AP Literature Literary Theories and Methods for Criticism
Historical / Biographical Approach: Definition: Historical / Biographical critics see works as the reflection of an author's life and times (or of the characters' life and times). They believe it is necessary to know about the author and the political, economical, and sociological context of his times in order to truly understand his works. Advantages: This approach works well for some works--like those of Alexander Pope, John Dryden, and Milton--which are obviously political in nature. One must know Milton was blind, for instance, for "On His Blindness" to have any meaning. And one must know something about the Exclusion Bill Crisis to appreciate John Dryden's "Absalom and Achitophel." It also is necessary to take a historical approach in order to place allusions in their proper classical, political, or biblical background. Disadvantages: New Critics refer to the historical / biographical critic's belief that the meaning or value of a work may be determined by the author's intention as "the intentional fallacy." They believe that this approach tends to reduce art to the level of biography and make it relative (to the times) rather than universal.
Moral / Philosophical Approach: Definition: Moral / philosophical critics believe that the larger purpose of literature is to teach morality and to probe philosophical issues. Advantages: This approach is useful for such works as Alexander Pope's "An Essay on Man," which does present an obvious moral philosophy. It is also useful when considering the themes of works (for example, man's inhumanity to man in Mark Twain's Huckleberry Finn). Finally, it does not view literature merely as "art" isolated from all moral implications; it recognizes that literature can affect readers, whether subtly or directly, and that the message of a work--and not just the decorous vehicle for that message--is important. Disadvantages: Detractors argue that such an approach can be too "judgmental." Some believe literature should be judged primarily (if not solely) on its artistic merits, not its moral or philosophical content.
Mimetic Approach: Definition: This can be closely related to the moral / philosophical approach, but is somewhat broader. Mimetic critics ask how well the work of literature accords with the real world. Is it accurate? Is it correct? Is it moral? Does it show how people really act? As such, mimetic criticism can include some forms of moral / philosophical criticism, psychological criticism, and feminist criticism.
Formalism / New Criticism Definition: A formalistic approach to literature, once called New Criticism, involves a close reading of the text. Formalistic critics believe that all information essential to the interpretation of a work must be found within the work itself; there is no need to bring in outside information about the history, politics, or society of the time, or about the author's life. Formalistic critics (presumably) do not view works through the lens of feminism, psychology, mythology, or any other such standpoint, and they are not interested in the work's affect on the reader. Formalistic critics spend much time analyzing irony, paradox, imagery, and metaphor. They are also interested in the work's setting, characters, symbols, and point of view. Terms Used in New Criticism: tension - the integral unity of the poem which results from the resolution of opposites, often in irony of paradox intentional fallacy - the belief that the meaning or value of a work may be determined by the author's intention affective fallacy - the belief that the meaning or value of a work may be determined by its affect on the http://comosr.spps.org/lit_theory reader external form - rhyme scheme, meter, stanza form, etc. objective correlative - originated by T.S. Eliot, this term refers to a collection of objects, situations, or events that instantly evoke a particular emotion. Advantages: This approach can be performed without much research, and it emphasizes the value of literature apart from its context (in effect makes literature timeless). Virtually all critical approaches must begin here. Disadvantages: The text is seen in isolation. Formalism ignores the context of the work. It cannot account for allusions. It tends to reduce literature to little more than a collection of rhetorical devices.
Psychological Approach Definition: Psychological critics view works through the lens of psychology. They look either at the psychological motivations of the characters or of the authors themselves, although the former is generally considered a more respectable approach. Most frequently, psychological critics apply Freudian psychology to works, but other approaches (such as a Jungian approach) also exist.
Freudian Approach: A Freudian approach often includes pinpointing the influences of a character's id (the instinctual, pleasure seeking part of the mind), superego (the part of the mind that represses the id's impulses) and the ego (the part of the mind that controls but does not repress the id's impulses, releasing them in a healthy way). Freudian critics like to point out the sexual implications of symbols and imagery, since Freud's believed that all human behavior is motivated by sexuality. They tend to see concave images, such as ponds, flowers, cups, and caves as female symbols; whereas objects that are longer than they are wide are usually seen as phallic symbols. Dancing, riding, and flying are associated with sexual pleasure. Water is usually associated with birth, the female principle, the maternal, the womb, and the death wish. Freudian critics occasionally discern the presence of an Oedipus complex (a boy's unconscious rivalry with his father for the love of his mother) in the male characters of certain works, such as Hamlet. They may also refer to Freud's psychology of child development, which includes the oral stage, the anal stage, and the genital stage.
Jungian Approach: Jung is also an influential force in myth (archetypal) criticism. Psychological critics are generally concerned with his concept of the process of individuation (the process of discovering what makes one different form everyone else). Jung labeled three parts of the self: the shadow, or the darker, unconscious self (usually the villain in literature); the persona, or a man's social personality (usually the hero); and the anima, or a man's "soul image" (usually the heroine). A neurosis occurs when someone fails to assimilate one of these unconscious components into his conscious and projects it on someone else. The persona must be flexible and be able to balance the components of the psyche. Advantages: It can be a useful tool for understanding some works, such as Henry James The Turning of the Screw, in which characters obviously have psychological issues. Like the biographical approach, knowing something about a writer's psychological make-up can give us insight into his work. Disadvantages: Psychological criticism can turn a work into little more than a psychological case study, neglecting to view it as a piece of art. Critics sometimes attempt to diagnose long dead authors based on their works, which is perhaps not the best evidence of their psychology. Critics tend to see sex in everything, exaggerating this aspect of literature. Finally, some works do not lend themselves readily to this approach.
http://comosr.spps.org/lit_theory Additionally, literary theory is an attempt to understand the various ways that different people read texts. Yes, we all know that not everyone “interprets” a book, poem, or even a song the same way. Theory gives readers a chance to view a text with a so-called different set of lenses (think outside the box—makes for stronger analysis).
This is merely an introduction to theory so I am just going to provide you with a few of the more common schools of criticism. Remember most of these theories are quite detailed so this is just a very brief overview of their main ideas and some theories have been combined to keep things simple.
Feminist/Gender Criticism (they are separate but I’m simplifying) View society in a “patriarchal” and “heterosexual” way, which has hindered or prevented women and homosexuals from realizing their true potential. Claim that both groups are viewed negatively, inferior, or as “the other.” · Consider the gender/orientation of the author, characters · What roles does gender or sexuality play in this work? (Examine power relations) · Look for sexual stereotypes either reinforced or contradicted · Imagine yourself as the opposite gender reading the text
Marxist Criticism Views society based on the economic and cultural theory of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engles. Assumes that each society is made up of a set of concepts, beliefs, values, and ways of thinking influenced by economic and class structures. · Consider who has the power/money and who doesn’t · What role does power, money, or class play in this work? · What happens as a result in differences in power/money? · Relate context of work to social-class of author and/or time period
Psychoanalytic Criticism Views text as an expression of the personality, state of mind, feelings, and desires of its author. Looks for the distinction between conscious and unconscious motives of characters and author. · Consider the author’s personality to explain and interpret a text · What repressed material is expressed in imagery or symbols? · What psychological theories are present in the characters (Oedipal complex, obsessive compulsive, sexual repression, denial, guilt)?
New Criticism/Structuralism Views text as existing independently. Meaning is discovered by doing a close reading and not by examining outside sources. · Focuses on the meanings and interactions of words, figures of speech, and symbols. · Looks for complex interrelations and ambiguities within a text. · Analyzes how parallels are established and create a unity within the text
Narratology/Archetypes: A form of Structuralism that focuses on the structure of stories. Identifies 31 actions that a story can contain and claims all stories pick from this list. Also focuses on the specific character types that are repeated within all stories—hero, villain, trickster, orphan, mentor etc.
Deconstruction/Post-Structuralism (definitely the most confusing one) http://comosr.spps.org/lit_theory Created by some very intelligent or very disturbed people who view literature as having no meaning because language has no meaning. Basically, you can never really know what the “meaning” of a story is because words are so abstract.
Historical Criticism/Post-Colonial Views text as a closely related to the time during which an author wrote. Focused on the social, political, economic, cultural, and/or intellectual climate of the time. Examines how other cultures are viewed in terms of an overpowering Western literature base. · Looks at issues of colonization and imperialism · Rejects the idea of marginalized people as “others” · Celebrates “hybridity” (existing in two cultures at once)
Modernism/Post-Modernism: Modernism is a rejection of traditional forms of literature (chronological plots, continuous narratives, closed endings etc.) in favor of experimental forms. They have a nostalgia for the past that they feel is lost so Modernist texts often include multiple allusions. Post-Modernists follow the same principles but celebrate the new forms of fragmentation rather than lamenting them. · Look for ironies within a text · Analyze fragmentation and a mixing of genres and forms · Blurs the line between “high” literature (classics) and popular literature (NY Times Bestsellers)
Okay, now that I’ve thoroughly confused you let’s try it and you’ll see it’s actually kind of fun. Let’s analyze The Lion King a.k.a. Hamlet with a few of these theories. Feminist/Gender: Can be viewed as the helpless role females have in society. The female lions are used to provide food and care for the young yet it is the males that have all the power. When Mufasa dies his power transfers to either his son or his brother. His wife is never even considered. Nala is also clearly “stronger” than Simba yet she is considered inferior.
Marxist: Can be viewed as the upper class (lions) trying to maintain power over an unhappy lower class (hyenas). The lower class resents the privileges of better food and hunting grounds that the upper class maintains. This conflict causes a rebellion, which disrupts the normal social order causing chaos and destruction.
Psychoanalytic: Can be viewed as a classic case of sibling rivalry—Scar is savagely jealous of his much stronger and might I say better looking older brother. Can also be viewed as the classic struggle to overcome feelings of guilt or inadequacy—both of which Simba has after the death of his father.
Narratology: Simba represents the classic hero quest. Simba suffers from a loss of a father figure and must go off on a journey to grow into his destiny. During his journey he meets tricksters (Timon/Pumba) who also act as his helpers and finds a mentor (crazy monkey with a stick). Nala also acts as the herald as she upsets the sleepy equilibrium in which the Simba has lived and starts his growth. He then has enough strength (mental and physical) to overcome the villain and restore everything to order.
http://comosr.spps.org/lit_theory New Lenses to See, Experience, and Understand Literature “Big Questions” about Literature What are the influences on how we read, interpret, and understand a text? How do we come to interpret a novel, poem, play, or story?
Literary Theories/Critical Theories are approaches to answer some of these questions. The Basic Idea The point of criticism is to argue your point of view on a work of literature. You do have to analyze a text and support your assertions with specific evidence from the text (and in college, from scholars). It’s crucial to go beyond plot development and into more abstract, higher-level thinking like theme, tone, purpose, etc. The Basic Idea A critical analysis is an in-depth examination of some aspect of the literary work You may examine any element of the text: character development, conflicts, narrative point of view, etc. Literary critical theories inform us of certain ways to approach big ideas in the novel.
CRITICAL APPROACHES PRIMER Biographical New Historicism Formalism Psychological - Freud Archetypal - Jung Feminist Marxist Postcolonial Theory Reader Response
Remember Cinderella? In a far away, long ago kingdom, Cinderella is living happily with her mother and father until her mother dies. Cinderella's father remarries a cold, cruel woman who has two daughters. When the father dies, Cinderella's wicked stepmother turns her into a servant in her own house. Meanwhile, across town in the castle, the King determines that his son the Prince should find a suitable bride and provide him with a required number of grandchildren. So the King invites every eligible maiden in the kingdom to a fancy dress ball, where his son will be able to choose his bride. Cinderella has no suitable party dress for a ball, but her friends (the mice and the birds) lend a hand in making her one, a dress the evil stepsisters immediately tear apart on the evening of the ball. At this point, enter the Fairy Godmother, the pumpkin carriage, the royal ball, the stroke of midnight, the glass slipper, and the rest, as they say, is fairy tale history. 1. Biographical Criticism views literature as the reflection of an author's life and times (or of the characters' life and times). it is necessary to know about the author and the political, economical, and sociological context of his times in order to truly understand his works. Biographical Approach Advantages: works well for some which are obviously political or biographical in nature. places allusions in their proper classical, political, or biblical background. Disadvantages: "the intentional fallacy" - assuming we can know the intent, thoughts, purposes of the author tends to reduce art to the level of biography and make it relative (to the times) rather than universal. 2. New Historicist Criticism New historicist critics view literature as part of history, and furthermore, as an expression of forces on history. New historicism compares literary analysis to a dynamic circle: The work tells us something about the surrounding ideology (slavery, rights of women, etc.) Study of the ideology tells us something about the work. New Historicism New historicism takes two forms: Analysis of the work in the context in which it was created Analysis of the work in the context in which it was critically evaluated. New historicists assert that literature “does not exist outside time and place and cannot be interpreted without reference to the era in which it was written” (Kirszner and Mandell 2038). So, why the “New” in Historicism?
Traditional (or “Old”) historicism is, by its nature, a subjective narrative, usually told from the point of view of the powerful, the “winners.” The “losers” of history do not have the means to write their stories, nor is there usually an audience interested in hearing them. Most cultures, once dominated by another, are forced to forget their past. Literature, especially, gives subjective voice to the oppressed. (e.g.: slave narratives) Cinderella What can we infer about the society in which this story—considering, especially, the violence and vengeance in the Grimm version—would evolve and be told to young children? What can we infer about property and inheritance laws in the society in which “Cinderella” evolved? What can we infer about the society’s view of royalty and monarchic power? 3. Formalism / New Criticism involves a close reading of the text all information essential to the interpretation of a work must be found within the work itself focuses on analyzing irony, paradox, imagery, and metaphor also interested in the work's setting, characters, symbols, and point of view. no need to bring in outside information about the history, politics, or society of the time, or about the author's life Formalism / New Criticism Advantages: can be performed without much research emphasizes the value of literature apart from its context virtually all critical approaches must begin here Disadvantages: text is seen in isolation ignores the context of the work cannot account for allusions Cinderella Look for symbolic, or some other, significance for the specific items and animals chosen (for the coach and staff) and/or the numbers of each chosen. Compare the speech patterns of Cinderella and the stepmother and stepsisters. Are there noticeable differences in cadence? Do any use more (or less) figurative or poetic language than the others? Do any speak noticeably more (or less) than the others? Are there any internal ironies or inconsistencies that render the work disunified? 4. Psychological Criticism views works through the lens of psychology looks either at the psychological motivations of the characters or of the authors themselves most frequently applies Freudian psychology to works, but other approaches also exist. Freudian Approach to Personality Three parts to an individual’s psyche: the id: the instinctual, pleasure seeking part of the mind the ego: the part of the mind that controls but does not repress the id's impulses, releasing them in a healthy way the superego: the part of the mind that represses the id's impulses Freudian Drives Freud believed that much human behavior is motivated by sexuality Oedipus complex: a boy's unconscious rivalry with his father for the love of his mother Electra complex: a girl’s unconscious rivalry with her mother for the love of her father
Cinderella
VS Psychoanalytical Approach Advantages: can be a useful tool for understanding character development and conflict Disadvantages: can turn a work into a psychological case study tends to see sex in everything, exaggerating this aspect of literature some works do not lend themselves readily to this approach. 5. Archetypal/Mythological Criticism assumes that there is a collection of symbols, images, characters, and motifs (i.e. archetypes) that evokes basically the same response in all people identifies these patterns and discusses how they function in the works asserts that these archetypes are the source of much of literature's power. Archetypal Approach based on the theories of psychologist Carl Jung he states that mankind possesses a "collective unconscious" that contains these archetypes and that is common to all of humanity Some Archetypes archetypal women - the Good Wife/Mother, the Terrible Mother, the Virgin (often a Damsel in Distress), and the Fallen Woman. water - creation, birth-death-resurrection, purification, redemption, fertility, growth garden - paradise (Eden), innocence, fertility desert - spiritual emptiness, death, hopelessness red - blood, sacrifice, passion, disorder green - growth, fertility black - chaos, death, evil serpent - evil, sensuality, mystery, wisdom, destruction seven - perfection hero archetype - The hero is involved in a quest (in which he overcomes obstacles). He experiences initiation (involving a separation, transformation, and return), and finally he serves as a scapegoat, that is, he dies to atone. Archetypal Approach Advantages: provides a universalistic approach to literature and identifies a reason why certain literature may survive the test of time it works well with works that are highly symbolic Disadvantages: literature may become a vehicle for archetypes can easily become a list of symbols without much analysis A Riddle A father and his son are in a car accident. The father dies at the scene and the son is rushed to the hospital. At the hospital the surgeon looks at the boy and says "I can't operate on this boy, he is my son" .... How can this be? The surgeon is the child’s mother What does this simple riddle reveal about our assumptions regarding gender? 6. Feminist/Gender Criticism ...the ways in which literature (and other cultural productions) reinforce or undermine the economic, political, social, and psychological oppression of women Role of women in the literary work; representations of women Power structures between men and women The female/feminine experience Some common considerations for feminist/gender critics Patriarchal ideologies and its effects on women (and men) While biology determines our sex (male or female), culture determines our gender (masculine or feminine) (Lois Tyson, Critical Theory Today) Sex and gender equality Stereotypical representations of gender Marginalization Bechdel Test The Bechdel test asks if a work of fiction (literature, drama, film, etc.) features at least two women who talk to each other about something other than a man. The requirement that the two women must be named is sometimes added. Hermeneutics of Suspicion A popular mode of critical discourse in today’s academy is that of suspicion, or critique When we critique a text, we find underlying problems or inconsistencies in its message Feminist scholars are often write critiques of literature and culture that reveal problematic ideologies like patriarchy, misogyny, sexism, homophobia, etc. Cinderella Consider the misogynist theme of abused-girl- waiting-to-be-rescued-by-prince. Can Cinderella save herself? Why in need of man? Can’t woman exist independent of man? Consider the values conveyed in the portrayal of the “good girl” as physically beautiful and the “wicked girls” as physically ugly Are women only valuable to men as sexualized objects? 7. Marxist Criticism Karl Marx perceived human history to have consisted of a series of struggles between classes--between the oppressed and the oppressing (“the haves” and “the have- nots”). Marx thought that materialism was the ultimate driving force in history Marxist Approach Focus on the ideological content of a work Explicit and implicit assumptions and values about race, culture, class, and power Texts are political in nature, responding to larger social and material constructs Material, not psychological Marxist Approach Marxist criticism examines the nature of power structures within a novel. A Marxist critic asks questions like: Who has power? Who lacks power? What is the relationship between power and wealth? Who is exploited by whom and why? How does power remain constant or shift throughout a work of literature? What makes certain characters powerful or powerless?
Marxist Approach It also examines commodities, possessions that give power Typical commodities are things like land and money but can also be things like social position, knowledge, or even a person Marxist criticism can also examine what commodities bring power and why within a work of literature Suspicion – Marxist scholars will seek to find problems relating to capitalism, wealth inequality, class struggle, etc. Cinderella Consider Cinderella as a representative of the proletariat: oppressed by her bourgeoisie stepmother and stepsisters, who have stolen her rightful inheritance and turned her into a servant in her own home; desiring to join the ranks of the bourgeoisie by marrying the prince.
8. Postcolonial Theory focuses on the reading and writing of literature written in previously or currently colonized countries. The literature is composed of colonizing countries that deals with colonization or colonized peoples. Greatly interested in the cultures of the colonizer and the colonized, postcolonial theory seeks to critically investigate what happens when two cultures clash and one of them ideologically fashions itself as superior and assumes dominance and control over the other. Depends on historical understanding of time and place. What colonizer-colonized relationships have we seen in history? Recently* Colonized Geographies Latin America Africa East and Southeast Asia South Asia Caribbean Polynesia United States History is Written by the Victors What happens during and after colonization? what language do you speak? what culture do you follow? Hybridization – mixing of cultures (British and Indian coming together and melding) Double Consciousness – holding two distinct cultures simultaneously (being under British rule while still practicing Indian cultural norms) Race/Ethnicity – who defines power structures along race and ethnicity? Application Cinderella as conquered individual, under the tyrannical rule of stepmother (unnatural maternal figure who “invades” the family) Undemocratically elected prince continues to build riches on the backs of colonized paupers. The only way Cinderella can escape poverty is playing the monarchy game. Better Applications of Postcolonial Theory 9. Reader Response Criticism analyzes the reader's role in the production of meaning lies at the opposite end of the spectrum from formalism the text itself has no meaning until it is read by a reader The reader creates the meaning. can take into account the strategies employed by the author to elicit a certain response from readers denies the possibility that works are universal (i.e. that they will always mean more or less the same thing to readers everywhere) Reader Response Criticism Advantages: recognizes that different people view works differently and that people's interpretations change over time. Disadvantages: tends to make interpretation too subjective does not provide adequate criteria for evaluating one reading in comparison to another Cinderella How is the reader/audience meant to feel when Cinderella finally wins over the Prince? Who is the most sympathetic character of the film? Why are we drawn to these characters? CRITICAL APPROACHES PRIMER Biographical Formalism AP EXAM Questions 1 & 2 (poetry and prose analysis) New Historicism
Social/Political Also helpful for Question 3 (open-ended) Cultural Psychological - Freud Mythological and Archetypal - Jung Feminist Also helpful for Question 3 (open-ended) Marxist Also helpful for Question 3 (open-ended) Postcolonial Theory Also helpful for Question 3 (open-ended) Reader Response So, what’s the point? These approaches help us to pay attention to some details in new and varied ways. How does Gatsby (1925) anticipate the Stock Market crash of 1929? Why is it significant that Gatsby is a bootlegger? These theories can help us investigate deeper themes or problems of the text we’re studying. e.g. Does Daisy represent progress for women in Gatsby? What is the problem if she doesn’t? e.g. Why is it significant that George (working class) kills Gatsby (upper class)? Does the fact that he mistakenly identifies Gatsby as the killer have any allegorical meaning? For questions posed by each theory, REFER TO PAGES 1565- 1567 OF BEDFORD TEXTBOOK Select a theory and write a few critical statements about The Lion King from that perspective.
Formalism/New Criticism New Historicism Biographical Psychological (Archetypes or Freud) Feminist/Gender Marxist Postcolonial Reader Response (Simba/Hamlet)
MarxistU Analysis of Animal farm by George Orwell
George Orwell, English Essayist, Journalist, Critic and a Socialist, wrote to give awareness
of social injustice and present opposition to totalitarianism. AlthusserU U says, “Art ‘makes us
see’, in a distanced way, ‘the ideology from which it is born, in which it bathes, from which
it detaches itself as art, and to which it alludes’.” Orwell’s novel Animal Farm makes us see that. It is an allegory about the history of Soviet Union and Russian Revolution, in particular and
revolution along with exploiters and the exploited, in general. Orwell’s aim was to unleash the
reality and guide those misguided ones; the ones who were instructed and interpellated. He, through this fable, has shown that the ideas of the original founders of the Revolution had been betrayed and the workers were maltreated by Communist government as they had been by Tsar
.who was overthrown in ۱۹۱۷
In the novel, Mr. Jones, the owner of the Manor Farm, represents the ruling classes of society or
the country’s governing elite. ConsumerismU U is prevalent in him. He takes from the animals what
they can offer and often forgets feeding them. Old Major Boar who actually represents Karl Marx, the father of Communism, convenes a meeting; all the animals gather and are told, “Man
is the only enemy we have. Remove man from the scene and the root cause is abolished forever.”
His speech is, in a way, a classic Marxist critique of capitalist exploitation in which the
human (the farmers) own the means of production (the farm buildings and tools), while the
animals slave away and receive in return just enough to keep working which is very similar
to the privileged ones and the working animals, in this novel.
What Old Major proposes in his speech is what gets given the name of Animalism
(Communism), after Old major’s death, by Napoleon and Snowball, who represent Stalin and
Trotsky, respectively. This is similar to Marx’s ideals and hypotheses about collective effort
and rejection of the class and capitalist systems. Seven Commandments are formed which are,
sooner or later, exploited and altered: (Exploitation in the brackets)
Whatever goes upon two legs is an enemy. (Humans are befriended and Pigs begin walking .۱ on two sticks)
(Whatever goes upon four legs, or has wings, is a friend. (This is wholly rejected .۲
(No animal shall wear clothes. (They start wearing clothes .۳
(No animal shall sleep in a bed. (No animal shall sleep in a bed with sheets .٤ (No animal shall drink alcohol. (No animal shall drink alcohol in excess .٥
(No animal shall kill any other animal. (No animal shall kill any other animal without cause .٦
(All animals are equal. (All animals are equal but some animals are more equal than others .۷
The pigs and dogs are the ‘privileged’ ones. They do little and take in more. They do what they
wish to and their acts, no matter how evil, are justified. Power is maintained by ‘Repressive
Structures’ and ‘Ideological Apparatuses’ as well. Other animals work and are exploited,
specifically Boxer who is of use only till he can work, when he is hurt and fails to work and be of
some use, he if given off. This is “commodification” according to Marx. Just as the people of
the working class are treated, are the animals treated in this novel. Napoleon (Stalin) makes his ways straight, he kills if need be with the help of his ‘nine enormous dogs’ (the secret force of
Stalin with the help of which he got ۲۰ million people killed whom he suspected conspiring against him – “Great Purges”). There is this ‘legitimate use of force’. Snowball (Trotsky) is dashed out. Whatever Napoleon does is ‘made justified’ by Squealor, who represents the Press.
All the animals are made to believe that all is being done for their welfare but in reality the
interests of the dominant class are secured. Ideological Power is greater than Material Power and Napoleon (Stalin) has both. Class discrimination is there and it gets to be because of Hegemony. The powerful ones exploit and those being exploited do not even whimper because they do not even know they are being exploited. The idea of “milk and apples” being good for pigs as they are the “brain-workers” is similar to the ideology put forth by the elite. The worker is made to feel foreign to the products of his/her own labor. According to Marx, the material interests of the dominant social class determine how people see existence, individual and collective.
By the end it is seen how the revolution fails and those who were to revolutionize become one with those who exploit. Pigs do everything they said was not to be done. The end and failure shows it is not possible to have a classless society which is the main aim of Marxism. Equality, comradeship, social and economic justice, freedom of thought, speech and action are curbed, all in all.