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Xerox University Microfilms 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 78*7911 RAMMING, MELVIN BERT THE e v o l u t i o n OF TME WEST INDIAN*8 IMAGE IN THE AFRO-AMERICAN NOVEL, WITH REFERENCE TO THE WEST INDIAN*# IMAGE IN THE WEBT INDIAN NOVEL. THE UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA, PH.D.# 1978 UniversiC/ M icnxilm s International 300 n z e e b r o a d , a m n a r b o r , m i is to e © 1978 MELVIN BERT RAMMING ALL RIGHTS RESERVED THE UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA GRADUATE COLLEGE THE EVOLUTION OF THE WEST INDIAN'S IMAGE IN THE AFRO-AMERICAN NOVEL, WITH REFERENCE TO THE WEST INDIAN'S IMAGE IN THE V'TEST INDIAN NOVEL A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE FACULTY in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY BY MELVIN B. RAHMING Norman, Oklahoma May, 1978 THE EVOLUTION OF THE WEST INDIAN'S IMAGE IN THE AFRO-AMERICAN NOVEL, WITH REFERENCE TO THE WEST INDIAN'S IMAGE IN THE WEST INDIAN NOVEL APPROVED BY Dr elvin B. Toison Dr. Bruce I. Granger Dr. Jidlaph G. Kamoche CUiM j Dr. Alan R. Velie Dr. Jack L. Kendall DISSERTATION COMMITTEE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank the members of my committee for the time which they devoted to this dissertation. My thanks especially to Dr. Melvin B. Toison, Dr. Bruce Granger and Dr. Jidlaph Kamoche not only for reading and criticizing this dissertation in its various stages of development but also for offering much encouragement and stimulation during the entire project. I also wish to thank Ms. Sherri Whylly for securing copies of several novels which I had difficulty in locating, Ms. Evelyn Weeks for taking time off from the writing of her own dissertation to edit mine, and the staff of the Interlibrary Loan Department of Oklahoma University's Bizzell Memorial Library, without whose efforts this dis­ sertation could not have been written. Ill CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION............................... 1 II. MARTIN DELANY’S BLAKE AND THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND................................. 22 III. WEST INDIAN STEREOTYPES IN THE AFRO-AMERICAN NOVEL...................... 57 IV. A COMPARISON OF THE WEST INDIAN AND AFRO-AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIES............... 123 V. THE REJECTION OF THE WEST INDIAN STEREOTYPE................................. 167 VI. CONCLUSION................................. 232 BIBLIOGRAPHY..................................... 238 XV CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Throughout its history the Afro-American novel has evinced an exceptional concern about the presence of West Indians in the United States of America and their consequent involvement in Afro-American affairs. As early as 1859, six years after the publication of the first Afro-American novel (William Wells Brown's Clotel: or the President's Daughter), Martin R. Delany depicted a West Indian as the protagonist of his serialized novel, Blake: or the Huts of America. In the 1970's the West Indian continues to be attractive material for Afro-American fiction, as illustrated by John Oliver Killens' The Cotillion, 1971, and John A. Williams' Mothersill and the Foxes, 1975. Spanning the years between Delany and Williams are several West Indian characters of varying degrees of thematic importance, a fact which testifies to the persistence of the Afro- American attempt to deal with the nature of the West Indian and to examine the potential of Afro-American/West Indian relationships. That the subject of the West Indian should persist in Afro-American fiction is not surprising, for the actual 1 2 presence of the West Indian in America has irrevocably influ­ enced the history of the Afro-American. In fact. West Indians have been involved in Afro-American affairs for more than two centuries. As early as 176 5 a Barbadian, Prince Hall, was preparing himself in Boston for leadership among the Afro-Americans in the Boston community, and in 177 6 he founded the first Lodge in Masonry for Afro-American men.^ In 1826 a Jamaican, John B. Russwurm, was among the first black students to graduate from an American college (Bowdoin), and a year later he co-edited the first issue of Freedom Journal, at that time the only black newspaper in 2 the Western World. And in the late nineteenth century the renowned scholar and founding father of Liberia, Dr. Edward Wilmot Blyden, born and reared in the West Indian island of St. Thomas, made several visits to America to assist in the fostering of understanding between the African, the Afro- American and the Afro-West Indian.^ The relationship between these two groups was essen­ tially a harmonious one, at least until the coming of the Jamaican Marcus Garvey.^ Between 19 21 and 19 27 the charis­ matic and controversial Garvey popularized in America his ^John Henrik Clarke, "West Indian Partisans in the Fight for Freedom," printed in Negro World (June, 1966), p. 20 ^Ibid., p. 22. ^Ibid., p. 23. ^Lennox Raphael, "West Indians and Afro-Americans," printed in Freedomways (vol. 4, no. 3, 1964), p. 438. 3 United Negro Improvement Association (which he had founded in Jamaica in 1914) to such an extent that the U.N.I.A. boasted a membership of roughly six million.^ Advocating that people of African descent should do their part to make Africa the political and cultural center of the African diaspora, Garvey forced Afro-Americans to confront their history and their future with a sense of urgency and pride. His frenzied political and temperamental clash with impor­ tant Afro-American leaders and the American government, his subsequent deportation in 1927, and the rapid decline of his once prosperous U.N.I.A. marked the end of an era which had witnessed the harmonious relationship between Afro-Americans and West Indians.^ But these actualities did not put an end to the era of West Indian immigration to New York, which, beginning after World War I, had occurred simultaneously with the movement of thousands of Afro-Americans from the South to the North. Leaving their jobs as teachers, civil servants, sales persons, policemen and housewives. West Indians flocked to New York "to better their station in life. The convergence of Afro-Americans and West Indians in New York created a climate of intense conflict described by ^Amy Jacques Garvey, Garvey and Garveyism (New York: Collier Books, 1970), p. 264. ^Clarke, p. 6. 7 Raphael, p. 439. g Orde Coombs as a "cauldron." The conflict was due only superficially to the fact that both Afro-Americans and West Indians were competing for the same jobs. The deeper reason was that the Afro-American and the West Indian were psycho­ logically and culturally estranged from each other. The estrangement had much to do with the different strategies employed by England and America in colonizing their black populace. X'That Lennox Raphael calls "the minority neurosis 9 and minority psychosis," which attended the psychology of the Afro-American, militated against his successful economic competition with the West Indian, whose majority status at home lessened his feelings of inferiority to the extent that he could believe that few doors in the American society were closed to him.^^ As Paule Marshall illustrates in Brown Girl, Brownstones (19 59), the white American tended to think that West Indians were "different", a tendency which was tantamount to an automatic reduction (from the white Ameri­ can's point of view) in the potential for conflict between the white American and the black West Indian. So it is that the list of West Indians who achieved positions of prominence in America is quite extensive. g Orde Coombs, Do You See My Love for You Growing? (New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1970), p. 110. 9 Raphael, p. 445. l°Ibid. ^^In Do You See My Love for You Growing?, pp. 113-114 Coombs provides the following list of West Indians who have 5 It would seem that the common African heritage of West Indians and Afro-Americans, their mutual history of slavery, and the continued immigration of West Indians to the United States in the twentieth century would provide virtually unlimited possibilities for artistic exploration of the relationship between the two collective personalities as they meet within the psycho-cultural labyrinth of twentieth- century America.
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