Specialty Metals In Canada
G.J. Simandl, E.A. Prussin, and N. Brown
British Columbia Geological Survey Open File 2012-7
Ministry of Energy and Mines
Recommended citation: Simandl, G.J., Prussin, E.A., and Brown, N., 2012. Specialty Metals In Canada. British Columbia Geological Survey Open File 2012-7.
Cover Photo: ++ Eudialyte [Na4(Ca,Ce)2(Fe ,Mn,Y)ZrSi8O22(OH,Cl)2], a rare earth element-bearing mineral (pink). Other major constituents are feld- spar (white and gray), sodic amphibole (dark green) and mosandrite and/or agrellite (graysh-buff). Sample from the Specimen Pit (Trench 1 of the Matamec Explorations Inc.), Kipawa, Quebec. Canadian quarter for scale.
British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines
Specialty Metals in Canada Simandl, G. J.1,2, Prussin, E.A.1 and Brown, N.1 1British Columbia Geological Survey, Ministry of Energy and Mines, Victoria, B.C. 2School of Earth and Ocean Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, B.C.
Abstract Specialty metals (SMs) are critical for the development of green technologies, essential raw materials for high technology industries, and deemed strategic for national security by the USA and several European countries. More than one thousand Ta, Nb, Zr, Hf, Li, REE and Be occurrences are known in Canada. Only two Canadian SM deposits are being mined, the ferroniobium producing St. Honoré carbonatite (Niobec) and the Cs- and Ta- producing Bernic Lake deposit (Tanco Mine). Several Ta, Nb, REE and Li prospects are reaching pre-feasibility or feasibility stages. Examples are: Crevier Township, Nb-Ta (QC); Aley Carbonatite, Nb (BC); Blue River, Ta-Nb (BC); Nechalacho, REE (NT); Strange Lake, REE (QC); Kipawa, REE (QC); LaCorne Township, Li (QC); and Wabouchi (also known as Lac des Montagnes) Li (QC). Ontario has the greatest number of occurrences (373), followed by Quebec (195), NWT (115), British Columbia (108), Newfoundland (86), and the remaining provinces, Yukon and Nunavut (220, combined). These occurrences can be described as anomalies (140), showings (563), prospects (204), developed prospects (109), past producers (23), current producers (8), Li-bearing oilfield brines (48), and oil sands by- products (2). Geologically, the occurrences can be grouped into 14 categories: carbonatite/syenite-related; peralkaline intrusion-related; pegmatite/granite/aplite; REE ± P veins; placer/paleoplacer; sedimentary phosphates; REE- enriched Iron oxide copper gold ore (IOCG); sandstone-hosted xenotime; REE as uranium by-products; skarns; greisen/veins; Li-bearing brines; oils sands by-products; and other/unknown. Canada has excellent geological potential to supply SMs worldwide.
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Introduction (LREE) and heavy (HREE) categories. Traditional definition of LREEs The terms “specialty metal” (SM) and includes La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu and Gd “rare metal” are synonymous. They and the term HREEs covers Tb, Dy, refer to uncommon, nonferrous metals Ho, Er, Tm, Yb and Lu. More recently, used in quantities of typically less than industry defined LREEs as La-Eu and 150000 tonnes/year or derived from HREEs as Gd-Lu series. Y is also geographically restricted areas. The commonly considered an HREE, based term SM was adopted by the Targeted on its geological association and Geoscience Initiative-4 (TGI-4) chemical properties. Sc is not grouped program and will be used throughout either with LREEs or HREEs. this paper. Examples of SMs include: Promethium (Pm) does not occur in tantalum (Ta); niobium (Nb); zirconium nature. Germanium (Ge), gallium (Ga) (Zr); hafnium (Hf); lithium (Li); and vanadium (V) are also classified as beryllium (Be), and rare earth elements SMs, but they are excluded from this (REE). According to the International study because they are not covered Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry under the mandate of the Specialty (IUPA) the term “rare earth Metals component of the TGI-4 element” (REE) encompasses yttrium program (Simandl, 2010b). (Y), scandium (Sc) and the lanthanide The tonnage and value of specialty series: lanthanum (La), cerium (Ce), metals mined worldwide is minor praseodymium (Pr), neodymium (Nd), compared to common industrial metals promethium (Pm), samarium (Sm), such as iron, copper, nickel, zinc, and europium (Eu), gadolinium (Gd), lead. Nonetheless, high technology terbium (Tb), dysprosium (Dy), industries need a secure supply of SMs holmium (Ho), erbium (Er), thulium at competitive prices. Although other (Tm), ytterbium (Yb) and lutetium materials can substitute for several (Lu). This definition is used herein. SMs, they are typically more expensive REEs are further subdivided into light or less effective. For example:
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palladium and ultra-stable zeolite can have a SM specified either as a primary replace REE’s used as catalysts; or secondary commodity. In these cases andalusite, chromite, and kyanite can territorial geologists felt very strongly substitute for zircon in refractories; and that based on the deposit type, Zn-Carbon and Ni-Cd can be used in geological settings, and similarity with batteries instead of Li. Many countries other occurrences that SMs have been consider several SMs essential for probably overlooked or not reported. national security as highlighted in the In the following we discuss the 2010 “Review of Critical Raw global sources and production of Materials for Europe”, spearheaded by specialty metals, describe the the European Commission. Table 1 geological setting of Canadian deposits describes the prices, uses, and market and occurrences, and consider applied information for selected SMs. mineralogical and metallurgical aspects. The inventory presented on the accompanying map (Fig. 1) and in Global sources and Table 2 is current as of Fall, 2011. It is production of specialty based mainly on provincial and territorial databases, and documents metals occurrences and deposits that have at Rare Earth Elements least one specialty metal listed as a Global production for 2011 is estimated commodity. The provincial data were between 100000 and 140000 tonnes of collected, merged, examined, and contained REOs. China currently classified using 14 deposit categories controls the REE market by using a based on the association between the system of mining, separation and mineralization and the host rock. The smelting, and export quotas. The high resulting compilation was sent for technology industry and governments verification to provincial and territorial of industrialized countries are geologists. Six data entries in Yukon concerned about China’s control of the Territory (#s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6) do not market and recent volatility of REO
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prices (Simandl, 2010a). More than fertilizer production (Simandl et al., 556 REE exploration projects are active 2011a, b, c). Other potential sources worldwide. Of these, 296 are include seafloor occurrences, which grassroots (no drilling), 157 have have recently received attention (Kato limited drilling, 66 are in the advanced et al., 2011). exploration stage, 26 are in the pre- feasibility stage, 7 are at the feasibility Niobium stage, and 4 are under construction The global Nb supply for 2011 is (Intierra, 2012). New drilling results estimated at 63000 tonnes of contained were announced from 54 projects; 19 Nb (Papp, 2012a). Brazil (58000 are in Canada and 12 are in Australia tonnes) and Canada (4 400 tonnes) are (Intierra, 2012). Under the market the main producing countries. conditions that follow the law of supply Niobium is traded mostly in the form of and demand (without production quotas ferroniobium and as niobium alloys and or the governmental interferences), only metal. Most Nb is used in steel (75%) the best of the above primary REE and superalloys (25%). For 2011, the deposits will reach the production stage value of US consumption is expected to and remain economically viable over an be about $400 million, as measured by extended period of time. The quality of the value of imports (Papp, 2012a). a REE deposit is determined by World Nb reserves were reported to be mineralogy (Simandl, 2010a), grade, 3 million tonnes of contained Nb (Papp, HREE-LREE ratio, tonnage, depth and 2012a). shape of the ore zone, proven and simple metallurgy, infrastructure, and Tantalum environmental constraints plus the Global Ta supply for 2011 is estimated availability of labour. at 790 tonnes of contained Ta (Papp, High potential exists for recovery of 2012b). According to Mining Journal substantial tonnage of REE as a by- (2012), approximately 40% is being product of uranium and/or phosphate recovered from tin slags. The remainder
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is divided equally between primary Ta Canada and Australia or to the mines and secondary concentrates, development of currently sub-economic which consist largely of columbite, deposits. struverrite, and recycled materials. The main producers are: Mibra mine in Zirconium/Hafnium Nazareno (Brazil), with a capacity of Global production of zirconium
181 tonnes Ta2O5/year; Kenticha mine concentrates for 2011 is estimated at (Ethiopia), producing 200000 lb of more than 1.4 million tonnes of
Ta2O5/year; and Lovozero (Russia) contained Zr. Substantial increase in producing 120000 lb/year (Mining demand since 2010 has resulted in Journal, 2012). Wodgina mine global price increases (Gambogi, 2012). (Australia) could resume production Australia, South Africa, China, should market conditions improve, and Indonesia, Mozambique, and Ukraine the Tanco mine (Manitoba) recently have traditionally been the main zircon reactivated its Ta and Cs operation. A producing countries. Baddeleyite was significant proportion of Ta-bearing historically produced at Kovdor concentrates originate from unstable (Russia) and Palabora (SA) operations; regions of Africa such as the only Kovdor remains in production. Democratic Republic of Congo, Most zircon is used as an industrial Uganda, and Rwanda. Columbite- mineral for its physical properties or is tantalite concentrates (or “coltan”) from transformed into engineered materials these countries are considered “conflict such as zirconia and stabilized zirconia minerals”. They can be tracked by or zirconia-based ceramics. It is used distinctive geochemical signatures for ceramics, refractory and foundry (Melcher et al., 2008). If the current applications, opacifiers, abrasives, movement to eliminate or reduce the chemicals, metal alloys, and welding use of conflict coltan in the western rod coatings (Gambogi, 2012). Only a world takes hold, it may indirectly small proportion of Zr ore is contribute to reopening Ta mines in transformed into Zr metal. Chemical
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and nuclear industries are leading produced significant quantities. consumers of Zr and Hf metals. These Beryllium products are used in two metals are not separated unless they aerospace and industrial components, are intended for use in the nuclear automotive electronics, windows for industry. Because the prices of zircon industrial x-ray instruments, the oil and concentrate, currently about US$2500/ gas industry, semiconductor processing tonne, free on board (FOB) Australia, equipment, telecommunications, and and zirconium chemicals more than defence-related applications (Jaskula, tripled from 2010-2011, it is expected 2012a). World known resources are that users will look for substitute estimated at more than 80000 tonnes, materials in the short term (MacDonald, 65% of which occur in non-pegmatite 2012). In the long term, zircon market deposits in the United States. Proven conditions are promising. bertrandite reserves in Utah are estimated at 15900 tonnes of contained Beryllium Be (Jaskula, 2012a). Until the early 1960s, when bertrandite deposits at Spor Mountain were brought Lithium into production (Utah Spor Mountain, In 2011, raw materials containing Materion Corporation), artisanally 34000 tonnes of Li were produced mined beryl, rejects from gemstone worldwide. The main producing operations, and beryl derived as a by- countries were Chile, Australia, China, product of industrial mineral operations Portugal, Zimbabwe, and Argentina were the main Be raw material. World (Jaskula, 2012b). The chemical output of Be raw materials for 2011 industry, including manufacturers of was estimated at 240 tonnes of Be batteries and electric grid storage content. According to Jaskula (2012a), systems, which are the fastest growing the main suppliers were the USA (210 segments of the market, commonly use tonnes), China (22 tonnes), and Li carbonate as a starting material. Li Mozambique (2 tonnes); however, it is carbonate can be produced from brines likely that Kazakhstan and China also and pegmatite - d e r i v e d o r e s .
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Historically, spodumene concentrate and SQI (spodumene - q u a r t z Canadian specialty metal intergrowth) were the main sources of Li, regardless of use. Since the -bearing occurrences development of large Li brine-based and deposits operations in South America, Previous summaries of specialty metals spodumene miners have been gradually in Canada were presented by Ellsworth losing their share of the chemical (1932), Rowe (1958), Mulligan (1965, market outside of China. According to 1968), Ferguson (1971), Dawson Lismore (2012), the average 2011 (1974) and Pell and Hora (1990). prices of Li-carbonate, free on board Because specialty metals commonly (FOB) Chile or Argentina, were occur in clusters, it is hoped that the approximately US$ 4000/tonne and present compilation will help guide delivered US price averaged more than discussions about known occurrences US$ 5000/tonne and exploration in Canada. Several Canadian junior mining The distribution of Canadian SM companies developing spodumene- occurrences is detailed in Figure 1 and bearing pegmatites consider that they Table 2 (attached documents) and can compete with brine-derived Li summarized in Figure 2. SM carbonate products (which typically occurrences are known in all regions of cost less to extract), based on prevailing the country, with the exception of prices, market projections, existing Prince Edward Island. Figures 3-8 infrastructure, proximity to market, and provide a synopsis of the regional inexpensive energy. Recent foreign distribution of REEs, Nb, Ta, Be, Zr, investment in Quebec’s Li projects east and Li occurrences across Canada. Each of James Bay, such as Lac des figure shows a breakdown by province Montagnes (better known as and territory. Occurrences are further Whabouchi) and Cyr, support this subdivided into primary and secondary. assertion.
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Primary occurrences denote where an element is considered of main Pegmatite/granite/aplite-related economic interest. Secondary deposits account for more than 50% of occurrences refer to where an element Canadian SM occurrences, followed by is not an essential constituent but could carbonatite/syenite- and peralkaline potentially be recovered as a co- intrusion-related mineralization, product. Of course, as the market for placers, Li-bearing brines, and skarn specialty metals is volatile, the relative deposits (Figure 9). The 14 deposit importance of individual elements categories are described below. Ion fluctuates as well. adsorption clay deposits, as defined by Specialty metals have been grouped Bao and Zhao (2008) and Simandl into fourteen categories based on the (2012), are unknown in Canada. association between mineralization and host-rock or key lithologic units. Carbonatite and carbonatite-syenite complex-related deposits 1) Carbonatite/syenite-related Carbonatites are carbonate-rich igneous 2) Peralkaline intrusion -related rocks consisting of more than 50 3) Pegmatite/granite/aplite percent carbonate minerals (Wolley and 4) REE ± P Veins (including Hoidas) Kempe, 1989). Some of the rocks 5) Placer/paleoplacer identified in the field as carbonatites 6) Sedimentary phosphate may be of carbothermal origin 7) Iron oxide – Cu – Au (IOCG) (Mitchell, 2005). Carbonatites form 8) Sandstone–hosted xenotime plugs, dikes, sills, and breccia zones 9) REE as uranium by-product and are associated with fenitization (Na, 10) Skarn K, Fe alteration) of the host rock. Some 11) Greisen/vein carbonatites contain economic 12) Li-bearing brines concentrations of Nb (± Ta), LREEs 13) Oils sands: by-product and/or Fe, Sr, Mo, Cu, U, Th, Ca- and 14) Other/unknown Mg-carbonates, fluorite, barite,
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Rare Annual Pro- Representative Price Main Produc- Main Uses Met duction Esti- (US$ unless noted ing Countries al mate otherwise) (at the mine site) REE 140 000 tonnes REOs (FOB China; China Catalytic converters, permanent magnets, of REO content bulk, 99%): (95% of total rechargeable batteries for electric and hy- (including Y) Ce2O3: $30-40/kg; production) brid vehicles, glass additives, glass- Eu2O3: $3400-3800/ polishing compounds; catalysts in oil re- kg; La2O3: $30-40/kg; fining, armaments, base-metal alloys, Nd2O3: $150-170/kg; lighter flints, pyrophoric alloys, electronic Pr2O3: $160-180/kg; thermometers, fibre optics, lasers, oxygen Dy2O3: $1350-2000/kg sensors, superconductors, x-ray- intensifying screens Nb 63 000 tonnes of Ferroniobium Brazil (9%) Steel industry (76%, ferroniobium); aero- Nb content (65% Nb): $41/kg Canada (7%) spatial/military applications (24% super alloys) Ta 790 000 tonnes Tantalite concentrate: Brazil, Mo- Ta capacitors (60% of total use) are essen- of Ta content $286/kg of Ta2O5 con- zambique, tial for automotive electronics, pagers, tent Rwanda, Aus- personal computers, and portable tele- tralia, and phones etc. Canada Zr- Zircon or Zircon conc: Australia, Zircon: ceramics, foundry, opacifier, and Hf baddeleyite FOB Australia South Africa, refractory products (industrial min- $2400-2600/ tonne; China, eral): >1.4 mil- Fused ZrO2 mono- Ukraine, Indo- Zr metal: noncorrosive applications in lion tonnes clinic, CIF European nesia and Bra- nuclear industry, oxygen sensors, combus- port: zil tion control, flue gas monitoring, con- $6500-7800/tonne; denser ceramics; cubic zirconia Zr metal: $64/kg; Hf metal: $562/kg Be 240 tonnes of Be Beryllium-copper mas- USA, China, Computer and telecommunications content ter alloy: $451/kg of Mozambique, (> 50%), also: aerospace / defence, appli- contained Be metal Kazhakstan, ances, automotive electronics, medical and and Russia. industrial x-ray equipment Li >34 000 tonnes Li carbonate (USA), Chile, Austra- Ceramics and glass (31%); batteries of Li content large contracts: lia, China, and (23%); lubricants (10%); continuous cast- $5.50-6.60/kg; Argentina ing, 4%; aluminum production (3%) Spodumene concen- trate: > 7.25% LiO2 CIF USA (FOB West Virginia): $790-850/tonne; Petalite: 4.2% LiO2, FOB Durban: $165-260/tonne Cs Not available $661/50 grams of Canada Formate brines (high-density, low- 99.8% Cs Pollucite pro- viscosity drilling fluids), atomic resonance duced at Ber- frequency standard in atomic clocks, GPS nic Lake is satellites, internet, cell phone transmis- transformed sions, aircraft guidance systems and medi- into Cs for- cal applications mate and rented to oil and gas drill- ing companies
Table 1: Production, prices, source countries, and uses of selected speciality metals. Based on data from Gambogi (2012), Jaskula (2012 a, b), Papp (2012 a, b) and information gathered from the industry. CIF: cost of insurance and freight included. FOB: free on board. REOs: rare earth oxides.
Figure 2: SMs occurrences in Canada.
Figure 3: REE occurrences in Canada.
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Figure 4: Nb occurrences in Canada.
Figure 5: Ta occurrences in Canada.
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Figure 6: Be occurrences in Canada.
Figure 7: Zr occurrences in Canada.
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Figure 8: Li occurrences in Canada.
Figure 9: Specialty metals occurrences in Canada by deposit type.
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vermiculite, apatite, and other minerals Duplessis, 2009), and Montviel (QC, (Mariano, 1989a,b; Richardson and Desharnais, 2011). Other carbonatites, Birkett, 1996a; Birkett and Simandl, such as Eden Lake (Chakhmouradian et 1999). Be enrichments of carbonatite al., 2008), were covered by mapping are relatively uncommon. They have and laboratory work but have not been described in fenitized zones at reached the same level of development. Muambe (Mozambique), where Y-REE bearing fluorite contains up to 1% BeO Peralkaline Intrusion -related adjacent to fenitized breccias, and in a deposits few other localities in the southern Alkaline intrusions are characterized by Urals (Barton and Young, 2002). their content of feldspathoids, alkali Carbonatites are commonly associated amphiboles and pyroxenes (Sørensen,
with syenite and either, or both, of these 1986). Based on molar ratios of [Na2O
rock types may be mineralized. + K2O] relative to Al2O3 they are Only two carbonatite-related classified as metaluminous or deposits have contributed significantly peralkaline. In peralkaline intusions
to SM production in Canada: the Saint Na2O + K2O >Al2O3 (Marks et al. Honoré deposit (QC), currently the only 2011). Peralkaline intrusions are North American Nb-producing mine; described as agpaitic if their agpaitic and the Oka complex near Montreal index ((Na + K) / Al) is greater than (QC), a past Nb producer. A number of unity (Salvi and Williams–Jones, 2004). carbonatite-associated SM deposits in Like carbonatites, some peralkaline Canada are approaching the intrusions, especially those of agpaitic prefeasibility or feasibility stage or are type, contain large resources of SMs, the subject of advanced exploration. although the ore mineralogy and Examples are: the Aley Carbonatite chemistry differ significantly from (BC, Taseko, 2012), Eldor (QC, carbonatites. Peralkaline intrusion- Laferrière, 2011), Wicheeda Lake (BC, associated deposits contain Zr, Nb, Ta, Lane, 2009), Crevier Township (QC, Y, HREEs, Th, and Be (Richardson and
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Birkett, 1996c). The REE included in this group. When better mineralization in these deposits mineralogical information becomes displays relatively flat chondrite- available, they may be reclassified. normalized patterns and may have Historically, relatively demanding negative Eu anomalies, as exemplified metallurgy of these deposits prevented by deposits from the Nechalacho their development. The metallurgy is project near Thor Lake in the Northwest now better understood, but it remains Territories (Williams-Jones, 2010), the challenging. Peralkaline intrusion- Strange Lake Complex on the border of related deposits may diversify the Quebec and Labrador (Kerr, 2011), and global supply of HREEs and reduce the Kipawa area of Quebec (Constantin, reliance on Chinese exports. 2010; Constantin and Fleury, 2011). The same peralkaline intrusions may Several large peralkaline intrusion- also contain potentially economic Be- related SM deposits in Canada, bearing greisens, such as within the T– Greenland and elsewhere have reached zone of the Blachford Lake complex advanced exploration stages. These (NWT, Trueman et al., 1988). This deposits represent important mineralization consists of phenakite- undeveloped resources of HREEs and bertrandite-gadolinite-rich quartz- Y. In some cases, peralkaline inrusion- fluorite-polylithionite greisen overprint. related SM deposits are located in Be enriched zones are also present at pegmatitic rocks or near the main Illimausassaq, Mt.Saint-Hillaire, intrusion. In such cases these SM Lovozero and Khibiny (Sørensen, occurrences are classified as 1997), and within Nb-Zr-Ta REE- “peralkaline intrusion-related” rather bearing tuffaceous metavolcanic rocks than “pegmatite/granite/aplite”-type as at Brockman in Western Australia described below. A number of (Ramsden et al.,1993). peralkaline intrusion- and peralkaline volcanic rock-hosted mineralized zones in New Brunswick are currently
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Pegmatite/granite/aplite The complexity of pegmatite zoning Granitic pegmatites are major sources also increases with distance from the of Ta, Li, Rb, Cs, Be, Sn and a number granitic source (Trueman and Černý, of other industrial mineral commodities 1982; London, 2008). Pegmatites (Sinclair, 1996). Rocks clearly linked containing economic concentrations of with peralkaline complexes or syenite Ta and/or Li are uncommon. Some intrusions that display pegmatite examples are the Tanco pegmatite textures are not included in this (Manitoba, Canada), which is more category. In general, SM-bearing than 2 km long, 820 metres wide and pegmatites and aplites, commonly over 100 metres thick, and the Bikita belonging to the Lithium-Cesium- pegmatite (Zimbabwe), which is about Tantalum (LCT) family of rare element 2 km long and up to 230 metres wide pegmatites as defined by Černý (1991a, (Černý et al. 1981; Sinclair, 1996). b), are derived from a granitic source to Smaller pegmatites containing which they are geographically and potentially economic concentrations of temporally related. Chemical evolution Li ± Be minerals in eastern Canada are of a Li-rich pegmatite group is reflected currently in the pre-feasibility stages of by enrichment in volatiles, increased development. The Tanco Mine in fractionation, and increased complexity Manitoba (historically a major producer in the zoning of individual pegmatites. of Ta, Li, and Cs), remains the main The idealized sequence reflecting the source of Cs-bearing pollucite ((Cs,Na)
chemical evolution of granite through (AlSi2)O6 ∙ nH2O). Some pollucite primitive pegmatite into an evolved concentrate from Tanco Mine is sold on pegmatite is as follows: the open market, but most is used for granite to production of Cs-formate brines for barren (ceramic) pegmatite to drilling by the oil industry. Be pegmatite to Cabot Corporation, the owner and Be, Nb, Ta pegmatite to operator of the Tanco Mine restarted Ta Li, Be, Ta, Nb pegmatite to production in November 2011. Other Li, Cs, Be, Ta, Nb pegmatite. Canadian Li- bearing pegmatites that
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received attention are Whabouchi (QC), The Niobium-Yttrium-Fluorine James Bay Cyr (QC), and LaCorne (NYF) family of pegmatites (Černy; Township (QC) Li-bearing pegmatites 1991a, b) has higher REE contents than (Raymond, 2011). Big Whopper the LCT family and is also enriched in (Separation Rapids) is known for its Li- Be, Ti, Sr, and Zr. NYF pegmatites Rb-Ta content (Tindle and Breaks, have an alkaline affinity and occur in 1998). Hellroaring Creek pegmatite the same intracontinental rift settings as (BC) was investigated for its Be content peralkaline- and carbonatite-related (Legun, 2004; Soloviev, 2012). mineralization (London, 2008). Based There is no apparent link between on these characteristics, NYF peraluminous rare metal granites with pegmatites are probably genetically magmatic disseminated mineralization, equivalent to late metasomatic phases peraluminous granite-related SM- of peralkaline intrusions characterized bearing deposits of hydrothermal origin by pegmatitic textures. The Platt mine and the above described LCT family of (Wyoming) is the only pegmatite that pegmatites that originate at deeper was mined for its REE content. levels (Černý et al., 2005). Approximately 10000 tonnes of
Nevertheless, these deposits are euxenite [(Y,Ca,Ce)(Nb,Ta,Ti)2O6)] ore grouped together here because field were recovered between 1956-1958 descriptions in provincial databases (Houston, 1961). commonly do not allow them to be Large-tonnage, low-grade, Ta- distinguished, with the exception of bearing granitoids such as those greisens. Granite-related greisen and currently under evaluation in Egypt vein-type mineralizations are clearly (Küster, 2009) are included in this identified in most field descriptions in category. Agpaitic peralkaline granite- provincial databases, particularly in related mineralization is grouped with eastern Canada, and are therefore listed layered peralkaline intrusions, based on as a distinct deposit type. its distinctive mineralogy.
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REE ± P veins (including Hoidas- allanite-Ce. Monazite, bastnaesite, and type) chevkinite are minor constituents High-grade REE-bearing veins, (Halpin, 2010), and Ba-rich feldspar is including the historic monazite-apatite- commonly associated with quartz Steenkampskraal vein in South mineralization. The veins are Africa (300 m long, 2 m wide), Hoidas- predominantly enriched in La, Ce, and type deposits (Saskatchewan), and Nd. Mineralization is complex, with similar occurrences elsewhere may the chemical and mineralogical represent viable exploration targets compositions changing with each vein under current market conditions. The generation. Based on high Steenkampskraal vein, which cuts or is concentrations of REE, Sr, and Ba, plus in contact with granitoids in a granulite a relative depletion in high field grade terrain, was a historical source of strength elements, Halpin (2010) Th and REEs (Andreoli et al. 1994). indicates that these occurrences may be Rareco estimates that 117500 tonnes alkaline intrusion- or carbonatite- with an average grade of 16.74% total related. The JAK Zone at Hoidas Lake REEs may be recoverable. Additional is the best documented Canadian resources may be available in the form example (Normand et al., 2009). of historical dumps and tailings Drilling has defined the deposit over (Dalgliesh et al. 2011). 750 metres along strike, to a depth of In Canada, multiple LREE-enriched 150 metres (Rogers, 2011). Based on a alkaline veins or dykes are in the 1.5% total REE cut-off grade, a recent Churchill Province in Saskatchewan ore estimate (including measured, (Figure 1). They were emplaced in indicated, and inferred) is 2847000 shear zones superimposed on deep- tonnes grading approximately 2% total seated crustal discontinuities (Rogers, REE (Great Western Minerals Group 2011), such as the Hoidas-Nisikkatch Ltd., 2011a). Other styles of monazite- fault (Normand et al., 2009). REEs are and allanite-bearing mineralization in contained largely in fluorapatite and
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the same general area are described by either as 'marine' or 'surficial' placers Normand (2010, 2011). and are described by Levson (1995a, b, respectively). Marine placer deposits Placers /Paleoplacers are located along the west coast of Placers are accumulations of heavy British Columbia (Levson, 1995a; minerals eroded from primary ore Barrie, 1994; Barrie et al., 1988). SM- deposits or from non-mineralized rocks bearing paleoplacers were also (where they occur as accessories) and identified within the Athabasca Basin concentrated by fluvial, marine, and (Harper, 1987), and in the NWT eolian processes based on specific (Maurice and Plant, 1979). Some of the gravity. Placers and paleoplacers are above summary reports do not provide significant sources of precious metals enough information regarding (especially gold, platinum, and concentrations of monazite or xenotime palladium), uranium, zircon, titanium to determine if these minerals could be oxides (commonly ilmenite, leucoxene potentially recovered as a by-product. and/or rutile), Ta- and Nb-bearing Some offshore placers contain minerals, REE minerals (mainly significant resources of Ta-Nb monazite and xenotime), a variety of minerals, zircon and/or monazite as industrial minerals (such as kyanite, potentially recoverable by-products of garnet, staurolite and magnetite), and Ti. SM-bearing surficial placers are gemstones. Zircon and REE minerals found in southeastern British Columbia. are economically recovered as by- They are near areas of alkaline igneous products of Ti-oxide placer operations. activity and are characterized by a Nb, Nearly 440 placers/paleoplacers are U, Th, ± REE , ± Ta, ± Zr assemblage. known in British Columbia alone and Some of these placers were originally many more occur across Canada. staked for uranium during the post- Detailed placer classification is World War II uranium rush. SM- provided by Morison (1989) and Garnet bearing surficial deposits are probably and Bassett (2005). They are classified also present in other provinces. For
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example, at least four Ti, Fe (± Zr and significant quantities of REEs (Pell, REE) placer/paleoplacer occurrences 1994; Simandl et al., 2012). have been reported in Quebec. Summaries of sedimentary phosphate Furthermore, Y and other REEs were deposits and their REE contents in historically recovered as by-products of British Columbia are provided by Pell processing uranium ores from the Blind (1991), Butrenchuk (1996), and River - Elliot Lake area (Ontario). Simandl et al. (2011a, b, c). The Fernie These uranium deposits are considered Formation in southern British Columbia by many researchers to be paleoplacers and the Whistler Member of the (Roscoe, 1996; Cuney, 2010). The Sulphur Mountain Formation in heavy mineral sands on the east coast of northeastern British Columbia are two Canada may also contain appreciable of the more promising geological units concentrations of SMs. The gold for REE. Phosphate deposits in Alberta potential for placer deposits on the are described by MacDonald (1987); Newfoundland shelf was addressed by those in the Athabasca Basin in Emory-Moore (1991). Marine placers Saskatchewan by Ramaekers (1979, along the north shore of the Gulf of 1980, 1981). Saint Lawrence are considered by Hein Recovery of REEs from phosphate et al. (1993). Little information is rocks was considered or attempted by available regarding SM content of several companies in the 1960s and Canada’s off-shore placer deposits. 1970s when market conditions precluded long-term commercial Sedimentary phosphate success. Recent market conditions may Sedimentary phosphate deposits contain make recovery of REEs from phosphate significant concentrations of rock commercially viable (Simandl et lanthanides and Y (Simandl et al., al. 2011c). The metallurgical 2012). In British Columbia, some procedures for REE recovery during upwelling-type phosphate deposits phosphate fertilizer manufacturing are (Simandl et al. 2011a, b) contain described by Habashi (1985). Other
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papers considering the extraction of territories. The use of the broader REE during phosphate fertilizer definition (eg. Corriveu, 2007) would manufacturing include those by Ionescu create an overlap with skarn-type et al. (1980), Lounamaa et al. (1980), deposits as established by Dawson, Kijkowska (1980) and Fidelis (1980). (1996 a,b,c), Dawson and Kirkham Commercial REE production from (1996), and Gross (1996) and phosphate rock (Habashi, 1985), most carbonatite-related deposits as likely apatite concentrate, took place described by Richardson and Birkett between 1965 and 1972 in Finland by (1996a) and Birkett and Simandl Kemira Oy. (1999). The most economically significant deposit enriched in REEs is REE-bearing IOCG deposits Olympic Dam. It contains the world's The term “Iron oxide copper-gold largest uranium resource (1.4 Million (IOCG) deposit” is evolving. This tonnes), the fourth largest copper evolution is apparent from documents resource (42.7 Million tonnes) and published by Ray and Lefebure (2000), fourth or fifth largest gold resource Williams et al. (2005), and Corriveau (55.1 Million ounces) as reported by (2007). The approaches of Ray and Western Mining Corporation (2003) Lefebure (2000) and Williams et al. and Coriveau (2007). The breccia zone (2005) are appropriate for this study. of the deposit, especially the central They group under the IOCG heading a hematite-quartz zone, is reported to variety of commonly sulphide-deficient average between 3000 and 5000 ppm hydrothermal deposits containing low- total REE (Reynolds, 2000). REEs are Ti magnetite and/or hematite forming not currently recovered at Olympic breccias, veins, disseminations, and Dam. massive lenses enriched in Cu, Au, Ag, Corriveau (2007) reviews the IOCG U, P, Bi, Co, Nb and REE. This deposits in Canada in a “broad” sense. definition is compatible with definitions If we disregard the carbonatite-related used by most of the provinces and mineralization suspected at Eden Lake
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(Manitoba) and the Heff skarn (Pearson, 2011; personal occurrences (British Columbia), then communication) are reported to contain
Kwyjibo (Cu-REE-Mo-F-U-Au) and up to 4.8% P2O5, 4.9% Y, 9100 ppm seven other occurrences in Quebec Dy, 2990 ppm Er, 1440 ppm Yb and (Gobeil et al., 2003; Gauthier et al., 2150 ppm Tb (Great Western Minerals 2004) appear to be the main known Group, Ltd, 2011b). Other occurrences IOCG occurrences in Canada that are are in the MAW REE zone, which is significantly enriched in REEs. The characterized by breccias/conglomerate most prospective settings for IOCG zones impregnated by tourmaline and deposits in Canada are Proterozoic silicified (MacDougall, 1990). granitic and felsic gneiss terranes of the Sandstone-hosted, xenotime-rich Canadian Shield, and parts of the deposits are characterized by a Cordilleran and Appalachian orogens relatively high HREE/LREE ratio (Corriveau, 2007). relative to carbonatites.
Sandstone-hosted xenotime deposits REE as uranium by-product Several xenotime-rich sandstone-hosted Historically, Y has been extracted as a occurrences are reported from by-product of uranium mining, in the Athabasca Basin (Harper, 1987). REE Blind River-Elliot Lake area (Goode, mineralization forms lenses parallel to 2012). During processing, large bedding within medium-grained, volumes of nearly U-free Th-and REE- weakly foliated, hematite-bearing containing liquor is produced, and both sandstones of the Athabasca Group. Rio Algom Mines and Denison Mines Samples from the Douglas River were able to recover REE by solvent project, where the mineralization is extraction (Lendrum and McCreedy, interpreted to be of late diagenetic or 1976). The method involved successive hydrothermal origin because detrial pH adjustment of barren (nearly U-free) xenotime grains are lacking and solution to remove Th followed by mineralization is controlled by structure another readjustment of the pH to allow
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a solvent extraction step to separate the deposits. For example, in 2009 Y and lanthanides (Lucas and Ritcey, Sumitomo Corporation, and, more 1975). The Eco Ridge deposit in the recently, Toshiba, in collaboration with same area, currently investigated, is Oil, Gas and Metals National reported to contain indicated mineral Corporation, tested new techniques to resources of 14.3 Mt, at grades of recover REEs as a by-product of
0.048% U3O8, and 0.164% total rare uranium in Kazakhstan (Yomiuri earth oxides (total REO), and inferred Shimbun, 2010). At least one major U- mineral resources totalling 33.1 Mt, at producing company operating mines in
grades of 0.043% U3O8 and 0.132% Athabasca Basin would consider co- total REO (Cox et al., 2011). producing REEs should the prices Several U + REE deposits are in stabilize near recent highs. We did not Athabasca Basin (Harper, 1987). Major incorporate all uranium occurrences as deposits including Key Lake, Cigar part of this study, their importance as an Lake, and McArthur contain significant REE source is likely greater than concentrations of REEs. Uranium ore suggested by Figure 9. minerals in these deposits may contain up to 12 000 ppm total REEs (Fayek Skarns and Kyser, 1997). Substantial Skarns are contact metamorphic or enrichment may have developed along metasomatic zones formed by mass and late oxidation-reduction fronts chemical transfer between igneous (Mercadier et al., 2011). REEs are also rocks and adjacent host (commonly closely associated with high uranium carbonate-rich) lithologies. Typical concentrations in a number of skarns consist of pyroxene, garnet, occurrences in the NWT (Maurice, idocrase, wollastonite, actinolite, 1979). magnetite, hematite, and epidote. The The concept of REE extraction as a same mineral assemblage may also by-product of U-ore processing could form from the interaction of silica-rich probably be applied to other types of U and carbonate-rich lithologies during
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regional metamorphism and the Beryllium-bearing skarns typically difference is commonly detected based have a tungsten or tin affinity, although on field observations (Simandl et al., Be also seems to be associated with Zn- 1990). Skarn deposits are important Pb or Mo skarns described by Ray and sources of gold, base metals, iron, Webster (1997). Tungsten and tin tungsten, and a variety of industrial skarn deposits are characterized by Ray minerals including garnet and (1995a, b) and Dawson (1996c). The wollastonite (Dawson, 1996a,b,c; Be-F (-Zn-Pb-Mo) Ermakovskoe Dawson and Kirkham, 1996; Gross, replacement mineralization contained 1996; Ray and Webster, 1997; Simandl within a skarn system linked to aegirine et al., 1999). granite and related dykes (Lykhin et al., Several skarns contain notable 2001) is an historic producer. concentrations of U and REEs (Kwak and Abeysinghe, 1987; Lentz, 1991). Greisens and related veins The REE-rich U skarn at Mary Greisens and veins are typically near Kathleen mine (Queensland) contained the contacts between highly evolved
6 million tonnes grading 0.1% U2O3 peraluminous, or metalumineous and 2.6% total REE (Kwak and granitoids with country rocks, most Abeysinghe, 1987). The total REE commonly near stock and batholith grades were as high as 7.6% cupolas (Černý et al. 2005). Veins are (Cruikshank et al. 1980). U was found characterized by wolframite series mainly in uraninite, whereas REEs were minerals and cassiterite and may present in allanite and, to a much lesser include: scheelite, molybdenite, extent, in stillwellite and andradite bismuthinite, base metal sulfides, (Kwak and Abeysinghe, 1987). REEs tetrahedrite, arsenopyrite, stannite, were not recovered. The Heff deposit native bismuth, fluorite, and beryl. in British Columbia is another good Gangue minerals include quartz, example (Ray and Webster, 1997, muscovite, biotite, feldspar, tourmaline, 2000a). topaz, pyrite and chlorite (Cox and
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Bagby, 1986; Reed, 1986). U, Th, REE volumetrically significant, but relatively minerals, and phosphates are commonly low grade, resource of Li. Brines only minor constituents, but in few containing lower Li concentrations localities such as the Cínovec-Zinwald were reported from the Western Canada cupola (Germany) -hosted Li-Rb-Cs-Sn Sedimentary Basin in Alberta (Eccles et -W deposit, Li and Rb concentrations al. 2011) and Saskatchewan (Rostron et can reach up to 6990 ppm and 4900 al. 2002). In Alberta, such brines ppm respectively (Seifert et al. 2011). contain up to 140 mg/L Li (Clarke, Greisen deposits consist of 2010; Ecless et al. 2011, Eccles and disseminated cassiterite and cassiterite- Berhane 2011) and in Saskatchewan, bearing veinlets, stockworks, lenses, brines from two wells contain over 100 pipes, and breccias in a gangue mg/L Li (Rostron et al. 2002). Wells composed of quartz, mica, fluorite, and containing more than 75 mg/L of Li are topaz. Most Canadian examples are in shown Figure 1. Potential Canadian oil the eastern provinces. If these deposits field brine operations would have to contain SMs in acceptable compete with relatively Li-rich concentrations and if SM prices hold evaporite-and pegmatite-hosted Li near their current highs, it is possible deposits. It is therefore unlikely that that SMs could be extracted from these under current market conditions these deposits as a by-product. brines would be of economic interest without simultaneous production of Li-bearing Brines hydrocarbons and benefits from Oil field brines in North Dakota, existing installations. Such benefits Wyoming, Oklahoma, east Texas, and may include heat recovery from gas Arkansas contain up to 700 mg/L processing plants to compensate for (Evans, 2008) and in Grand County, lack of solar pre-concentration (Clarke, Utah, they have been reported to 2010), production of other products contain 1700 mg/L lithium (Durgin, (e.g., Mg, borates, bromine and potash), 2011). Such brines represent a and reduced costs of brine disposal.
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Applied Mineralogy and Oil sands: by-product Metallurgical The Athabasca oil sands are universally recognized as an important source of Considerations energy. They also locally constitute a Applied mineralogy and metallurgy, significant low-grade resource of including technical, environmental and disseminated zircon and titanium- economic aspects, are as important, if bearing minerals (Majid, 1988; not more so, as geological and Kaminsky, 2008). Progress is being geotechnical constraints for the made toward recovery of these minerals development of SM deposits. These during bitumen processing. aspects should be used during early screening of exploration projects and Other deposit types and occurrences the preliminary conceptual assessment of unknown affiliation of all SMs projects. Essential concepts Most occurrences in this category lack used to assess conventional REEs, Nb, sufficient information to assign a Ta, Be, Zr and Li deposits are provided deposit type. Also included are below. Should any potential non- occurrences with controversial origins traditional SM sources, such as some of and those assigned to more than one the peralkaline-rock related deposits, deposit type. Clays deposits where most greisens or skarns containing complex REEs are not adsorbed (loosely REE-, Be-, Ta-,Nb- and Zr-bearing attached) to the surface of clay particles minerals be developed, then the list of belong to this category economically significant minerals REE-enriched manganese nodules would be extended. In some deposits (Hein et al., 2011) and REE-bearing SMs are closely associated with muds of the Pacific Ocean described by anomalous levels of U and Th. High Kato et al. (2011) may also be present content of these radioactive elements in Canadian offshore areas, but they are affect marketability of the concentrate, not covered by this study. mine permitting, regulations related to
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concentrate transport and processing, Additional precautions are also required and by-product Th storage and waste during transportation and metallurgical disposal (O’Driscoll, 1988; Simandl, processing of monazite, and Th disposal 2002; International Atomic Energy or stockpiling costs may be incurred. Agency, 2011; Paul and Campbell, Good examples of past producers are 2011). the Steenkamskraal monazite-apatite- quartz vein (South Africa) and the Rare Earth Element-bearing monazite placer deposits in Brazil and Minerals Australia (Castor, 1994). The above comments are especially true Minerals that currently pose a higher for REE-bearing deposits. All the degree of metallurgical difficulty than universal (including textural and grain- monazite include REE- bearing silicates 2+ 3+ size) principles of applied mineralogy (eg., allanite [(Ca,Ce)2(Al,Fe ,Fe )3
are valid when assessing REE deposits. (SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH)]) and a number of Generally, REE-bearing carbonates exotic minerals associated with and fluoro-carbonates are easy to deal peralkaline intrusion-hosted deposits,
with using conventional methods. An such as eudialyte [Na4(Ca; Ce)2 2+ 2+ example of an operation that relies on (Fe ;Mn )ZrSi 8 O 22(OH; Cl) 2 ]. fluoro-carbonate ore minerals (mainly Currently, REEs are not commercially
bastnaesite [(Ce, La)(CO3)F]) is the produced from silicates. However, Mountain Pass (USA). recent press releases by Canadian and Deposits containing REE phosphates Australian companies suggest that
(mainly monazite [(La,Ce,Nd)PO4]) significant progress in REE extraction typically contain higher Th from silicates has been achieved. concentrations. Because Th is Recovery of REEs as a by-product radiogenic, these deposits are of phosphate fertilizer adds complexity considered slightly more difficult to to plant circuits, but should not interfere deal with during permitting than REE with production. Similarly, economic fluorocarbonate-bearing deposits. recovery of Y from uranium ores from
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Eliot Lake-Blind River was successful compounds are commonly derived from
(Goode, 2012). beryl [Be3Al2(Si6O18)] and bertrandite
[Be4(Si2O7)(OH)2] bearing ores.
Niobium –Tantalum Minerals Phenakite [Be2SiO4] was historically The principal niobium ore minerals are mined in Khazastan. Beryl is derived
pyrochlore ((Ca,Na)2(Nb,Ta,Ti)2O6 mainly from LCT pegmatites and is of 2+ (OH,F)), ferrocolumbite (Fe Nb2O6) main interest in Canada. Bertrandite is
and fersmite ((Ca,Ce,Na)(Nb,Ta,Ti)2 the main ore mineral in shallow,
(O,OH,F)6). In Russia, Nb is also hydrothermal deposits associated with
recovered from loparite ((Ce,Na,Ca)2 high silica rhyolites of Spor Mountain
(Ti,Nb)2O6). The main economically (Utah). Phenakite and bertrandite could important tantalum ore minerals are be potentially recovered by flotation
tantalite ((Fe,Mn)(Nb,Ta)2O6; 42-84 % from peralkaline-related deposits, such
Ta2O5), columbotantalite ((Fe,Mn) as T-Zone in the Thor Lake area (NWT;
(Nb,Ta)2O6; 20-50% Ta2O5), columbite David Trueman, personal
((Fe,Mn)(Nb,Ta)2O6; 1-40 %Ta2O5), communication, 2012). Bertrandite
wodginite (Mn4(Sn>Ta,Ti,Fe)4(Ta>Nb) contains 42% BeO; in contrast, beryl
8O32), microlite (Ta-rich mineral of the contains approximately 14% BeO. The pyrochlore group) and strüverite advantage of commercial beryl (Simandl, 2002). Columbite-tantalite concentrate is that it typically contains minerals are the most widespread of Ta- more than 10% BeO and can be shipped Nb minerals, in some cases they are worldwide. Although bertrandite from replaced by fersmite or microlite. Spor Mountain has a higher BeO content, it is fine-grained and cannot be Beryllium Minerals readily concentrated. In 1998, the Over 100 Be minerals have been company estimated that the average documented (Grew, 2002). Some are grade of bertrandite ore at Spor hosted by pegmatites, but most are not Mountain was 0.72% BeO. (Barton and Young, 2002). Be and Be-
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Zirconium minerals Fe, Ca, Na, Mn, Ti, Nb, REEs, and
Zircon [Zr0.9Hf0.05REE0.05SiO4 ], and to other elements.
lesser extent baddeleyite [ZrO4], occur as accessory minerals in a wide variety Lithium Minerals of rocks. Zircon is currently recovered Lithium compounds are derived mainly commercially from placer deposits; from brines/evaporites and hard rock baddeleyite has been recovered at the (LCT pegmatites) deposits. The main Palabora and Kovdor complexes. lithium-bearing pegmatite ores consist
Currently, the Kovdor deposit is the of spodumene [LiAlSi2O6], petalite
only baddeleyite producer, with output [LiAlSi 4 O 10], minerals of the
in the 6000 tonne range. Most of the amblygonite [(Li,Na)Al(PO4)(F,OH)]
zircon concentrate is used directly in montebrasite [(LiAl (PO4) (OH)] series refractory and foundry applications. or SQI (spodumene - q u a r t z Zircon is also transformed into a variety intergrowths). Lithium-bearing micas
of zirconia products and zirconium such as lepidolite [K(Li,Al)3(Si,Al)4O10
metal. Baddeleyite has a much higher (F,OH)2 ] and eucryptite [LiAlSiO4] Zr content than zircon. It is natural may also form ores under special zirconia that can be used directly in circumstances. Recently, a Li-bearing refractories and advanced ceramics. clay (commonly referred to as hectorite
Consequently, it has a higher unit value [Na0.3(Mg,Li)3Si4O10(OH)2]) highly than zircon. Under special valued for its industrial mineral circumstances, other minerals have the applications and mined in the San potential to become secondary sources Bernardino County (Nevada), was of Zr including complex Zr silicates, rediscovered as potential source of Li
such as eudialyte [Na 4(Ca,Ce)2 (Crocker et al. 1988). A large jadarite ++ (Fe ,Mn,Y)ZrSi 8 O 22(OH,Cl) 2 ], [LiNaSiB3 O7 (OH)] deposit was
gittinsite [CaZrSi2O7], and other discovered recently by Rio Tinto, in complex peralkaline intrusion-hosted Jadar basin (Serbia). Jadarite is now minerals where Zr is associated with recognized a as potential Li and B ore
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mineral (Stanley et al. 2007). Both This compilation may serve as a hectorite and jadarite are associated starting point for those considering SM with deposit-types that are unknown in exploration programs in Canada or Canada. those looking for background information required for mineral policy Cesium Minerals decisions. There is uncertainty in the
Polucite (Cs,Na)2Al2Si4O12(H2O) is the classification of some occurrences due main Cs ore mineral. It belongs to the to the scarcity of information or the zeolite group and forms a series with unusual nature of particular analcime. It is found mainly in evolved occurrences. The economic significance LCT group pegmatites such as Tanco of most of these occurrences cannot be mine (MB), which is a Canadian estimated because the size, shape, example currently in production. depth, grade, and orientation of mineralization are not well defined. Summary Environmental parameters, including U and Th concentrations, availability of Canada has an exceptional specialty existing infrastructure, and geotechnical metal endowment. More than one and engineering considerations are thousand SM occurrences are reported unavailable for most of the occurrences. in Canada, but only a handful are Detailed mineralogy and textural currently in production or in an information is typically unavailable and advanced stage of development. Many consequently no prediction can be made of the occurrences, shown on Figure 1 regarding metallurgical properties. and listed in Table 2, are unlikely to be of economic interest by themselves. Their location could be used as an Acknowledgments indicator of favourable geological The document was completed as part of conditions. the Targeted Geoscience Initiative 4 (TGI-4). Information was largely
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compiled from provincial websites, and Kirk Hancock and Rebecca Stone we thank the following provincial and (British Columbia Geological Survey), territorial geologists for their help: Glen and Mike Villeneuve (Geological Prior (Alberta Geological Survey- Survey of Canada, Ottawa) improved Energy Resources Conservation an earlier version of the document. Board); Charles Normand (Saskatchewan Ministry of Energy and References Resources); Tania Martins and Andreoli, M.A.G., Smith, C.B., Christian Böhm (Manitoba Geological Watkeys, M. Moore, J.M., Ashwal, Survey); Ann Wilson (Ministry of L.D. and Hart, R.J. (1994): The geology of the Steenkampskraal monazite Northern Development and Mines, deposit, South Africa; implications for Northeast Regional Office, Ontario); REE-Th-Cu mineralization in Charles Maurice ( Bureau de charnockite-granulite terranes, Economic Geology, Volume 89, pages l'exploration géologique du Québec 994 1016. Ministère des Ressources Naturelles et de la Faune) and Denis Raymond Barrie, J.V. (1990): Contemporary and (Québec Ministère des Ressources relict titaniferous sand facies on the western Canadian Continental Shelf; Naturelles et de la Faune); Andy Kerr Continental Shelf Research, Volume and Greg Stapleton (Geological Survey 11, pages 67-80. of Newfoundland and Labrador); Bao, Z. and Zhao, Z. (2008): Trevor MacHattie (Nova Scotia Geochemistry of mineralization with Department of Natural Resources); Kay exchangeable REY in the weathering crusts of granitic rocks in South China. Thorne and Tim Webb (New Ore Geology Reviews, Volume 33, Brunswick Department of Natural pages 519-535. Barrie, J.V. (1994): Western Canadian Resources); Lee Pigage (Mineral marine placer potential; Canadian Services, Yukon Geological Survey); Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Hendrik Falck (NWT Geoscience Petroleum, Bulletin, Volume 87, No. 977, pages 27-30. Office); Alia Bigio (Canada -
Nunavut Geoscience Office).
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Barrie, J.V. Emory-Moore, M., Manitoba; Manitoba Department of Luternauer, J.L. and Bornhold, B.D. Energy and Mines, Mineral Resources (1988): Origin of modern heavy Division, Economic Geology Report mineral deposits, northern British ER80-1, 216 pages. Columbia continental shelf; Marine Geology, Volume 84, pages 43-51. Černý, P. (1991a): Rare-element granitic pegmatites. Part I. Anatomy Barton, M.D. and Young, S. (2002): and internal evolution of pegmatite Non-pegmatite deposits of beryllium: deposits, Geoscience Canada, 18, Mineralogy, geology, phase pages 49-67. equilibrium and origin; in Beryllium: Mineralogy, petrology, and Černý, P. (1991b): Rare-element geochemistry, Grew, E.S., Editor; granitic pegmatites. Part II. Regional to Reviews in Mineralogy and global environments and petrogenesis. Geochemistry, Volume 50, pages 591- Geoscience Canada, 18, pages 68-81. 691. Černý, P., Blevin, P., Cuney, M. and Birkett, T.C. and Simandl, G.J. (1999): London, D. (2005): Granite-related ore Carbonatite-associated deposits; in deposits; Economic Geology 100th Selected British Columbia Mineral Anniversary Volume, Edited by: Jeffrey Deposit Profiles, Volume 3, Industrial W. Helmquist, John, F.H. Thompson, Minerals and Gemstones, G.J. Simandl, Richard J. Goldfarb and Jeremy F. Z.D. Hora and D.V. Lefebure, Editors, Richards; Society of Economic British Columbia Ministry of Energy Geologists Inc., pages 337-370. and Mines, pages 73-76. Chakhmouradian, A.R., Muni, A.H., Butrenchuk, S. (1996): Phosphate Demény, A., and Elliott, B. (2008): deposits in British Columbia; British Postorogenic cabonatites at Eden Columbia Ministry of Employment and Lake, Trans-Hudson Orogen (northern Investment, British Columbia Manitoba, Canada): Geological setting, Geological Survey, BCGS-Bulletin 98, mineralogy and geochemistry; Lithos, 126 pages. 103, pages 503-526.
Castor, C. (1994): Rare earth minerals; Clarke, G. (2010): Lithium rising from in Industrial Minerals and Rocks, 6th Alberta’s oil fields; Industrial Minerals; Edition, Carr, D.D., Senior Editor; No. 515; Metal Bulletin Ltd., pages 53- Society for Mining and Metallurgy, and 55. Exploration, Inc., Littleton, Colorado, pages 827-839. Constantin, M. and Fleury, F. (2011): The Kipawa alkaline syenite complex Černý, P.; Trueman, D. l.; Ziehlke, D. and its rare earth element deposit; GAC- V.; Goad, B. E.; Paul, B. J. (1981): The MAC Annual Meeting, Ottawa, Abstract Cat Lake- Winnipeg River and the with program. Wekusko Lake Pegmatite Fields,
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Manitoba [email protected] Tania Martins Mineral Database: http:// Mineral Deposits Geologist gis.geosurv.gov.nl.ca/resourceatlas/ Manitoba Geological Survey viewer.htm 360-1395 Ellice Ave Winnipeg, Manitoba Canada R3G 3P2 Nova Scotia Ph: (204) 945-6549 Trevor G. MacHattie [email protected] Geologist Mineral Database: http:// Nova Scotia Geological Survey www2.gov.mb.ca/Itm - c a t / w e b / 1701 Hollis St. minsearch.html , h t t p : / / PO Box 698 geoapp2.gov.mb.ca/website/geo1m/ Halifax, NS viewer.htm Canada ,B3J 2T9 Ph: (902) 424-0134 New Brunswick [email protected] Kathleen G. Thorne Mineral Database: h t t p : / / Mineral Deposits Geologist www.gov.ns.ca/natr/meb/download/ New Brunswick Department of Natural dp002.asp Resources Lands, Minerals and Petroleum division Northwest Territories PO Box 6000 Hendrik Falck Fredericton, NB District Geologist Canada, E3B 5H1 Northwest Territories Geoscience Ph: (506) 453-2206 Office [email protected] P.O. Box 1500 or 4601-B 52nd Ave Mineral Database: http://dnre- Yellowknife, NT mrne.gnb.ca/MineralOccurrence/ Canada, X1A 2R3 default.aspx?componentID=1 Ph: (867) 669-2481 [email protected] Newfoundland and Labrador Mineral Database: http:// Andy Kerr ntgomap.nwtgeoscience.ca/ Nunavut Senior Geologist/Mineral Deposits Section Alia Bigio Geological Survey of Newfoundland Staff Geologist, Mineral Resources and Labrador Nunavut Regional Office Natural Resources Building Aboriginal Affairs and Northern 50 Elizabeth Ave. Development Canada P.O. Box 8700 Building 918 St. John's, NL PO Box 100 Canada, A1B 4J6 Iqaluit, NU Ph: (709) 729-2164 Canada, X0A 0H0
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British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines
Ph: (867) 975-4569 Ministère des Ressources naturelles et [email protected] de la Faune Mineral Database: http:// 400 boul. Lamaque, bur.102 nunavutgeoscience.ca/apps/showing/ Val d'Or, QC showQuery.php Canada J9P 3L4 Ontario Ph: (819) 354-4514, poste 253 Ann Wilson [email protected] Mineral Deposit Compilation Geoscientist Saskatchewan Northeast Regional Office Charles Normand Ontario Government Complex Precambrian Research Geologist Highway 101 East Saskatchewan Geological Survey P.O. Bag 3060 200 - 2101 Scarth Street Timmins, ON Regina, SK Canada, P0N 1H0 S4P 2H9 Ph: (705) 235-1614 Ph: (306) 787-2578 [email protected] [email protected] Mineral Database: http:// Mineral Database: http:// www.geologyontario.mndmf.gov.on.ca/ www.er.gov.sk.ca/Default.aspx? DN=5c7f6d47-d9ad-4b03-b4af- Prince Edward Island 21dce78e4923 Ron Estabrooks PEI Energy Corporation Yukon PO Box 2000 Lee Pigage Charlottetown, PEI Head, Mineral Services C1A 7N8 Yukon Geological Survey Canada Elijah Smith Building Ph: (902) 368-5011 102-300 Main St. [email protected] Professional Building 2099-2nd Ave. Quebec Ph: (867) 667-8192 Charles Maurice [email protected] Géologue Bureau de L'exploration Géologique du Québec
British Columbia Geological Survey Open File 2012-7 47
British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines
Charlie Roots Research Scientist, Bedrock Geology [email protected] Ph: (867) 667-8513 Mineral Database: http:// servlet.gov.yk.ca/ygsmin/index.do
British Columbia Geological Survey Open File 2012-7 48 H COLU IS M 4 T British Columbia Geological Survey Specialty Metal Deposits and Occurrences in Canada I B R IA B 1,2,3 1 1 Open File 2012-07 George J. Simandl , Emrys A. Prussin and Nicholas Brown Produced with the financial support of the Targeted Geoscience G TG E Y O E 1 L V Initiative 4, a program of Natural Resources Canada. Ore Systems O UR British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, BC GI CAL S Ministry of 2 Energy and Mines Science Advisor to TGI-4 Specialty Metals Ore Systems Project, Ottawa, ON, Ottawa, ON 3University of Victoria, School of Earth and Ocean Sciences, Victoria, BC
Inset A Inset B Legend
Geological Provinces
Appalachian Orogen Hudson Bay Lowlands
Arctic Continental Shelf Innuitian Orogen
Arctic Platform Interior Platform
Yellowknife Atlantic Continental Shelf Nain Province
Bear Province Slave Province
Detail of deposits and occurrences in southern Ontario and Quebec Churchill Province Southern Province Arctic Ocean
Great Slave Lake Cordilleran Orogen St. Lawrence Platform
Detail of deposits and occurrences north of Great Slave Grenville Province Superior Province Lake, N.W.T.
Deposit Type (shape) Status (colour)
Carbonatite/syenite-related Producer Peralkaline intrusion-related Past Producer
Pegmatite/granite/aplite Developed Prospect
REE ± P veins (includes Hoidas) Prospect
Placer/paleoplacer Showing
Sedimentary phosphate Anomaly Yukon Iron oxide-Cu-Au (IOCG)
Nunavut Sandstone-hosted xenotime Example Northwest Territories REE as uranium by-product Pegmatite/granite/aplite deposit Skarn type with showing status
Iqaluit Greisen/vein Whitehorse Li-bearing brines
Labrador Sea Oil sands: by-product
Other/unknown Inset A
Yellowknife
Hudson Bay Newfoundland and Labrador
Alberta British Columbia St. John’s
Québec Pacific Ocean Manitoba
Edmonton
Atlantic Ocean Ontario P.E.I. Charlottetown Saskatchwan Canada Nova Scotia USA New Brunswick Victoria
Regina USA Halifax Quebec Canada
Winnipeg Fredericton Canada USA
Inset B N Status Description Ottawa Past Past producing mine. Occurrences that are not Producer currently being mined but have recorded past production. 0 200 400 600 Producer Currently producing mine. Occurrences from kilometres which ore containing one or more commodities 50 100 300 500 is being mined. Albers Equal Area Conic projection Developed Occurrences where exploration and Prospect development have progressed to a stage that Toronto allows a reasonable estimate of the amount(s) of one or more commodity. Figure 1: Prospect Occurrences documented as containing mineralization that warrants further exploration. This map is an integral part of the BC Geological Survey Open File 2012-07. This document can Showing Occurrences with minor in-situ mineralization. be downloaded free of charge from: Base map from: Anomaly Occurrences lacking documented http://www.em.gov.bc.ca/MINING/GEOSCIENCE/PUBLICATIONSCATALOGUE/Pages/default.aspx Wheeler, J.O, Hoffman, P. F., Card, K.D., Davidson, A., Sanford, B.V.,Okulitch, A.V., Roest, mineralization but of interest on the basis of: W. R. (1996): Geological map of Canada / Carte géologique du Canada; Geological Survey of Canada, "A" Series Map 1860A, 1996; 2 sheets. prospective geology; mineralized overburden; geochemistry; or geophysics.
Ontario H COLU IS M British Columbia Geological Survey IT B I Specialty Metal Deposits and Occurrences in Canada R A 4 B Open File 2012-07 1,2,3 1 1 Produced with the financial support of the Targeted George J. Simandl , Emrys A. Prussin and Nicholas Brown Geoscience Initiative 4, a program of Natural 1 TG G British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, BC E Y Resources Canada. O E 2 V Ore Systems L R TGI-4 co-leader on behalf of Natural Resources Canada, Ottawa, ON O G U Ministry of Energy and 3 I CAL S University of Victoria, School of Earth and Ocean Sciences, Victoria, BC Mines New Brunswick
Introduction
This table, in combination with Figure 1, summarizes specialty metal deposits and occurrences in Canada. Descriptions of deposit types and background information on specialty metals are provided in the accompanying text. This information is based on provincial and territorial databases complemented by data from provincial and industry geologists. The table contains four columns identifying the deposit/occurrence number (NUMBER) used on the map (Figure 1), deposit/occurence name (DEPOSIT NAME), commodities (COMMODITIES), and corresponding provincial identification number (PROVINCIAL ID) for each data entry.
In this table, and in Figure 1, deposits/occurrences are Quebec Manitoba grouped and numbered by province. Within each province, deposit numbers increase from northwest to southeast. In the commodity column, primary commodities are listed first and separated from secondary commodities by a slash (/). The specialty metals may be primary or secondary. For example, Ontario although Denison Mine in Ontario (number 181) was exploited for uranium, it contains significant concentrations of REEs. Abbreviations for minerals and elements are defined in the lower right hand corner of this sheet. Contact information for provincial and territorial geologists is also provided.
Nunavut Newfoundland
Provincial and Territorial Geologists
Alberta Northwest Territories Quebec Glen Prior Hendrik Falck Charles Maurice Senior Gelogist District Geologist Géologue Alberta Geological Survey Northwest Territories Bureau de L'exploration Saskatchewan Energy Resources Geoscience Office Géologique du Québec Conservation Board Yellowknife, NT Ministère des Ressources Edmonton, AB Ph: (867) 669-2481 naturelles et de la Faune Ph: (780) 422-0854 [email protected] Val d'Or, QC [email protected] Ph: (819) 354-4514, poste 253 [email protected] Nova Scotia British Columbia Trevor G. MacHattie George J. Simandl Geologist Specialty Metals and Industrial Nova Scotia Geological Survey Halifax, NS Saskatchewan Minerals Charles Normand British Columbia Geological Ph: (902) 424-0134 [email protected] Precambrian Research Geologist Survey Saskatchewan Geological Survey British Columbia Ministry of Regina, SK Energy and Mines Ph: (306) 787-2578 Victoria, BC Nunavut [email protected] Ph: (250) 952-0413 Alia Bigio [email protected] Staff Geologist, Mineral Yukon Resources Nunavut Regional Office Yukon Manitoba Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Lee Pigage Tania Martins Development Canada Head, Mineral Services Mineral Deposits Geologist Iqaluit, NU Yukon Geological Survey Manitoba Geological Survey Ph: (867) 975-4569 Whitehorse, YK Winnipeg, Manitoba [email protected] Ph: (867) 667-8192 Ph: (204) 945-0661 [email protected] [email protected] Charlie Roots Ontario Research Scientist, Bedrock Ann Wilson Geology New Brunswick Mineral Deposit Compilation Ph: (867) 667-8513 Alberta Kathleen G. Thorne Geoscientist [email protected] Mineral Deposits Geologist Ontario Geological Survey New Brunswick Department of Timmins, ON Natural Resources Ph: (705) 235-1614 Lands, Minerals and [email protected] Petroleum Division Fredericton, NB Ph: (506) 453-2206 [email protected] Prince Edward Island Ron Estabrooks PEI Energy Corporation Charlottetown, PEI Newfoundland and Ph: (902) 368-5011 Labrador [email protected] Andy Kerr Senior Geologist/Mineral Northwest Territories Deposits Section Geological Survey of Newfoundland and Labrador St. John's, NL Ph: (709) 729-2164 [email protected]
Element Abbreviations Mineral Abbreviation
Nova Scotia
British Columbia Table 2: This table is part of BC Geological Survey Open File 2012-07. This document can be downloaded free of charge from: http://www.em.gov.bc.ca/MINING/GEOSCIENCE/ PUBLICATIONSCATALOGUE/Pages/default.aspx
Ontario