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Bhutanese Refugee Women and Oral Histories of Self and Nation About WISCOMP WISCOMP Initiated in 1999, WISCOMP is a project of the FOUNDATION FOR UNIVERSAL RESPONSIBILITY, in New Delhi, India. It is a South Asian Perspectives initiative that works at the confluence of peacebuilding and security studies. Gender concerns provide the leitmotif of its programs. Memory and Migration: 28 Bhutanese Refugee Women and Oral Histories of Self and Nation Memory and Migration: Awarded by WISCOMP for academic research, media projects and special projects, the Scholar of Peace Fellowships are designed to Bhutanese Refugee Women encourage innovative work by academics, policymakers, defence and foreign affairs practitioners, journalists, NGO workers, creative artists and Oral Histories of and others. The fellowships are seen as an important step to encourage work at the interface of gender and security; conflict resolution and peace. Self and Nation These studies are expected to provide information about problems pertaining to security, promote understanding of structural causes of conflict, suggest alternatives and encourage peace initiatives and interventions. The work of the Fellows is showcased in the form of the WISCOMP Perspectives and Discussion Papers series. Malavika Vartak The twenty eighth in the Perspectives series, this paper focuses on the ‘flight’ and ‘temporary settlement’ of the Bhutanese refugee women living in Nepal – the uncertainties, the sufferings and feelings of rootlessness that overwhelm them. Based on in-depth interviews conducted with the refugees, the office bearers of humanitarian organizations working in the area and field observations of the author the paper provides a comprehensive assessment of the social, psychological and economic wellbeing of the refugee women. The author links the Duar War of 1865 with the 1990s refugee crisis in Bhutan to raise important questions about citizenship and identity. Malavika Vartak coordinates the Global Forced Evictions Programme at the Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions and is currently based in Accra, Ghana. She has previously worked with the Housing and Land Rights Network Delhi, International Rivers Network, Berkeley, and the Institute of Advanced Legal Studies, Pune. Malavika has studied at the Universities of Pune, Hyderabad and London. Women in Security, Conflict Management and Peace (WISCOMP) Foundation for Universal Responsibility of HH the Dalai Lama Core 4 A, Upper Ground Floor, India Habitat Centre Lodhi Road, New Delhi-110 003, India Foundation for Phone : 91-11-24648450 Fax : 91-11-24648451 Universal Email: [email protected] Responsibility Website: www.wiscomp.org m k Memory and Migration: Bhutanese Refugee Women and Oral Histories of Self and Nation Malavika Vartak Memory and Migration: Bhutanese Refugee Women and Oral Histories of Self and Nation Copyright© WISCOMP Foundation for Universal Responsibility of His Holiness the Dalai Lama, New Delhi, India, 2008. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Published by WISCOMP Foundation for Universal Responsibility of His Holiness the Dalai Lama Core 4A, UGF, India Habitat Centre Lodhi Road, New Delhi 110 003, India This initiative was made possible by a grant from the Ford Foundation. The views expressed are those of the author. They do not necessarily reflect those of WISCOMP or the Foundation for Universal Responsibility of HH The Dalai Lama, nor are they endorsed by them. 2 Contents Acknowledgements ...........................................................................5 Preface ...............................................................................................7 Nepali Mulkani Bhutani Hami .....................................................10 Methodology.....................................................................................12 Introduction.....................................................................................15 Bhutanese Refugee Women ...............................................................19 The Lhotshampas: Searching for History.....................................21 A brief historical background of Bhutan ...........................................22 Tibetan Migration into Bhutan ..........................................................23 The Establishment of the Wangchuk Dynasty ...................................23 The Lhotshampas: An invisibilised people........................................25 Citizenship Act of 1958 ......................................................................28 Developments in Bhutan from 1958 – 1988: Alienation through Integration ..........................................................30 The 1977 amendment to the Citizenship Act .....................................30 Bhutan Citizenship Act 1985 .............................................................32 Policy of One Nation One People .....................................................33 Brewing of discontent in Southern Bhutan. ......................................33 From Citizens to Refugees .................................................................35 Memories of Forced Migration......................................................38 Life in Bhutan before the ‘Andolan’ ................................................. 39 The ‘Andolan’ and the Forced Eviction ........................................... 42 Census ............................................................................................... 44 Forced Eviction: A Journey of Pain ................................................. 45 Lost Families ..................................................................................... 53 Maidhar: Makeshift Respite ............................................................. 55 3 Life in the Refugee Camps ............................................................58 Refugee Camps Today ....................................................................... 60 Food .................................................................................................. 62 Housing ............................................................................................. 63 Employment ....................................................................................... 65 Health ................................................................................................ 66 Education .......................................................................................... 67 Domestic and Sexual Violence.......................................................... 68 Relations with the local community ................................................. 69 Towards a Resolution......................................................................71 A ‘Durable Solution’ ......................................................................... 73 Women’s Perspectives ....................................................................... 74 Marginality within a marginalised group ........................................ 79 Conclusion .......................................................................................85 History as the first step towards identity formation ........................ 86 Endogamy.......................................................................................... 91 Nation and Nationality ..................................................................... 94 End Notes.......................................................................................98 References........................................................................................108 4 Acknowledgements The present report is the result of the Scholar of Peace fellowship granted by Women in Security, Conflict Management and Peace (WISCOMP) an initiative of the Foundation for Universal Responsibility of His Holiness the Dalai Lama. I thank WISCOMP for making this study possible and specifically Sumona DasGupta, Seema Kakran and Stuti Bhatnagar for their support during the course of the study. This research study would have been impossible without the support of a variety of friends and colleagues working in the refugee camps in eastern Nepal. I would like to thank Fr. Varkey Perakatt S.J., Field Director of Caritas Nepal for his encouragement and support right from the time the project was conceived. I thank him not only for his valuable time and insights which helped me tremendously in gaining an in-depth understanding of various issues concerning the Bhutanese refugee community but also for his endless and warm hospitality and patience with my many and frequent queries. I would also like to thank other Caritas staff including Sr. Theresina, Sr. Sarita, Sr. Josephine and Br. Julian for their generosity. I also had the support of Ratan Gazmere of the Association of Human Rights Activists (AHURA) Bhutan right from the inception of the project. Ratan’s encouragement and help with execution of the study is highly appreciated. Many thanks are also due to Ramlal Acharya at AHURA Bhutan for all his help during the course of fieldwork. Sushma Kharka Chhetri of AHURA Bhutan deserves special mention as a highly committed and adept interpreter with tremendous patience. I also wish to thank Sushma for making my access to women in the refugee camps extremely smooth and easy and helping me gain the trust of the women I met. She also helped me get the necessary permissions from the National Unit for Coordination
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