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GURUNG, ANUJ, Ph. D., August 2019 POLITICAL SCIENCE ANATOMY OF RESETTLEMENT: MIXED-METHOD RESEARCH ON BHUTANESE REFUGEES (410 PP.) Dissertation Advisor: Landon E. Hancock This dissertation is a much-needed study of how resettlement impacts refugees. I found the ‘solution’ of resettlement to be promising for some refugees yet restrictive for others. Based on my analysis, Bhutanese refugees interpret their past and present differently in negotiating their place and identity in resettlement. In Akron, many have found stable jobs, started businesses, and are pursuing higher education aspirations. Opportunities in resettlement and their positive self-perception allows these individuals to expand and ‘own’ their new revised identities (e.g. Bhutanese-Nepali), in contrast to the primary socialized identity preferences (i.e. the Bhutanese label) of refugees who find themselves marginalized and dependent in their new environment. At a broader level, I have found the US resettlement policy to be exclusively invested in economic output of refugees with little regard for their socio-cultural adaptation. Given the diversity of refugee experiences and their reasons behind ‘choosing’ resettlement, resettlement policy merits further critical examination and likely a structural revision. Scholars of refugee and immigrant behavior, as well as interested policy makers will find this work highly pertinent. In this study, I used ethnographic research—interviews and field observations—centered on Bhutanese refugees; I also employed a limited statistical examination of refugee migration patterns in the US. i ANATOMY OF RESETTLEMENT: MIXED-METHOD RESEARCH ON BHUTANESE REFUGEES A dissertation submitted to Kent State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Anuj Gurung August 2019 © Copyright All rights reserved Except for previously published materials ii Dissertation written by Anuj Gurung B.A. Hiram College, 2008 M.A. Georgetown University, 2011 Ph.D. Kent State University, 2019 Approved by Dr. Landon E. Hancock , Chair, Doctoral Dissertation Committee Dr. Patrick G. Coy , Members, Doctoral Dissertation Committee Dr. Daniel P. Hawes , Dr. Kathryn Wilson , Dr. David W. Odell-Scott , Accepted by Dr. Andrew Barnes , Director, Department of Political Science Dr. James L. Blank , Dean, School of Arts and Sciences iii TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS..…..……………………………………………………………iv LIST OF FIGURES……….……....……………………………………………………...vi LIST OF TABLES ………..…...…………..……………………………………………vii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ………...……………………………………...…………….viii CHAPTERS I. INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………….….1 The Refugee Context.…...….………………………….……..…………………4 A Narrative of Identity and Agency……..…………………….………………..9 Research Path Forward..…………………..….….……….……..……………..12 Chapter Conclusion…....…………...………….………………………………16 II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ………….…………………………...…..17 Refugee Experience in Camps: A Precursor to Agency………….……….….. 25 Review of Resettlement-Centered Scholarship…………………….……….... 30 Review of Relevant Scholarship on Identity………………...……………...…54 Chapter Conclusion……………………………...…………………………….71 III. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS …..……………………………….72 A Case for Ethnographic Case Study…………………………….……………75 Brief Discussion on Agency in the Quantitative Chapter………..…….….…119 Chapter Conclusion………………………………………..………………....121 IV. CASE STUDY FINDINGS I………………..…………………….……….. 122 Initial Discussion on Refugee Identities………..……………...…………….127 Post-Refugee Identities: A Shift toward Hybrid Labels…..………...……….133 iv Bhutanese Refugee Experience: A Tale of Three Locations…..……………147 Memory of Bhutan: Repression, Dissidence, and Flight…..………….……..152 Pre-Flight Identity Frames ….………………………….…….……………...169 Refugee-ness in Nepal: Narratives of Survival…………….…….….………171 Chapter Conclusion…………………………….……………...…………….195 V. CASE STUDY FINDINGS II……………….………………………………197 Lack of Social Agency in Resettlement …………………………………….205 Challenges of Access and Isolation among the Older Generation…….…….211 Social Agency of the Empowered Refugees ………………………………..233 Institution, Agency, and Claiming of Identity…………….…………………263 Chapter Conclusion …………………………………………………………279 VI. STATISTICAL FINDINGS…………….…….……………………………..280 Pertinent Scholarship and Hypotheses…………………….……………..…..286 Research Design and Data ………………………….…………………….....312 Empirical Analysis …………………………………………….…………… 323 Chapter Conclusion..…………………………………………………………332 VII. DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS………….334 Reflection of the Research Question..……..………………………………....334 Research Implications.……………………………………………………….342 Research Challenges..……………………………………….……………….356 Research Path Forward ……………………………………………….……..363 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………370 APPENDICES………………………………………………………………………….395 A. Letter of Consent ……………………………………..…………..………395 B. Economic Development Project Materials………………….…….....……397 C. North Hill Residential Map…………………………………….…..……. 405 D. BCAA Brochure……………………………………………….……..….. 406 E. Chapter VI Statistical Tables………………………………..………….…407 v LIST OF FIGURES 1. Incoming Bhutanese Population (Source: PRM) ………………..………………10 2. Bhutan and Surrounding Region (Source: NewSin Asia) ……………………….85 3. Conceptual Mapping of Emergent Themes (NVivo Nodes) ………………...…117 4. Outline of Bhutanese Refugee Experience and Identities ………………….......124 5. Evolution of Bhutanese Refugee Identities……………………………………. 137 6. Experience-Agency-Identity Relation……...…………………………………. 201 7. 2015 Refugee Residence and Businesses in North Hill……………..…………208 8. Total Refugee Population in North Hill in 2010 and in 2015 (Source: IIA)…...210 9. Comparison of Immigrant and US-owned Revenue Trend in North Hill….…..245 10. Nepali Caste Hierarchy (Source: Diana Simpson)….………………………….273 11. Bhutanese Community Association of Akron (BCAA) Brochure……………. 276 12. Scatter Plot of TANF Benefits and Total Refugee-related Welfare (2012)……298 13. Refugee-related Welfare Over the Years………………………………………299 14. Distribution of Incoming Refugees to the US …………………………………314 15. Determinants of Refugee Identity Preferences…………………………………340 16. Structure of Resettlement and its Human Toll………………………………....344 vi LIST OF TABLES 1. Interviewee Breakdown by Gender ……………………………………….…..133 2. Interviewee Breakdown by Professional Status ………………………………134 3. Post-Refugee Identity Categories …………………………………………..... 135 4. A Picture of ‘Suffering’ ……………………………………………..………..148 5. A Picture of Resettlement Challenges (NVivo Data) ……………………….. 220 6. A Picture of Resettlement Challenges (Continued) …………………………..237 7. US-owned businesses in North Hill.…………………………………………..243 8. Immigrant-owned Businesses in North Hill.………………………………….247 9. Bhutanese-Owned businesses in North Hill.………………………………….248 10. Experience and Identity ……………………………………………………... 263 11. Summary Statistics Table …………………………………………………….317 12. Panel-Corrected Standard Errors (PCSE) Models of Secondary Migration..…327 vii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Dissertation is often a lonely undertaking and it isn’t completed without support. As I have learned from many of my interviewees, our present is intimately linked with our past and future hopes. My family (mom, dad, aaji, and Sony) in Nepal built the foundation on which I stand proudly today. Dr. Hancock and Dr. Coy have allowed me to forge my own path but have always been there to guide and inspire me. I am indebted to Dr. Hawes for instilling the curiosity of statistical methods in social sciences research. I am also grateful to Dr. Odell-Scott and Dr. Wilson for their insightful comments on my writing and concepts. My work provides an important yet incomplete picture of refugee resettlement. All mistakes in this document are solely mine. Members of the Bhutanese community were generous with their time and information. Without them, this research wouldn’t have been possible. They continue to reshape their life and North Hill, quietly but surely. It was a pleasure to share the workspace with some incredible individuals at International Institute of Akron, many of whom continue to fight for refugee and immigrant rights even in an inhospitable political climate of today. Like them, I will continue to advocate for refugee and immigrant rights. Finally, I extend my deepest gratitude to Rachel, my wife and fellow traveler. She has seen the good and the bad days of this journey, and has been my cheerleader and anchor, as necessary. Thank you. viii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION What is the impact of third-country resettlement on a Bhutanese refugee community? In lieu of answering this broad question, this research is an attempt to understand resettled Bhutanese refugees’ agency, expressed through their group identity and cultural practices. Permanent migratory process—in this case, refugee resettlement—leads to agency-altering and identity-transforming consequences. Based on my research, agency and identity are interlinked; as refugees adapt to their host environment in a variety of ways, their agency and perceived social position influence their identities. From epistemological and methodological points of view, my investigation consists of several moving parts. I seek to utilize this introductory chapter to help the reader make sense of the what, the why, and the how of my research. First, let me elaborate on my research question. Resettlement in the United States is a family-based migration process, planned by the US government, and carried out by voluntary agencies (volags), and local-level institutions (Nawyn 2006; Singer and Wilson 2006). Over the last decade, Bhutanese
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