Lessons from Burkina Faso's Thomas Sankara By

Pan-Africanism and African Renaissance in Contemporary

Africa: Lessons from Burkina Faso’s Thomas Sankara

By: Moorosi Leshoele

(45775389)

Submitted in accordance with the requirements for

the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

At the

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: Prof Vusi Gumede

(September 2019)

Open Rubric

DECLARATION (Signed)

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DEDICATION

I dedicate this thesis to Thomas Noel Isadore Sankara himself, one of the most underrated leaders in Africa and the world at large, who undoubtedly stands shoulder to shoulder with ANY leader in the world, and tall amongst all of the highly revered and celebrated

revolutionaries in modern history. I also dedicate this to Mariam Sankara, Thomas Sankara’s

wife, for not giving up on the long and hard fight of ensuring that justice is served for Sankara’s death, and that those who were responsible, directly or indirectly, are brought to book. I also would like to tremendously thank and dedicate this thesis to Blandine Sankara and Valintin Sankara for affording me the time to talk to them at Sankara’s modest house in Ouagadougou, and for sharing those heart-warming and painful memories of Sankara with me. For that, I say, Merci boucop. Lastly, I dedicate this to my late father, ntate Pule Leshoele and my mother, Mme Malimpho Leshoele, for their enduring sacrifices for us, their children.

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AKNOWLEDGEMENTS

To begin with, my sincere gratitude goes to my Supervisor, Professor Vusi Gumede, for cunningly nudging me to enrol for doctoral studies at the time when the thought was not even in my radar. The academic mentorship you have provided since my Master’s degree has been nothing short of amazing and I thank you a lot for believing in my academic capabilities and rigour when I did not even believe in myself at times. I would like to also acknowledge Professor Tendai Sithole for helping me shape what was a mere idea into what later became my research proposal. Your story of how you made it to UNISA from the dusty streets of SOWETO and in the trains continue to strengthen me as I begin my ‘formal’ academic journey. My sincere gratitude also goes to the UNISA department of development studies, specifically to Prof Morgan Ndlovu.

Dr Amado Kabore, thank you very much my brother for assisting me with the invitation letter when I was applying for my VISA to your beautiful country – the land of upright men. Thank you again for the rides across the city and facilitating the breakthrough moment of meeting

Sankara’s family at their homestead. I would also like to thank Adama, Ismael, Zorome, Dr

Pascal, Parè, and Rasta for helping to make my stay in Ouaga comfortable, memorable and productive. Thank you for also being my research assistants and helping with identifying more people to interview and helping with the translations while I was navigating the streets of Ouaga. I sure learnt a few French words and my next visit will be much smoother.

Doing a multi-lingual study is not an easy task, hence I am forever indebted to Dr Gerard Emmanuel Kamdem Kamga, my sworn translator for English and French languages, Ex Officio Commissioner of Oaths, No. 34446/2017 High Court of South Africa. Thank you for juggling this enormous task with your other commitments at the University of Pretoria; you surely translated and transcribed hundreds of thousands of words for me and the financial compensation for this job will never be enough to express my appreciation of the diligent and professional work you did. Thank you to Professor Serges Kamga for recommending Dr Gerard for the translation of my data from French to English and for being an impeccable mentor and

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co-teacher of our Thought Leadership Module at the Thabo Mbeki African Leadership Institute (TMALI).

More sincere gratitude further goes to Dr Munyaradzi Nyakudya who helped me with language editing and structure/technical editing of this thesis. The thesis has immensely benefited and is enriched by your important linguistic precision and strictness. To you I say, tatenda! I would like to also thank all my colleagues and friends at TMALI for all the assistance throughout the years, and making TMALI a rich and conducive breeding ground for nurturing thought leaders for Africa. To all my friends, family members and comrades, I thank you: Dimpho Leshoele, Mohloki Leshoele, Dr Lefu Leshoele, Bheki Mchunu, Frank Lekaba, Dr TK Pooe, Dr Toendepi Shoneh, Dr Khethelo Xulu, Tumelo Mphahlele, Rethabile Marokga, Tshenolo Tau etc. To all my forebears and ancestors, Ase`.

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ABSTRACT

This study is about four interrelated key issues, namely, critique of Thomas Sankara as a political figure and erstwhile president of Burkina Faso; examination of Pan-Africanism as a movement, theory, ideology and uniting force for Africans and people of African descent globally; evaluation of leadership and governance lessons drawn from Burkina Faso’s August 1983 revolution, its successes, challenges, and shortcomings, and lastly; it draws socio-

economic and developmental lessons from the Burkina Faso experience under Sankara’s

administration during the brief period from 1983 until his untimely assassination on 15 October 1987. The ousting of Blaise Compaore in October 2014 brought to the fore Sankara’s long buried and suppressed legacy, and this is what, in part, led to me deciding to do a systematic and thorough study of Sankara and the Burkina Faso Revolution. Two theories were used in the study – Pan Africanism and Afrocentricity - because they together centre and privilege the

African people’s plight and agency and the urgent need for Africans to find solutions to their

own problems in the same way Sankara emphasised the need for an independent endogenous development approach in Burkina Faso. Methodologically, a Mixed Methods Research (MMR) approach was employed so as to exploit and leverage the strengths of each individual approach and due to the complex nature of the phenomena studied. The study argues that the nerve centre of developmental efforts in Burkina Faso was a self-propelled, self-centred, and endogenous development model which placed the agency and responsibility, first and foremost, in the hands of Burkinabe people themselves using their own internal resources to improve their lives. Secondly, agrarian reforms were designed in such a way that they formed the bedrock of economic self-reliance and industrial development in Burkina Faso. Lastly, overall findings of the study indicate that the revolutionary cause and intervention in all critical sectors such as education, health, and the economy were prioritised and the pace at which these sectors were overhauled was crucial. Implication of these findings for development in Africa is that development cannot be externally imported either through foreign direct investments or through a straight-jacket policy transfer where African countries often borrow European economic policies and try to implement them in drastically different contexts and historical epochs.

Keywords: Thomas Sankara, Pan-Africanism, Afrocentricity, Africa, development, African Renaissance, Leadership, Revolution, Burkina Faso.

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS

African Renaissance – “all-embracing concept that draws its inspiration from the rich and

diverse history and cultures of Africa…[It] provides a framework for modern Africa to reemerge as a significant partner in the New World order” (Jana, 2001: 38).

Afrocentricity – “a consciousness, quality of thought, mode of analysis, and actionable

perspective where Africans seek, from agency, to assert subject place within the context of African history” (Asante, 2007: 16-17).

Austerity – A deliberate cutting back of public funds (in certain sectors/projects) so as to better manage public finances.

Casablanca bloc – This refers to a group of countries which wanted the immediate political and economic unification of Africa leading up to the wave of independence in Africa in the 1960s. It was led by, amongst others, Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana.

Communalism – A model and approach to life which emphasises that production and distribution of resources must be done together (in common) and shared likewise in society (Rodney, 1973). Note that this is a different concept from communism.

Delinking – “…the organisation of a system of criteria for the rationality of economic choices

based on a law of value, which has a national foundation and a popular content, independent of the criteria of economic rationality that emerges from the domination of the law of capitalist value that operates on a world scale” (Amin, 1987: 436). In short, this is, according to Amin, a

necessary “break” from the global capitalist system by the periphery countries of the global

south. Endogenous Development – “the process of economic, social, cultural, scientific and political transformation, based on the mobilisation of internal social forces and resources and using the accumulated knowledge and experiences of the people of a country” (Dembele, 2013).

Franc Zone – This is a collective name of 15 countries (mostly in West Africa) who use two

currencies that are pegged with the French currency. These are ‘former’ France colonies.

Ma’at – This is a Kemetic (Egypt) philosophy which says that everything in the world functions

optimally if there is balance. It has seven principles: “truth, justice, order, harmony, balance, compassion, and reciprocity” (Nantambu, 1998: 573).

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Monrovia bloc – This is a group of countries which, unlike the Casablanca bloc, preferred a much slower, cautious, and gradualist approach to the unification of Africa, beginning with regional economic cooperation. It was led by, amongst others, Nnamdi Azikiwe of Nigeria.

Pan-Africanism – a struggle movement, ideology, and theory that seeks to emancipate Africans and people of African descent from all forms of oppression.

Pan-African Nationalism – “nationalistic, unified struggle/resistance of African peoples against all forms of foreign aggression and invasion, in the fight for nationhood/nation building.

It does this based on the pillars of Ma’at” (Nantambu, 1998: 569).

Revolution – “a kind of a restoration, whereby the insurgents attempt to restore liberties and

privileges which were lost as a result of the government’s temporary lapse into despotism”

(Arendt, 1965: 34). Revolution 2.0 – This refers to the October 2014 revolt against the Blaise Compaore government by mainly the youth, civil society organisations and the broader society which led to the deposing of Compaore from power. The “2.0” simply signifies that it was the second revolution since the August 1983 Sankara revolution.

Sankofa – Philosophy inspired by the Sankofa bird which flies at a high speed with an egg in its mouth while its head it facing backward so as to better navigate where it came from so as to calibrate the direction it must take to its final destination.

Sankarian(s) – “Those who idolise him as an icon of social change, see him as a role model in life and admire his charisma and approve his philosopher-king leadership style are Sankarians or Sankariens” (Botchway and Traore, 2018: 22-23).

Sankarism – “A philosophy grounded by the imperative of self-sufficiency and sustainable

development that emanates from within and not from without” (Yimovie, 2018: 192).

Sankarist – “People who believe in the populist, easy-to-relate-to revolutionary political leadership of Sankara, and who work to animate a process of sustainable social change in Burkina Faso [and elsewhere]¹, might call themselves Sankarists” (Botchway and Traore, 2018: 22).

Sankara Oath – This is a written agreement that politicians and other government officials (especially high-ranking ones) undertake to uphold by agreeing to lead simply lives (as Sankara

¹My emphasis.

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did) and to demonstrate this, they are obliged to use public services which they themselves provide to the general population.

Thought Leader(ship) – “Someone who possesses the right kind of knowledge to advance new thinking and inspire others as well as enhances what needs to be achieved […]. This connotes a leadership orientation that is underpinned by unconventional ideology and approach”

(Gumede, 2017: 87).

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ABBREVIATIONS and ACRONYMS

AfCFTA – African Continental Free Trade Area Burkina – Burkina Faso CDP – Congress for Democracy and Progress CDRs – Comitè de Dèfense de la Rèvolution (Committees for the Defence of the Revolution) CFA – Colonies Francaises d`Afrique (French Community of Africa) CNR (or NCR) – Conseil National de la Rèvolution (National Council of the Revolution) EPAs – Economic Partnership Agreements FDI – Foreign Direct Investment FESPACO – Festival Panafricain du Cinèma et de la tèlèvision du Ouagadougou (Pan African Film and Television Festival of Ouagadougou)

FGD – Focus Group Discussion GMOs – Genetically Modified Organisms HDI – Human Development Index ICC – International Criminal Court IMF – International Monetary Fund Lipad – Ligue Patriotique pour le Dèveloppement (Patriotic League for Development) MMR – Mixed Methods Research Ouaga – Ouagadougou QUAL – Qualitative research (note that the QUAL is capitalised because this signals that this research approach dominates in this MMR study)

Quan – Quantitative research SAPs – Structural Adjustments Programmes SIAO – Salon International de l’Artisanat de Ouagadougou (International Arts and Handicrafts Trade Show of Ouagadougou)

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TCA – Thematic Content Analysis TFTA – Tripartite Free Trade Area TPR – Tribunaux Populaires de la Rèvolution (Popular Tribunals of the Revolution)

UFB – Union des Femmes du Burkina (Women’s Union of Burkina)

UNIA – Universal Negro Improvement Association WST – World System Theory

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PROOF OF EDITING BY DR MUNYARADZI NYAKUDYA

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Table of Contents