Conducting Baseline Studies for Thane Creek

Conducting baseline studies for Thane Creek

Project report

submitted to

Mangrove Cell, Maharashtra & GIZ, Mumbai Office.

Sálim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON) Anaikatty (PO), Coimbatore - 641108, Tamil Nadu

In collaboration with B.N. Bandodkar College of Science, Thane

Conducting baseline studies for Thane Creek

Project report submitted to

Mangrove Cell, Maharashtra & GIZ, Mumbai Office.

Project Investigator Dr. Goldin Quadros

Co-Investigators Dr. P.A. Azeez, Dr. Mahendiran Mylswamy, Dr. Manchi Shirish S.

In Collaboration With

Prof. Dr. R.P. Athalye B.N. Bandodkar College of Science, Thane

Research Team Mr. Siddhesh Bhave, Ms. Sonia Benjamin, Ms. Janice Vaz, Mr. Amol Tripathi, Mr. Prathamesh Gujarpadhaye

Sálim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON) Anaikatty (PO), Coimbatore - 641108, Tamil Nadu

2016 Acknowledgement

Thane creek has been an ecosystem that has held our attention since the time we have known about its flamingos. When we were given the opportunity to conduct The baseline study for Thane creek” we felt blessed to learn more about this unique ecosystem the largest creek from asia. This study was possible due to Mr. N Vasudevan, IFS, CCF, Mangrove cell, Maharashtra whose vision for the mangrove habitats in Maharashtra has furthered the cause of conservation. Hence, we thank him for giving us this opportunity to be a part of his larger goal. The present study involved interactions with a number of research institutions, educational institutions, NGO’s and community, all of whom were cooperative in sharing information and helped us. Most important was the cooperation of librarians from all the institutions who went out of their way in our literature survey. On the field we were immensley helped by Mr. Pravin Koli and his family who always removed time for the study, the dedication and concern he showed for the conservation of the creek is contagious and we do hope positive actions for Thane creek.. We also thank Drs. M.U.Borkar, N.N. Patil, S.D. Rathod and P.N. Kurve From B.N.Bandodkar College of Science for their help in identifications during the field work The support provided by the villagers, corporate, education and research institutions; NGOS’s and research personell along Thane creek helped in gathering the perceptive of the stakeholders. Here, we also take the opportunity to thank all the officials from the Mangrove Cell (Maharashtra), and Ms. Meghna Davar Lagate, Mr. Bhaskar Paul, Mr. P Vaidya and Dr. Manas Manjrekar from the GIZ Mumbai office for extending their timely help during the work. Our collaborative institution namely V.P.M’s B.N.Bandodkar College of Science, Thane has always helped right from the beginning of the project. The Laboratory space, the administrative and logistic support helped in completing the taks at hand. This was mailny due to the deligent efforts of the Principal Dr. M.K.Pejaver and her team from the office and Zoology department. Lastly we are grateful to the Director, SACON Dr. K Sankar for permitting us to undertake the short term project and facilitating our field and report writing work. We also thank the administrative and the finance department for coordination during field work. Finally, we take this opportunity and acknowledge with gratitude the faculty, support staff and researchers from SACON for their interest in our work and the necessary encouragement. It is highly appreciated.

Goldin Quadros P.A.Azeez R.P.Athalye Shrish S. Manchi Mahendiran Mylswamy Siddhesh D Bhave Sonia Benjamin Janice Vaz Amol Tripathi Prathamesh Gujarpadhaye

Executive summary

Thane creek (Long. 72.55’ to 73.00’ E and Lat. 19.00’ to 19.15’ N) is 26 km long. It is connected to the Mumbai harbour on its south and joins by a minor connection with the Ulhas river on its north near Thane city. Geologically, the Mumbai – Thane region is part of the Deccan trap that was formed by volcanic effusions at the end of the cretaceous period (Blasco, 1975; Tandale, 1993). Primarily, both the south and north connections of Thane creek isolate the Mumbai (Bombay) island from the mainland. The creek is narrow & shallow at the riverine end due to the presence of the geomorphic head and broader & deeper towards the sea.

Thane Creek is one of the sites of the project with three objectives designed by the funding agency (Mangrove cell and GIZ Mumbai). The objectives are as given below.

1. Derive a baseline understanding of Thane creek through previous studies conducted and existing literature for Thane Creek on the issues of environmental & biodiversity conservation including anthropogenic pressure like pollution and waste dumping. 2. Document the present biodiversity of Thane creek covering the major aspects of flora and fauna. 3. Undertake the stakeholder analysis with an especial focus on the Flamingo sanctuary area.

Our Literature survey yielded 692 documents related to Thane creek These include both published and unpublished literature comprising of Academic thesis, Project reports, Journal publications, Publications in the proceedings of seminar/ conference, Online articles, Newsletters, etc. The analysis of the literature reveals that though the studies on Thane creek started before 1857, until 1956 there are only 20 publications most of which are found in books addressing general issues and pointing concerns on the Thane creek. However, it was only after the 1970’s that the volume of scientific literature on Thane creek started increasing with the establishment of several research institutions around Mumbai. As on date we found 41 Ph.D. Thesis and other publications that deal with almost every aspect of ecology and environment.

The biodiversity study revealed 15 species of mangroves with the dominance of Avicennia marina acutissima and Acanthus ilicifolius throughout the creek. The IVI values also indicated the dominance of a single genera i.e Avicennia spp. throughout the creek. The study of the water quality revealed the narrow northern end of the creek to have concentrated levels of nutrients, low salinity and Dissolved oxygen and the values showed a declining trend towards the sea where the waterbody was broader. The sediments also showed a similar picture with the sediments acting as a trap for nutrients. It was also noticed that the creek had become shallower and narrower with increased levels of silt throughout the creek.

The phytoplankton community comprised of 44 species, of which 36 species were recorded during the neap tidal phase and 32 during the spring tidal phase. The average population density was 5966053.65 no/L during the neap tide while during the spring tide the average density was 981517.98 no/L. The phytoplankton species belonged to 10 different classes represented by

Bacillariophyceae being the most dominant. The zooplankton in Thane creek comprised of 24 types representing eight phyla. The arthropoda with 10 types was the most dominant among the zooplankters followed by Cnidaria, Mollusca and Annelida.

The macrobenthos from the intertidal mudflats comprised of 23 species representing 5 phyla, with the Phylum Mollusca comprising of the gastropods and bivalves as the most abundant one. The benthos from within the mangroves comprised of mainly mollusca and crustacea. Mollusca was represented by total 22 species of gastropods and bivalves with the dominance of gastropods while the crustaceans comprised of 9 species. Presence of insects in the mangroves is critical because insects perform many roles within the ecosystem. During our study, we recorded 72 insects belonging to 33 different families and eight orders. The order Lepidoptera representing six families was most dominant with 31 different species comprising of 29 butterflies and 2 moth species. However, among arachnids we could document only seven species of spiders representing one order from the mangrove ecosystem of Thane creek.

It was observed that the fishing activity was mainly restricted to the lower stretches (marine end) of the creek. During the investigation, 15 species of fish were recorded, consisting of 11 species of finfish, two crustaceans and two molluscan bivalves, In addition we also recorded four reptiles while we sighted six mammals and had secondary evidences of Asiatic Jackal

We observed birds from within the mangroves to record the terrestrial birds associated with mangroves, as well as undertook boat surveys to document the wetland and shore birds. We recorded 155 species of birds representing 52 families with 76 wetland and shore birds. Most of the birds are of Least-Concern as per the IUCN status except 6 that are Near-Threatened and one that is Vulnerable.

The third objective of stake holder analysis was addressed by three ways 1. Sending email, 2. Personal interviews and 3. Meetings. From the three we obtained several concerns that were mostly addressed to the forest department. The major and common concern was that of the restrictions being imposed by the forest department on the local fishers and the need to have the sanctuary. The fishers also seemed worried for their livelihood and expressed that the laws and rules should not marginalize them at the expense of the influential people.

iii

Contents

S.No. Topic Pg. No.

Acknowledgement i Executive summary ii 1. Introduction 01. 2. Objectives 03 3. Methodology 04. Objective 1: Literature Survey for Thane creek 04. Objective 2: Biodiversity of Thane creek 05. Objective 3: Undertake Stakeholder analysis 08. 4. Results and Discussion 09. Objective 1: Literature Survey for Thane creek 09. Objective 2: Biodiversity of Thane creek 21. Objective 3: Undertake Stakeholder analysis 65. 5. References 81. 6. Appendix I – Literature for Thane creek 85. 7. Appendix II – Questionnaire Survey 125. 8. Appendix III – Stakeholder meeting presentation 130.

Citation: Goldin Quadros, P.A.Azeez, R.P.Athalye,, Shrish S. Manchi, Mahendiran Mylswamy, Siddhesh D Bhave, Sonia Benjamin, Janice Vaz, Amol Tripathi, Prathamesh Gujarpadhaye. 2016. Baseline Studies of Thane creek. Project report submitted to Mangrove Cell, Maharashtra & GIZ, Mumbai Office by Sálim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON) and B.N. Bandodkar College of Science, Thane. pp 135 .

Introduction

This report on Thane Creek is based on the context of the GoI-GIZ-CMPA Maharashtra Project that intends to improve the protection of biodiversity by promoting participatory approaches to the conservation and management of coastal and marine protected areas (CMPA), and supporting the creation of new protected areas in the future. By involving stakeholders at local, state and national levels, it is expected to make a significant contribution to the conservation of areas rich in biodiversity, without compromising the resource use and livelihood options of the local population.

About the study area

Thane creek (Long. 72.55’ to 73.00’ E and Lat. 19.00’ to 19.15’ N) is 26 km long. It is connected to the Mumbai harbour on its south and joins by a minor connection with the Ulhas river on its north near Thane city (Fig. 1). Geologically, the Mumbai – Thane region is part of the Deccan trap that was formed by volcanic effusions at the end of the cretaceous period (Blasco, 1975; Tandale, 1993). Primarily, both the south and north connections of Thane creek isolate the Mumbai (Bombay) island from the mainland. The creek is narrow & shallow at the riverine end due to the presence of the geomorphic head and broader & deeper towards the sea.

Thane creek being tropical in location (Lat. 19 N), winter is not severe, and 3 seasons can be distinguished viz., monsoon (June to September), post monsoon (October to February) and pre monsoon (March to May). The creek is tidally influenced with dominance of neritic waters and negligible freshwater flow except during the monsoon. The substratum of the creek in the mid stream is made up of consolidated and unconsolidated boulders intermingled with loose rocks and rarely with sand and gravel. Extensive mudflats are formed along the banks of the creek, which are characterized by the growth of mangroves. The presence of mangroves along both the banks has made Thane creek a highly productive ecosystem.

According to the local fishers a few decades ago, Thane creek provided excellent catch of commercial fish and crustaceans, which in the recent years has dwindled to a bare minimum. This decline in fishery was mainly attributed to heavy industrialization and urbanization that has taken place along both the banks of the creek. On the east bank of the creek exists Asia's largest industrialized zone namely Thane Belapur industrial area along with the Navi Mumbai Urban area. The west bank has highly urbanised Mumbai and Thane region along with a good number of industries. Moreover, the human population in the city adjoining the creek has doubled in past 10 years. Such an extensive industrialization and urbanization has adversely affected the creek. Not only the industrial effluents and domestic wastes are released in to the creek, but since 1995, the creek is also being indiscriminately used as dumping ground for large quantity of solid wastes.

The urbanization and industrialization around Thane creek and the load of the effluents indicate detrimental state of the ecosystem. For such ecosystems under the stress of anthropogenic activities, careful and continuous monitoring of different ecological aspects is necessary to access the status and impact of pollution and productivity. Such studies will help in deciding the preventive and remedial measures and assess the effectiveness of the measures taken up.

With its designation as Flamingo sanctuary during July 2015, this study has further emphasized the importance to conserve the creek while taking stock of the natural resources and dependence of the local populace.

Fig 1: Map of Mumbai city showing the location of Thane creek

Objectives

The overall objective of the project is ‘to contribute to the improvement of the conservation, and sustainable use of biodiversity in the pilot protected areas while taking into consideration the economic circumstances of the local population’.

Thane Creek is one of the sites of the project with three objectives designed by the funding agency (Mangrove cell and GIZ Mumbai). The objectives are as given below.

Methodology

Study Period: November 2015 to April 2016. Objective 1. Literature survey for Thane creek

To achieve the first objective we undertook the literature survey using the following methodology.

The objective requires information on the issues relating to environmental studies, biodiversity studies, pollution aspects, livelihood and sustainability concerns, pressures on the creek ecosystem and historical aspects associated with the Thane creek. This objective primarily focuses on the desk review of the literature. However, this can only materialize if we survey and collect the literature. Hence, we used the facilities available at SACON and the collaborating institution i.e. B N Bandodkar College, Thane. Our method comprised of surveying and collecting literature from both institutional libraries followed by internet search. Subsequently, we also started visits to other research and academic institution libraries. The survey of literature is mostly based on five categories of keywords that we narrowed down to help in the faster search, identification and access to the literature either physically in the Libraries on the internet.

The keywords used in each of the categories are as follows

Keywords based on place/location: Thane, Thana, Tana, Tanna, Creek, Vashi, Trombay, Vikhroli, Airoli, Kanjurmarg, New Bombay, Navi Mumbai, Trans Thane Creek, Off Thane creek, Off Bombay Harbour. Keywords based on ecological aspects: Mangroves, Fauna, Birds, Water quality, Sediment, Benthos, Mammals, Plankton, Fishery, Pesticides, Heavy metals, Toxicology, Biochemistry, Radiation, Solid waste, Non-biodegradable waste, Pollution, Geology, Sewage outlets, Effluent treatment plants, Stakeholders. Keywords based on legal aspects: CRZ, IBA, Protected area, Sanctuary, Ramsar sites. Keywords based on Stakeholders: Fishing villages, Industries, Thane Municipal Corporation, Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation, Navi Mumbai Municipal Corporation. Keywords based on Research Institutions: Colleges, Mumbai University, NIO, NEERI, CMFRI, CIFE, BNHS, BSI, ZSI, FSI, GSI, BARC, TISS, IIT, NGOs.

The literature collected is from libraries at various institutions and from online resources as briefed below.

Libraries: Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology & Natural History Library; B.N.Bandodkar College of Science & Zoology Department Libraries; St. Xavier's College and Botany, Geology, and Zoology Department Libraries; Jhun Jhunwala College and Botany and Zoology Department Libraries; K J Somaiya College and Botany and Zoology Department Libraries; Godrej Mangrove Centre Library; National Institute of Oceanography- Goa and Mumbai Regional Centre Library; Centre for Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Mumbai Library; Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai Library; Fisheries Survey of India, Mumbai Library; National Environment Engineering Research Institute, Mumbai Library; Bombay Natural History Society Library and the University of Mumbai Library.

Internet search engines: Google search, Google Scholar, Research Gate, Academia, ENVIS websites JStor, BioOne and Springerlink

Objective 2: Biodiversity of Thane creek

To achieve the second objective, the following methodology was used to document several different components of the biodiversity.

Mangrove diversity – 1 x 1 km grids were plotted across the Thane Creek, and 26 grids (sites) were sampled as per the stratified random sampling (Fig 2). Within the grids, two quadrats each of 25 x 25 meters size at an approximate distance of 200 meters were studied for the mangrove diversity and abundance. Within each of the quadrats, the mangrove and the mangrove associate plants were identified and counted.

Fig 2: 1 x 1 km grids used to study the mangroves, and other parameters from Thane creek

Insect and arachnid diversity – the plots in the mangroves were explored for the diversity of insects and arachnids during the day light hours only. The plants within the plots were scanned thoroughly for the occurrence of the organisms. To identify the species photographs were taken on the field and later identified in the laboratory.

Bird diversity –The avifaunal diversity was studied both within the mangroves and along the creek. Within the mangroves the point count method was used, wherein the birds were documented based on sight or sound for the duration of 15 minutes within the plots where the mangroves were studied. Along the creek, boat surveys were undertaken and the direct sighting method was used during the lunar phases as well as the high tide and the low tide. The birds were sighted using the 45 x 7 binoculars as well as using photographic and video graphic evidence.

Fish diversity – To assess the fish fauna available in the creek, fish catch was directly procured from the local fishers during their fishing activity in the creek.

Fig. 3: Sampling locations along the Thane creek

Plankton diversity – The phytoplankton sample was collected from 19 locations during the lunar phases using a wide mouth container. 200 ml of water was collected in a plastic bottle, fixed with lugol’s iodine, and later decanted to observe the phytoplankton under the compound microscope

The zooplankton sampling was undertaken using plankton 60 um net that was towed in the water for approximate 5 minutes at several sampling locations along the creek. The plankton collected was fixed and preserved in 10% formalin. The zooplankton was later identified using the dissecting and compound microscope.

For Water and Soil Quality in the creek, samples were collected from 19 locations and the protocol adopted for analysis was as per the Standard methods (APHA, 2012). The method used for analysis of each parameter of the water and soil / sediment is briefed in the table below.

The methods adopted for habitat studies are also given in the same table.

Table 1: Parameters investigated during the study S No Parameter Method Habitats and benthos 1 Mangroves Quadrats 2 Benthos Grab sampling along transects Water and sediment 1 Temperature Digital thermometer 2 Light Penetration (LP) Sechi disc 3 Total Suspended Solids (TSP) Gravimetric 4 Salinity Argentometric method 5 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Winkler’s method 6 Phosphate- Phosphorus Spectophotometric 7 Nitrate Nitrogen Spectophotometric 8 Oil and Grease Spectophotometric Sediment studies 9 Water Content Gravimetric 10 Sediment texture Sieves and Gravimetric 11 Sand Sieves and Gravimetric 12 Silt Gravimetric 13 Clay Gravimetric 14 Organic Carbon (OC) and Organic Matter (OM) Titrimetric, Walkley - Black method 15 Available Phosphorus Ammonium molybdate method

16 Total Phosphorus Ammonium molybdate method

17 Total Nitrogen Kjeldhal distillation method

The sampling locations for water, soil, benthos and plankton are plotted in Figure 3

Benthos – the benthic samples were collected from the intertidal region of Thane Creek during the neap and spring tide from the same locations where the water was sampled. Soil samples were collected using a handheld grab and sediment samples were passed through a 500 mm sieve, and the benthic organisms obtained were preserved in 70% ethanol.

The megabenthos like the crabs, gastropods and their like were also sampled from the mangrove plots in an area of 1 x 1 m subquadrats with four replicates.

Objective 3. Undertake the stakeholder analysis with an especial focus on the Flamingo sanctuary area

There are a number of ways of undertaking a stakeholder analysis. Workshops, focus groups and interviews are three common approaches for such an exercise. Survey research is a research method involving the use of questionnaires and/or statistical surveys to gather data about people and their thoughts and behaviours. This method was pioneered in the 1930s and 1940s by sociologist Paul Lazarsfeld. The present study was carried out using survey questionnaire method in addition to the stakeholder gatherings and emails to targeted groups. The analysis of the data was carried out using both qualitative and quantitative analysis methods. Methodology

To assess the stakeholders for Thane creek the stakeholders were identified based on the secondary information obtained from published literature and the Census of India 2011 data. A detailed questionnaire was designed to undertake the one on one interview with the stakeholders (Appendix 2). Subsequently the community, villages and corporate agencies were identified and the questionnaire survey was undertaken.

The categories of people surveyed are as given below.

1. Fishermen obtaining their livelihood from the Thane creek, 2. The villagers residing around the Thane creek, 3. Environmentalist/ NGOs/ Naturalist/ Photographers visiting the creek 4. Institutions - Research and Education 5. Corporate agencies / small-scale industries 6. Government agencies / institutions The survey was undertaken either on a one on one basis or through email or during stakeholder gatherings.

We approached over 1000 individuals from different sectors and received responses from 196 individuals to our questionnaire. The responses are summarised here. Subsequent to our interactions with the community around Thane creek, we conducted three stakeholder meetings for the corporate, the villagers and locals and the researchers and educationist. The views and opinions expressed are also incorporated.

Results and Discussions Objective 1: Literature survey for Thane creek

After scanning over 3500 documents based on the keywords, our focused literature survey has yielded around 692 documents on Thane creek. These include both published and unpublished literature comprising of Academic thesis, Project reports, Journal publications, Publications in the proceedings of seminar/ conference, Online articles, Newsletters, etc. (Figure 4). The details on the type of literature are given below in Table 1. While surveying literature we found that the oldest one is a book published in 1857 by Buist G. on the 'Geology of the island of Bombay, Geological papers on Western India, Bombay' that also dwells upon Thane creek and its origins. Subsequently there are publications on the fauna around the creek as well as the sewerage system for Bombay. It was mostly noted that the publications during the early years was in the form of books while the journals were few and published by the Bombay Natural History Society and the University of Bombay (Mumbai).

Thesis Books 14% 11%

Reports 19%

Journals 39% Proceedings 14%

Online articles Newsletters 2% 1% Figure4: The composition of literature available on Thane creek

The analysis of the literature reveals that though the studies on Thane creek started before 1857, until 1956 there are only 20 publications most of which are found in books addressing general issues and pointing concerns on the Thane creek. Important to note is that we could not come across any literature mentioning Thane creek for a duration of 32 years from 1908 until 1940. This was so despite the fact that there are several publications that give information on issues concerning the Bombay Harbour bay. However, it was only after the 1970’s that the volume of scientific literature on Thane creek started increasing with the establishment of several research institutions around Mumbai. With the turn of the century, the Thane creek has gained prominence with studies addressing varied aspects ranging from biodiversity, pollution, conservation, development to Land Use Land Cover. Figure 5 gives a picture of the growth in the knowledge base on the creek and it is seen to increase in leaps and bounds since the 1990's. Over the years the percentage of journal publications comprising of research articles have increased followed by the study reports based on the ecology, mangroves, fishery, productivity, EIA's or utility of the creek.

20 Number Number of publications 10

0 1857 1887 1893 1906 1940 1942 1949 1951 1953 1959 1961 1967 1970 1973 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 Year of Publication Figure 5: Growth in publications on Thane creek

Table 2: Literature available on Thane creek A. Academic theses S.No. Degree Affiliation Nos. Total 1 D.F.Sc. CIFE 01 01 2 Ph.D. Mumbai University 31 41 Pune University 03 Goa University 02 North Marathwada University 02 Marathwada University 01 CIFE 01 IIT Mumbai 01 3 M.Phil Mumbai University 01 03 Pune University 02 4 M.Sc. Res. Mumbai University 11 15 IEE, New Delhi 01 Rasmus Mundas France 01 Virginia Polytech, USA 01 Columbia University, USA 01 5 M.F.Sc. CIFE 10 10 6 M.Sc. Diss Mumbai University 17 18 Pune University 01 7 M.S. Urban Dev. Pratt University 01 01 8 M.A. University of Virginia, USA 01 01 9 M.Sc. Arch University of Mumbai 01 02 Pune University 01 10 M.Tech IIT 02 02 Total 94

B. Reports S.No. Type Total 1. Annual reports 19 2 COMAPS report 01 3 EIA reports 03 4 Project reports 12 5 Homi Bhabha student’s reports 06 6 Technical reports 02 7 General reports 72 Total 131

C. Books, booklets and book chapters 78 D. Factsheet 01 E. Loksabha discussion Papers 03 F. Bulletin/magazines 10 G. Online articles/notes 12 H. Research publications- Proceedings 92 I. Research publications- Journals 270

The publications and the aspects/research covered in them for Thane creek have been listed in the Table 2. From the literature survey, spanning 160 years of available modern literature i.e. 1857 to 2016, the publications of 69 years were available and analyzed. Several aspects have been covered over the years a broad breakup of which is given in Table 3. A preliminary overview of the research conducted on the ecological aspects of the Creek is given below. The mangroves have been studied for diversity, extent and biology since the early 1900’s. Since 1960’s, there are several studies that dealt with water, sediment, productivity and heavy metal contamination in the creek. The primary livelihood component (i.e. the fishery) has received however very little attention with most of the studies on fish being done only during the 1980’s and 90’s. The solid waste and non-biodegradable pollution have been the matter of concern only since the 2000’s and so is the attention on avifaunal studies.

Table 3: Year wise publications and the scientific concerns addressed

S.No. Year Publications Major aspects covered 1 1857 02 Geology 2 1872 01 Effluents 3 1887 02 Avifauna 4 1890 01 Sanitation 5 1893 02 Fauna & general aspects 6 1905 01 Mangroves 7 1906 01 Pearls

8 1908 01 Flora 9 1940 01 Mangrove ecology 10 1941 01 Mangrove ecology 11 1942 02 Mangrove ecology and sediment 12. 1946 01 General write-up 13 1949 01 Mangrove & soil chemistry 14. 1950 02 Fish feeding behaviour, mangrove soil & ecology 15 1951 01 Mangrove vegetation 16 1952 02 Phytoplankton and zooplankton 17 1953 01 Marshy vegetation Characteristics, Copepoda taxonomy 18 1956 01 Mangrove distribution 19 1959 01 Mangrove and sediment 20 1960 01 Primary productivity using C14 21 1961 01 Zooplankton studies 22 1966 01 Water currents & tidal studies 23 1967 01 Flora 24 1969 01 Reptile distribution and habitat 25 1970 01 Ecotoxicology & biodiversity 26 1972 01 Environmental survey 27. 1973 03 Intertidal Fish fauna 28 1975 06 Mangroves, pollution studies, fauna, Heavy metals, molecular biology 29 1976 02 Mangroves, macrobenthos, plankton, pollution 30. 1977 02 Zooplankton, biochemistry 31 1978 04 Fish, plankton, water pollution, Stakeholders 32 1979 03 Water, Plankton, pollution 33 1980 02 Biochemistry, heavy metals 34 1981 06 Mangroves, plankton, heavy metal pollution, urbanization, stakeholders 35 1982 06 Pollution, primary productivity, plankton, fish, geology, foraminifera, benthos, siltation 36 1983 05 Biological productivity, history, geology, plankton, heavy metals, siltation 37 1984 05 Vegetation, tidal flow characteristics, fishery, foraminifera 38 1985 06 Effluents, toxic metals, plankton, benthos, fish, invertebrate fauna 39 1986 05 Plant physiology, biological characteristics, aerosols, fish, pollution 40 1987 05 Heavy metals fish, mangroves, benthos, anthropogenic activities 41 1988 06 Heavy metals, pollution, benthos, water, soil, fish, stakeholder analysis 42 1989 09 Metals, ecotoxicology, fish, benthos, pollution, saltpans, extractable organics, water and soil

43 1990 11 Productivity, mangrove ecology, toxicity, fish, plankton, topography, air pollution, avifauna, plantation studies, modelling and simulation 44 1991 09 Mangroves, plankton, benthos, pollution, heavy metals, modelling, dredging, 45 1992 06 Conservation & management, modelling & simulation, water & soil, heavy metals, plankton, remote sensing 46 1993 09 Microbiology, plankton, benthos, sediments, water, heavy metals, pollution 47 1994 13 Polycyclic hydrocarbons, radioactivity, biofouling, heavy metals, conservation, mangroves, microbiology, fish, pollution 48 1995 12 Hydrology mangroves, geography, urbanization & development, awareness, saltpans, heavy metals, sewage & effluents, benthos, pollution 49 1996 07 Remote sensing, development management, environmental risks, biofilms, biodiversity, macrobenthos, meiobenthos, biofouling 50 1997 13 Polycyclic hydrocarbons, conservation, heavy metals, urbanization, plankton, benthos, capacity building of managers 51 1998 13 Modelling, conservation, management, statistical modelling, remote sensing, mapping, plankton, fish, benthos, mangroves, EIA studies, carbon sequestration, CRZ studies 52 1999 17 Geology, pollution, plankton, heavy metals, conservation, planning and development, mangroves, fish, benthos, saltpans, industries’ impact, radioactivity 53 2000 14 Water, pollution, heavy metals, remote sensing, effluent modelling, land use mapping, flora and fauna, Insect fauna, Avifauna, microbial biotechnology, benthos, water, sediment, non-biodegradable solid water material studies. 54 2001 18 Bioactive compounds, development, seismicity, sewage, trace heavy metals, integrated coastal management, numerical modelling, remote sensing, fish, benthos, mammals mangroves, plankton 55 2002 37 Water, sediment, plant galls, oil, insects, pollution, avifauna, conservation, assimilation capacity, aerobiological components, remote sensing, modelling, ecologically sensitive coastal ecosystems, and human mangrove conflicts carbon sequestration. 56 2003 12 Benthos, water, soil, avifauna, fish, anthropogenic pressures, radioactivity, urban planning, mosquitoes, steel corrosion studies, biochemistry, marine turtles, 57 2004 22 Fungi, bacteria, Important Bird Area, development, benthos, petroleum hydrocarbons, aquaculture studies, mangrove

conservation 58 2005 12 Organic pollution, palynology, pollution, mangrove, conservation, biodiversity, heavy metals, remote sensing 59 2006 13 Solid waste management, bioindicators, radiation, remote sensing, conservation, pollution, biomass, heavy metals in core sediment samples, sediment accumulation, biomarkers 60 2007 20 Wastewater characterization, avifauna, marine litter, pollution, mangroves, benthos, mosquitoes, heavy metals, anthropogenic activities, organic pollutants, water and sediment quality, secondary metabolites, Avifauna, integrated solid waste management 61 2008 12 Remote sensing, petrochemicals, conservation, mosquitoes, biodiversity, benthos, mangroves, drainage, seismicity 62 2009 26 Medicinal properties, benthos, heavy metals, butterflies, pesticides, development, avifauna, fish, mangroves, conservation, radioactive compound studies, effluents, water and sediment, awarness, CSR models 63 2010 27 Carbon Sequestration, flamingo, urbanization, heavy metals, vulnerability, stakeholder studies, productivity models, EIA, oil pollution, town planning, mangroves, water, sediment, benthos 64 2011 25 Biodiversity, heavy metals, plankton, benthos, mangroves, fish, medicines from mollusk, benthos, non-biodegradable solid waste, remote sensing 65 2012 41 Carbon sequestration, IBA, sand dredging, heavy metals, antimicrobial activity, fish, plankton, benthos, conservation, polycyclic hydrocarbons, mangroves, awareness, sediment, water, development 66 2013 54 Solid waste management, remote sensing, dumping, sediment cores, Land use Land cover, bioactive compounds, avifauna, water, sediment, benthos, eutrophication, heavy metals, oil spill, philately, mosquitoes, plankton, mangroves, saltpans, bioactive markers in mangroves 67 2014 35 Tourism, heavy metals, mangroves, conservation, benthos, fish, heavy metals, cost-benefit analysis of sewage disposal, remote sensing, water, sediment, CHN analysis and GIS models 68 2015 42 Geography, transport, insects, tidal movements, birds, management, conservation, coastal zone analysis, remote sensing, water, sediment, benthos, heavy metals, Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, ecological consequences of pollution. radioactivity, insect diversity, avifauna 69 2016 05 Water quality, fish, fishing practices, plankton, birds, pollution, mangroves

Based on the type of publications we found that the Journals comprised almost 39 % of the total, followed by the Scientific and technical reports (19%), publications in proceedings of seminar and conferences (14%), academic thesis / dissertations (14%) and books (11%). Spread over 61 years, almost 130 journals, which also include some of the high Impact factor journals, have published articles on Thane creek. The pioneering ones were two notes relating to or mentioning Thane creek first published during 1887 in the Journal of Bombay Natural History Society. These were on the sightings of birds in one article while the other had mention of Thane creek in the article on the Konkan and the coast. The articles published so far have addressed several concerns on the creek such as ecology and biology of Mangroves, water quality, sediment quality, benthos, plankton, fishery, fish biology, avifauna, insects, reptiles, amphibians, mammals, biochemistry, ecotoxicology, molecular biology, poly aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), productivity, pollution, livelihood concerns, radiation, heavy metals, geology, remote sensing, management, awareness, CRZ issues, solid waste pollution, etc. However there has been a buildup to the publications post 1990's and the peak in publications was noticed during 2013 as is also observed in the general trend (Figure 6). Since 1980, conference, seminars, or workshops have been conducted during 29 different years where the issues on Thane creek have been addressed. The most prominent one was during the year 2002 where almost 19 papers have been discussed on Thane creek and again during 2015 after the declaration of the Thane creek as a flamingo sanctuary (Figure 7). The probable reason for the peaking in publications during the 2002 conference could be that the conference addressing the local issues on mangroves and the creek was held locally after 1980's. The topics mostly discussed have been the mangroves diversity and biology, physico-chemical characteristics of water and sediment and fishery apart from the heavy metal pollution in the creek.

10 Number Number of publications 5

0 1887 1905 1940 1946 1950 1952 1956 1960 1966 1973 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016

Year of publication Figure 6: Scientific articles that appeared in National and International journals on Thane creek

20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 number number publicationsof 4 2 0 1985 1992 1993 1998 2004 2011 1980 1982 1986 1987 1990 1991 1994 1995 1996 1997 1999 2000 2001 2002 2006 2007 2008 2010 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Year of publication Figure 7: Papers on Thane creek published in Proceedings or abstracts of scientific conferences/seminars/ workshops

Mumbai being a major metropolis of the country has constantly had to deal with its increasing population. Hence, to accommodate its populace there has been regular planning centering on development of urban habitats around the creek. These actions have raised concerns and necessitated studies on the creek resulting in several management, development, planning and research projects spread over 160 years. In the total duration of the review, we came across 131 reports submitted to concerned authorities during 32 different years (Figure 8). The first report was on 'The Drainage and sewerage of Bombay" taken up in 1872 and submitted to the bench of justices of the city. However, what comes across from the report is the lack of concern for the creek ecosystem then, since the population was living in the southern locales of Bombay, the creek was considered a favorable disposal ground. Over the years, the reports available have addressed several major concerns including heavy metal pollution, aerosol pollution, and oil pollution in the creek, apart from the biodiversity studies. Of these reports, the one released by the CMFRI during 1978 address livelihood and stakeholder issues, thereby addressing the issues of the locals. The studies on different economic and ecological aspects have grown since 1995 with the maximum having undertaken during 2009 to 2013. The work of addressing the issues has been assigned to several government and nongovernment agencies apart from scientific and academic institutions. In recent times there have been several research works funded by the corporates and mediated by the NGOs and well as the CSOs.

3 Number reportsNumber of

0 1872 1890 1953 1973 1975 1976 1978 1987 1988 1990 1992 1994 1995 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Year of publication

Figure 8: Reports on different aspects of Thane creek

Apart from the reports, several books have been published on the creek that constitutes almost 11% of the literature that we surveyed. We came across 78 books (Figure 9) with either a detailed account on Thane creek as a case study of a polluted creek or taking as an example for Marine biodiverse area. There are also books that detailed the economic importance of the mangroves and the resources found in the creek while also addressing the environmental and socioeconomic concerns. However, the book that caught our attention was by Kalpishratna published during 2010, the writers both medical professionals have collected secondary data on the creek and compared the current environmental settings of Mumbai with the outbreak of cholera 100 years ago on the basis of the benthic fauna from the creek.

4 No. ofNo. books published 2

0 1983 1989 2003 2010 1857 1908 1967 1975 1990 1992 19941994 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Year of publication Figure 9: Books published on different concerns of Thane creek

Despite the interest on the creek since 1857 that ushered in discussions on the Creek, the academia did not take much interest until 1940's. Until date, 93 individuals have worked for their thesis on issues related to Thane creek; 41 of these are for Ph.D Degree, while the remaining ones are for Masters Degree in different fields (Table 2). From the 41 theses that were awarded Ph.D, 26 are for a degree in zoology, 7 in botany, 5 in Chemistry and one each in Physics, Geology and Microbiology. Figure 10 shows the trends in the award of the degrees, however it should be noted that the increase in the number of theses from 1999 is due to the M.Sc dissertations which forms a part requirement for M.Sc degree. The Masters degree is mostly in the environmental sciences and the life sciences stream. In addition, there are dissertations facilitating the Masters in Architecture degree as well as M.A degree. Apart from the Mumbai University, several universities have worked on the Thane creek as given in Table 2. There are also a couple of students from USA and France who have worked for their master's dissertation on the creek.

An analysis of the thesis category reveals some interesting facts like the first Ph.D. was awarded degree in Botany during 1942 while the first degree in Zoology addressing ecotoxicology was awarded during 1970. Subsequently there have been several interesting works on biochemistry, covering all aspects of biodiversity, bioaccumulation, carbon sequestration, conservation planning, and so forth on the creek.

3 Number ThesisNumber of 2

0 1941 1970 1972 1973 1975 1978 1979 1982 1983 19841984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1993 1994 1995 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2004 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 20122012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Year the publication

Figure 10: Theses on Thane creek submitted for award of academic degrees

Important observations

As per the requirement of the present project, the literature survey has to an extent present some insights to the studies conducted on the Thane creek. Based on the publications, the institutions that are largely carrying out studies include NIO, NEERI, BARC, B.N. Bandodkar College of Science, Jhun Jhunwala College, K.J. Somaiya College, Bhavans College, Institute of Science and

CIFE. However, none of the institutions had a continuous long-term association with the creek except for the B.N. Bandodkar College of Science that is ideally located near the creek and has been consistently taking up projects since 1980's.

The literature survey has brought out some interesting facts. For instance, we could find a publication made back in 1857 talking about the geology of the creek, possibly the oldest literature on the creek. The earliest record of a biological species from the creek is the ‘Single valve of Tridacna squamosa, the great scaly clamp from Tanna creek (Thane creek, Maharashtra)’ by W.F. Sinclair in 1893. Thane creek was also known for its contract system for harvesting pearls as documented by Sale in 1906. Thane creek was one of the important ports for trade and commerce until the 1950's and formed a transit point for the boats travelling the coastal waters.

Some of our exciting finds on the studies include a few sporadic studies on the health of the local populace due to the creek pollution. Of the various species that are studied, the diversity of mosquitoes from the mangrove forest of Thane Creek is among the rare studies for mangroves in India. There are studies though few in number addressing the microbes, fungi, and issues relating to livelihood concerns of the local fishers. During the 1980's the studies also brought out several invertebrate species new to science such as the bryozoan (ectoprocta) Hippoporina indica (Sp.n.); sea anemones Acontiactis gokhaleae and Edwardsia athalyie and the range extension of the estuarine crab Illyoplax gangetica. What appears lacking for the creek from the scientific point of view is the absence of literature on lichen or orchid diversity and mammals. What is most striking from the study is the fact that the siltation in the creek has been on a steady rise since the early 1990s that has also lead to increased growth in mangroves along the edges of the water body, where it was not seen in the past. In contrast, the fish diversity and fishery potential in the creek has reduced; however, there has been increase in the abundance and diversity of avifauna. The phenomenon of decline in fishery has been observed since the 1990's while the increase in bird diversity is recorded only since the 2000's. The list of literature on Thane Creek is given in Appendix 1.

It needs to be noted here that the observations presented here are only prelude and to state further emphatically and thoroughly we need to proceed with the in-depth review. The observations from the present literature survey are only indicative of the concerns or lacunae explicit in the knowledgebase for conservation of Thane Creek.

Lacunae observed from the literature survey

From our study of the literature on Thane creek, it is obvious that studies have been undertaken on an array of aspects relating to biodiversity, ecology, economics, planning, management, conservation and awareness (Table 3). The concerns have been addressed at different times and phases depending on the need and interest. The initial studies were for the development of the city by making use of the creek; the ecological setup was seen to be mostly compromised although it affected the livelihood of the locals. Over the years, the situation has only worsened along the creek. There are no sustained long-term studies on the creek except for the soil and water monitoring studies done annually by TMC and MPCB. With the declaration of Thane creek as Important Bird and Biodiversity Area (IBA) in 2004 and as Flamingo bird sanctuary in 2015 it is now necessary that the creek is monitored and managed sustainably.

The major lacunae that come out from the present exercise are as follows.

1) Lack of long-term research on different components of biodiversity and ecology 2) Policy to manage the creek in a sustainable manner by involving the locals 3) Livelihood options for the local inhabitants 4) Lack of knowledge and understanding on the mangroves, their quality and quantity

Table 4: Some of the surveyed literature addressing the parameters surveyed

S.No. Particulars Number of publications 1. Mangroves 103 2. Algae 7 3. Plankton 50 4. Benthos 39 5. Physico-chemical parameters 145 6.. Ecotoxicology 151 7. Biodiversity 155 8. Others 93 9. Methods 21 10 Comparison 49 11. Awareness 73 12. Urbanization 49 13 Radiation studies 15 14 Avifauna 10 15 Policy and planning 5

Objective 2: Biodiversity of Thane creek

Results and discussion

The Thane creek and the mangroves surrounding it are located in the country’s major metropolitan city – Mumbai. This ecosystem is surrounded by both industries and an urban populace that is constantly growing. This growth in demography has been the major cause of concern for the biodiversity of the region. The biodiversity studies undertaken in Thane creek have revealed a vast species composition occupying different niches. A discussion on the flora and fauna observed during the present study are given here below.

Mangroves

Mangrove forests are very vital ecosystems as they provide support to a complex community assemblage, reduce coastal erosion and serve as sinks for macronutrients, micronutrients and heavy metals. They serve as custodians of their juvenile stock and form most valuable biomes (Odum 1971). The mangroves are found extensively in the estuarine regions where mudflats are wide and gently sloping. Besides estuaries, they also inhabit the intertidal regions of the shallow bays and creeks where the environment is conducive for their growth. The mangrove plants take nutrients from the tidal seawater and river water and in turn provide natural food to mangrove dwelling fauna (Odum et al., 1982).

Table 5: Sampling stations along Thane creek for the present study

East bank West Bank S.no Sampling site (grid) S.no Sampling site (grid) 1. Kharegaon (2 sites) 1. Balkum 2. DAV Airoli 2. Bhandup Pumping station (2 sites) 3. Koparkhairane 3. Ganesh visarjan ghat 4. New Horizon Airoli 4. Godrej (7 sites) 5. Nisarga Udyan 5. Kanjur Dumping ground (3 sites) 6. Sagar Vihar 6. Thane salt pans 7. Vashi Gaon Jetty 7. Trombay saltpans 8. Vashi Joggers Park 9. Vashi Shivtirtha maidan 10 Visarjan Ghat Total 11 sites (grid) Total 15 sites (grid)

The mangrove diversity from the randomly selected sampling stations (Table 5) from Thane creek showed the presence of 15 true mangrove species belonging to eight genera and six families. Among the 15 species, the mangroves belonging to the genus Avicennia are the most dominant in terms of numbers while the family Rhizophoraceae was represented by four species, but with sporadic and rare occurrence. We recorded the average number of plants per hectare as 915; the maximum number of plants was recorded at Koparkhairane on the east bank of the creek (3112 no/ha) while the minimum was at Kharegaon (8 no/ha) on the east bank near the confluence of the Ulhas river with the creek (Fig 11). The highest species diversity was observed

at Kharegaon followed by Kanjur dumping ground and Godrej, while the lowest was observed at Nisarga Udyan and Visarjan ghat on the east bank of the creek (Fig 12).

The mangrove associate species comprised of 34 species belonging to 17 families, the plants belonging to Acanthaceae, Poaceae and Malvaceae represented by four species each. The list of mangroves and mangrove associates recorded during the study is given in Table 6 & 7 below.

Table 6: List of true mangrove species found along the Thane Creek

S.No Family Scientific name Common name Habit

1 Acanthaceae Acanthus ilicifolius Sea Holly Shrub 2 Avicenniceae Avicennia marina acutissima Grey mangrove Tree 3 Avicenniceae Avicennia marina marina Grey mangrove Tree

4 Avicenniceae Avicennia officinalis Indian Mangrove Tree

5 Euphorbiaceae Excoecaria agallocha Blinding Tree Shrub 6 Lythraceae Sonneratia alba Sweet-Scented Apple Tree

Mangrove

7 Lythraceae Sonneratia apetala Sonneratia Mangrove Tree 8 Lythraceae Sonneratia caseolaris Tree

9 Myrsinaceae Aegiceras corniculatum River Mangrove Shrub

10 Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera gymnorrhiza Burma Mangrove Tree

11 Rhizophoraceae Ceriops tagal Tagal Mangrove Tree

12 Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora mucronata Asiatic Mangrove Tree 13 Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora apiculata Tree 14 Salvadoraceae Salvadora persica Meswak Shrub

15 Verbenaceae Clerodendrum inerme Glory Bower Shrub

3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000

Total mangroves Total no/ha 500 0

Sampling sites

Fig 11: Density of mangroves at the sampling sites of Thane creek

Table 7: Mangrove Associates and co-occurring species found along the Thane Creek

S.No. Family Scientific name Common name Habit

1 Amaranthaceae Alternanthera sessilis Sessile Joyweed Shrub

2 Celosia argentea Cockscomb Crested Shrub 3 Asteraceae Pluchea odorata Shrubby Herb camphorweed 4 Caesalpiniaceae Cassia sps. - Shrub 5 Convolvulaceae Ipomoea sps. - Herb 6 Cyperaceae Cyperus rotundus Common Nut Herb

Sedge

7 Cyperus scariosus Umbrella Sedge Herb 8 Fimbristylis ferruginea Herb

9 Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea pentaphylla Five Leaf Yam Climber

10 Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia hispida Bristly Spurge Herb

11 Euphorbia hirta Asthma Weed Herb

12 Fabaceae Derris trifoliata Common Derris Climber 13 Derris pentaphyla Climber

14 Mucuna pruriens Velvet Bean Climber 15 Malvaceae Abelmoschus manihot Sweet Hibiscus Shrub 16 Abelmoschus sps. Hibiscus Shrub

17 Sida acuta Common Wireweed Shrub 18 Thespesia populnea Tree 19 Mimosaceae Acacia sps. - Tree

20 Pithecellobium dulce Madras Thorn Tree

21 Oxalidaceae Biophytum sensitivum Little Tree Plant Shrub

22 Poaceae Cynodon dactylon Bermuda Grass Herb 23 Aeluropus lagopoides Grass 24 Panicum sps. - Herb 25 Proteresia coarctata Herb

26 Acanthaceae Hygrophila schulli Marsh Barbel Non-Mangrove Halophyte 27 Hygrophila auriculata Marsh Barbel Non-Mangrove Halophyte 28 Hygrophila spinosa Non-Mangrove Halophyte 29 Hygrophila sp. - Non-Mangrove Halophyte

30 Aizoaceae Sesuvium portulacastrum Sea Purslane Non-Mangrove Halophyte 31 Scrophulariaceae Cressa critica Herb 32 Chenopodeaceae Suaeda martime Herb 33 Suaeda nudiflora Herb 34 Tamaricaceae Tamarix troupii Herb

10 9 8 7 6 5 4

No ofspecies No 3 2 1 0 … BPS1 BPS2 Godrej 1 Godrej 2 Godrej 3 Godrej 4 Godrej 5 Godrej 6 Godrej 7 Godrej Balkumb Sagar Vihar Sagar DAV Airoli Airoli DAV Kharegaon 1 Kharegaon 2 Kharegaon Visarjan ghat Visarjan Thane Saltpan Thane Nisarga udyan Nisarga Koparkhairne 1 Koparkhairne 2 Koparkhairne Vashi Shivtirtha Vashi Vashi gaon jetty jetty jetty gaon gaon Vashi Vashi Kanjur Dumping 1 Dumping Kanjur 2 Dumping Kanjur 3 3 DumpingDumping KanjurKanjur Ghatkopar saltpan Ghatkopar Vashi Joggers parkJoggers Vashi New horizon Airoli Airoli horizon New Ganesh visarjan ghat visarjan Ganesh Sampling sites

Figure 12: Species richness along the sampling stations in Thane creek.

The species wise density across the sampling sites is presented in the figures below. It is observed that the Acanthus ilicifolius was more along the east bank and the percentage varied from 0 to 75 % while along the west bank it varied between 5 to 30 % (Fig. 13 to 22). Avicennia marina acutisma was the dominant mangrove and most abundant species throughout the creek followed by A. marina marina. It was also noticed that the A. marina acutisma was dominant on the east bank while the A. marina marina was dominant on the west bank. Similarly it was observed that the A. officinalis, Sonneratia apetala and Bruguiera cylindrica was observed in more numbers along the east bank whereas Ceriops tagal, Excoecaria agallocha and Salvadora persica were more along the west bank. The species composition in the sampling sites is presented in figures 23 to 39; in overall, the Avicennia genera showed dominance at all the sites across the creek.

Fig.13: Acanthus ilicifolius 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% Percentage occurrence 10% 0%

Sampling Sites

Fig.14: Avicennia marina acutisima 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 no/ha 600 400 200 0

Sampling Sites

800 Fig.15: Avicennia marina marina 700 600 500 400 no/ha 300 200 100 0

Sampling Sites

Fig.16: Avicennia officanalis 350 300 250 200

no/ha 150 100 50 0

Sampling Sites

Fig.17: Bruguiera gymnorrhiza 45 40 35 30 25

no/ha 20 15 10 5 0

Sampling Sites

30 Fig.18: Ceriops tagal 25 20 15 no/ha 10 5 0

Sampling Sites

Fig.19: Derris trifoliata 250

200

150 no/ha 100

Sampling Sites

Fig.20: Excoecaria agallocha 500 450 400 350 300 250 no/ha 200 150 100 50 0

Sampling Sites

Fig.21: Salvadora persica 90 80 70 60 50

no/ha 40 30 20 10 0

Sampling Sites

Fig.22: Sonnertia apetala 160 140 120 100 80 no/ha 60 40 20 0

Sampling Sites

Fig 13 to 22: Density of some of the most commonly recorded mangroves from Thane creek

Fig 23: DAV airoli mangroves (%) Bruguiera Fig 24:Kharegaon Mangroves (%) Aegiceras Sonnneratia gymnorrhiza Acanthus Sonnnerati corniculatu apetala 13% a apetala m Avicennia ilicifolius 10% 31% 6% 1% marina Avicennia marina Acanthus Avicennia marina 42% ilicifolius Avicennia marina marina 9% marina acutissima 53% Avicennia acutissima 9% officinalis 21% 5%

AvicenniaFig. 25: Koparkhairne mangroves (%) Fig 26: New Horizon Airoli mangroves Avicennia officinalis Sonneratia Sonneratia Acanthus (%) marina 3% apetala alba ilicifolius Avicennia marina 0% 1% Sonnnera 23% marina 1% Acanthus tia acutissim Avicennia ilicifolius apetala a marina 33% 12% Avicennia 51% acutissima Bruguier officinalis 31% Aegiceras a 13% corniculatum gymnorrh 31% iza 1%

Fig. 28:Sagar Vihar mangroves (%) Fig 27: Nisarga Udyan mangroves (%) Acanthus Avicennia ilicifolius Acanthus marina 9% ilicifolius marina 16% 28% Avicennia marina Avicennia acutissima marina 63% acutissima 84%

Fig. 29: Vashi gaon Jetty mangroves (%) Fig. 30: Vashi Shivtirtha mangroves (%) Sonneratia Acanthus ilicifolius Acanthus alba Sonneratia 6% 5% ilicifolius Avicennia caseolaris 9% marina Sonneratia 9% acutissima alba 42% 6% Avicennia Avicennia marina marina marina Avicennia acutissima 47% marina 74% marina 2%

Fig. 31: Vashi Joggers Park mangroves (%) Fig. 32: Balkum mangroves (%) Rhizophor Sonneratia Derris a Acanthus Derris apetala trifoliata mucronata ilicifolius pentaphyla 3% Sonneratia 2% 4% apetala 2% 5% Bruguiera 1% gymnorrhiza 1% Acanthus Avicennia ilicifolius marina 24% marina Avicennia Avicennia 16% marina marina acutissima Avicennia acutissima 75% officinalis 13% 54%

Fig. 33: Visarjan Ghat Mangroves (%) Fig 34: Ganesh visarjan Ghat mangroves (%)

Acanthus Deris Sonneratia Avicennia ilicifolius trifoliata Sonnneratia caseolaris 13% marina Sonneratia 5% marina 18% apetala alba 10% 26% 3% Avicennia marina Avicennia marina marina Acanthus 4% acutissima ilicifolius Avicennia 75% 7% marina acutissima 39%

Fig 35: Bhandup Pumping stationmangroves Fig 36: Salvadora Godrej mangroves (%) (%) Ceriops tagal Bruguiera persica 0% Sonnneratia 0% gymnorrhiza Acanthus apetala Exoecaria Acanthus 0% ilicifolius 3% agallocha ilicifolius 23% 9% 9% Avicennia Avicennia Avicennia officinalis marina marina marina 0% marina 38% 0% Avicennia Avicennia marina Excoecaria marina acutissima agallocha acutissima 68% 6% 44%

Fig. 37: KanjurDumping ground mangroves (%) Fig. 38: Thane saltpan mangroves (%) Salvadora persica Ceriops tagal 1% Acanthus Exoecaria 0% Deris ilicifolius agallocha 18% 21% trifoliata Avicennia Avicennia Avicennia 10% marina officinalis marina acutissima 0% acutissima Avicennia 53% Avicennia Avicennia 41% officinalis 5% marina marina marina marina 14% 37%

Fig. 39: Trombay saltpan mangroves (%)

Excoecaria Acanthus Aegiceras agallocha ilicifolius corniculatu 6% 5% m Avicennia 9% marina acutissima 21%

Avicennia marina marina 59%

Based on the composition we calculated the relative density, relative frequency and relative dominance of the species to estimate the Importance Value Index (IVI). IVI is important as it indicates the dominance as well as ecological succession of species. Further, the volume of wood was also estimated to understand its potential utilization for fuel purpose if any. The Shannon’s index as well as Simpsons' index was also calculated to understand the community structure. The values for the same are presented in Table 8 for the entire creek where as the species wise IVI and wood volume is shown in figures 40 to 42.

From the Table it is evident that the diversity is marginally higher along the west bank compared to the east bank of the creek. The IVI values also corroborate the same although the highest IVI value for the creek is from the sampling sites on the east bank. The higher values of IVI on the west bank indicate better ecological situations favouring mangrove growth along the bank. The wood volume is higher for the east bank than the west bank. The wood volume ranged from 0.72 m3/ha to 10547.58 m3/ha. The lowest value was at Bhandup pumping station while the highest was at New Horizon Airoli site, which can be attributed to the number of species and conduciveness for growth of the plants at those locations.

Further, the species wise comparison of IVI values for the entire creek, as well as the banks indicates the success of Avicennia species over the other species (Fig. 40 to 42). This also indicates that other species are possibly suppressed by Avicennia species that has become resilient to the environmental conditions of the creek while adapting to the ongoing changes in the creeks ecosystem. The sporadic occurrence of the mangroves other than the Avicennia species is shown in figure 43.

Table 8: Variations in the diversity indices at the sampling sites in Thane creek

Sampling site Species Shannon’s index Simpson’s index Wood IVI richness volume

DAV Airoli 6 0.6788 0.2547 3208.54 500.00 Kharegaon 11 0.5444 0.3566 5798.61 463.33 Koparkhairne 6 0.5589 0.3026 621.93 1629.51 New horizon Airoli 7 0.5377 0.3469 10574.58 535.00 Nisarga Udyan 2 0.1944 0.7270 6958.19 930.00 Sagar Vihar 3 0.3736 0.4809 4184.23 250.00 Vashi gaon jetty 3 0.4478 0.4078 8017.62 440.00 Vashi Joggers park 5 0.3564 0.5830 7423.77 515.00 Vashi Shivtirtha maidan 4 0.3897 0.5660 4581.80 290.00 Visarjan ghat 2 0.3706 0.5892 1918.03 530.00 Balkum 7 0.5551 0.3636 2783.71 400.00 BPS 6 0.3915 0.5002 0.72 343.33 Ganesh visarjan ghat 5 0.6253 0.2696 1434.98 380.00 Godrej 10 0.5504 0.3380 8963.15 690.71 Kanjur Dumping 10 0.5797 0.3112 4816.06 801.67 Thane Saltpan 8 0.6902 0.2794 3807.31 1205.00 Trombay saltpan 4 0.5115 0.4038 2727.56 600.00 Entire creek 15 0.5101 0.3971 4428.91 598.3476 East bank 13 0.4731 0.4320 5147.68 572.5386 West Bank 12 0.5577 0.3523 3504.78 631.5306

300.000 6000.000

250.000 5000.000

200.000 4000.000

150.000 3000.000 IVI

100.000 2000.000 Wood Wood volume m3/ha 50.000 1000.000

0.000 0.000

Mangrove species Mangrove species Fig 40: Species wise IVI and wood volume for the entire Thane creek

350.000 7000.000

300.000 6000.000

250.000 5000.000 4000.000 200.000 3000.000 150.000 2000.000

IVI for bank for IVI East 100.000 1000.000

50.000 (m3/ha) bank East volume Wood 0.000 0.000

Mangrove species Mangrove species Fig 41: Species wise IVI and wood volume for the East bank of Thane creek

300.000 4500.000 4000.000 250.000 3500.000 200.000 3000.000 2500.000 150.000 2000.000 1500.000 100.000 1000.000 IVI forIVI West bank 50.000 500.000 0.000 0.000 Wood Wood volume (m3/ha) for West bank

Mangrove species Mangrove species Fig 42: Species wise IVI and wood volume for the West bank of Thane creek

Fig. 43: Map showing the distribution and occurrence of mangrove species other than the Avicennia sp. found in Thane creek.

Hydrology and Sedimentology

Hydrology - The hydrological studies include the studies of physical and chemical parameters of water. The knowledge of physico-chemical parameters of water is extremely important for proper management of any water body because these parameters indicate the status of different metabolic processes in the water body and significantly influence the aquatic life. According to Zhi and Zhaoding (1984), the chemical and the bio-chemical processes in the creeks and estuaries, compared to the open sea, are much more complicated because of mixing of fresh and marine waters. These processes, influenced by many factors such as fresh water runoff, influx of the seawater, geographical location, topography and seasonal variations, decide the hydrographic status of the estuaries. Due to free access to the sea, estuaries become unique environments that play important role in the transfer of products of continental weathering to the ocean (Bijoy Nandan and Abdul Aziz, 1990). Apart from this, they harbour rich flora and fauna and provide feeding and breeding grounds to the migratory oceanic organisms.

During the present study the water, sediment and other parameters were assessed from 19 sites across the Thane creek and the results are presented in Table 9 & 10.

Table 9: The range and the average values for the water parameters studied from Thane creek during Neap tide

Temp pH DO TSS SALINITY PO4-P NO3-N SiO3-Si Oil & grease (⁰C) (mg/l) (gm/l) (ppt) (µg/l) (µg/l) (µg/l) (mg/L) Avg 21.58 7.407 3.38 0.047 26.53 3.09 0.215 0.047 0.009 Min 19.8 7.06 0.41 0.03 5.77 0.25 0.069 0.016 0 Max 27 7.96 10.16 0.076 34.48 10.54 0.777 0.078 0.032

Table 10: The range and the average values for the water parameters studied from Thane creek during Spring tide

Temp Light pH DO TSS Salinity PO4-P NO3-N SiO3-Si Oil & (⁰C) penetration (mg/l) (gm/l) (ppt) (µg/l) (µg/l) (µg/l) grease (cm) (mg/L) Avg 23 42.289 7.165 2.47 0.034 27.87 7.66 0.875 0.024 0.119 Min 22 24 6.88 0.81 0.014 20.12 5.39 0.001 0.008 0.002 Max 24 64 7.46 5.08 0.047 34.12 13.54 2.593 0.038 0.385

Water temperature (C)

Water temperature is a very important parameter, with direct impact on the physiology, growth and reproduction of aquatic organisms, both plants and animals. In Thane creek, the temperature was seen to be warmer during the spring tide. It was observed that the temperatures showed an increasing trend towards the seaward end during the neap tide while the water was marginally cooler during the spring tide (Fig 44). Further, it was noticed that the creek being shallow, the water temperature was mostly governed by the atmospheric temperature and the time of sampling.

28 Neap tide Spring tide 27 Linear (Neap tide) 26 Linear (Spring tide) 25 24 23 22

Temperature(°C) 21 20 19 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Stations10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Fig. 44: Comparison of Water temperature during the Spring and Neap tide in Thane creek

Light Penetration (in cm)

Light penetration (LP) indicates depth to which light penetrates the water. It can be low due to high amount of suspended solids, which could be either silt, clay or debris particles or phytoplankton and zooplankton. Thus, LP is affected by both polluting particulate matter and the production. During the present study, LP was estimated only during the spring tide. The transparency of water is generally affected by the sun’s position in the sky, the angle of incident light, cloudiness, visibility, water surface conditions and abundance of phytoplankton and zooplankton. Apart from these, it is also influenced by turbulence and nature of suspended material (Ramana et al., 1991). Overall, during our study we observed that LP increased towards the seaward end (Fig 45). The low LP towards the riverine end can be attributed to the effluents and sewage load entering near the riverine end.

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Light penetartionLight (cm) 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Stations Fig. 45: Variations in the Light penetration (in cm) in the sampling stations along the Thane creek

Total Suspended solids (mg/L)

The study of distribution of suspended solids according to Nair et al. (1987) is recognised to be a natural tracer that can reveal concentration and dispersion of a pollutant and also its impact on the ecosystem. According to O’Sullivan (1971), the suspended solids have two important effects on an aquatic environment; (1) They smother benthic animals including filter feeders and detritus feeders, and (2) They absorb light, causing reduced photosynthesis. The suspended solids also adsorb different materials and transport them from the land to the sea via estuary. In some instances, they adsorb metals and other toxicants and settle, thereby reducing the toxins from water. However, these settled toxicants may be ingested and concentrated by sediment dwelling and filter feeding animals that form a part of the food chain leading to fish and man.

During the present study, the suspended solids had a higher concentration of Total Suspended Solids (TSS) during the Neap tide indicating poor flushing of effluents in the creek (Fig 46). High level of TSS thus may be due to highly productive eutrophic conditions or due to other non- living suspended matter. In any case, high level of suspended solids obstructs the light penetration in water and hence can adversely affect the productivity. In general, high TSS can be considered as indicating unhealthy polluted state of waters.

0.08 Neap tide 0.07 Spring tide Linear (Neap tide) 0.06 Linear (Spring tide) 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 Suspendedsoilds(gm/l) 0.01 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Stations Fig. 46: Total Suspended Solids (mg/L) during Spring and Neap tide in Thane creek pH The estimation of pH, can illustrate the status of decomposition, respiration and photosynthesis in water. Moreover, pH changes cause reshuffling of ionic properties of suspended particles and metals, leading sometimes to their precipitation; they also govern leaching of nutrients and other chemicals from the sediments. In freshwaters, the dissolved carbon dioxide makes the pH slightly acidic, whereas in marine water, along with dissolved carbon dioxide there are other weakly ionizing chemicals and salts, which make the pH slightly alkaline, around 8 (Levinton, 1982). The salts in the marine water have a buffering effect; even then, when carbon dioxide increases in great quantities due to decomposition or respiration that may decrease the pH to 7.5. As against this, photosynthesis can raise the pH to 9.

During the present study, the pH values were higher during the neap tide as compared to the spring tide. The pH showed an increasing trend towards the seaward end during the neap tide while during the spring tide the riverine end had higher pH values (Fig 47). This also indicated the fluctuation in the sewage entry into the creek waters.

8.2 Neap tide 8 Spring tide Linear (Neap tide) 7.8 Linear (Spring tide) 7.6

pH 7.4 7.2 7 6.8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Stations Fig. 47: pH during Spring and Neap tide in Thane creek

Salinity (ppt)

Salinity is the most important water parameter in estuaries and creeks. It is largely influenced by influx of freshwater and intrusion of seawater (Anirudhan & Nambissan 1990). Depending on

the magnitudes of these, a salinity gradient is formed from the riverine end to the seaward end of an estuary, thus providing a variety of environments for different types of organisms. These changes in salinity present significant physiological challenges to the organisms affecting their occurrence and distribution (Levinton, 1982). Salinity also affects various phenomena in the water such as adsorption, leaching and precipitation of nutrients, toxic metals and suspended solids in the effluents etc. In general, it significantly affects the abiotic and biotic components.

Thane creek showed a range of salinity from 5.77 to 34.48 ppt during our study refelcting wide fluctuations. It showed an increasing trend towards the sea during both the tidal phases (Fig. 48).

40.00

35.00

) 30.00

25.00

20.00 Neap tide Spring tide Salinity(ppt 15.00 Linear (Neap tide ) 10.00 Linear (Spring tide) 5.00 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Stations Fig. 48: Salinity (ppt) during Spring and Neap tide in Thane creek

Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)

Dissolved oxygen (DO) is of paramount importance to maintain the aerobic metabolism in marine organisms, reduced DO values become critical in determining quality of tropical marine waters and their ability to sustain biologically diverse habitats (Laponite & Clark, 1992). DO level in water reveals much about the metabolism of water and is used as an index of water quality, primary productivity and pollution. The sources of dissolved oxygen are the atmosphere and the photosynthetic processes of the green plants in water. Active photosynthesis and respiration of planktonic organisms in surface waters can significantly change the oxygen concentration over short periods. Moreover, decomposing bacteria can rapidly remove oxygen from the waters (Levinton, 1982). According to Adeney (1908), bacterial decomposition can many times lead to anoxic conditions in the aquatic ecosystems. Dissolved oxygen deficiency is an index of deteriorated water quality, and it has been widely used so in estuarine and coastal waters (Park et al., 1996). During the present study, the DO varied between 0.41 to 10.06 mg/L and showed and increasing trend towards the sea. Despite the wide fluctuations in DO, the values in the creek were mostly around 2 mg/l indicating hypoxic conditions in the creek. Taylor and Eggleston (2000), considered DO below 3 mg/l as hypoxic, Zimmerman & Canuel (2000) reported DO below 2 mg/l as hypoxic, where as Laponite and Clark (1992) considered DO < 2.5 mg/ l as hypoxic in nutrient enriched aquatic system. Thane creek being highly nutrient rich (description ahead), DO values below 2.5 mg/l were considered to be hypoxic (Quadros, 1995).

12.00 Neap tide 10.00 Spring tide Linear (Neap tide) 8.00 Linear (Spring tide) 6.00 4.00 2.00 Dissolved oxygen(mg/l) 0.00 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Stations Fig. 49: Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L) during Spring and Neap tide in Thane creek

Phosphate-Phosphorus (P04-P)

The study of phosphorus according to Ketchum (1967) helps in determining the state of primary production in water bodies. In aquatic ecosystems, phosphorus mainly occurs as dissolved inorganic phosphorus, dissolved organic phosphorus and particulate phosphorus. The primary producers and other biological processes in the water transform the inorganic phosphorus into dissolved and particulate organic phosphorus (Lemasson and Pages, 1981). Further, according to Fisher et al. (1988), industrialization of land and coastal waterways has led to a wide spread increase in the phosphorus concentration in estuaries. The urbanization and agricultural advancement have added to this and increased the phosphorus level of many estuaries.

During the present study the PO4-P ranged from 0.25 to 13.54 (µg/l) with a decreasing trend towards the sea. The values were higher during the Spring tide while during the neap the values were much lower near the seaward end (Fig. 50). This can be attributed to sewage pollution in the creek. Due to more water mass at the downstream station, the sewage is more diluted leading to a decreasing trend towards the sea.

16.00

14.00 neap tide 12.00 spring tide Linear (neap tide) ) 10.00 Linear (spring tide) 8.00

-P (µg/l -P 6.00 4

PO 4.00 2.00 0.00 -2.00 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Stations

Fig. 50: PO4-P (µg/l) during Spring and Neap tide in Thane creek

Nitrate - Nitrogen (NO3-N)

Nitrogen is a factor that significantly affects phytoplankton growth in natural waters. In an aquatic biotope, inorganic nitrogen is present as oxidized nitrite (NO2) and nitrate (NO3) and as reduced ammonia (NH4), the most abundant form being nitrate (Nair et al., 1983; Athalye 1988).

According to Strickland (1965), shortage of nitrogen is responsible for even stopping the growth of phytoplankton. On the contrary, enhanced anthropogenic nitrogen inputs to estuaries and coastal seas may affect nitrogen cycle in these ecosystems and disturb their functioning (Middleburg and Nieuwenhuize, 2000). The disturbances include eutrophication, changes in phytoplankton community structure, enhanced production and release of nitrous oxide (Jickells, 1998).

During the present study, we recorded the NO3-N ranging from 0.001 to 2.593 µg/l, showing a reducing trend towards the sea (Fig. 51). The fluctuations in the nitrate content can be attributed to the influence of anthropogenic sources to the creek.

0.04 Neap tide Spring tide 0.035 Linear (Neap tide) 0.03 Linear (Spring tide) ) 0.025

0.02 -N (µg/l -N 3 0.015 NO 0.01

0.005

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Stations

Fig. 51: NO3-N (µg/l) during Spring and Neap tide in Thane creek

Silicate- Silicon (SiO3-Si)

Silica is an essential element for the growth of certain organisms like diatoms and radiolarians that secrete intricate shells made of silica. Further, Egge & Aksenes (1992) contented that the availability of dissolved silicates is one of the most important factors that can regulate the species composition of phytoplankton assemblage. When dissolved silicates are abundant, diatom phytoplankton become dominant, whereas when silicates become low, the non-diatom phytoplankton can dominate the algal community and decrease the relative importance of diatoms.

During the present study, the silicates showed an increasing trend towards the sea with higher values during the neap tide (Fig. 52). The available literature on the creek insinuates the silica content to the increased anthropogenic activities around the creek.

0.09 0.08 Neap tide 0.07 Spring tide 0.06 Linear (Neap tide) Linear (Spring tide)

(µg/l) 0.05 -Si

3 0.04 0.03 SiO 0.02 0.01 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011121314151617 1819 Stations

Fig. 52: SiO3-Si (µg/l) during Spring and Neap tide in Thane creek

Oil and Grease

Oil and grease enter aquatic ecosystems through industrial effluents and through accidental leakage from tankers carrying petroleum products. It can also enter through direst use in transport systems. Oil and grease are insoluble in water and lighter than water, and hence floats on water forming a film on the surface. The layer of oil and grease can prove detrimental to aquatic flora and fauna as it hinders in the natural processes and creates pollution. Many species starting with microbes, to birds to marine mammals gets seriously affected with oil and grease pollution in water.

During the present study, the Oil and Grease showed a decreasing trend towards the sea (Fig 53). This could be because the poor currents and flushing capacity of the creek leads to its accumulation near the riverine end. The excessive contents of Oil and Grease in the creek would have lead to detrimental conditions for benthic organisms in the creek.

0.45 Neap tide 0.4 Spring tide 0.35 Linear (Neap tide) 0.3 Linear (Spring tide) 0.25 0.2

Oil & & grease Oil 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Stations Fig. 52: Oil and Grease (mg/l) during Spring and Neap tide in Thane creek

Sedimentology The sediments act as reservoirs of nutrients in an aquatic ecosystem. Whenever nutrients are low in water they are replenished from the sediment, so also excess nutrients from water are also removed by the sediment. Due to association with mangroves, these sediments receive nutrients through mangrove litter. They also receive nutrients through terrestrial runoff and estuarine outflow. The sediments in creeks and estuaries thus become highly nutrient rich and productive.

According to Banus et al. (1975), they also act as sink for heavy metals. According to DeBustamante (1990), all these processes are affected by biological, chemical and physical properties of soil such as soil texture and nutrients. Hence, sediment studies indicate the quality of the overlying water and are useful tool in assessment of environmental pollution.

During the present study the sediment parameters assessed include Moisture content, sediment texture, Organic carbon, Total Nitrogen and Total and available Phosphorus. The range and the average values are given in Table 11. The samples were collected from the High Tide watermark, Mid Tide watermark and Low Tide watermark during the Neap and Spring tidal phase for ease of explanation the data is pooled together and the average values are presented here.

Table 11: Sediment parameters studied in Thane creek Moisture Sand % Silt % Clay % Organic Total Available Total content Carbon % Phosphorus % Phosphorus % Nitrogen % % Average 76.10 2.079 72.25 29.787 3.437 0.501 0.295 0.163 Maximum 68.81 3.09 82 43.3 5.048 0.975 0.834 0.448 Minimum 56.68 0.4 49 18.3 1.06 0.115 0.021 0.017

75.00

70.00

65.00

60.00 Neap tide Spring tide 55.00 Moisturecontent(%) Linear (Neap tide) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Sampling stations Fig. 53: Variations in the moisture content (%) in the sediments in the Thane creek

3.500 3.000 2.500 2.000 1.500 Sand % Sand 1.000 0.500 Neap Tide Spring Tide Linear (Neap Tide) Linear (Spring Tide) 0.000 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Sampling stations Fig. 54: Variations in the Sand (%) content in the sediments in the Thane creek

90.00 80.00 70.00 60.00 50.00 Neap tide 40.00

Silt % Silt SpringTide 30.00 20.00 Linear (SpringTide) 10.00 0.00 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Sampling stations Fig. 55: Variations in the Silt (%) content in the sediments in the Thane creek

50.00 40.00 30.00 20.00 Clay % Clay Neap Tide 10.00 Spring Tide Linear (Spring Tide) 0.00 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Sampling station Fig. 56: Variations in the Clay (%) content in the sediments in the Thane creek

6.000 Neap tide Spring tide 5.000 Linear (Neap tide) Linear (Spring tide) 4.000

3.000

2.000

Organic Carbon % Carbon Organic 1.000

0.000 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Sampling stations Fig. 57: Variations in the Organic Carbon (%) content in the sediments in the Thane creek

0.700 Neap Tide Spring Tide 0.600 Linear (Neap Tide) Linear (Spring Tide) 0.500 0.400 0.300 0.200

Available Phosphorus % Phosphorus Available 0.100 0.000 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Sampling stations Fig. 58: Variations in the Available Phosphorus (%) content in the sediments in the Thane creek

0.900 0.800 0.700 0.600 0.500 0.400 0.300 0.200 Total Phosphorus % Phosphorus Total 0.100 Neap tide Spring Tide 0.000 Linear (Neap tide) Linear (Spring Tide) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Sampling stations Fig. 59: Variations in the Total Phosphorus (%) content in the sediments in the Thane creek

0.350 Neap Tide Spring Tide 0.300 Linear (Neap Tide) Linear (Spring Tide) 0.250 0.200 0.150 0.100

TotalNitrogen % 0.050 0.000 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Sampling stations Fig. 60: Variations in the Total Nitrogen (%) content in the sediments in the Thane creek

Moisture content In marine ecosystems, tidal waters, land runoff and rainfall form the main source of water to the sediments. Presence of clay in the sediment is known to increase the water holding capacity, whereas sandy substrates hold less. According to Robinson (1936), clay fraction is of colloidal character having high holding capacity for water and organic carbon. The moisture content also depends on the pore space; the presence of organic matter reduces the compactness of the soil and increases the porosity.

In the present study, the moisture content showed wide fluctuations and an increasing trend towards the seaward side which could be attributed to silt content in the creek (Fig. 53).

Sediment Texture Sediment grain size or texture decides the nature of the substratum, which has the greatest influence on the distribution and abundance of benthic population (Sanders, 1958). The texture of the sediment depends on coarseness or fineness of the particles. The particles below 4  size are said to be clay; they are fine particles and remain suspended for a long time. The particles bigger than clay and smaller than 62  form the silt, those between 62  to 250  are called fine sand and those bigger than 250  form the coarse sand component. The clay and silt substratum can hold more water and organic matter as opposed to sandy soil. The sediment distribution of estuarine and near shore region largely depends, on the source and texture of sediment supplied, topography & hydrographic features of the concerned area (Sasamal et al., 1986). According to Wilson (1981), the physico-chemical properties of muddy substratum directly influence the

infaunal community that lives in the soft sediment.

During the present study, the silt content was higher except at the riverine end stations where the clay was marginally higher. Over the entire creek is silty with insignificant sand content (Fig 54 to 56).

Organic Carbon (%) Estuaries receive organic matter originating in the surrounding watershed delivered by river or produced in surrounding habitats and tidal flats and marine derived organic matter from the adjacent coastal ocean (Canuel et al., 1995). According to Ansari & Parulekar (1998), autochthonous sources like phytoplankton, benthic algae & vascular plants also form the organic matter. Industrial and municipal discharge may be important in some estuaries as well. Although each of these sources may contribute substantially to the input of organic matter, the relative importance of these sources may vary spatially and temporally within an individual estuary (Jassby et al., 1993). Study of organic matter is necessary, as it is well known that substrate organic matter represents a food source for deposit feeding organisms (Mare, 1942) apart from its value as an indicator of pollution (Parrish & Mackenthum, 1968; Wade, 1976).

Ganapati and Raman (1973), while studying the coastal waters of east coast of India reported that organic carbon more than 6% was anoxic to bottom fauna. Whereas during the studies along the west coast of India, Harkantra et al. (1980) concluded that organic carbon, more than 4% of which can cause a decrease of benthic fauna. During the present study the average Organic Carbon content was 3.4 % indicating detrimental conditions in the creek the values fluctuated widely raising concerns on the health of the creek. Further the Organic carbon content showed a decreasing trend towards the sea (Fig. 57) indicating increased allochthonous source for the organic carbon content of the creek.

Available and Total Phosphorus Phosphorus is a factor that determines the state of primary production in aquatic ecosystems. Phosphorus mainly occurs as inorganic phosphorus, organic phosphorus and particulate phosphorus. Knowledge of the phosphorus concentrations in the mud is important, especially in shallow water system, where mud acts as a reservoir of phosphorus in various forms from which phosphorus is regenerated into the overlying water under suitable conditions.

During the present study, the Phosphorus showed an increasing trend towards the sea (Fig. 58 & 59) with higher concentrations recorded during the spring tide. Difference can be attributed to the unstable sediment structure that could be releasing or trapping the phosphorus apart from the anthropogenic influences in the creek.

Total Nitrogen (%) Coastal environments usually receive nitrogen from the rivers via estuaries. Middelburg & Nieuwenhuize (2000) attributed increased human activity to high riverine concentration of nitrogen. According to Howarth et al. (1996) fertilizers, atmospheric deposition in drainage basins and direct sewage discharge to rivers are the factors that affect the nitrogen cycling of

estuaries and coastal seas. These disturbances result in eutrophication, changed phytoplankton community structure and enhanced production and release of nitrous oxide (Jickells, 1998). During the present study, the total nitrogen concentration was seen to be higher compared to the earlier studies and it was uniformly high throughout the creek (Fig. 60).

Plankton In aquatic ecosystem plankton means all those organisms which drift passively because they have no or insufficient power of locomotion. Krishnapillai (1986) has described different types of plankton such as Bacterioplankton (including bacteria), Phytoplankton (autotrophs) and Zooplankton (Heterotroph animals). The bacteria are responsible for conversion of nutrients to their different forms and decomposition of complex organic substances into simple ones. The phytoplankton act as primary producers, trapping the solar energy, they make this energy available to the primary consumers, the zooplankton, and other consumers at higher trophic levels such as fishes. The plankton mainly support the pelagic food chain and fishery (Lodh, 1990) and also play an indirect role in supporting the detritus food chain because many of them are short lived and their dead bodies settle down to form detritus

Table 12: Occurrence and distribution of Phytoplankton in Thane creek during neap tide Sampling stations Phytoplankton spp. G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 G7 G8 G9 G10 G11 G12 G13 G14 G15 G16 G17 G18 G19 Total 1 Amphiprora sp. 1 1 2 Amphora sp. 1 1 2 3 Aphanocapsa sp. 1 1 4 Aulacoseira sp. 1 1 5 Chaetoceros sp. 1 1 1 1 4 6 Chroomonas sp. 1 1 2 7 Cocconeis sp. 1 1 1 3 8 Coscinodiscus sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 18 9 Cyclotella sp. 1 1 1 1 1 5 10 Gyrosigma sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 14 11 Gymnodinium sp. 1 1 2 12 Isthmia sp. 1 1 13 Lauderia sp. 1 1 1 3 14 Leptocylindrus sp. 1 1 1 1 4 15 Mallomonas sp. 1 1 2 16 Melosira sp. 1 1 2 17 Navicula sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 13 18 Nitzschia sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 19 Odontella sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 17 20 Oscillatoria sp. 1 1 21 Peridinium sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8 22 Phacus sp. 1 1 2 23 Pinnularia sp. 1 1 24 Pleurosigma sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10 25 Prorocentrum sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 13 26 Protoperidinium sp. 1 1 27 Pseudo-nitzschia sp. 1 1 1 1 1 5 28 Rhizosolenia sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 19 29 Scenedesmus sp. 1 1 2 30 Skeletonema sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 19 31 Spirulina sp. 1 1 2 32 Surirella sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 33 Thalassiosira sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 18 34 Un id 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 35 Un id 2 1 1 1 1 1 5 36 Un id-3 1 1 1 1 1 5 7 8 13 13 18 15 12 20 16 13 7 11 12 12 9 9 13 9 14 36 1- presence, blank space - absence

Phytoplankton Phytoplankton forms the essential link between the abiotic factors and the biota in the aquatic ecosystem. The phytoplanktons are the primary producers of the aquatic food chain, and play a pivotal role in making energy available to the higher organisms. Some plankton species are known to produce toxins that kill fish and other organisms. Due to various anthropogenic activities, there is tremendous pollution pressure on the waters of the creek and estuaries, which affects the phytoplankton type and density, thereby necessitating their study.

During the present study, the phytoplankton was sampled from 19 locations. The first station was located at the riverine end while the 19th station was near to the sea. The sampling stations 7 to 19 come within the Flamingo Sanctuary area. The sampling was done during the spring and neap tides using wide mouth clean plastic containers. The sample was fixed appropriately and observed under the microscope.

Table 12: Occurrence and distribution of Phytoplankton in Thane creek during the spring tide Sampling stations Phytoplankton sp. G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 G7 G8 G9 G10 G11 G12 G13 G14 G15 G16 G17 G18 G19 Total 1 Amphora sp. 1 1 2 2 Chaetoceros sp. 1 1 2 3 Coscinodiscus sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8 4 Cyclotella SP. 1 1 1 1 4 5 Diatom sp 1 1 6 Gonyaulax sp. 1 1 2 7 Gymnodinium sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 9 8 Gyrosigma sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 14 9 Lauderia sp. 1 1 10 Mallomonas sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8 11 Melosira sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 12 Microcystis sp. 1 1 1 3 13 Navicula sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 15 14 Neodenticula sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 15 Nitzschia sp. 1 1 1 1 1 5 16 Noctiluca sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 9 17 Odontella sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 13 18 Oscillatoria sp. 1 1 2 19 Peridinium sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 20 Phaeocystis sp. 1 1 2 21 Pleurosigma sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 9 22 Prorocentrum sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 16 23 Protoperidinium sp. 1 1 1 1 4 24 Pseudo-nitzschia sp. 1 1 1 3 25 Rhizosolenia sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 16 26 Skeletonema sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 18 27 Spirulina sp. 1 1 2 28 Surirella sp. 1 1 29 Thalassionema sp. 1 1 30 Thalassiosira sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 18 31 Trigonium sp. 1 1 32 Un id1 1 1 Total 13 13 10 14 14 15 13 12 12 8 12 10 9 11 12 9 6 10 11 32 1- presence, blank space - absence

Bacillariophyceae being the most dominant followed by Mediophyceae, Dinophyceae, Coscinodiscophyceae, Cyanophyceae, Cryptophyceae, Synurophyceae, Coccolithophyceae, Chlorophyceae and Euglenophyceae. The dominant and widely spread phytoplankton species include Skeletonema sp., Rhizosolenia sp., Odontella sp., Gyrosigma sp., Navicula sp., Porocentrum sp., Coscinodiscus sp., and Thalassiosira sp. were the dominant ones and spread throughout the creek. These species are known to withstand high levels of pollutants and thereby to indicate the stress levels in the creek ecosystem. The list of phytoplankton species and their occurrence recorded is given in Table 12 to 14. Upon further analysis of the data, we find that the Thane creek Flamingo Sanctuary area has 41 species of phytoplankton as compared to the 35 species recorded from the northern part of the creek, from Airoli Bridge to the Ulhas river confluence (Fig. 61). Further, we also found that although the species diversity is more in the Flamingo sanctuary area, the Northern part of the creek has higher diversity at almost all the sampled locations (Fig. 62).

Table 13: Overall occurrence and distribution of Phytoplankton in Thane creek Sampling stations Phytoplankton sp. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Total 1 Amphiprora sp. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 Amphora sp. 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 4 3 Aphanocapsa sp. 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 4 Aulacoseira sp. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 5 Chaetoceros sp. 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 6 6 Chroomonas sp. 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 7 Cocconeis sp. 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 3 8 Coscinodiscus sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 18 9 Cyclotella SP. 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 8 10 Diatom sp 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 11 Gonyaulax sp. 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 12 Gymnodinium sp. 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 11 13 Gyrosigma sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 17 14 Isthmia sp. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 15 Lauderia sp. 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 4 16 Leptocylindrus sp. 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 17 Mallomonas sp. 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 9 18 Melosira sp. 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 8 19 Microcystis sp. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 3 20 Navicula sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 18 21 Neodenticula sp. 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 6 22 Nitzschia sp. 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 2 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 13 23 Noctiluca sp. 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 9 24 Odontella sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 17 25 Oscillatoria sp. 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 26 Peridinium sp. 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 16 27 Phacus sp. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 28 Phaeocystis sp. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 29 Pinnularia sp. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 30 Pleurosigma sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 14 31 Prorocentrum sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 19 32 Protoperidinium sp. 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 33 Pseudo-nitzschia sp. 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 7 34 Rhizosolenia sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 19 35 Scenedesmus sp. 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 36 Skeletonema sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 19 37 Spirulina sp. 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 38 Surirella sp. 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 7 39 Thalassionema sp. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 40 Thalassiosira sp. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 19 41 Trigonium sp. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 42 Un id1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 8 43 Unid 2 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 5 44 Unid-3 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 5 14 14 15 19 24 22 17 24 20 15 14 17 15 17 16 13 14 14 20

A comparison of the percentage composition of the phytoplankton shows that the Rhizosolenia sp. and Skeletonema sp formed the highest proportion during the neap tide while during the spring tide the Rhizosolenia formed 54% of the composition followed by other species (Table 14). The Shannon’s diversity index was also higher during the spring tide with a value of 0.704 while it was 0.435 during the neap tide. Moreover, the dominance of Bacillariophyceae class in the creek can be attributed to the nutrient rich waters that are known to trigger reproduction in the single celled phytoplankton.

Table 14: Percentage composition of phytoplankton observed during the two tidal phases in Thane creek

% composition Phytoplankton sp. Neap tide Spring tide Amphiprora sp. 0.004 Amphora sp. 0.004 0.053 Aphanocapsa sp. 0.066 Aulacoseira sp. 0.081 Chaetoceros sp. 0.040 0.132 Chroomonas sp. 0.042 Ciliate sp. 0.026 Cocconeis sp. 0.008 Coscinodiscus sp. 0.476 0.493 Cyclotella sp. 0.012 0.124 Diatom sp. 0.012 Gonyaulax sp. 0.052 Gymnodinium sp. 0.005 0.305 Gyrosigma sp. 0.104 1.332 Isthmia sp. 0.005 Lauderia sp. 0.010 0.030 Lauderia sp. Leptocylindrus sp. 0.105 Mallomonas sp. 0.010 0.309 Melosira sp. 0.012 0.379 Microcystis sp. 3.104 Navicula sp. 0.436 16.283 Neodenticula sp. 0.202 Nitzschia sp. 0.095 0.088 Noctiluca sp. 0.264 Odontella sp. 1.032 4.202 Oscillatoria sp. 0.004 0.028 Peridinium sp. 0.028 0.320 Phacus sp. 0.029 Phaeocystis sp. 0.764 Pinnularia sp. 0.002 Pleurosigma sp. 0.090 0.404 Prorocentrum sp. 0.129 1.372 Protoperidinium sp. 0.002 0.067 Pseudo-Nitzschia sp. 0.314 0.131 Rhizosolenia sp. 50.573 8.536 Scenedesmus obliquus 0.116 Skeletonema sp. 43.508 54.616 Spirulina sp. 0.005 0.031 Surirella sp. 0.037 0.012 Thalassionema sp. 0.063 0.060 Thalassiosira sp. 2.405 6.180 Trigonium sp. 0.016 Un. Id. 1 0.030 0.020 Un id. 2 0.073 Un id. 3. 0.101

14 Thane city to Airoli Bridge Flamingo Sanctuary area 12

Number Number of sampling stations 2

Phytoplankton species Fig. 61: Comparison of the occurrence of phytoplankton species in the Thane creek

Number of Phytoplankton species of Phytoplankton Number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Sampling stations Fig 62: Diversity of Phytoplankton species across the Thane creek

Zooplankton The zooplankton community mostly consists of invertebrates, larvae and immature stages of both invertebrates and vertebrates. According to Nair et al. (1999), the zooplankton community comprises of herbivores, omnivores and carnivores, of which generally herbivores form a major fraction. Associated with the phytoplankton bloom initial zooplankton standing stock will be dominated by herbivore and omnivore community, which later develop into a region with higher ratio of carnivores (Nair, 1980). Further, Lodh (1990) attributed the changes from normal pattern to relatively higher share of carnivores, to the stress induced on the ecosystem.

Study of zooplankton is necessary as they form the vital link in pelagic food chain (Misra and Panigrahy, 1999). They contribute the food of crustaceans, mollusks and fishes. Hence, abundance of zooplankton acts as an index to assess fertility of water mass. According to Sarkar et al (1985), study of intensity and abundance of zooplankton in relation to environmental

47 parameters is necessary for correct understanding of fishery resources. Some fishes exclusively feed on zooplankton hence their abundance is directly linked to the presence of zooplankton. According to Misra and Panigrahy (1999), some zooplanktons act as indicators of water quality and pollution.

During the present study the zooplankton was filtered through the plankton-net at all the 19 sampling stations by dipping the plankton net to a depth of 1 m from the surface in the direction of the currents. The zooplankton was collected only during the spring tide, preserved in 4% buffered formalin and observed under the microscope. The zooplankton in Thane creek comprised of 24 types representing eight phyla (Table 15). The arthropoda with 10 types was the most dominant among the zooplankters followed by Cnidaria, Mollusca and Annelida. From the 19 sampling stations, the lowest number, 6 types, was recorded from station 3 while the highest was recorded at the 13th station (Fig. 63). The diversity and distribution of zooplankton in Thane creek is given in Table 16.

Table 15: Zooplankton species recorded from Thane creek during our study period Sr no. Phylum Class Sub class Order Family Species 1 Foraminifera Globothalamea Textulariia Textulariida Textulariidae Textularia sp 2 - Rotaliida Globigerinidae Globigerina sp 3 Ciliophora Spirotrichea Choreotrichia Tintinnida - Tintinnida sp 4 Cnidaria Hydrozoa Hydroidolina Leptothecata Campanulariidae Obelia sp (Medusa) 5 Obelia sp (Polyp) 6 Phialidium sp 7 Nematoda - - - - Round worm 8 Annelida Oligochaeta - - - Oligochaete worm 9 Polychaeta - - - Polychaete worm 10 Mollusca Gastropoda - - - Gastropod veliger larva 11 Pelicypoda - - - Bivalve larva 12 Arthropoda Ostracoda - - - Cyprid larva 13 Insecta Pterygota Diptera Culicidae Mosquito larva 14 - Insect larva 15 Malacostraca Eumalacostraca Decapoda Penaeidae Acetes indicus 16 Protozoea larva 17 Zoea larva 18 Mysis larva 19 - - - - Nauplius larva 20 Maxillopoda Copepoda Cyclopoida - Cyclopoid copepod 21 Calanoida - Calanoid copepod 22 Harpacticoida - Harpacticoid copepod 23 Arachnida Acari Parasitiformes - Marine tick 24 Chordata Actinopterygii - Perciformes - Fish egg

12 10 8 6 4 2

Types of Zooplankton(no) of Types 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Sampling stations Fig. 63: Diversity of zooplankton across Thane creek

Table 16: Diversity and distribution of zooplankton across different sites in Thane creek

Sampling stations Zooplankton spp. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Textularia sp 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 Globigerina sp 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 Tintinnida sp 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Obelia sp (Medusa) 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 Obelia sp (Polyp) 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Phialidium sp 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 Round worm 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 Oligochaete 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 Polychaete 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 Gastropod veliger larva 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 Bivalve larva 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 Cyprid larva 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Mosquito larva 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 Insect larva 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Acetes indicus 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 Protozoea larva 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Zoea larva 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 Mysis larva 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 Nauplius larva 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Cyclopoid copepod 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Calanoid copepod 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Harpacticoid copepod 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Marine tick 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Fish egg 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 Diversity 8 7 5 9 7 7 6 7 7 7 8 7 12 9 9 7 11 9 9

Recorded at number Recordedat number sitesof 0

Zooplankton types Fig. 64: Occurrence of the different zooplankton types at different sampling sites.

The graph on the occurrence of the different zooplankton types in Thane creek (Fig 64) shows that the Copepoda group (Calanoid, Cyclopoid and Harpacticoid) was the most dominant one followed by the Nematoda (Round worms), Annelida, Polychaeta, Coelentrates (Obelia sp & Phialidium sp) and Insect larvae were distributed almost throughout the creek.

In the present study, the copepods together formed 80% of the zooplankton population of the collected samples from the creek. The copepods increased in number from the riverine end to the seaward end as also observed by Lodh (1990) and Quadros (2001) during the earlier studies on Thane creek. According to Levinton (1982) and Ramaiah & Nair (1997), the copepods form the largest group of crustaceans in the world, zooplankton fauna contributing over 80 – 90 % of the zooplankton counts in the estuarine habitats. In the Thane creek, we observed the harpactacoid copepods to outnumber all the other zooplankters; this is contrary to the fact stated by Rosamma Stephen (1984), that calanoid copepods outnumber all the other groups. According to Krishnapillai (1986), members of the harpactacoid copepod occupy diverse niches and a few are pelagic or parasitic. Further, the increase in the harpactacoid copepods can be attributed to the creek waters that is not is not completely flushed into the sea and keeps moving only within the creek.

The Nematodes are not planktonic in nature and their high numbers in the zooplankton further stress the anthropogenic influences that cause disturbances in the creek. The annelida Polychaeta are also non-planktonic forms, except for the few holoplanktonic forms and the meroplanktonic stages. In the Thane creek, the polychaete larvae were observed in large numbers and showed a decreasing trend from the riverine end to the seaward end. According to Briggs, high numerical abundance is often considered a measure of successful adaptation, which in the case of the polychaete larvae in Thane creek holds well. Coelentrata often function as key organisms in pelagic ecosystems (Alldredge, 1984); they contribute substantially to the total zooplankton standing stock in the estuarine and near shore waters. Shantakumari and Nair (1999) are of the opinion that coelenterates are ecologically important carnivores and compete with other predators. Moreover, according to Shantakumari et al (1999) in estuarine environment this group serves as an indicator of industrial pollution. In the creek, the coelenterates were seen to increase towards the seaward end with very few numbers along the riverine end. Insect larvae were restricted to the riverine end and they did not have a wide distribution. Similarly, other plankters like fish eggs, foraminifera, bivalves and gastropoda larvae were governed by the salinity gradient and were much sporadic in their occurrence.

Benthos

Benthic organisms, those living in or on the sediment, constitute an important component of the food web. They convert detritus and small planktonic and bottom organisms into the food chain (Mann, 1976). Benthic infauna are important mediators of nutrient recycling from the sediments into the water column. Benthic studies can indicate the magnitude, as well as well as spatial and temporal distribution of pollution in the environment Hartley (1982). Benthos are superior to other biological groups in indicating pollution stress because they are sedentary and must adapt to environmental stress or perish. Benthic organisms are very sensitive to habitat disturbance, including organic enrichment of the sediments and some species and communities of benthic

fauna are often regarded as being the best indicators of organic pollution (Pearson and Rosenberg, 1976).

During the present study, the benthic organisms were recorded from within the mangroves while sampling for vegetation. The benthic organisms were also recorded from the intertidal region. The data has been compiled and given in tables 17 to 19.

The macrobenthos from the intertidal mudflats comprised of 23 species representing 5 phyla, with the Phylum Mollusca comprising of the gastropods and bivalves as the most abundant one. During our study, we observed the gastropods belonging to Cerethidea species occuring throughout the creek followed by Thiara sp. Among the bivalves Cuspidaria species was wide spread. Among the Arthropods, the Crustacean Illyoplax gangetica was fairly distributed throughout the creek. Phylum Annelida was represented by polychaetes but their occurrence and distribution has reduced as compared to the earlier reports when the polychaete group was abundant throughout the creek. The occurrence of sea anemones was also restricted to the east bank towards the seaward end of the creek where the single individual of the cordate was recorded from the soil.

Table 17: Macrobenthos observed from the intertidal mudflats of Thane creek

S no. Phylum Class Sub class Order Family Species 1 Mollusca Gastropoda Caenogastropoda Caenogastropoda Potamididae Cerithidea cingulata 2 Cerithidea obtuse 3 Neogastropoda Nassariidae Nassarius sp 4 Heterobranchia Pulmonata Ellobiidae Auricula elongate 5 Melampus sp1 6 Melampus sp2 7 Amphibolidae Salinator burmana 8 - - Thiaridae Thiara sp 9 Bivalvia Pteriomorphia Arcida Arcidae Arca sp 10 Heterodonta Venerida Veneridae Katelysia opima 11 Meretrix meretrix 12 Dosinia pubescens 13 Cuspidariidae Cuspidaria cochinensis 14 Glauconomidae Glauconome cerea 15 Cnidaria Anthozoa - - - Sea anemone sp 16 Annelida Polychaeta - - - Polychaete worm sp 17 Arthropoda Malacostraca - Decapoda - Illyoplax gangetica 18 - - Crab sp2 19 - - Crab sp3 20 Eumalacostraca Penaeidae Acetes indicus 21 Maxillopoda Thecostraca - - Barnacle sp 22 Insecta Pterygota Diptera - Insect larva 23 Chordata Actinopterygii - Perciformes Gobiidae Trypauchen vagina 5 8 - - - 23

Table 18: Mollusca recorded from the mangrove vegetation

S no. Phylum Class Sub class Order Family Species 1 Mollusca Gastropoda Caenogastropoda Caenogastropoda Potamididae Cerithidea cingulata 2 Cerithidea obtuse 3 Telescopium telescopium 4 Littorinimorpha Assimineidae Assiminea brevicula 5 Neogastropoda Nassariidae Nassarius sp 6 Muricidae Drupa sp 7 Heterobranchia Pulmonata Ellobiidae Auricula elongata 8 Melampus ceylonicus 9 Melampus sp 10 Pythia sp. 11 Amphibolidae Salinator burmana 12 Cephalspidea Haminoeidae Haminoea crocata 13 Sacoglossa Plakobranchidae Elysia chlorotica 14 Systellommatopho Onchidiidae Onchidium sp ra 15 Neritimorpha Cycloneritimorpha Neritidae Neritina violacea 16 - - Thiaridae Thiara sp 17 Bivalvia Pteriomorphia Arcida Arcidae Arca sp 18 Heterodonta Venerida Veneridae Katelysia opima 19 Meretrix meretrix 20 Dosinia pubescens 21 Cuspidariidae Cuspidaria cochinensis 22 Glauconomidae Glauconome cerea 1 2 - - 15 22

Table 19: Crustacea recorded from the mangrove vegetation

S No Order Family Genus and Spicies 1 Decapoda Sesarmidae Sesarma sp.1 2 Sesarma sp.2 3 Sesarma sp.3 4 Ocypodidae Uca sp.lactea annulipes 5 Ilyoplax gangetica Portunidae Scylla serrata 7 - Sand bubbler crab 8 Sergestidae Acetes indicus 9 Isopoda Armadillidiidae Pill bug 2 - 9

The benthos from within the mangroves comprised of mainly Mollusca and crustacea. Mollusca was represented by total 22 species of gastropods and bivalves with the dominance of gastropods while the crustaceans comprised of 9 species. The gastropods were evenly distributed throughout the entire length of Thane creek with the dominance of Assiminea brevicula, Cerithidea cingulata, Nassarius sp, Melampus ceylonicus, and Salinator burmana. Among the crustaceans, the fiddler crab Uca species and the Sesarma sp. were abundant.

Insecta

Presence of insects in the mangroves is critical because insects perform many roles within the ecosystem as pollinators, herbivores, carnivores, decomposers, and food sources for other organisms. As a group, they are the most abundant and important group in the phylum Arthropoda. During our study, we undertook a qualitative survey along with the mangrove study. We recorded 72 insects belonging to 33 different families and eight orders (Table 20). The order Lepidoptera representing six families was most dominant with 31 different species comprising of 29 butterflies and 2 moth species during the day. The Lepidoptera was followed by Hymenoptera, Hemiptera, Diptera, Odonata, Mantodea, Neuroptera and Orthoptera. The list of insects observed is as below.

Among the Dipterans, the House fly and mosquitoes were observed throughout the entire stretch of the creek and mangroves. The flesh fly was also abundant but was mainly restricted to the southern seaward side of the creek. The order hemiptera was dominated by the scale-insect Icerya sp., highly common throughout the mangroves and in association with the ants mostly the Ghost ant, Longhorn crazy ant and the Slender ant. Among the hymenopterans, the Pagoda ants namely the Crematogaster sp and the Componatus sp were abundant. The Crematogaster ants showed higher association with the Avicennia mangrove species. Among the odonates, the skimmer group was common within the mangroves and were mostly seen after the Airoli Bridge in the mangroves on both the banks.

Table 20: Insects observed from Thane creek

S No Order Family Genus and Species Occurrence 1 Diptera Syrphidae Hover fly *** 2 Sarcophagidae Sarcophaga sp (Flesh fly) **** 3 Muscidae Musca domestica (House fly) **** 4 Tipulidae Crane fly ** 5 Culicidae Mosquito **** 6 Asilidae Robber fly * 7 Psychodidae Drain fly * 8 Calliphoriae Lucilia sericata (Green bottle fly) ** 9 Hemiptera Pseudococcidae Mealy bug (Scale insect) **** 10 Monophlebidae Drosicha sp * 11 Cicadellidae Cicadella viridis (Green leaf hopper) *** 12 Pyrrhocoridae Red bug **

13 Reduviidae Assassin bug ** 14 Pentatomidae Stink bug ** 15 Membracidae Tree hopper *** 16 Gerridae Water strider ** 17 Hymenoptera Vespidae Ropalidia fasciata (Common paper wasp) * 18 Potter wasp *** 19 Apidae Apis indica (Honey bee) *** 20 Xylocopa sp. (Carpenter bee) *** 21 Formicidae Crematogaster sp ***** 22 Tapinoma melanocephalum (Ghost ant) ** 23 Paratrechina longicornis (Longhorn crazy ant) ** 24 Tetraponera rufonigra (Slender ant) ** 25 Camponotus sp. **** 26 Lepidoptera Crambidae Hymenoptychis sordida (pneumatophore moth) ** 27 Nymphalidae Junonia almana (Peacock Pansy) ** 28 Junonia orithya (Blue pansy) * 29 Junonia hierta (Yellow pansy) * 30 Danaus chrysippus (Plain tiger) *** 31 Danaus genutia (Striped tiger) *** 32 Tirumala limniace (Blue tiger) ** 33 Euthalia aconthea (Common baron) * 34 Ariadne merione (common castor) *** 35 Euploea core (Common crow) **** 36 Mycalesis perseus (Common Evening bushbrown) *** 37 Neptis hylas (Common sailor) ** 38 Hypolimnas misippus (Danaid eggfly) *** 39 Junonia atlites (Grey pansy ) ** 40 Acraea terpsicore (Tawny coster) ** 41 Junonia iphita (chocolate pansy) ** 42 Hypolimnas bolina (Great eggfly) ** 43 Papilionidae Graphium evemon eventus (Blue jay) ** 44 Pachliopta aristolochiae (Common Rose) ** 45 Papilio polytes (Common mormon) ** 46 Lycaenidae Jamides celeno (Common cerulean) ** 47 Acytolepis puspa (Common Hedge Blue) ** 48 Talicada nyseus (Red pierrot) ** 49 Caleta caleta (Angled pierrot) ** 50 Pieridae Catopsilia pomona (Common emigrant) ** 51 Eurema hecabe (Common grass yellow) *** 52 Cepora nerissa (Common Gull) **** 53 Leptosia nina (The Psyche) ** 54 Colotis amata (Salman Arab) **** 55 Ixias pyrene (Yellow orange tip) **

56 Pterophoridae Plume moth ** 57 Mantodea Hymenopodidae Odontomantis sp (Asian ant mantis) * 58 Mantidae Schizocephala bicornis(Indian grass mantis) ** 59 Bark mantis ** 60 Mantis sp (Green Praying mantis) ** 61 Neuroptera Chrysopidae Green lacewing ** 62 Myrmeleontidae Antlion lacewing ** 63 Odonata Gomphidae Gomphus vulgatissimus (Common club tail) ** 64 Libellulidae Aethriamanta brevipennis (Scarlet marsh hawk) ** 65 Crocothemis servilia (Ruddy marsh skimmer) ** 66 Diplacodes trivialis (Blue ground skimmer) ** 67 Neurothemis tullia (Pied paddy skimmer) ** 68 Trithemis pallidinervis (Long legged marsh glider) ** 69 Bradinopyga geminata (Granite Ghost) ** 70 Brachythemis contaminata (Ditch jewel) ** 71 Orthoptera Gryllidae Cricket *** 72 Gryllotalpidae Mole cricket * 8 33 72 **** Abundant; *** Common; ** moderate; * few

Arachnida

Arachnids (class Arachnida) form the second largest group of terrestrial arthropods, while the class Insecta being the most numerous. Spiders have a worldwide distribution and are ubiquitous, living in and around human habitations, in burrows in the ground, in forests, and even underwater. Spiders are predators, feeding mostly on insects and benefit human by keeping some insect populations under control. The economic and ecological importance of arachnida in the mangrove ecosystem is very poorly known and needs a detailed study.

Table 21: Arachnida observed from Thane creek mangroves

S No Order Family Genus and Species Occurrence 1 Tetragnathidae Long jawed orb weaver * 2 Cyclosa conica cf ( Orb weaver ) ** Araneidae 3 Argiope pulchella (Signature spider) *** 4 Araneae Hersiliidae Hersilia sp(Two tailed spider) **** 5 Oxyopidae Lynx spider *** 6 Lycosidae Wolf spider ****** 7 Salticidae Telamonia dimidiata(Two striped jumper) ** 1 6 7

During our present study, we did a qualitative survey of the arachnids from the mangrove ecosystem. Due to the vastness of the scope of our study and time constraints, we could only look at the macro and mega fauna. A detailed study will help in documenting several more arachnids in the Thane creek mangroves. We could document only seven species of spiders

representing one order from the mangrove ecosystem of Thane creek (Table 21). The most abundant was the wolf spider that was observed throughout the creek in association with four different mangrove species. The two-tailed spider was the other common spider mainly associated with the Avicennia sp.

Fishery

The creeks, estuaries and the mangroves surrounding these habitats are considered to be the widely used by marine fauna like crustaceans and fishes (Vose & Bell, 1994), many of which spend a part of their life cycle in these ecosystems (Gajbhiye et al., 1994). In Hostens’s (2000) opinion the distribution and abundance of fish in estuarine and coastal environments is dependent on physical, chemical and biotic factors. Increasing awareness of possible effects of man on the marine environment has led to a search for early warning indicators of any induced changes (McVicar et al., 1988). The near shore waters of industrialized cities are prone to different types of pollution, which get build up from various sources (NIO, 1992). Thane creek has, apart from mangroves, industries, urban settlements and villages along both its banks. The inhabitants of these villages are mostly fishers who depend upon the creek. However, heavy industrialization and urbanization along the creek has resulted in release of effluents in quantities far exceeding the assimilating capacity of the creek. According to Gajbhiye et al. (1994), high input of waste results in fluctuating trend in catch rate along with low species diversity. During the present study although the fish catch was not estimated, the different species of fish occurring in the creek were collected for idnetification. Through our interactions with the local fishers, it was observed that the fishing activity was mainly restricted to the lower stretches (marine end) of the creek. During the investigation, 15 species of fish were recorded, consisting of 11 species of finfish, two crustaceans and two molluscan bivalves (Table 22). The fishing gears used include the gill nets, barrier nets and stationary bag net. Some small fishers also used the cast nets and crab rings. Around Vashi, some fishers continue with hand gleaning to capture completely restricted range of edible bivalves.

We had several interactions with the local fishers on the fishing potential of the creek and were informed that fishing in the creek had reduced and the majority of the fishers would go for fishing around the Vashi bridge where around 6 of the finfish species would be caught with occasional catch of Acetes indica (Paste shrimp). During our survey, we also observed a mass fish kill of the Mugil sp. in the creek. We assessed the reason for the death of the fish in the creek and attributed to the phytoplankton blooms that led to the fish kill. The bloom of phytoplankton was triggered by excess nutrients from the effluents let into the mid stream of the creek from the industrial belt situated on the east bank.

Gokhale & Athalye (1995) during their study in 1991-93, recorded 22 species of fish and 68% reduction in the fishery of the shallow region of Thane creek in comparison to the data of 1981 – 82. The locals also informed about the gradual changes in occupation of the fishers due to unsustaining yields, which have resulted with the rising effluent and sewage load. Moreover, they complained that fish kill due to sudden release of harmful and toxic chemicals, were now a regular feature in the creek. In addition, the perils of non-biodegradable matter loomed large in

the creek; it had even succeeded in forcing the fishers to change their fishing gears from the traditional dol nets to gill nets, with infrequent use of wall nets. This is because the dol nets would invariably be clogged with non-biodegradable wastes like thermocol and plastic bags, hampering the actual fish catch. With the fishery becoming doubtful in Thane creek, commercial fishing in the creek was observed to be a dying occupation.

Table 22: Fish obtained from Thane creek

S No Order Family Genus and Species 1 Cyprinodontiformes Aplocheilidae Aplocheilus lineatus (Striped panchax) 2 Perciformes Terapontidae Therapon jarbua (Target Fish) 3 Gobiidae Periopthalmus argentiineatus (Barred mudskipper) 4 Boleopthalmus sp 5 Tripauchen vagina (Burrowing goby) 6 Cichlidae Tilapia mossambica (Mozambique tilapia) 7 Latidae Lates calcarifer (Barramundi) 8 Elopiformes Megalopidae Megalops cyprinoides (Indo pacific tarpon) 9 Mugiliformes Mugilidae Mugil cephalus 10 Siluriformes Ariidae Arius thalassinus (Giant sea catfish) 11 Bagridae Mystus gulio (Long Whiskers Catfish) 12 Decapoda Portunidae Scylla serrata (Giant mud Crab) 13 Sergestidae Acetes indica (Paste shrimp) 14 Cardiida Cardiidae Cardium asiaticum (Blood Clam) 15 Veneroida Veneridae Katelysia opima (edible clam) Total 7 12 14

Reptiles and Amphibians

Reptiles and amphibians are important fauna that are known to effectively control a number of pests and are known to contribute significantly to several other ecosystem services. During our study, we conducted a qualitative survey of the reptiles and amphibians along the mangrove ecosystem. To collect data on marine snakes, we interviewed the fishers. During our study, we documented only 4 reptiles (Table 23); but could not get any records of the marine snakes. The fishers informed us that the marine snakes were frequent in the past; but were not observed in recent times. We could not either locate any amphibian during our survey or get any secondary information on the taxa from the mangrove ecosystem. This could be due to the limited time we had for the project to undertake intensive survey on the taxa.

Table 23: List of reptiles observed along the Thane creek

S No Order Family Species 1. Squamata Agamidae Calotes versicolor (Common Garden lizard) 2. Sciencidae Mabuya carinata (Common Skink) 3. Varanidae Varanus bengalensis (Common Indian Monitor) 4. Boidae Ptyas mucosus (Common Ratsnake) Total 1 4 4

Avifauna

The mangrove ecosystem is known to play important role as nursery for a variety of marine and freshwater organisms. They present a much diverse structural habitat than most coastal ecosystems and harbour a great variety of bird life (Samant, 1985). Though the birds are not exactly aquatic creatures, a large number of birds are dependent solely on the aquatic environment for their survival (Mandal et al., 2001), and mostly use mangrove ecosystem for feeding, roosting or transit purpose. The mangrove ecosystems are known to provide a vital habitat for several species of birds and their occurrence can throw light on the ecosystem characteristics. Thane creek, a flamingo bird sanctuary, is surrounded by mangroves along both its banks and has extensive mudflats that support a variety of bird life. During the present study, we observed birds from within the mangroves to record the terrestrial birds associated with mangroves, as well as undertook boat surveys as well to document the wetland and shore birds. We recorded 157 species of birds representing 52 families with 78 wetland and shore birds. Most of the birds are of Least-Concern as per the IUCN status except 7 that are Near-Threatened and two Vulnerable. The list of birds observed during the study period (November 2015 to February 2016) is presented in Table 24.

Table 24: Birds observed from Thane creek

S No Order Family Scientific Name Common Name Sighting IUC N Status Anseriformes Anatidae Dendrocygna javanica Lesser Whistling-Duck **** LC 1

Tadorna ferruginea Ruddy Shelduck ** LC 2 Spatula querquedula Garganey ** LC 3 Spatula clypeata Northern Shoveler ***** LC 4 Mareca penelope Eurasian Wigeon * LC 5 Anas poecilorhyncha Indian Spot-billed Duck * LC 6 Anas acuta Northern Pintail ** LC 7 Anas crecca Common Teal ***** LC 8 Galliformes Phasianidae Perdicula asiatica Jungle Bush Quail * LC 9 Phoenicopteriformes Phoenicopteridae Phoenicopterus roseus Greater Flamingo **** LC 10

Phoeniconaias minor Lesser Flamingo ***** NT 11 Podicipedidae Tachybaptus ruficollis Little Grebe ** LC 12 Caprimulgiformes Apodidae Cypsiurus balasiensis Asian Palm Swift ** LC 13 Columbiformes Columbidae Columba livia Rock Pigeon **** LC 14

Spilopelia senegalensis Laughing Dove * LC 15 Spilopelia suratensis Western Spotted Dove ** LC 16 Cuculiformes Cuculidae Centropus sinensis Greater Coucal ** LC 17

Clamator jacobinus Jacobin Cuckoo * LC 18 Eudynamys scolopaceus Asian Koel ** LC 19 Gruiformes Rallidae Amaurornis White-breasted **** LC 20 phoenicurus Waterhen Fulica atra Common Coot *** LC 21 Porphyrio Grey-headed * LC 22 poliocephalus Swamphen Pelecaniformes Ardeidae Nycticorax nycticorax Black-Crowned Night * LC 23 Heron

Butorides striata Green-backed Heron * LC 24 Ardeola grayii Indian Pond-heron ***** LC 25 Bubulcus ibis Cattle Egret ** LC 26 Ardea cinerea Grey Heron **** LC 27 Ardea purpurea Purple Heron ** LC 28 Ardea alba Great Egret *** LC 29 Ardea intermedia Intermediate Egret ***** LC 30 Egretta garzetta Little Egret **** LC 31 Egretta gularis Western Reef-egret ** LC 32 Threskiornithidae Threskiornis Black-headed Ibis ** NT 33 melanocephalus Platalea leucorodia Eurasian Spoonbill ** LC 34 Pseudibis papillosa Red-naped Ibis * LC 35 Plegadis falcinellus Glossy Ibis * LC 36 Ciconiidae Mycteria leucocephala Painted Stork *** NT 37 Phalacrocoracidae Microcarbo niger Little Cormorant **** LC 38

Phalacrocorax Indian Cormorant ***** LC 39 fuscicollis Charadriiformes Charadriidae Pluvialis fulva Pacific Golden Plover ** LC 40

Charadrius dubius Little Ringed Plover ** LC 41 Charadrius Kentish Plover * LC 42 alexandrinus Charadrius mongolus Lesser Sandplover **** LC 43 Charadrius Greater Sand Plover * LC 44 leschenaultii Vanellus indicus Red-wattled Lapwing *** LC 45 Rostratulidae Rostratula benghalensis Greater Painted-snipe LC 46 Jacanidae Metopidius indicus Bronze-winged Jacana * LC 47 Scolopacidae Numenius arquata Eurasian Curlew ** NT 48

Limosa limosa Black-tailed Godwit *** NT 49 Calidris pugnax Ruff * LC 50 Calidris ferruginea Curlew Sandpiper ** NT 51 Calidris temminckii Temminck's Stint * LC 52 Calidris alba Sanderling ** LC 53 Calidris alpina Dunlin * LC 54 Calidris minuta Little Stint *** LC 55 Gallinago gallinago Common Snipe * LC 56 Xenus cinereus Terek Sandpiper * LC 57 Actitis hypoleucos Common Sandpiper *** LC 58 Tringa ochropus Green Sandpiper * LC 59 Tringa erythropus Spotted Redshank * LC 60 Tringa erythropus Spotted Redshank * LC 61 Tringa nebularia Common Greenshank * LC 62 Tringa totanus Common Redshank ** LC 63 Tringa stagnatilis Marsh Sandpiper ** LC 64 Tringa glareola Wood Sandpiper ** LC 65 Laridae Larus genei Slender-billed Gull **** LC 66

Larus brunnicephalus Brown-headed gull **** LC 67

Larus ridibundus Black-headed gull *** LC 68 Larus ichthyaetus Pallas's Gull ** LC 69 Larus canus Mew Gull * LC 70 Larus barabensis Steppe Gull * LC 71 Larus heuglini Heuglin's Gull ** LC 72 Gelochelidon nilotica Common Gull-billed **** LC 73 Tern Hydroprogne caspia Caspian Tern ** LC 74 Chlidonias hybrida Whiskered Tern *** LC 75 Sterna aurantia River Tern * NT 76 Thalasseus sandvicensis Sandwich Tern * LC 77 Recurvirostridae Recurvirostra avosetta Pied Avocet ** LC 78

Himantopus Black-winged Stilt **** LC 79 himantopus Accipitriformes Pandionidae Pandion haliaetus Osprey *** LC 80

Accipitridae Ictinaetus malaiensis Black Eagle * LC 81

Clanga hastata Indian Spotted Eagle * VU 82 Clanga clanga Greater Spotted Eagle ** VU 83 Circus aeruginosus Western Marsh-harrier **** LC 84 Circus macrourus Pallid Harrier * NT 85 Circus pygargus Montagu's Harrier * LC 86 Accipiter badius Shikra * LC 87 Accipiter nisus Eurasian Sparrowhawk * LC 88 Haliastur indus Brahminy Kite * LC 89 Milvus migrans Black Kite **** LC 90 Milvus migrans govinda * LC 91 Black-eared Kite Butastur teesa White-eyed Buzzard * LC 92 Buteo buteo Eurasian Buzzard * LC 93 Strigiformes Tytonidae Tyto alba Common Barn Owl * LC 94

Strigidae Otus brucei Pallid Scops-owl * LC 95 Piciformes Picidae Jynx torquilla Eurasian Wryneck * LC 96

Ramphastidae Psilopogon Coppersmith Barbet ** LC 97 haemacephalus Coraciiformes Meropidae Merops orientalis Asian Green Bee-eater **** LC 98

Merops philippinus Blue-tailed Bee-eater * LC 99 Merops persicus Blue-cheeked Bee-eater * LC 100 Alcedinidae Alcedo atthis Common Kingfisher **** LC 101

Halcyon smyrnensis White Breasted ** LC 102 Kingfisher Psittaciformes Psittaculidae Psittacula krameri Rose-ringed Parakeet **** LC 103 Passeriformes Oriolidae Oriolus oriolus Indian Golden Oriole ** LC 104

Aegithinidae Aegithina tiphia Common Iora ** LC 105 Dicruridae Dicrurus macrocercus Black Drongo ** LC 106

Dicrurus leucophaeus Ashy Drongo ** LC 107 Rhipiduridae Rhipidura albicollis White-throated Fantail ***** LC 108 Laniidae Lanius schach Long-tailed Shrike *** LC 109 Corvidae Corvus splendens House Crow ***** LC 110

Corvus macrorhynchos Large-billed Crow ***** LC 111

Monarchidae Terpsiphone paradisi Indian Paradise- * LC 112 flycatcher Dicaeidae Dicaeum agile Thick-billed ** LC 113 Flowerpecker Dicaeum Pale-billed ** LC 114 erythrorhynchos Flowerpecker Nectariniidae Nectarinia zeylonica Purple-rumped Sunbird **** LC 115

Cinnyris asiaticus Purple Sunbird *** LC 116 Ploceidae Ploceus philippinus Baya Weaver *** LC 117 Estrildidae Lonchura punctulata Scaly-breasted Munia **** LC 118

Lonchura malacca Tricoloured Munia * LC 119 Euodice malabarica Indian Silverbill ** LC 120 Passeridae Passer domesticus House Sparrow ***** LC 121

Gymnoris xanthocollis Chestnut-shouldered *** LC 122 Petronia Motacillidae Anthus rufulus Paddyfield Pipit ** LC 123

Motacilla flava Western Yellow Wagtail ** LC 124 Motacilla cinerea Grey Wagtail ** LC 125 Fringillidae Carpodacus erythrinus Common Rosefinch * LC 126 Emberizidae Emberiza bruniceps Red-headed Bunting * LC 127 Cisticolidae Cisticola juncidis Zitting Cisticola ** LC 128

Prinia socialis Ashy Prinia **** LC 129 Prinia inornata Plain Prinia **** LC 130 Orthotomus sutorius Common Tailorbird **** LC 131 Acrocephalidae Acrocephalus Blyth's Reed Warbler **** LC 132 dumetorum Acrocephalus stentoreus Clamorous Reed **** LC 133 Warbler Hirundinidae Hirundo smithii Wire-tailed Swallow *** LC 134

Hirundo rustica Barn Swallow *** LC 135 Hirundo concolor Dusky Crag Martin *** LC 136 Pycnonotidae Pycnonotus jocosus Red-whiskered Bulbul ***** LC 137

Pycnonotus leucotis White-eared Bulbul ***** LC 138 Pycnonotus cafer Red-vented Bulbul ***** LC 139 Pycnonotus luteolus White-browed Bulbul * LC 140 Phylloscopidae Phylloscopus griseolus Sulphur-bellied Warbler ** LC 141

Phylloscopus Greenish Warbler ** LC 142 trochiloides Phylloscopus occipitalis Western Crowned Leaf- ** LC 143 warbler Sylviidae Chrysomma sinense Yellow-eyed Babbler *** LC 144 Leiothrichidae Argya caudata Common Babbler ** LC 145

Turdoides striata Jungle Babbler ** LC 146 Sturnidae Gracupica contra Asian Pied Starling ***** LC 147

Sturnus malabaricus Chestnut-tailed starling *** LC 148 Acridotheres tristis Common Myna ***** LC 149 Acridotheres fuscus Jungle Myna **** LC 150 Muscicapidae Saxicoloides fulicatus Indian Robin *** LC 151

Copsychus saularis Oriental Magpie Robin *** LC 152 Muscicapa dauurica Asian Brown Flycatcher ** LC 153

Cyornis tickelliae Tickell's Blue-flycatcher ** LC 154 Ficedula parva Red-breasted Flycatcher * LC 155 Saxicola caprata Pied Bushchat ** LC 156 Saxicola torquatus Common Stonechat **** LC 157 Tota 15 51 157 157 l LC = Least-Concern, NT = Near-Threatened, VU = Vulenerable

The Passeriformes is the most dominant order with 53 species of birds, followed by Charadriiformes with 38 species and then other families as shown in Figure 65. Further, the encounter rate for the species along the creek during the boat survey is given in Table 25. We had the highest encounter with only 12 birds dominated by Lesser flamingo, followed in sequence by Greater flamingo, Little stint, Lesser sand plover, Sanderling, Northern Shoveler, Brown headed gull, Common teal, Black winged stilt, Black tailed Godwit, Lesser Whistling duck and Common sandpiper. Apart from the 12, the remaining 64 species of wetland-associated birds had very sporadic occurrence in the creek. Furthermore, it was observed that the birds were evenly distributed on both the banks of the creek in the region below the Airoli bridge to the Vashi bridge. Further, it was noted that the birds were lesser in diversity and density in the Thane city part of the creek.

60 50 40 30 20 no of bird speciesbird of no 10 0

Family Figure 65: Distribution of birds belonging to 18 different families recorded in Thane creek

Table 25: The average encounter rate for the birds observed for the wetland associated birds of Thane creek. Species Average Encounter Rate Standard Deviation Heuglin's gull 0.1941 0.16633595 Slender billed gull 0.9059 0.890578607 Mew Gull 0.0012 0.00257864 Pallas's gull 0.0902 0.081800754 Brown headed gull 3.2820 1.999183215 Black headed gull 0.8228 0.659637122 Common Greenshank 0.0213 0.031156261 Common Redshank 0.1739 0.166193367

Lesser whistling duck 1.4204 1.285922173 Spot billed duck 0.0089 0.016266956 Northern pintail 0.0735 0.079849273 Northern shovler 3.3015 2.066889538 Eurasian wegion 0.0081 0.018050482 Common teal 2.6554 1.442024383 Garganey 0.0652 0.068498221 Greater flamingo 14.4196 8.182240935 Lesser flamingo 60.3209 37.22236225 Black kite 0.0566 0.074390518 Purple Heron 0.0015 0.002072968 Grey heron 0.0833 0.078872784 Black winged stilt 2.0433 1.057142169 Little stint 6.7822 6.849944505 Temminck's stint 0.0888 0.112118293 House crow 0.1313 0.188451127 Caspian tern 0.0358 0.05612831 Whiskered tern 0.3466 0.354339452 Gull billed tern 0.4414 0.405550642 Common sandpiper 1.0367 1.326116904 Wood sandpiper 0.0085 0.009293947 Black tailed godwit 1.5448 1.841524547 Lesser sand plover 5.0796 9.292934876 Pacific golden plover 0.0192 0.031327504 Little egret 0.0152 0.028878212 Intermediate egret 0.1772 0.19992181 Great egret 0.0386 0.037740629 Pond Heron 0.0263 0.016963885 Western reef egret 0.0088 0.008449034 Eurasian Curlew 0.0494 0.03332074 Indian cormorant 0.0493 0.04292302 Black headed ibis 0.0778 0.11139709 Marsh harrier 0.0103 0.009212651 Osprey 0.0150 0.012575108 Brahminy Kite 0.0006 0.00128932 Greater spotted eagle 0.0073 0.007866726 Barn swallow 0.0410 0.036488058 Wire tailed swallow 0.0142 0.015477948 Pied Avocet 0.0375 0.031593131 Ruff 0.0216 0.026722488 Dunlin 0.3037 0.472784545 Curlew Sandpiper 0.0784 0.175347544 Painted Stork 0.0544 0.040437077 Sanderling 3.8268 5.238457998 Red wattled lapwing 0.0074 0.010608815

Steppe gull 0.0044 0.009886232 Marsh sandpiper 0.0009 0.001977246 Little Cormorant 0.0298 0.047344826 Eurasian Spoonbill 0.0292 0.065249132 Rock Pigeon 0.0009 0.001977246 Caspian Gull 0.0040 0.005482058 Common Coot 0.0007 0.001539303 Common Tern 0.0076 0.016932329 Terek Sandpiper 0.0048 0.010775118 Curlew Sandpiper 0.0743 0.166244685 Marsh Sandpiper 0.0055 0.012314421 Greater Sand Plover 0.0062 0.013853724 Little Ring Plover 0.0675 0.150851659 Kentish Plover 0.0007 0.001539303 Cattle Egret 0.0076 0.016932329 White Throated 0.0038 0.005210732 Kingfisher Ruddy shelduck 0.0111 0.024896269 Shikra 0.0009 0.001915098

Mammals Mammals are an important faunal group whose diversity largely depends on the availability of habitat. Thane creek provides a mangrove habitat that is well used by several faunal groups; however, the mammalian fauna has been less diverse as compared to the other groups.

During our study apart from the domestic animals, we sighted six mammals and had secondary evidences of Asiatic Jackal (Table 26.). The droppings of Asiatic Jackal were collected from the mangroves of Kharegaon, Airoli, Kanjur dumping ground and Godrej mangrove areas. Flying fox and the Common mongoose were sighted from the Bhandup pumping station and Godrej mangrove areas while other mammals, mostly rodents, were observed throughout the creek length.

Table 26: List of Mammals recorded from Thane creek. S.No. Common Name Scientific Name Observation 1 Asiatic Jackal Canis aureus Secondary evidence 2 Flying fox Pteropus giganteus Sighted 3 Three striped Palm squirrel Funambulus palmarum Sighted 4 Bandicoot Rat Bandicota indica Sighted 5 House rat Rattus rattus Sighted 6 Indian field mouse Mus booduga Sighted 7 Common Mongoose Herpestes edwardsi Sighted

Objective 3. Undertake stakeholder analysis with special focus on the Flamingo sanctuary area

Mumbai has a total area of 603.4 square kilometer, 370 square kilometer coming under the Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC) and the rest belonging to the Mumbai Port Trust, Defense, Atomic Energy Commission, and Borivali National Park. With a population of 14 million people, Mumbai was the most populous city in India (Gazetteer, 2009). Due to the naturally deep harbor, Mumbai contributes up to 70% of maritime trade in India. The commercial and industrial opportunities provided by the city attract people from all over the country. The population density is estimated to be about 22,000 persons per square kilometre.

The urban zone of Mumbai developed rapidly to accommodate the rapid rise in population. Consequently, the land uses in Mumbai changed drastically in a span of seven decades. The agriculture and forestland has decreased more than 50%, the wetlands reduced more than 25% and the builtup area increased more than 300%. The need to accommodate the growing population led to the process of reclaiming land from the sea (Harpreet, 2010).

The prospect of joining the prospering commerce hub attracted even more people into the city (General, 1962). The population grew from 13,726 in 1780 to 644,405 in 1872 in less than a hundred years (Dwivedi, 2001). Mumbai’s size, high growth rate, urban sprawl, and inadequate sanitation have been consequently posing serious threats to the quality of life in the city (Toby Sinclair, 1991). The Thane creek located along the western side of Mumbai faces the maximum anthropogenic influence despite its importance as Asia’s longest creek. The creek is surrounded by several industries developed since the beginning of the 1960s and at present about 25 large industries and about 300 medium and small-scale units, using hazardous chemicals is located there, of the 2000 units located in the whole zone. The industrial area utilises about 45,000 m3 /day of fresh water. The effluent discharged, treated and untreated, amounts to 28,750 m3 /day (i.e., 64% of the total industrial effluents generated in the Thane Creek area). Except for a few major industries, the medium and the small scale industries discharge their treated or untreated effluents through the unlined surface drains into the Thane Creek. In addition to this, domestic sewage discharges from suburbs of Mumbai city meet the Thane Creek from the west side. Also atmospheric fallout from the chimneys and stacks and vehicle exhausts estimated to be 22,000 t/day over the city, reach the creek after washout. The problem is furthered by unrestricted dumping of solid waste, construction debris and other wastes. Because of all this, the soil as well as water of Thane Creek region has become severely polluted. The increasing human interventions have drastically altered the biodiversity of the creek as well as the livelihood of the local villagers. With the declaration of a part of the Thane creek as the Flamingo Sanctuary in 2015 and interest in ecological revival of the creek, an assessment of the views of the stakeholders, dependant on and influencing the creek, becomes essential.

Stakeholder analysis is an approach, tool or set of tools for generating knowledge. It yields useful and accurate information about those persons and organizations that are likely to affect or be affected by a proposed action or area or specific issues. It also brings out their views or perceptions on the matter of concern. This information can be used to provide input for other analyses, to develop action plans, to increase support for a reform policy or action, and to

facilitate a participatory consensus-building process. To increase support or build consensus for reform, policymakers and managers must take further additional steps following the stakeholder analysis.

Results and Discussion Based on the methodology decided for the survey we have taken the following steps: i) Collected email-ids of individuals / organisations associated with the creek either as researchers, naturalists, photographers, educationists, corporate agencies, industries, NGOs etc and send to them the questionnaire prepared for the survey seeking their responses. ii) Organised stakeholder meetings and discussed issues related to the Thane creek. iii) Visited localities around the creek, interacted with the locals and conducted personal interviews to get the questionnaire filled. The places we visited include Balkumb, Kharegaon, Kalwa, Mulund, Ghatkopar, Chembur, Digha Navi Mumbai, Diva Koliwada, Nerul, Khidkali, Lokmanya nagar, Sion Koliwada, Thane (E) Koliwada, Chendani Koliwada, Dhokali Thane, Parel, Vitawa, Ghansoli, Talavali Koliwada, Koparkhairna, Vashi, Gothivili, Airoli, Bhandup gaon, Vikhroli Gaon, Kanjurmarg gaon, and Trombay Koliwada.

The response to the email interactions was very negligible, only 21 respondents out of the 400 emails replied to our request. However, our direct approach to the individuals across various sectors yielded better results with 175 individuals obliging to share information requested on the questionnaire sheets. In overall, we had a ratio of 30% female and 70% male population answering the queries (Fig. 66). The age group of the respondents varied from 18 to over 60 years of age with the respondents in the age group of 35 to 50 years dominating followed by those in 18 to 25 years’ age group (Fig. 67 & 68). During our visits, we tried our best at getting the questionnaires filled from the female population to gain an equal and unbiased opinion on the issues. However, we observed that in the fishing villages the conversations were mostly dominated by male members from the community with very few women expressing their views.

We grouped the respondents into categories as given in Figure 69. The most dominant category of the respondents included the fishers since the villages are situated around the creek that provides livelihood to the locals. Among the respondents, 88% were aware of the Thane creek and they had visited the creek minimum once or have been visiting almost daily (Fig 70 to 73). The 12 % individuals who were email respondents either belonged to corporate agencies or industries and did not know much about the creek or refused to answer. Among the ones who answered, almost everyone is aware of the importance of the creek and the food web associated with it (Fig. 74-79). The respondents found several aspects relating to the creek that include quite a few kinds of pollution, birds, mangroves, fish and urbanization around the creek. The respondents especially the fishers found the creek having deteriorated in recent times while a few naturalists found the conditions good in the creek due to the increase in bird diversity.

Fig. 66 : Gender wise respondents to the Fig 67: Age-group of the respondents Questionnaire survey 60 and above 16% 18-25 23% Female 51-60 13% 26-35 20% Male 35-50 28%

Fig. 68: Genderwise age group of the 100 Fig. 69: Respondents who have heard of Thane 60 respondents creek

numbers 50 20 Numbers

0 0 18-25 26-35 35-50 51-60 60 and Corporates Academics Fishers Govt Locals Students above fishers Age groups Stakeholder categories Fig 70: Respondents who have heard of Thane Fig. 71: Pertentage of the respondents who have heard of Thane creek Nocreek No answer 1% 11% Female 29%

Male Yes 71% 88%

Fig. 72: Individuals who have visited Thane creek Fig. 73: Frequency of visits to the creek

100 140 80 120 60 100 40 80

Numbers 20 0 60

numbers 40 20 0

Stake holder categories Visits to the creek Fig. 75: Awareness of the food web and 100 Fig 74: Awareness of Food web and importance of the creek importance of the creek 80

150 60 No 40

Numbers 100 20 Yes 50 0 No answer Understanding food (Nos)of web Understanding 0 Female Male Stakeholder categories Respondents

Fig. 76: What is observed in Thane creek Fig 77: Components observed in the creek 200 90 80 150 70 60 Female Male 50 100 40

numbers 30 50 20 10 0 0

Stakeholder categories Fig. 78: Present condition of the Creek Fig. 79: Present condition of the creek

100 80 80 Female Male 60 60 40 40 Numbers 20 20

0 0

Stakeholder categories

Having understood the perceptions of the respondents on the conditions that exist in the creek they were asked if they influenced the creek. To that query the fishers were of the opinion that they depended on the creek for fishing and also influenced the creek to some extent by way of sewage release. Individuals from other categories also claimed their indirect influence through sewage release and solid waste disposal. There was some constructive influence by individuals who were involved in education, awareness and conservation activities (Fig. 80-87). Further, on questioning if the society could play a role in conserving the creek, there were several constructive suggestions, ranging from stopping waste disposal, cleaning the creek, deepening the creek channels, controlling urbanization to education and research. However, upon asking them on their role as individuals in protecting the creek 80% respondents had no answer. The rest gave broad answers tending to what the society could do to protect the creek from degradation.

Fig. 81: Influence of individuals on the creek Fig. 80: How do you influence the creek 60 80 Female 60 40 Male

40 Numbers 20 Numbers 20 0 0

Stake holders

Fig. 83: Is it necessary to protect the creek Fig. 82: Is it necessary to protect the creek 100 150 Female Male 50 100 Numbers

Numbers 50 0 0 no answer yes Maybe Stakeholders Fig. 84: How should society protect the creek Fig, 85: How should society do to protect the 80 creek Male Female 12 10 60 8 40 6 Numbers 20 Numbers 4 2 0 0

Stakeholders Fig 87: Can individuals protect the creek Fig. 86: Can individuals protect the creek 30 120 25 100 Male Female 20 80 15 60 Numbers 40 10 Numbers 20 5 0 0

Stakeholders

Since the creek has been known to provide livelihood to the fishers living around the creek the respondents were questioned about the fishing practices and the consumption of fish from the creek (Fig 88 to 105). Almost 65% respondents consume fish harvested from the creek. Among the fishers, nearly 70% undertake fishing in the creek, of which for 50% fishing is the only source of income. The frequency of fishing varied from daily to occasional fishing. The age group of active fishers varied, while most have an experience of minimum 10 to maximum 30 years of fishing in the creek. The crafts used include four types of nets and both mechanised and non-mechanised boats are used for fishing in the creek. Fishing is done mainly for finfish, crabs and bivalves. The fishers catch fish mainly for selling, either directly or through the intermediaries. Reportedly, fish catch has been declining since 1990. The fishers reported around 36 species of fish as available in the creek until the late 1980’s. The decline has forced most of the fishermen to travel up to Koparkhairane and Vashi regions for a reasonable catch. Around 25% of the fishers also informed of fishing being undertaken by individuals other than the traditional fisher folks. The fishers attribute the decline in fish catch to the effluents released into the creek along with the solid waste as well as the constriction of the creek due to increased siltation. The fishers are aware of the industries releasing untreated waste; however, there has been no attempt to register complaints against that. Very few respondents including the fishers are aware of the traditional or medicinal properties of mangroves, although the importance of mangroves in the food chain is well recognised by the fishing community.

Fig. 88: People eating fish from the creek Fig. 89: Number of people who consume fish harvested from the creek 100 150 80 Male 60 40 100 Female 20 0 50 Numbers numbers

0 no answer yes no Stakeholder categories People eating creek fish

100Fig. 90: Number of people in Fishing occupation 150 Fig. 91: Number of family members in fishing profession 80 Male Male 100 60 Female Female

40 Numbers Numbers 50 20

0 0 no answer yes no no 1 2 3 4 6 answer People fishing in the creek no. of family members in fishing activity Fig. 92: Frequency of fishing activity by Fig. 93: Reason for fishing activity in the creek 150 individual fishers 140 Male Male 100 120 Female 100 Female 80

Numbers 50 60

0 NUMBERS 40 20 0 no answer self consumption livelihood both Frequency of fishing REASON FOR FISHING 150 Fig. 94: Gears used for fishing in thecreek 150 Fig. 95: Crafts used for fishing in the creek

Male Male 100 100 Female Female

Numbers 50 Numbers 50

0 0 No Disco Jali Phag Vana Bokshi others no answer mechanised non-mechanised answer Gears used 140 Fig. 96: Type of fish harvested. Fig. 97: How isthe fish catch sold 120 150 100 Male Male 80 Female 100 Female 60 Numbers 40 Numbers 50 20 0 0 no answer Direct Intermediary others Fishing done for How do you sell fish

80 120 Fig 98: Reasons for the decline in Fishery Fig. 99: Fishing is the only income 70 100 60 Male No 80 50 Yes 60 Female 40

Numbers 40 30 Numbers 20 20 0 10 0

Reasons for decline in Fishery Stakeholder categories Fig. 100: Is fishery the only source of income? 120 Fig.101: Which year the fishery started declining? 140 100 Male 120 Male 100 80 Female Female 80 60 60

Numbers 40 Numbers 40 20 20 0

0 1975 1980 1985 1986 1990 1995 1996 1998 1999 2000 2005 2006 2010 No answer yes No Fishery the only source of income answer no Year the fish started declining Fig 103: Has any complaint been registered on Fig.102: Do the non-traditional fishers also fish the release of effluents 160 in the creek 160 140 140 Male Male 120 120 Female 100 Female 100 80 80

Numbers 60 Numbers 60 40 40 20 20 0 0 no answer yes no no answer yes no Has any complaint been registered for release of Have the other people taken up fishing effluents Fig 104: Is there any specific industry involved Fig. 105: Knowledge on the importance of in the release of effluents mangroves 180 50 160 40 140 Male No 120 30 Female Yes 100 80 20 Numbers Numbers 60 10 40 20 0 0 no answer yes no Is any specific industry involved in the release of effluents Stakeholder categories

During the literature survey, we came across some references that mentioned cases of anaemia related to the fish consumption from the creek. Hence, the questionnaire used for survey included a few questions related to chronic illness and found that the majority of the respondents did not feel any connect of any illness to the consumption of fish from the region (Fig 106 to 107).

Fig. 106: Does any family member suffer from Fig 107: Is the illness associated with the creek 120 140 Chronic illness? fishery 120 Male 100 Male 100 Female 80 Female

80 60

60 Numbers

Numbers 40 40 20 20 0 0 no answer yes no no answer 34 52 Chronic illness Is it associated with the creek

After the fishery-related questions, the respondents were asked for their association with the creek and in what capacity. The respondents to such queries belonged to fisher community, or were researchers, naturalists or casual visitors, while some have just visited the water body with no knowledge on it (Fig. 108 & 109). The respondents were enquired on the aesthetic appeal of the creek as well as its potential for ecotourism (Fig 110 & 113). Most of them felt that the creek had a poor to average aesthetic appeal while the tourism potential was also average. Only the nature enthusiasts felt confident on the tourism potentials of the creek. Further, the fishers and a few corporate officials also felt that the creek could be used for local transportation. That apart, the respondents felt that the creek if considered for tourism development, it could generate several job opportunities, create facilities for tourism industry, and would provide a livelihood support for the locals.

Fig108: Number of years the creek is known Fig. 109: In what capacity have you known the 60 120 the creek 50 Male 100 Male 40 Female 80 Female 30 60

Numbers 20 Numbers 40 10 20 0 0

How many years have you known Thane creek Stakeholder categories Fig 110: How do you find the asthetic conditions of the creek Fig. 111: What is the tourism potential of the 80 100 creek? 70 Male 60 80 Male 50 Female 60 Female 40 30 40 Numbers Numbers 20 20 10 0 0 no Poor average ideal good excellent no Poor average ideal good V. Goodexcellent answer answer Asthetic conditions Tourism Potential

Fig. 112: What are the facilities needed for Fig. 113: Possibility of use of Thane creek as developing Tourism? 120 100 Public transport 100 Male 80 80 60 Female 40 60 Numbers 20 40 0 Male Numbers Female 20

0 no answer yes no may be Fascilities needed for Tourism Use of TC aas public transport

Since the declaration of the creek as flamingo sanctuary, the respondents were also questioned on the appropriateness of the Forest Department providing the legal protection. Although the responses to such questions were mostly mixed and non-conclusive, the maximum objections were from the corporate sector and the local fishers who were unsure on the role that the forest department would play, and even felt the move may not prove very useful. Further, people were also vague about the status of the creek as a sanctuary. However, many researchers, academicians, naturalists, and photographers felt that the creek should be of higher status and could be even considered for declaration as a Ramsar site. While discussing the problems and concerns the respondents mentioned the changed flow pattern of the creek that has adversely affected the biodiversity of the creek. In order to manage the creek better the respondents were of the opinion that the creek needs to be dredged to remove the silt, plant mangroves to stop erosion, prevent plastics entering the creek and most importantly prevent constructions along the creek. The respondents felt that although the creek can be under the forest department it may not be competent to address these issues of checking the unplanned development. Hence many respondents were not comfortable with the legal status now given to the creek (Fig. 114 to 119). The respondents raised several concerns for the creek, but very few suggestions to improve the creek were coming up. Nevertheless, very few respondents had any expectations from the government regarding the protection of the creek.

40 Fig. 114: Forest department protecting the creek 35 Fig. 115: Custody of the Creek with the forest 100 department. 30 Male 25 80 Female 20 60

Numbers 15 40

10 Numbers 5 20 0 0 no answer useful can be not others extended needed Stakeholder category Forest Dept Custody

70 Fig 117: Impact of water flow changes in the creek Fig. 116: Flow characteristics of the water 60 80 50 70 60 40 50 40 30 30 Numbers numbers 20 20 10 Male 10 0 Female 0

Stakeholder categories Water flow in the creek Fig 119: are there development pressures onthe Fig. 118: Activities that should be undertaken for 100 160 creek. conservation 140 80 120 Male 60 100 Female 40 80

Numbers 20 60 0 Numbers 40 Male 20 0 Female

activities for conservation Developers pressure 30 Fig. 120: Suggestions for improvement of the creek Fig. 121: Is the status of Thane creek 25 100 appropriate. 20 Male 80 15 Female 60 Numbers 10 5 40 0 Numbers 20 0 no answer yes no Upgrade Stakeholder categories Status appropriate Fig. 122: Upgradation of the creek as Ramsar Fig 123: Expectations from the Government site. 140 Male 100 120 Female 80 100 60 40 80

Numbers 20 Male 60 Numbers 0 Female 40 no yes no not sure 20 answer 0 Ramsar site upgradation no answer yes no Expectations from Govt

The questionnaire also dealt with the role of industries in treating their effluents and if they were following the rules and regulations set by the MPCB and the Government of India (Fig. 124 to 141). The responses to that was very poor with no answers from most respondents. The corporate officials and the fishers felt that the declaration of the sanctuary would create some problems and that action was not much favoured. Very few respondents feel that the conservation and development can go along favourably but this opinion was mostly of the students and the academicians. The respondents favoured sustainable development, conservation of mangroves, stopping of solid waste and encroachment by builders. In the face of development, the respondents did not find it easy to get permissions and felt that only the

influential were favoured benefactors. While the locals did not see much benefits or livelihood options, academicians and students felt that the Sanctuary would provide ecotourism and related job opportunities. The respondents did not offer to take the responsibility to manage the creek; but a few of them felt that all the stakeholders should be involved in a collaborative effort to the betterment of the creek.

Fig. 124: Measures taken before discharging Fig 125: Are the Laws, Rules and Regulations 200 effluents 200 followed? Male Male 150 Female 150 Female 100 100 Numbers Numbers 50 50

0 0 no answer yes no no answer yes no Response Responces

Fig. 126: Does sanctuary declaration effect the 150 Fig 127: Can Conservation and development go locals? together? 200 Male Female Male 150 100 Female

100 Numbers

Numbers 50 50

0 0 no answer yes no no answer yes no Response Response 25 Fig. 128: Can Conservation and Development go 150 Fig 129: Is the decision of declaring Thane creek 20 together asanctuary appropriate? Male 15 100 Female

10 Numbers Numbers 5 50

0 0 no answer yes no Stakeholder category Response Fig. 131: Is it easy to get permissions Fig 130: What kind of development is needed 16 No Yes 200 along the creek? Male 14 Female 12 150 10 8 100 6 Numbers Numbers 50 4 2 0 0

Response Stakeholder Categories

25 Fig. 133: Benefactors from development 200 Fig 132: What challenges are faced along the creek 20 150 Male 15 100 Female 10 Numbers Numbers 50 5 0 0

Response Stakeholder categories 5 Fig. 134: Are Livelihood options available? Fig 135: Types of livelihood options 200 4 No Yes Male 3 150 Female

2 100 Numbers

1 Numbers 50 0 0 no answer Ecotourism Other proffesions Stakeholder categories Response

12 Fig. 136: Is it easy to procure land along the creek Fig 137: Is it easy to procure land along Thane 10 200 creek No Yes 8 Male 150 6 Female

Numbers 4 100

2 Numbers 0 50

0 no answer yes no Stakeholder categories Response ] 4 Fig. 139: Are locals supportive of development Fig. 138: Support of the stake holders 200 3 Male 150 2 Female Numbers 1 100 Numbers 0 50

0 no answer yes no Stake holder categories Response 8 Fig. 141: Who should manage the creek 7 Fig, 140: Who should manage the creek 180 160 6 140 5 120 Male 4 100 Female 3 80 Numbers

Numbers 60 2 40 1 20 0 0

Stakeholder categories Who should manage the creek

Stakeholder meetings

On identifying the stakeholders involved or dependant on the creek, three meetings of the stakeholders were organised on 22nd March and 23rd March 2016 at the Forest department conference room, Teen Hath Naka, Thane. These meetings were called for interacting with the stakeholders and understanding their concerns and views. Apart from the stakeholders, the meetings were attended by the Mr. N Vasudevan (CCF, Mangrove cell) and officials from the funding agency i.e. GIZ. The meetings began with a presentation on the background and the present status of the creek (Appendix 3) by SACON followed by interactive sessions. The major concerns raised by the stakeholders are briefed below.

1. Meeting involving Industry representatives and corporate agencies: This session was very poorly represented; only eight individuals mainly from two corporate houses i.e Godrej and the SONY DAC. M/s Godrej has the single largest land holding along the Thane creek flamingo sanctuary. The concerns raised by the participants included the following. i. Why were no such meetings held before the declaration of the sanctuary? ii. Has the Sanctuary been notified as per the concerned rules and regulations? iii. Why is only one part of the creek (west bank) declared as the flamingo sanctuary? iv. What will be the status of the land that is owned by corporate like M/s Godrej who have been protecting the mangroves for a long time now? v. What would be the restrictions imposed on the owners of the land that exist along the creek? vi. In the context of the CRZ laws what will be the new regulations that will be implemented?. vii. M/s Godrej has a jetty in its premises and own boats within the sanctuary, will it face any restrictions on the use of its own property? viii. Why was the east bank not declared as a sanctuary, given the premise that the birds are dynamic and not restricted solely to a certain location in the creek? ix. How will the forest department involve the stakeholders in the management of the Sanctuary? x. Having known about the pollution status of the creek how is the other government machinery involved in the management of the creek.?

2. Meeting involving fishing community and other local representatives: This group was well represented by participants from all across the creek i.e., from Kalva to Vashi and Vikhroli. The meeting with more than 40 fishers had several topics discussed that include the following. i. Will the fishing community be stopped from fishing in the creek? ii. The creek has faced a lot of deterioration over the years, and there has been depletion in fish diversity. This has forced the fishers to travel long distances to catch fish making it uneconomical for the poor fishers. iii. The government has not looked into the encroachment and land grabbing by the builder lobby. With the declaration of the creek as a sanctuary, who will it benefit,

what will be the livelihood options to the real and traditional owners of the creek? iv. The fishers are known to harvest the mangroves sustainably and that has sustained for a long time the mangroves in the region and supported the fishery. The increase in the siltation and the excessive growth of mangroves on the banks has also resulted in reduced fishery. Why is there no proper science used in the present management of mangroves? Why has there been no concern on increasing the mangroves along the landward side instead of the water body side? v. What will be the restrictions on the builder lobby as the fishers are restricted in their travel in the creek? vi. In view of the Sanctuary, the fishers have been told that there will be tourism and the fishers with boats will be employed to cater the tourist. However, there is no clarity if only the fisher folk from Airoli will get this benefit or the other villages from along the creek will also benefit from it. vii. What is planned for the fishing villages that are adjacent to the sanctuary like the ones at Vitawa, Kalwa and Kharegaon. Will they have any access to livelihood? viii. The fishers also were concerned about the increased solid waste being indiscriminately dumped into the creek and forms almost 90% of the catch in their nets. Why is the government not looking into the matter? ix. The fishers also informed about the release of sewage and effluents that pollute the water and the sediments. They informed that the pollution load started increasing during the 1980’s with NOCIL releasing its effluents and polluting the waters. Why are no restrictions imposed on these industries? x. The fishers were of the opinion that until the early 2000, the bird population was insignificant and the population started increasing in the creek due to the development activities that increased at Uran and the adjoining areas. They also informed that the substratum of the creek was mostly rocky and the mudflats have increased due to siltation and development activities. xi. The fishers felt that the creek had accommodated the birds well so far and there was no competition between the fishers and the birds; but they felt that now the Forest Department have imposed more reservations and restrictions on them. xii. The fishers wanted to know if the declaration of sanctuary was temporary since the birds had moved to Thane creek finding shelter and food from other localities. If the birds stopped coming to the creek will the status change. They also enquired whether the sanctuary only for birds or also for the mangroves? xiii. Some fishers also informed about the use of the creek for trade and transport, which did not exist now, the reason mentioned being increased siltation and reduced tidal movement. xiv. There were also concerns raised about the saltpans along the creek that could be converted into real estate in due course and thereby increase the pollution load into the creek. The fishers wanted to know if these aspects were looked into while development management plans for the creek. xv. The fishers did not approve the declaration of the sanctuary as they felt that it only restricted the fishers and deprived them of their livelihood while the other people from the society enjoys free passage to the creek.

xvi. The fishers wanted to know how the forest department would recognise the boats and what would be the modalities for restricting or preventing outsiders into the creek. xvii. The fishers felt that they should be taken into confidence so that their occupation is not changed from traditional fishers to watchmen of the land that traditionally belonged to them. xviii. The fishers were of the opinion that the entire creek could be declared a sanctuary provided that the fisher folk get their rights to the means of livelihood they current have as well as the ones that may emerge from the creek in future. xix. The fishers felt that the polluters should be made to pay so that the creek can be protected better rather than only giving the creek a higher protected legal status.

3. Meeting involving Academicians, Naturalist, Researchers and NGOs: The third meeting of the stakeholders was fairly well represented by individuals from diverse groups. The group welcomed the declaration of Thane creek as a flamingo sanctuary. The issues addressed by the group were more on scientific and related aspects as briefed below.

i. The group felt that the entire creek should be declared as a sanctuary rather than only a part being given the status as of now. ii. The group was of the opinion that the study for only four months was too short and it would be difficult to generate data significant enough for a detailed assessment of the creek. The study though did bring to light some important aspects related to the creek’s status a long duration study spread over 3-4 years would have helped in the management better. iii. The members informed that the there were some lacunae in scientific data and the protocols followed by some of the researchers were not uniform. iv. There were concerns raised regarding permissions to visit the creek by the naturalist as they felt that the forest department was not allowing them to visit the creek as frequently as they wish. v. The group pointed out that no regulations are followed by the industries as well as the civic bodies and there was indiscriminate release of sewage and effluents without treatment into the creek. vi. There were instances where the mangrove forest areas are misused, but researchers and naturalist are not permitted entry. vii. The forest department should have a research cell that could facilitate research based on merit and if possible provide funding for the same. viii. The group again pointed out the depletion in fishery in the creek and the lack of livelihood options to the local fishers. They felt it necessary to involve the locals in better management of the creek. ix. The group also stressed that the MPCB and other government bodies be included in the management of the creek and the rules should be made stricter for the major defaulters rather than troubling only the poor fishers. x. The issue of saltpans and the aquaculture ponds and their implications on the conservation of the creek was also raised.

xi. The problem of solid waste management has become a major issue that is also affecting the birds of the creek. xii. Other issues mentioned included the use of land along the creek by flouting the CRZ laws by major players and the need to address such issues in a legal way. xiii. The rules and regulations for mangrove conservation are in place and the forest department was requested to implement them. It was suggested that the lower level staff of the Forest Department should be trained in such legal as well as conservation aspects. xiv. The group while welcoming the move of the declaration of the sanctuary requested the forest department to get the status of Ramsar status for the creek. xv. Most important the forest department should check their resources for the historic maps of Thane creek or develop some authentic maps using the toposheets as well as new techniques and appropriately present all information on the creek.

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Appendix 1.

Literature available for Thane creek

1) Aakriti Grover and Ram Babu Singh 2015 Analysis of Urban Heat Island (UHI) in Relation to Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI): A Comparative Study of Delhi and Mumbai Environments 2 :125-138 2) Aarti C. Sharma 2011 Recentering Mumbai- Appropriation of Thane creek M.Sc Thesis 3) Abhijat Arun Abhiyankar, Mukta Paliwal, Anand Patwardan and Arun B. Inamdar 2013 Identification of Vulnerable areas in Municipal corporation of Greater Mumbai due to extreme events based on socio economic indicators. Indian Journal of Geomarine Sciences Vol. 42(7): 907-914 4) Abhijit Kulkarni 2015 Phytochemical extraction and pharmacological and antimicrobial studies of stems, roots and leaves of mangrove plants M.Sc. Microbiology Dissertation,Univ. of Mumbai 64 5) Abhishek N. Satam and Chhaya S. Panse 2015 Abundance, Biomass of Zooplankton and its Relation with Environmental Variable at Vashi Creek, Maharashtra. Proceedings of Wetlands-Present Status, Ecology & Conservation 221-226 6) Abhyankar A.A., Inamdar A. and Asolekar S. 2006 Study of Different Time Window of Synchronized Water Sample Collection on Turbidity Regression Model using Remotely Sensed Data Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, 2006. IGARSS 2006. IEEE International Conference Proceedings 1338 - 1341 7) Abhyankar A.A., Inamdar A.B., and Asolekar S.R. 2000 Comparative assessment of sea surface temperature in Thane creek using remotely sensed data. S.D.M. Coll. Eng. Tech. and Int. Geol. , Correlat. Prog. Spec. Publ. ed. by Hegde V.S. 2 : 11-16 8) Abidi S. A.H, Jiyalal Ram, Desai B.N and Gajbhiye S.N 1982 Distribution of chlorophyll pigments in polluted water of Thana creek(Bombay) Seminar on estuaries: their physics, chemistry, biology, geology and engineering, NIO Proceedings 9) Ajay Kumar, Sabyasachi Rout, Manish K. Chopra, D. G. Mishra, R. K. Singhal, P. M. Ravi, R. M. Tripathi 2014 Modeling of 137Cs migration in cores of marine sediments of Mumbai Harbor Bay. Radioanal Nucl Chem Vol. 301: 615–626 10) Akshayya Shete, Gunale V.R. and Pandit G.G. 2007 Bioaccumulation of Zn and Pb in Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh. and Sonneratia apetala Buch. Ham. from Urban Areas of Mumbai (Bombay), India. Journal of Applied Science Environmental Management Vol. 11(3): 109-112 11) Alam S.K. and Subba Rao P.V. 1988 Socioeconomic Conditions of Traditional Fishermen of Vitava Village in Thane District. Journal of the Indian Fisheries Association Vol. 18: 573 - 577 12) Alison F D'souza 2010 Heavy metal accumulation in mangroves. M.Sc. Environmental Science Dissertation,1-34 University of Mumbai. 13) Allwyn D'silva and John D'souza 2010 Vulnerability to Climate Change Mumbai-Thane Coast. A Pilot Workshop between Fisherfolk, Coastal Communities, Scientists, Researchers and Activists Proceedings 1-18 14) Ambike V.V. 1986 Physiology of senescence. University of Mumbai MSc thesis 15) Amitava Kumar 2012 Bombay Bombay--London--New York 48

16) Amruta A. Shendge , Divya S. Sarang and Sanjay Bhagwat 2015 Impacts of Urbanization on Wetlands in and Around Mumbai. Proceedings of Wetlands-Present Status, Ecology & Conservation 196-200 17) Anagha Nimkar 2005 Water for transportation and recreation (Local transportation in Thane creek) National Children Science Congress Mini project report 97-138 18) Anirudh Ram S., Rokade M.A. and Zingde M.D. 1999 Mercury accumulation in Thane creek. Proc of 8th Annual conference of ISEP Science Academy, Gorakhpur Univ. Gorakhpur 19) Anirudh Ram S., Rokade M.A. and Zingde M.D. 2006 Cadmium and Lead in sediment cores of Thane creek National conference on Environmental pollution and toxicology, Thakur college of Science and Commerce 20) Anirudh Ram S., Rokade N.A., Zingde M.D. and Borole D.V. 2009 Post-depositional memory record of mercury in sediment near effluent disposal site of a chlor-alkali plant in Thane creek- Mumbai Harbour, India. International Symposium on Sediment Management. Published in Environmental Technology Vol. 30(8): 765-783 21) Annapurna Shaw 1995 Satellite town development in Asia: the case of New Bombay India. Urban Geography 16(3): 254-271 22) Annapurna Shaw 1999 The planning and development of New Bombay Modern Asian Studies Vol. 33(4): 951-988 23) Annapurna Shaw 2004 The Making of Navi Mumbai Orient Longman Private Limited Book 24) Annie Mathew 1989 Marine Benthos of the Creek and Coastal environments of Bombay Ph.D Thesis Univ. of Mumbai 25) Anonymous 1887 The Konkan and Coast - Waters of Western India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society Vol. 2(2): 73-99 26) Ansari 1982 Artemia production in India Fishing chimes Vol. 1(12): 33-35 27) Anshuman, Harpreet Singh Kandra, Santhosh Ragavan K.V., Kapil Kumar Narula, Shrishar Chidambaram P, Narang R.K., Sumit Sharma, Vishal Verma 2006 Tata power company limited. Cleaner is Cheaper 117-122 28) Anthony K. 1989 Importance of chemical speciation and metal interaction on bioaccumulation and detoxification of cadmium: Impact on physiological and biochemical processes in marine lamellibranches. University of Mumbai Ph.D. Thesis Zoology 29) Anuya A Rege 2009 Invitro testing of anti HIV properties of mangroves and some other medicinal plants. University of Mumbai Ph.D Thesis Microbiology 30) Anuya A Rege, Ramkrishna Y Ambaye and Ranjana A Deshmukh 2010 In-vitro testing of anti-HIV activity of some medicinal plants Indian Journal of Natural Products and Resources Vol. 1(2): 193-199 31) Aparna Pandey and Zarine Bhathena 2014 Prevalence of PUFA Rich Thraustochytrids sps. along the Coast of Mumbai for Production of Bio Oil. Journal of Food and Nutrition Research Vol. 2(12): 993-999 32) Arun Kumar O.R. 2012 Characterization of Sewri-Mahul IBA: an important flamingo habitat along Thane creek, Mumbai, India. C.I.F.E M.F.Sc. Thesis 33) Arun Kumar Shrivastava 2007 Know about Environment Global Warming 69-108

34) Arun P. R. and Maya V. Mahajan 2012 Ecological Costs and Benefits of Teak Defoliator (Hyblaea puera Cramer) Outbreaks in a Mangrove Ecosystem. Marine Science Vol 2(5): 48-51 35) Arun, P. R. 2009 Butterflies of Godrej Pirojshanagar Industrial Township and Mangroves at Vikhroli 36 36) Arun, P. R. 2012 Urban verdures and the disregarded diversity within: A case study of butterflies from Mumbai. In Proceedings of the National seminar on Tropical Ecosystems: Structure, Function and Services - TESFs 2010. Pp. 161-169. 37) Arvind Boaz 2007 Marine litter in the South Asian Seas region South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme, Colombo Report 38) Asha Jyothi E. and Vijayalakshmi R Nair 1990 Fishery potential of the Thana Basssein creek system. Journal of Indian Fisheries Association Vol. 20: 7-10 39) Asha Jyothi Krishnamurti and Vijayalakshmi R Nair 1999 Concentration of metals in fishes from Thane and Bassein creeks of Bombay, India. Indian Journal of Marine Sciences Vol. 28: 39 - 44 40) Asha Jyothi Krishnamurti and Vijayalakshmi R Nair 1999 Concentrations of metals in shrimps and crabs in Thane Bassein creek system Maharashtra. Indian Journal of Marine Sciences Vol. 28: 92 - 95 41) Asheesh Shrivastava and Rakesh Kumar Socio-Economic Importance and Various Methods for Economic Valuation for Mangroves with Special Reference to Case Study of Mumbai, Maharashtra, India 1-18, accessed on 3rd April 2016 from http://iea.net.in/30%20pdf/Asheesh%20Shrivastava.pdf 42) Asif Faiz, Kumares Sinha, Michael Walsh, and Aimy Varma 1990 Topography and Urban Spatial Form Automotive Air Pollution: Issues and Options for Developing Countries 5- 7. Policy, Research and External Affairs 'Working Papers', The World Bank. 43) Athalye R. P. 2001 Study of water, sediment and intertidal macrobenthic fauna of Thane creek to assess the Pollution status. Report submitted to the Univ. of Mumbai. 44) Athalye R. P. and Goldin Quadros 2006 A non-statistical Pollution Evaluator Index for Coastal Aquatic Ecosystems based on Abiotic Environmental Parameters. J. Aqua. Biol Vol. 21(1): 88 - 92 45) Athalye R.P. 1988 Status of Macrobenthos in Detritus food chain of Thane creek near Thane city Ph.D Thesis 46) Athalye R.P. 2011 Assessment of some molluscan shells as a source of Calcium for Ayurvedic Medicines University of Mumbai Project report 47) Athalye R.P. 2013 Biodiversity of Thane creek. Proceedings of National Conference on Biodiversity: Status and Challenges in Conservation 'FAVEO 2013' 9-14. 48) Athalye R.P. and Gokhale K.S. 1998 Macrobenthos from the mudflats of Thane creek, Maharashtra, India Journal of Bombay Natural History Society Vol. 95 (2): 258-266 49) Athalye R.P. and Goldin Quadros 2002 Studies of intertidal sediments of Thane creek and Ulhas river estuary The National Seminar on Creeks, Estuaries and Mangroves Pollution and Conservation 66-71 50) Athalye R.P. and Goldin Quadros 2004 Deterioration of Thane Creek Ecosystem. Proceedings of the National seminar on Pollution of Water Bodies in Urban Areas 10-12

51) Athalye R.P., Goldin Quadros and Gokhale K.S. 2012 Environmental Management Strategies for creeks and estuaries- A case study of Thane creek, India. Bionano Frontier - Ecorevolution 73-76. 52) Athalye R.P., Goldin Quadros, Vidya Ullal, Vidya Mishra and Gokhale K.S. 2001 Status of Fishery of Thane Creek. Ecol. Env.& Cons Vol. 7(3): 273-279 53) Athalye R.P., Patil N.N., Borkar M.U., Goldin Quadros and Somani V.U. 2003 Study of Flora, Intertidal Macrobenthic Fauna and Fishery of Ulhas River estuary and Thane Creek to assess the pollution status and decide mitigation strategy. Report submitted to MMRDA 54) Athalye R.P., Tandel S.S., Pejaver M.K. and Gokhale K.S. 2001 Factors governing polychaete biomass in Thane creek, Maharashtra state India J. Aqua biol. Vol. 16(2): 15- 17 55) Athalye R.P., Vidya Mishra, Goldin Quadros, Vidya Ullal and Gokhale K.S. 2001 Heavy Metals in the Abiotic and Biotic Components of Thane Creek, India. Ecol. Env. & Cons Vol. 7(3): 319-325 56) Athalye R.P. and Gokhale K.S. 1989 Study of Selected Trace metals in the sediments of Thane creek near Thane city- Antagonistic behaviour of Zinc and Copper. Mahasagar bulletin of the National Institute of Oceanography Vol. 22(4): 185-191 57) Athalye R.P. and Gokhale K.S. 1991 Heavy metals in the polychaete Lycastis ouanaryensis from Thane creek, India. Marine Pollution Bulletin Vol. 22(5): 233 - 236 58) Athalye R.P. and Gokhale K.S. 1994 Heavy metals in the gastropods Dostia violesia and Ceriphideobsilla djadjaviensis from Thane creek, India. Mahasagar bulletin of the National Institute of Oceanography Vol. 27(2): 89 - 95 59) Avadhesh Kumar Ram, Vedant Khakhrodia and Purushottam Kale 2015 Ecological Status of Thane Creek in Post Monsoon Season: 2. Sediment Analysis and Benthos. Proceedings of Wetlands-Present Status, Ecology & Conservation 174-183 60) Baji, S., Inamdar, A. B., Abhyankar, A. A., Rajawat, A. S., & Gupta, M. 2003. Chlorophyll concentration studies in the Thane creek, Mumbai, India, through remote sensing: comparison of ground truth and OCNI (IRS-P4) data. 61) Bakhtaver S. Mahajan and Kulwanti M. Bellara Suma Nair 2004-2005 Health and Environment: Action-based Learning 1-203 62) Bal D.V and Pradhan L.B 1952 Records of zooplankton in Bombay waters during 1944- 47 J of university of Bombay Vol. 20: 72-80 63) Baldwin Latham 1890 Sanitation of Bombay Report 64) Bapat, S.V. and Bal D.V. 1950 The food of some young fishes of Bombay. Proc. Indian Academy of Sciences Vol. 35: 78-92 65) Bhaba Report project report 2009 Thane khaditeel jal pradushanacha abhyas. Paryavaran jagrookta mohim 66) Bhagat R.B., Mohua Guha and Aparajita Chattopadhyay 2006 Mumbai after 26/7 deluge: Some issues and concerns in Regional Planning Population and Environment 27(4): 1-24 67) Bhagyashree Grampurohit 2014 Insect Biodiversity at Mangrove Ecosystem M.Sc. Environmental Science Dissertation, University of Mumbai

68) Bhagyashree Grampurohit and Hemant Karkhanis 2013 Insect Biodiversity At Mangrove Ecosystem National Conference on Biodiversity: Status and Challenges in Conservation - ‘FAVEO’ 2013 108 - 115 69) Bhalla S.N., Khare N., Shanmukha D.H. and Henriques P.J. 2007 Foraminiferal studies in near shore regions of western coast of India and Laccadives islands: A review. Indian Journal of Marine Sciences Vol. 36(4): 272-287 70) Bharucha, F.R. and Navalkar B.S. 1942 Studies in ecology of mangroves III: Chloride content of the seawater, soil solution and leaf cell sap of mangroves. Journal of University of Bombay Vol. 10: 97-106 71) Bhat I.S., Naidu J.R., Pillai K.C. and Ganguly A.K. 1966 Water movement and tidal studies in Bombay harbour bay. International Indian Ocean expedition Newsletter, Abstract - India Vol. 4, 2 (1): 2 72) Bhattacharya B. 2010 Growth of cities Urbanization, Urban Sustainability and the Future of Cities 93-121 73) Bhattacharya M., Agarwadkar Y. Y.Y., Azmi S., Apte M. and Inamdar A. B. 2010 Identification Of Best-Suited Chlorophyll Estimation Model In Mumbai Coastal Waters During Pre-Monsoon Season A special joint symposium of ISPRS Technical Commission IV & AutoCarto in conjunction with ASPRS/CaGIS 2010 Fall Specialty Conference November 15-19, 2010 Orlando, Florida Proceedings 6 74) Bholay A.D., Mayur Ingale and Apurv Gaur 2015 Therapeutic potential of mangrove and its associate plant extracts from Thane creek, against human respiratory tract MDR pathogens. Journal of Biodiversity and Environmental Sciences Vol 7 (4): 118-126 75) Bhosale L.J. 2002 Catergorization of mangroves of Maharashtra based on IUCN red list guidelines and germplasm preservation of threatened species. 76) Bhosale L.J. and Mulik N.G. 1991 Endangered mangrove areas of Maharashtra Proceedings of Symposium on Significance of Mangroves, Pune, Maharashtra (India) 8- 10 77) Bhosale L.J. 2005 Field guide to Mangroves of Maharashtra 1-315 78) Bhosale U. and Sahu K.C. 1991 Heavy metal pollution around the island city of Bombay, India. Part 2: Distribution of heavy metals between water, suspended particles and sediments in a polluted aquatic regime. Chem. Geol. Vol. 90 (3-4): 285-305 79) Bhosle V. and Sahu K.C. 1991 Heavy metal pollution around the Island city of Bombay, India Part 2. Distribution of Heavy metals between water, suspended particles and sediments in a polluted aquatic region. Chemical Geology Vol. 90: 285-305 80) Bijay K. Behera, Tripathi G.K., Inamdar A.B. and Shyam R. Asolekar 1996 Assessment of turbidity of sea water using remote sensing data Indian Journal of Marine Sciences. Vol. 25: 103-108 81) Biju A. and Saramma U.P. 2010 Mysids (Crustacea) from the shallow waters off Maharashtra and south Gujarat, India, with description of a new species Mar. Biol. Res Vol. 5(4): 345-362 82) Biliana Cicin-Sain, David Vanderzwaag, Miriam C. Balgos Routledge Handbook of National and Regional Ocean Policies 83) Billore K.V 1972 Studies on the vegetation and flora of Thane District, Maharashtra State. BSI Pune Ph.D Thesis

84) Birdlife International 2014 Important bird areas factsheet: Thane creek downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 05/02/2016 85) Blaha U., Basavaiah N., Deenadayalan K., Borole D.V. and Mohite R.D. 2011 Onset of industrial pollution recorded in Mumbai mudflat sediments, using integrated magnetic, chemicals, 210Pb dating and microscopic methods J of Environment Science and Technology Vol. 45(2): 686-692 86) Blasco F. 1975 The Mangroves of India. Trav. Sect. Sci. Tech. Book 87) Blatter, E 1905 The Mangroves of Bombay Presidency and its Biology. Journal of Bombay Natural History Society Vol. 16: 644-656 88) Boeing Environment Report 2009 Boeing Environment Philanthropy 89) Bonaventure D'Souza 2015 Wonder Lust in: Memoirs of a Vagabond 90) Borgaonkar S.S. 1988 Study of Ilyoplax gangetica (Kemp) with some of the ecological parameters. Univ. of Mumbai Ph.D Thesis Zoology 1 - 193 91) Borkar M. U., Athalye R. P. and Goldin Quadros 2006 Occurrence of heavy metal in biotic and abiotic components of the mangrove ecosystem of Thane creek. Ecol. Env. & Cons Vol. 12(4): 723 - 728 92) Borkar M. U., Quadros G. and Athalye R. P. 2007 Threats to the mangroves of Thane creek and Ulhas river estuary. Journal of Coastal Development Vol. 11(1): 49 - 57 93) Borkar M.U., Athalye RP. and Quadros Goldin 2011 Salinity induced changes in the leaf anatomy of the mangrove Avicennia marina along the anthropogenically stressed tropical creek. Journal of Coastal Development Vol. 14(3): 191-201 94) Brehm, V 1953 Indische Diaptomiden, Pseudodiaptomiden und Cladocern. Zeitschr Project report 4(3):241-345 95) Buddhi Kota Subbarao 1998 India’s Nuclear Prowess False Claims and Tragic Truths MANUSHI Vol. 109: 20-34 96) Buddhi Kota Subbarao. 2012 Whether Ordinance on Self-Denial of Nuclear Power Harmful To India?-Contamination in Thane Creek pp. 57 http://www.countercurrents.org/subbarao110612.pdf 97) Buist G. 1857 Geology of the island of Bombay, Geological papers on Western India, Bombay. Bombay education society Press, Bombay 169-206 98) Burjis Godrej 2012 Mumbai's Mangled Mangroves. Sanctuary Asia 99) Carter H.J. 1857 Geology of the island of Bombay, Geological papers on Western India, Bombay. Bombay education society Press, Bombay 116-168 100) Cement Marketing Company of India Indian Concrete Journal Chapter 70: 160-164 101) Charles Brown 1998 Canonical Correlation- Numerical example of Sediment and Soil Pollution in Applied Multivariate Statistics in Geohydrology and Related Sciences Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg Publishers. 248 pp. 102) Chatterjee M.K., Divkar J.K., Rajvir Singh, Pradeepkumar K.S. and Sharma D.N. Demonstration of Mobile radiation monitoring methodology for quick assessment of Radiological impact of Mumbai City using road, rail and sea routes 1-7 103) Chaudhari-Pachpande, S. and Pejaver M.K. 2016. A preliminary study on the birds of Thane Creek, Maharashtra, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 8(5): 8797–8803; http://dx.doi.org/10.11609/jott.2397.8.5.8797-8803 104) Chavan N.S. 2013 New area records for some mangrove species and associates from west coast of Maharashtra, India. Seshaiyana

105) Chavan R.P., Lokhande R.S. and Rajput S.I. 2005 Monitoring of Organic Pollutants in Thane creek water. Nature Environment and Pollution Technology Vol. 4(4): 633-636 106) Chavan R.P., Lokhande R.S. and Rajput SI Organic contaminants in Thane creek, Water and their Concentrations. Proceedings of Contaminants in Food and Beverages 67-77 107) Chavan Ravindra Pundlik 2007 Monitoring of organic pollutants in the Thane creek water and their effects. Ph.D Thesis, North Marathwada University 108) Cheruku Venkateswarlu, Sumanth Yenduri and Iyengar S.S. 2004 Digital analysis of Thermal Infrared Imagery using temperature mapping International Conference on Information Technology : Coding and Computing (ITCC '04) Proceedings 109) Chetan A. Gaokar, Subhash S. Sawant, Arga Chandrashekar Anil, Venkat Krishnamurthy and Sadanand H. N. Harkantra 2010 Changes in the occurrence of hard substratum fauna: A case study from Mumbai Harbour, India. Indian Journal of Marine Sciences Vol. 39(1):74-84 110) Chhapgar B.F. and Borgaonkar S.S. 1985 Extension of range of the estuarine crab Ilyoplax gangetica (Kemp) to the west coast of India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. 82(1): 226-228 111) Chintamani Deshmukh 2013 Homi Jehangir Bhabha Book 74 112) Chiranjivi Pattanaik, Narendra Prasad S. and Lalita Vijayan 2010 Habitat of flamingos Current Science Vol. 99(5): 559 113) CIDCO 1997 Sustainable Urban Development: a case of New Bombay (Navi Mumbai) Project report Series editor David J Edelman. 22 Pp. 114) Clara Correia and Avisnash Bhagat 2013 Avifauna of Mithbunder- Kopri area-Thane creek (east) Newsletter for Birdwatchers Vol. 53(6): 84-92. 115) CMFRI COCHIN, INDIA 1988 Acetes Shrimp Fishery of Bombay Coast. Marine fisheries information service technical and extension series technical report. 28-29. 116) COMAPS Report 2012 Monitoring of Marine Pollution through Coastal Ocean Monitoring and Prediction System (COMAPS) Programme. Ministry of Earth Sciences. 117) Conservation Action Trust 2008-2009 Annual Report 118) Conservation and Management of Wetlands, Mangroves and Coral Reefs. 2003-2004 Conservation of Natural Resources Including Forestry and Wildlife 50-54 119) Cook, T. 1908 The flora of the Presidency of Bombay Taylor and Francis(editors) London Book 120) Cooke T. 1967 The flora of the presidency of Bombay BSI 121) CPCB 2008 Development of national Emission standards for Petrochemical plants Report 189 122) Dabhole M.P. and Joshy K.N. 2003 Mild steel corrosion reduction in water by uptake of dissolved oxygen by Rhodotorula mucilaginosa. J of scientific and industrial research Vol. 62 : 683-689 123) David Li Zuo Wei, Andrea Bloem, Simon Delany, Georgios Martakis and Jose Ochoa Quintero 2009 Status of waterbirds in Asia. Results of the Asian Waterbird Census: 1987 – 2007 eds. Taej Mundkur, David Bakewell and Gabriel Chong 124) Deepali Patil, Sapana Sawant, Rupali Manjare, Vidya Chavan, Priyanka Hajare, Harshada Salunkhe and Dilip Shenai 2013 Phytoremediation through water gardening JBNB Vol.1 (1): 58-60

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Apendix II Conducting the Baseline studies of Thane creek Stake Holder Analysis – Questionnaire Survey

General Information about the survey This questionnaire is to assess the views, opinions and stakes involved of the communities or individuals dependent on Thane creek – the Flamingo sanctuary. There is no compulsion on any individual to answer the questionnaire entirely and one has the choice to refuse to answer questions. The personal information is only for documentation of this specific study and will not be used for any purpose commercial or noncommercial other than specified here.

About the respondent Date: 1. Name: 2. Age: 3. Gender: 4. Education: 5. Income per month in Rs.: < 2500 / < 5000 / < 10000 / < 20000 / < 50000 / < 75000 / > 75000 6. Resident of: 7. Type of House: Ancestral / Self Owned / Rented accommodation / Chawl / Building / Other 8. Office/Institution: 9. Contact Details: (Address, Phone number and email)

About Thane Creek Flamingo Sanctuary

10. Have you heard of Thane Creek before? Yes / No if yes What?

11. Have you visited Thane Creek? Yes / No. if yes How often?

12. Are you aware of Food web (Yes / No / Heard about); Biodiversity (Yes / No / Heard about); Sustainability (Yes / No / Heard about): Importance of the creek in the productivity of the ocean?

13. What have you seen in Thane Creek?

14. How do you find the creek, in its present condition?

15. How are you influencing/impacting the Thane creek?

16. Is it necessary to protect the Thane Creek?

17. What should we do as a society to protect the creek?

18. What can you do as an individual to protect the creek?

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About Thane creek Fishing and Practices

19. Do you eat fish from the creek? Yes / No 20. What is the name of the fish / prawn / crab that you eat from the creek?

If Fishermen (others can also answer if the questions are relavent)

21. Do you go to catch fish in Thane creek? Yes / No

22. When did you start to go fishing in Thane creek, approx. age & years?

23. How many family members go fishing?

24. Where in Thane Creek do you go fishing?

25. How many times do you go fishing? Daily / alternate day / weekly / occasionally / ______

26. Do you catch fish for Self consumption / Selling / Both?

27. What kind of boat (Gears) do you use?

28. What type of nets (Crafts) do you use for fishing?

29. What is the approx. Catch in kg? per Day

30. What is the percent (%) composition of the fish catch?

31. Fishing mostly for Fish / Prawns / Crabs / Bivalves

32. Which fishes were caught in earlier days? How many years back?

33. List of fish species that have become rare / very rare / extinct (unavailable)

34. How do you sell fish? Direct selling / intermediary / others

35. Since when (year) has the catch started declining?

36. According to you what is the reason for decline?

37. Is fishing the only source of income? Yes / No if No what is the other source?

38. What problem do you face while fishing?

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39. Do you find people other than traditional fisherfolk fishing in the creek?

40. According to you have you noticed any particular effluents continuously being discharged into the creek and have you raised a complaint regarding the same?

41. Is the effluent being discharged by any particular industry?

42. Do you know of any beneficial mangroves and how is its decline affecting your lifestyle?

General Health issues (others can also answer if the questions are relavent) 43. Does anyone in the family have any chronic illness?

44. What kind of sickness for how many years/months/ days?

45. Do you feel it is associated with the Thane creek?

Naturalists/ Environmentalist / Educationist / Researchers

46. For how many years do you know of Thane creek? 47. In what capacity?

48. How do you evaluate the creek in terms of its aesthetics? Poor / average / ideal / good / very good/ excellent.

49. Tourism Potential of Thane creek? Poor / average / ideal / good / very good/ excellent.

50. What are the facilities needed for implementing tourism in Thane creek?

51. Can Thane creek be used for public transport facility? Yes / No

52. How do you feel that the creek is now being protected by the Forest Dept.? Useful / Useful and Can be extended / not needed / Others ______

53. What are the damaging practices in Thane creek?

54. What do you understand / feel about the flow of water in Thane creek?

55. What can be done to conserve Thane creek according to you?

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56. Do you feel there is any pressure from the real estate developers / industries / local government / others?

57. Do you have any suggestions for improving the conditions in the creek? Mangroves / fish / birds/ livelihood / Others

58. Is the present status of IBA and Sanctuary appropriate for Thane creek? Yes / No / Needs a Higher status

59. Should Thane creek get the designation of a Ramsar Site? Yes / No

60. What are your expectations from the Government for Thane Creek?

Developers / Managers / Policy makers / Industrialists (others can also answer if the questions are relavent)

61. Are you aware about the importance of the creek from the point of view of fishery and productivity of the ocean?

62. Are the developments (industrialization, urbanization) affecting the creek?

63. What measures do you take before discharging effluents into the Thane creek?

64. Do you follow the rules and regulations prescribed by the MPCB for treating the effluents before discharging them into the creek?

65. The Thane creek being declared as the Flamingo Sanctuary, is it going to affect the industries in any way?

66. Can we have development as well as conservation of the creek? Please explain.

67. Was the decision of declaring The Thane creek a Sanctuary appropriate? Yes / No if No please clarify

68. What kind of development is needed along Thane creek?

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69. Is it easy to get permissions for development?

70. What are the challenges?

71. Who are the benefactors?

72. What are the livelihood options available / proposed for the locals?

73. Is it easy to procure land along the creek?

74. How supportive are the locals / fisher folk / management to development proposals?

75. Who in your opinion should be the decision/policy makers / administrative managers for Thane creek?

Kindly feel free to give any other comments/ suggestions / opinions / views on Thane creek only that may have got missed out in the questionnaire.

Signature of the respondent:

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Appendix III

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