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Incidence of Obstructive Sleep Apnea Is Higher Among Children Who VOLUME 25, NUMBER 1 2016 Incidence of Obstructive Sleep Apnea KEY INSIGHTS Is Higher Among Children Who Have ■ Cerebral palsy is among the most common disabilities that can lead Cerebral Palsy and Epilepsy to development of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). John Garcia, MD, Beverly Wical, MD, and Jennifer Maytum, DNP ■ The likelihood of OSA increases with more severe forms of cerebral palsy, or when cerebral palsy is combined Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is a sleep disorder that occurs when the throat with an epilepsy diagnosis. muscles relax during sleep, blocking airflow in the nose and mouth. Although largely associated with adults, the disorder also affects children, particularly ■ Other groups at heightened risk for developing OSA include children those who have complex medical conditions causing hypertonia or hypotonia who have neuromuscular conditions (abnormal muscle tone). or craniofacial anomalies. ■ The Pediatric Sleep Questionnaire A number of childhood-onset disabilities can affect muscle tone, leading to (PSQ) is an effective tool for providers development of OSA. Cerebral palsy is among the most common, particularly to assess patients for sleep problems. when the condition is severe or combined with an epilepsy diagnosis. ■ Treatment for OSA may be medical Routinely assessing cerebral palsy patients for sleep disorders can facilitate or surgical depending on the child’s accurate diagnosis and successful treatment of OSA in this population. age, condition and other factors. Heightened Risk Factors Children who have cerebral palsy typically have hypertonia (high or tight muscle tone) in their extremities and hypotonia (low or loose muscle tone) in their midline. This tone combination is the opposite of typically developing children, who have relatively loose extremities and a rigid midline. As a result of their loose midline tone, children who have cerebral palsy may experience difficulty holding the muscles of their airway upright. Abnormal tone also effects pulmonary function, leading to decreased air reserves. Additionally, many children who have cerebral palsy exhibit decreased mobility, making it difficult or impossible to escape their episodes of apnea by repositioning during sleep. This is especially true for children who have more severe forms of cerebral palsy—such as levels III, IV or V—as measured by the Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS). These children often spend their entire night supine, a vulnerable position for apnea as the tongue can more easily fall backwards into the airway. gillettechildrens.org They might also have difficulty swallowing or handling excess have one or more complex conditions, such as secretions, putting them at greater risk for upper airway congestion. cerebral palsy and epilepsy, may benefit from a combined polysomnography and video electro- Certain medications might also increase the likelihood of encephalogram (VEEG). Together, the tests can children developing OSA. A number of anti-seizure medications, confirm the cause of a child’s sleep concerns— for example, have a sedative effect, making it more difficult to abnormal muscle tone, seizures, or another factor— wake from an apnea episode. Medications to address abnormal and inform treatment recommendations. Testing can muscle tone, such as baclofen or diazepam, can affect airway tone also assess children for hypoventilation, another as well. potential problem for children who have conditions resulting in abnormal muscle tone. Evaluating Patients Suspected of OSA Primary care physicians and pediatricians should consider Treatment and Continued Assessment evaluating all patients for sleep disorders, paying special atten- Once a diagnosis of OSA is verified, treatment may tion to patients who have moderate to severe forms of cerebral be medical or surgical depending on the child’s age, palsy or co-occurring cerebral palsy and epilepsy. Additional medical condition, and other contributing factors. high-risk groups include patients who have other conditions An adenotonsillectomy, a routine procedure that can affecting muscle tone, such as neuromuscular disorders improve OSA, might be recommended when there is (e.g. Duchenne muscular dystrophy or spinal muscular atrophy), evidence of adenotonsillar hypertrophy, or enlarge- and patients who have craniofacial abnormalities that might ment of the adenoid tonsil. Continuous positive reduce airway size (e.g. cleft lip and palate, craniosynostosis or airway pressure (CPAP) or bilateral positive airway Apert syndrome). Obese patients and patients less than 1 year old pressure (BiPAP) therapy can help keep the airway should also be carefully evaluated. Certain typically developing open during sleep and may be appropriate for certain children may have hereditary risk for developing OSA. patients. Medications such as steroid sprays may also be effective. A sleep medicine specialist can review Evaluation varies depending on the provider’s preferred test results and discuss treatment options with the approach. An open-ended question—“How is your (or your child’s) child’s family. sleep?”—followed by high-yield questions—“Is your child experi- encing snoring or breathing pauses during the night?” can trigger Providers should continue to assess medically productive dialogue about previously unexpressed concerns. complex patients for sleep problems during routine The Pediatric Sleep Questionnaire (PSQ) is an effective tool check-ups, as issues will often develop over time. for providers to consider, as well. It includes 20 standardized Any change in medication, for example, has the questions and is publicly available for use. A score of eight or potential to cause or exacerbate OSA. Maturity and more PSQ questions answered positively is associated with facial shape changes can also cause problems, as increased risk for OSA. A recent study found significantly more some children’s cerebral palsy prevents them from children with cerebral palsy (58 percent) or cerebral palsy and closing their mouths. epilepsy (67 percent) exhibited increased PSQ scores than a comparison group (27 percent)1. For children who have neuromuscular disorders, disease progression can result in new or worsening Physicians who suspect OSA or another sleep disorder in a apnea issues. Typically developing children who have medically complex patient should refer to a specialty sleep center OSA, in contrast, will often improve with ‘watchful with pediatric expertise. There, a sleep medicine specialist will waiting’ and continued monitoring2. perform a polysomnogram to verify the diagnosis. Children who 2 Treating OSA can improve a child’s quality of life and prevent other complications, such as growth delays and social issues. In fact, research suggests that children who have cerebral palsy and are effectively treated for OSA can see nearly 20 percent improvement in overall health3. Successful treatment also improves quality of life for families and caregivers, the individuals most impacted by a child’s poor sleep. BiPAP Therapy Improves Quality of Life A 16-year-old boy who has spasticity and seizures caused by Bohring-Opitz Syndrome was referred to John Garcia, MD one of the authors when he developed nighttime snoring following two major surgeries. A polysom- nography resulted in a diagnosis of obstructive sleep References apnea (OSA). Bilateral positive airway pressure 1 Garcia, J., Wical, B., Wical, W., Schaffer, L., Wical, T., Wendorff, H. and Roiko, S. (BiPAP) therapy was recommended. Obstructive sleep apnea in children with cerebral palsy and epilepsy. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 2016. 2 Marcus, C., Moore, R., Rosen, C., Giordani, B., Garetz, S., Taylor, H., Mitchell, Within two weeks of beginning BiPAP treatment, R., Amin, R., Katz, E., Arens, R., Paruthi, S., Muzumdar, H., Gozal, D., Thomas, John Garcia, MD, a board-certified sleep medicine physician, N., Ware, J., Beebe, D., Snyder, K., Elden, L., Sprecher, R., Willging, P., Jones, D., his family noticed physical and emotional improve- sees patients who have disabilities and associated sleep Bent, J., Hoban, T., Chervin, R., Ellenberg, S. and Redline, S. MPH for the ments. His post-surgical healing was expedited and Childhood Adenotonsillectomy Trial (CHAT). New England Journal of disorders, including insomnia, obstructive sleep apnea, sleep- Medicine 2013; 368:2366-2376. he experienced fewer upper respiratory infections, to walking, hypersomnolence, circadian rhythm disorders and 3 Hsun Hsiao, K. and Nixon, G. Successful treatment of OSA can improve which he had previously been prone. Additionally, patients’ physical health and quality of life. Research in Developmental restless leg syndrome. He uses a combination of behavior Disabilities 2008; 29 (2): 133-140. he became happier, more alert and more interactive management, medications, surgery and other therapies in his with his family. practice. Garcia, a graduate of the University of Iowa School of Medicine, Sleep Study, Endoscopy Informs completed a residency in pediatrics and one year of fellowship Treatment Plan training in behavioral/developmental pediatrics at Riley Hospi- tal for Children in Indianapolis. He then completed a sleep fel- lowship equivalent at the Minnesota Regional Sleep Disorders A 16-year-old girl who has Noonan syndrome and Center in Minneapolis. His professional associations include a seizure disorder was referred to Gillette after the American Board of Sleep Medicine and the struggling with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) for American Board of Pediatrics.
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