front of the temple. Such fro~nthe Buddha. This salt! ocean also symbolizes human landscape settings hale become a typical model for Tibetan suffering from the torments of being caught up in the cycle of temple site selection. death and rebirth. For an ideal temple site. a ril er flov s in front CIRCUMAMBULATION AROUKD ARCHITECTURE AND LANDSCAPE

The rriost significant ritual of spiritual perfection in Tibetan Buddhism is circuma~nbulation.uhich proceeds in a clocl\~ise di~ectionaround a stone landmark, stupa. temple complex. Buddha touer. or inside the hall of a temple. -1 pilgrimage circurndnibulating the hol! rnouritains, a s\mbol of the Mount RIeru. ma! take

built up of nesting squares around with concentric circles. is sqmbolizing the four elements of air. fire. water. and earth. rompleted (Figure 28). Exen layer is a floor of Buddha halls and niches. The temple has ?7 Buddha halls and niches. and oler 3000 Buddha statues 4s a vehicle for transmitting people's hopes to the Buddha. (Figure 30). This temple is circumambulated spirallj on sexeral circumamhulation is translated into the temple architecture stories. up to the most important Buddha hall. Vo\ing through uhich is furnished with anlbulator! passage\\ays at 1 arious the temple is like wallring through a mandala palare. \-allring wales. People start at the outer colonnade. with its ro\\s of through the stepped path to the top Buddha niche is xisualized prayer uheels. turning each ~vheelin turn (Figure 29). In some as climbing- the stair to reach the top lexel of Buddhansrealm. a temples. such as the Dazhao Temple in Lhasa. the circumam- formless emptiness of eternal liberation and enlightenment. bulation starts in the street around the temple. Then people This temple's form manifests the path along which the circumambulate inside the great hall. then climb up to circumambulation in the ph>sical place. as well as in the circumambulate the colonnades. until the) reach the top of the human mind. progresses and spirals up to the spiritual climax. temple. CONCLUSIONS The Baiju Temple nas built in 1414 AD in Jiangzi. Tibet. located on a south-facing slope surrounded by hills with a river The mandala, as a cosmic model. symbolizes the uni~erseas (yang 1996. P.426). The base of the building has four layers. rentered on the Buddha's d\\elling place. As a common ancient helief. this cos~nicmodel ~torksin the rnacro %odd as \$ell as the micro world. In Tibetan cultural landscape. the mandala model for the rnacro space. \\as transferred to architecture and it. burrounding landscape in a relatixel! micro space. it every lelel of ~ariousscales. the structure of spatial organization follons the mandala as its nlodel. ~hichsenes the ieligious purpose that Buddha is with >ou e\ei-j\\llele. is a result. architecture. nature and religious beliefs are intento\en in the Tibetan cultural landscape. Figure 31 presents the mandala pattern of architecture. landscape. and man's moternent. and the integratile relationship betneen them. It also pro~idesa surnrnal? of this paper.

The mediums used to design architectural and lands~ape$paces are difteierit. Closer to the centei of a temple. architectural deqign \\as applied: stone-\+ailed Buddha tover- uere built up \\ithi11 nesting spaces. Farther from the architectural center. more design solutions mere made ~iththe thought of landscape planning: landscape settings define a large-caled mandala 92nd ACSA ANNUAL MEETING MIAMI FL MARCH 18-21, 2004 153

Fig. 23. 77le .Iashlunbu tm7ple in Shigatse. Tibt. (Photop4apl~hv Piy ,Yu. 1998) space framed bj mountain and ~tater.The area for a pilgrimage in the holy mountairis Mas organized with concerns of regional planning. hex ertheless. at ere? 1e1 el. a marriage bet14een architecture. landscape design and planning tooh place to produce the cultural landscape as a ~llole.

4s in the mandala. in the ternple the Buddha touer as a spiritual core is built in the center and is the highest point of the hierarchical space. The pattern of nesting spaces of a Buddha tower represents an order of encouraging people to seek the center. Closer to the center. rnore decorations appear. and more Ialuable architectural material is used: the higher the elevation. the more sacred the space hecomes.

In the mandala model. the outer rim ymbolizes the secular \\odd. In Tibetan temples. main structures are surrounded by monasterj courtjards. These rnonasteries. taking the shape of a Fig. 26 The plu17 of Lahuleng temple (Sou~ce:Lau. 198-1. f'J74) 1 ernacular court!ard. are usuall! clustered randomlj on the slope of the land. creating a transition between the central Tibetan Buddhist landscapes are shaped bj using symbolic architecture and the surrounding landscape. and also s!mboliz- sjsterns at multiple lelels. from static construction design to ing a transition bet~seerithe secular -odd and the sacred world. dynamic ritual ~ements.and from the ~astnessof nature to Farther apart from the temple's center. stupab placed at the the sirigulalit! of man. Alan's acti~itjis taken into account in entrance of the temple or village synibolicallj guard the gate. the religious function of architecture and landscape. Cilcu- and stone landmarlts indicate important turning points along mambulatiori around a landmark. stupa. or te~npleprogresses the path touard the temple. Expanding into the natural to~ardsthe tenter. a5 if uallting through a mandala. hen landscape. these stupas and stone landmarlis blur the boundaiy people circumambulate around these structures. the rnaridala betneen archite17ture and landscape. model. a +!mmetrical diagram built up of nesting squares around ~zithconcentiic circles. is ekentuallj completed. The Landscape setting plajs an importarit role in integrating the rnore times the ~ircurriarnbulatioriis co~npletedand the higher temple's architecture ~titl-1landscape. addressirip an analjsis of elex ation the ~ircuma~nbulationprogresses through. the mole bcale frorn rnaasi\e mountain ranges to a rock formation. arid purification ib achie~ed.all the \\bile using s!ml~olis~nthat empha4zinp the horizontal. spatial relation~hip betneen a integrates ph~sical form ~\ithmental 1 isualization. 43 a ~esult. temple site and it? surrounding landstape. Borro~tingand the maridald. a spiiitual ~ehicleard sjrnbol. ensuiei that the inrorpoiating the lieu oi the rnounta~risurnmit. along xith architectme leaches its original aim: the temple should hr a integrating the southern slope of the hill. and lia\ing a ]her in place to translate. transmit. and transcend from the becular the fiont. the ternple is ~ie~ednot in iwlation. but as a \$hole. uorld to ultimate spilitual enlightenment. nith the mountain> hehind: a literal lIount AIeru in the Tibetan landscape. 154 ARCHIPELAGOS: OUTPOSTS OF THE AMERICAS

In the Tibetan cultulal landscape. religious architecture and the hIart111nald. llrxandrr n. 199;. llanc/rrlrc c~nd Lcrnd~cnpr Nev Drlhl landscape of mountains. mater. ~egetationand sky. are higlil! I) I\.Pr~ntnorld iP) Ltd integrated. Architectural design arid b!ml~olism instill religious attributes in the landscape. and in turn. the landscape, sening as a matrix. imbues architecture uitli meanings of tirne and space. Insight into this integrati~erelationship between temple architecture and the cultural la~ldscape\\odd senre to protect the unique and sacred realm of Tibet. and enhance our understanding of the un-separated nature of architecture and landscape in general. 1 P

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I uould like to thank Nancj Ilann arid L>nn Lickteig for editing this papel Thanks to the research grants including Facult, Research Grants of the Cni~ersit): of Colorado at ~enxe; 1999-2000. IRIPiRT Amard of the University of Colorado at Boulder 199'7-1998 and the Beijing k oung Group 2002. Also. thanl'b to Duoli Zhao. Zhifei Li. Zhi\un Su and Zhe Liu for assisting in field inlestigations in Tibet and Tibetan ~illagesin China.

REFERENCES

Fig. 28. fiihinp inro nr.r.oun/ the tr11rX.s of I~~~.~~~ILIII/ILI~~I/~~III~\IL~OLIII~ strurru~-ea.the, ~~~tr~idnli~nioilrl is cornl~lr/rtl.(BY IJing 41r) 92nd ACSA ANNUAL MEETING MIAMI FL MARCH 18-21, 2004 155

Fig. 29. Tl~eciracr~tanlbulntion ut the outrr colonnnilc qf the Ldmleng ?;nzple. Gansu Procince. (Photopph b\. Ping Xu. 2002)

2loralr. Don. (1008) The processes yf Coinplete Gulilr. to Uutldlrist Ainericu. Boston & Lundon: . Powera. .Jolm. (1005) Introduction to Tibetan Uuddtiisr~~.he>\ lorl.: Snov Lion Publi(,atiorla. 'l'uwi. Giuarppe. (1078) The Tl7eon and Bnctirr. oj ihr Ilairduln. London: Hider 8 (;o. (1007). 4eu l or6: 5arnuel n14rt.r.

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Ftp 30. 271~13nilu Temple [c a* budr 111 I4 11 4D 117 J~anp.I lh~i (Pl~oto~-ruph~nnd dtupam b\ Aiy Xu. 1998) 1 56 ARCHIPELAGOS: OUTPOSTS OF THE AMERICAS

Fig. 31. Ilandnln as n cosmic. model structured thr li'hrtan Buddlzisr landscupr. (BI. Ping -1ir)