DHEW) , Washington, D.C

Home , Education in Brazil, Guanabara (state)

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 054 025 SO 001 549

AUTHOR Harrell, William A. TITLE Educational Reform in Brazil. The Law of 1961. INSTITUTION Office of Education (DHEW) , Washington, D.C. REPORT NO 0E-14135 PUB DATE 68 NOTE 58p.; Studies in Comparative Education Series.

EDRS PRICE EDRS Price MF-$0.65 HC-$3.29 DESCRIPTORS Administrative Organization, *Area Studies, *Comparative Education, *Decentralization, Developing Nations, Educational Administration, *Educational Change, *Educational Legislation, Educational Trends, Environmental Influences, General Education, Governing Boards, Government Role, Higher Education, National Programs, National Surveys, Rural Urban Differences, Teachers IDENTIFIERS *Brazil, Educational Systems

ABSTRACT On December 21, 1961 the Brazilian Congress passed the Law of Directives and Bases of National Education, implementing the educational provisions of the Constitution of 1946. This Law of 1961 was Brazil's first general education law and was widely publicized as decentralizing the administration of and the responsibility for Brazilian education, and providing for the needed degree of flexibility for the varied regional conditions within the country. It is with such reforms and trends in Brazilian education, following implementation of the Law of 1961, that the present study is principally concerned. Part I describes the background of the national scene in which the Law of 1961 was to function. Part II discusses the system of education as it existed in 1961. Part III presents the provisions of the law, its implementation, beginning in 1962, at all levels of Brazilian education; and the implications for future educational development in Brazil. (Author) 1 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE OFFICE,OF EOUCATION THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO. DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIG INATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPIN- IONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDU- CATION POSITION OR POLICY

0E-14135 Educational Reform in BRAZIL The Law of 1961

William A. Harrell Specialist in Comparative Education for Western Hemisphere Institute of International Studies

U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Wilbur J. Cohen, Secretary Office of Education Harold Howe II, Commissioner FOREWORD

Brazil is a major country. Covering half of the South American continent, it has a population of more than 85 millionalmost 40 percent of the total population of Latin America. Unfortunately, little has appeared in English on the country's educational system, especially since 1961, when Brazil's first general law on education was enacted. The implementation of the Law of 1961 has been very significant in major reforms affecting Brazilianeducation at all levels. The present study constitutes a substantial source of information on the progress in Brazilian education under the Law of 1961 to the end of 1966. It is one of the Office of Education's continuing series on education in other countries, especially the developing ones.

t.J iI

PREFACE

Educational Reform in Brazil: The Law of 1961 is a study of legislation passed by the Brazilian Congress near the end of 1961 and the effects of the law on Brazilian education. In no sense is it an attempt to discuss all educational changes that have taken place or to predict future ones. It describes those that occurred from 1961 to near the end of 1966, when the Brazilian Constitution of 1966 was adopted. It surveys trends and gives some details on the changes. The study is based on several sources of information. First, the author has drawn considerably from personal experienceinthe Brazilian system of education from 1956 to the end of 1961. A field trip which lie took in April and May of 1965 afforded him an opportunity to observe at first hand some of the changes which had already occurred and to discuss with Brazilian educators their observations, opinions, and experiences. He has also drawn on printed information which he collected both in the United States and in Brazil, including documents, Government reports, newspaper articles and comments, and educational reviews. Statistical data appearing in this report are intended only to indicate trends and to furnish information which will contribute to the overall picture of Brazilian education, Most of the percentage figures are based on slide-rule calculations and hence do not necessarily add to 100 percent. Gratitude is expressed for the assistance given by the many Brazilian educators and others who took their valuable time to confer with the author. This group includes teachers and school administrators from both public and private schools, and government officials from both State and Federal agencies. Special thanks must be expressed to Pro- fessor Jose Comes dc Campos and Profcssora Maria de Lourdes Duarte (lotto. Ives who, while serving in responsible positions with the Federal Council of Education, gave the author valuable guidance. CONTENTS

Page Page FOREWORD ii Guidelines oftheConstitutionof 1946 27 PREFACE. iii Enactment of the Law 27 Provisions of the Law 28 INTRODUCTION Elementary Education 31 Middle-Level Education 31 Part I. The Country's Background Higher Education 33 Chapter I. The Influence of Social, Chapter 5. Implementation of the Economic, and Political Factors Law 35 on Education 2 The Federal Council of Education 35 Geography and Climate 2 State Councils of Education 36 Population Distribution 2 The Ministry of Education and The Economy 5 Culture 36 The Government 6 The National Plan for Education. 37 Political Factors 6 EmployerSupport:Educational Sonic Effects of the Country's Back- Salary Law 38 ground on Education 7 Elementary Education 38 Middle-Level Education 39 Part II. Brazilian Education: 1961 Higher Education 42 General Enrollment Trends 45 Chapter 2. The Education System 10 Levels and Functions 10 Elementary Education 11 CONCLUSION 48 Middle-Level Education 13 Higher Education 18 BIBLIOGRAPHY 50 Chapter 3. General Characteristics of Education: 1961 23 TEXT TABLES: The Academic Approach 23 1. Population and national area of Restriction of Opportunity 23 Brazil, by States and Territories, Teaching Staffs 24 and density of population in each, Government Control and Centrali- by percent: 1950 3 inthe zation 24 2. Rural-urbanpopulation States and Territories of Brazil, Private Participation 25 by percent: 1960 4 Urban Predominance 25 3. Population of Brazil:Percentage by age group and sex, 1960 5 Part III. The 1961 Law of Directives and 4. Percent of total elementary school Bases enrollment, by States or Territo- Chapter 4. Enactment and Provi- ries, operating authority, and type sions of the Law 27 of school: 1961 11

iv Page Page 5. Percentofelementary school levelandprogramsofstudy: teachersrepresentedby women 1961 21 and by normal school graduates 12. Total higher education enrollment (men and women), by States and by states, and percent of enroll- Territories:1961 12 ment in each: 1961 ...... 6. Percent of total elementary school 13. Minimum higher education pro - earollnient,bygradesandby grains prescribed by the Federal States or Territories:1961 1.1 Council of Education, and years 7. Number and percent of middle- required for each: Brazil, 1963 43 level school enrollment, by pro- 14. Totalelementaryschoolenroll- grams, cycles, and operating au- ment, and percent of enrollment thorities:1961 .. . 15 by types of schools:1956, 1961, 8. Percent of total middle-level en 1966 46 rollment, by year and type of pro- 15. Total middle-level school enroll- gram: 1950-61 17 9. Middle-levelgradesenrollment ment and percent of enrollment and completion as a percent of by types of schools:1956, 1961, 1966 46 first-grade enrollment: 1958-61 17 10. Middle-level school enrollment in 16. Totalhighereducationenroll- relationtototalpopulation, by ments, by level and field of study: States and Territories, and percent 1966 47 of nationaliniddle-levelenroll- 17. Retention rates, per 100 students ment: 1961 18 entering first grade of elementary- 11. N'unber andpercentoftotal level school, through middle-level: higher education enrollment, by 1942-55 47

v Introduction On December 21, 1961, the Brazilian Congress essarily changed, and possibly are influencing and passed the Law of Directives and Bases of National molcl the implementation of the law more than Education (Lci de Direti:es e Bases de Educavio the law will change the concepts. The structures Nacional), implementing the educationalprovi- of the systems are being modified, but the concepts sions of the Constitution of 1946. This Law of 1961 of how a system should function and what it should was Brazil's first general education law. do definitely affect how and what parts of the Separate legislation had earlier dealt with vari- structure will be effective. Itis necessary to know ous problems and aspects of education, but no something of these changes in order to understand previous Brazilian Constitution had provided for \vhat the law means in Brazil. so broad a coverage of education as did that of An easy approach to a study on the Law of 1946. Since no existing legal instrument imple- Directives and Bases would be simply to state the mented the specific constitutional provisions, the provisions of the law and conclude that all parts Brazilian system of education continued to func- of the legislation are being and will be imple- tion as it had done in the past, with concentrated mented equally. Such an approach would be highly control and rigid curriculum, untilthe Law of unrealistic. Itis necessary to state the provisions 1961 was passed. of the law, but it is even more necessary to provide The 1961 Law of Directives and Bases was information about how itis being implemented. widely publicized as decentralizing the administra- Therefore chapter 6 deals not with what should tion of and the responsibility for Brazilian educa- happen but what is happening in Brazilian education, and providing for the needed degree of flex- tion because of the law. ibility for the varied regional conditions within the In summary, this is a three-part study: country. Part I describes the background of the national It is with such reforms and trends in Brazilian scene in which the Law of 1961 was to function. education, following implementation of the Law Part II discusses the system of education as it of1961,thatthepresent studyisprincipally existed in 1961, before enactment of the new gen- concerned. eral law in that year. The Law of Directives and Bases did not estab- Part III presents provisions of the law, its lisha new educational system.It modified the implementation, beginning in 1962, at all levels of already functioning educational systems of Brazil. Brazilian education; and the implications for fu- The existing concepts of education were not nec- ture educational development in Brazil. PART I The Country'sBackground 11111111111111111.riumoiNEM11111111110111111111111111

Chapter 1 The Influence of Social, Economic, and Political Factorson Edlication

A study of education in Brazil must be predi- ParaguayNvi)ichflowsinto theRiverPlate. cated upon a knowledge of the physical, social, and Part of the central regionis chained by the Sao economic conditions, which vitally influence the Francisco river, which provic. es an inland avenue regional development of education, and the general of transportation, but the Pau lo Afonso Falls make characteristics of the educational system as it was impossible any shipping conti ct with the Atlantic at the (rid of 1961. The sections of the central r gion not drained by For example, the varied geographic and climatic the two river systems are part! of the Tocatins river features of Brazil and their effects on culture and system, and flow into the Atlaitic near the equator. society were advanced by proponents of the Law The northern part of Braziis drained by the of 1961 as strong arguments for the decentraliza- Amazon and its tributaries. tion of the school system and greater flexibility in The climate varies as cruelas the terrain. The schoolprogramsandcurriculums.Certainly. Amazon region, part of the 7 Dcantins system, and Brazil's swelling population, its shifting from rural sonic coastal areas are covere I with tropical rain to urba...-.enters, the still sparsely populated in- forests. The interior of the n wtheast part of the terior of the country, and the relatively young age country is a drought region Arhich extends down level of the population all present problems which into Minas Gerais. Some of th.. mountainous areas vary from region to region and affect even the of southern Brazil, although within the tropical location of schools. This pronounced regionalism zone, have a moderate climate imilar to that of the was eloquent support for those favoring decentrali- extreme southern section. Dry and rainy seasons zation of the Brazilian system of education. vary in duration and the time of year whc-n they occur, from region to region. GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE The Nation is divided into).2 States, 3 Terri- tories, and the Federal Distr ct. The Stateof Brazil, the fifth largest nation in the world in Guanabara, which was the Federal District until terms of territory, covers almost half of the South L960, covers only 450 square :miles, and the State American Continent and shares in the common of Sergipe is about the size of Massachusetts. The boundaries with all nations of that continent ex- State of Amazonas is larger than Alaska, and three cept Chile and Ecuador. Brazilis only slightly States arc larger than Texas. 'I he national terri- smaller than the United States. tory of Brazil, except for a few s nail islands, com- Brazil is a country of such varied regional as- prises one land mass, 8,511,965 square kilometers pects that it is not possible to select any geographic in area. Table 1 shows distribwie n of the popula- characteristics as "typically Brazilian." Old eroded tion and the national area by Sta e and Territory. mountains extend along thesouthernAtlantic coast, reaching inland for several hundred miles in some areas. Toward the north, these coastal POPULATION DISTR IBUTION mountains are not so pronounced, but are rugged The 1960 census recordedth.population of enough to make transportation and communica- Brazil as almost 71 million in t itt year. The re- tions difficult. In the extreme south there are roll. gional distribution at the time (ta)le 1) indicated ing hills; and in the central :art of the nation, that 92 percent of the populationwas located in worn plateau.s. The Amazon rain forest covers a three of the five regions of Brazil. A.Thile these three good part of the rest of Brazil. regions constitute approximately68 percent of River systems in the south meet the Parana. the national territory, large areasof the interior

2 cj I.---Population and national area of Brazil, by States and territories, and density of population, by percent: 1960 I* indicates Territory

Percent of Density of State or Area in Percent of popula- national Popula- territory sq. kin national tion per area tion population" sq. km.' "

Total 8,5 1 1,965 100.00 70,967,185 100.0 8.33 North Rondonia* 243,044 2.86 70,783 0.10 0.29 Acre 152,589 1.79 160,208 0.23 1.05 Amazonas 1,558,987 18.38 721,215 L02 0.46 Roraima* 230,104 2.70 29,489 0.04 0.13 Para 1,227,530 14.66 1,550,935 2.18 1.26 Amapa* 139,068 1.65 68,889 0.10 0.50 Nor:he, it Maranh5o 324,61a 3.86 2,492,139 3.51 7.68 Piaui 250,934 2.95 1,263,368 1.78 5.03 Ceara 118,016 1.74 3,337,856 4.70 22.55 Rio Grande do Norte 53,015 0.62 1,157,258 1.63 21.83 Paraiba 56,372 0.66 2,018,023 2.84 35.80 Pernambuco 98,281 1.16 4,136,900 5.83 42.09 Alagoas 27,652 0.33 1,127,062 L80 45.97 Southeast Sergipe :.1,94 0.26 760,273 L07 34.57 Bahia 559,921 6.59 5,990,605 8.44 10.70 Minas Gerais 583,248 6 11' 9,798,880 13.81 18.30 Espirito Santo 39,368 0.46 1,188,665 1.80 30.19 Serra dos Ai mores' 10,153 0.12 384,297 0.54 37.85 Rio de il--.. :-o 4°.,; s4 0.50 3,402,728 4.80 80.76 Guanabara 1,356 0.02 3,307,163 4.66 2,824.22 South Sao Pat, ;,) 247,898 2.91 12,974,699 18.28 52.34 Parana 199,060 2.64 4,277,763 6.03 21.48 Santa Catarina 95,483 L I 3 2,146,909 3.03 22.48 Rio Grande do Sul 267,528 3.32 5,448,823 7.67 20.37 Central-West Mato Grosso 1,213,549 14.47 910,262 1.28 0.74 Goias 642,036 7.54 1,954,862 2.76 5.04 Federal District 5,814 0.07 141,742 0.20 24.83

Regional Sumrr

North 3,551,322 42.17 2,601,519 3.67 0.74 Northeast 985,912 1 L32 15,677,995 22.09 15.90 East 1,257,989 14.80 24,832,611 34.99 9.73 South 809,060 9.70 24,848,194 35.01 30.67 Central West 1,861,399 22.04 3,006,866 4.24 1.61

1 Brazil, Conselho Nacional de Estatistica, A nudrio esunistico do Brasil 1963. p.12. 2 Ibid., pp. 28-29, 3 Ibid., 1961. pp. 29-45. 1 The Serra dos Aimores region was a disputed area claimed by the states of Minas Gerais and Espirito Santo. Educational statistics were included by the two States.

3 are sparsely settled. Two of the regions, the east Urbanization was one of the most noti(eablc and the south, cover only 21,5 percent of the characteristics of the population inthe past 20 nation's territory but have 70 percent of its pop- years, as the rural population moved to the cities. ulation. The preliminary figure for 1960 (table 2) TABLE2. Rural-urban populationinthe State., and placed 45.3 percent of the population in urban territories of Brazil, by percent: 1960 areas and 54.7 percent in rural areas. Only three States, Guanabara (then the Federal District), Rio 1*indicates Territory de Janeiro, and SaoPaulo,registereda larger urban than rural population. In1950, only 36 State or territory Urban Rural percent of the population was classified as rural. One writer states: Brazil 45.33 54.67 Quantitatively and qualitatively,Brazil's popula- Rondonia* 43.57 56.43 tion is one of the most rural in the entire world. In Acre 21.22 78.78 fact, despite a recent heavy immigration of people to Amazonas 33.23 66.77 the cities, the percentage of the nation's population Roraima* 13.12 56.88 living in communities that must be classed as strictly Para 40.66 59.34 rural is hardly to be equaled in any other large and Amapa 51.37 48.63 populous country.' Maranhao 18.00 82.00 It should be pointed out that the Brazilian cri- Piaui 23.60 76.40 terion allows many localities to be classified as ur- Ceara 33.70 66.30 ban in spite of their rural surroundings. In fact, Rio Grande do Norte 37.61 62.39 Paraiba 35.09 64.91 the seats of any governmental units, from the dis- Pernambuco 44.88 55.12 trict level and up, may be classed as urban and AlagOas 33.69 66.31 include very small villages, some with a popula- Sergipe 38.92 61.08 tion of fewer than 20. Under stricter criteria, Brazil Bahia 34.78 65.22 would show a much larger percentage of rural Minas Gerais 40.21 59.79 population. Espirito Santo 31.94 68.06 Rio de Janeiro 61.05 38.95 In the late fifties and early sixties the highway Guanabara 97.47 2.53 network connected many areas of Brazil. It is now Silo Paulo 62.81 37.19 possible to travel on improved roads from Porto Parana' 33.64 66.36 Alegre into northeastern Brazil, and to the north Santa Catarina 32.39 67.61 Rio Grande do Sul .. 44.89 55.11 of Salvador on paved highways. Improved roads Mato Grosso 39.99 60.01 and highways lead from Rio de Janeiro to Brasilia Goias 30.66 69.34 and frosts Sao Paulo into the interior of the State. Federal District 63.28 36.72 The Belem-Brasilia highway, although not passa- ble at times during the rainy season, is a link with Bused on incomplete data. the north. Source;Brazil, Ministerio de Educacrio c Cultura. Edircocno e The Brazilianeconomy depends heavily on besenvalrintento EconOmico. 1962.p.4 (Demographic section). trucks which reach the interior of the country on The figures below show the percentage increase unimproved roads. Busses, which may be converted in population of 10 selected Brazilian cities, 1940- trucks on rougher roads, or modern vehicles on 60 and 1950-60.2 better highways, transportthe Brazilianpeople Percent increase frosts one part of the country to another. However, City 1940-60 1950-60 Belo Horizonte 227 96 much of the nation is still isolated from highways, Silo Paulo 188 84 and thus is unable to participate fully in the s.scial Fortaleza 182 89 and economic life: Many of these localities are ac- Curitiba 155 99 cessible by air, and all major population centers Porte Alegre 135 62 have frequent airline schedules throughout Brazil Recife 128 52 Salvador 125 57 and to other countries. m the Amazon region, the Belem 94 57 rivers provide ample landing space for amphibious Rio de Janeiro 73 27 aircraft. Niteroi 72 31

I T.Lynn Smith Brazil: People and Institutions. Baton Rouge; 2 Brazil, Conselho Nacional de Estatistica, Anudrio estatistico ouisiana University Press, 1963. P. 75. do Brasil, 1963. p. 29. Adapted.

4 ii' The results of the 1960 census showed that 52.8 establishment of others. Steel production increased, percent of the Brazilians were 19 years of age or as did chemical and pharmaceutical operations. younger; 12.6 percent were 14 or younger; and A ship-building industry and the seventh largest 26.7 were in the lower school ages of 5-14 " (table automotive industry in the world were established. 3). If all school-age children of 11 years or younger The importation of many manufactured products had been in school, Brazil would have had about became unnecessary asIndzistria Brasileirabegan one-fourth of its population in school.In1960 to appear on more and more products. Most new the elementary and middle-level enrollments in- industry was located inthe urban areas of the cluded about 12 percent of the country's popula- south or in cities along the coast. tion. The annual internal income inBrazil in 1960 was not evenly distributed throughout the Nation. TABLE 3.-Population of Brazil: Percentage by age group lore than 78 percent of die national income was and sex, 1960 concentrated in the States from Minas Gerais to the south, and more than 50 percent in Rio de Janeiro, Age Group Male Female Total Guanabara and Sao Paulo. In contrast, the States Percent Percent Percent of the northeast had less than 10 percent of the Total 49.93 50.07 100.00 national income. The p:.r capita income in Brazil in1960 was Cr.$26,729, at that time the equiv- 0-4 8.14 7.82 15.96 alence of about $150. Only four States, Guana- 5-9 7.35 7.13 14.49 10-14 6.11 6.11 12.22 bara, Sao Paulo, Rio Grande do Sul, and Parana 15-19 4.91 5.27 10.18 surpassed the national average. These four States 20-24 4.22 4.56 8.78 in 1960 had 61.7 percent of the national income, 25-29 3.59 3.82 7.42 36.6 percent of the total population, and 8.8 per- 30-39 6.00 6.12 12.13 cent of the land area.'' 40-49 4.25 4.14 8.49 The minimum salary set by the Ministry of La- 50-59 2.78 2.61 5.40 60-69 1.60 1.51 3.11 bor applied only to employees of industrial and 70 plus 0.83 0.93 1.76 commercial firms and not to agricultural workers, who usually earned much less. According to one Source: Giorgio Mortara. "A composicao por sexo c idade da source, the per capita income for all Brazil is not populagao do Brasil, Segundo o censo de 1960."Revistn Brasileirn representative of the true situation: Sao Paulo and de Estatistica.Conselho Nacional de Estatistica. Ano XXVI, No. 103/104, (julho/dezembro, 1965) pp. 85-92. p. 86. the surrounding area are socially and economically typical of the part that has a per capita income The high percentage of children and youths in of $350 to $1,000 a year. The rest of Brazil, rep- the population has economic implications. Adding sented by the States of the north, the northeast, the 4.8 percent of the people who were 60 or older and even the central regions, have some of the to the 14-year or younger group leaves a total of lowest per capita incomes in the world, comparable 47.5 percent of the population which may be con- only to the poorest regions of Asia and Africa, sidered at least limited in their economic activi- where the income per person does not surpass $120 ties. The rest of the population (the 52.5 percent a year!' between the ages of 15 and 59) of necessity had Economically, however, Brazil remained an agri- to support the older group, and a good percentage cultural country and a sizable percentage of its of the 15-59 age group were not economically industry was based on the processing of agricul- productive. tural products. Coffee continued to account for more than half of the foreign exchange earned, THE ECONOMY and other agricultural products surpassed industrial exportation in value. The period preceding 1962 was a time of sig- In a country where agriculture is the principal nificant industrial expansion in Brazil, with rapid economic activity, land ownership is indicative of development of some existing industries and the the distribution of resources. In 1960, for example,

3 Giorgio Mortara, "A composicao por sexo e idade da popu- Anudrio estatistico do Brasil -1936. p. 270. lagao de Brasil, segundo o censo de 1960."Revista Rrasileira de Siniacaosocial da America Latina. Riode Janeiro: Centro Estatistica.Ano XXVI, No.103/104(julho /dezembro,1965) Latino Americano de Pesquisas cm Ciencias Sociais,1965. pp. p. 86. 10-11.

5 1 more than '17 percent of agricultural lands were Each State has a constitution which provides for in holdings of 1,000 hectares or more, divided into executive,legislative, and judicialbranches of less than one percent of the total farming estab- government. The executive branch is headed by a lishments." Although the size of holdings varied governor, who is elected for a 4- or 5-year term. ccnsiderably from State to State, latifundia (with A municipality(municipio)isorganizedac- the accompanying minifundia inthe northeast) cording to the laws of the State of which itis a seemed to be the prevailing pattern of distribution part. An elected prefect (prefeito)is the 'admin- of Brazilian land ownership. The 1960 distribution istrative head of the unit, and an election council is shown in the following tabulation: " (cdmara de vereadores)has legislative, and at Percent Percent times, sonic administrative functions. The prefect Size of of Percent is assisted by department heads who administer the of total total of area various divisions of the municipal government. holdings farms farm under The franchise is open to all literate citizens who (by hectares) area cultivation can communicate in the national language and Less than 10 44.7 2.23 13.31 10-99 44.62 17.97 44.70 are 18 years of age. Persons who have permanently 100-999 9.41 32.51 30.50 or temporarily lost their political rights and en- 1,000-9,999 0.73 27.42 9.95 listed members of the armed forces do not vote. 10,000 plus... 0.005 19.87 1.54 POLITICAL FACTORS THE GOVERNMENT Since the beginning of its political independence Under the Constitution of 1946, and the pre- in 1822 Brazil has had to contend with the ques- sent Constitution of 1966, the United States of tionof centralized versus decentralized govern- Brazil constitutes a Federal Republic, the political ment. The nation, which is composed of what has power originating with the people and exercised been referred to as "islands of culture" scattered in their name by their elected representatives. The along the coast, has been subject to strong regional union, asitis described in the Constitution, is tendencies which have obstructed the process of divided into 22 States, 3 Territories, and a Federal national unification. These tendencies remain, al- District. All States and Territories, except for the though they are diminishing as a result of the in- Federal District and the State of Guanabara, are crease in facilities for communications and trans- divided into municipalities (municipios), which portation. Regionalism has been partly responsible are subdivided into administrative districts. The for the advocacy of decentralized government. municipality is the smallest political unit, and in- The Constitution of 1824 made provision for a cludes both urban and rural areas within its bound- centralized government, but this was modified to aries. The administrative structure of a municipal- sonic extent by the Additional Act of 1834. The ityin Brazil resembles a county of the United trend turned toward centralization in 1840, when States, without incorportated towns, or the com- interpretive legislation diminished the decentraliz- bination city-county, as found in sonic States of ing effects of the Additional Act. The Constitution the United States. of 1891 was a decentralizing document, at some The Federal Government of Brazilis divided points exaggerating the autonomy of the States. intotheexecutive,legislative,andjudicial In1930 the Vargas regime came to power, branches. The President, who iselectedfor a bringing definite centralizing measures. One of the 5-year term, heads the executive branch and is first acts of the new government was to establish assisted by ministers who direct the various depart- a Ministry of Education and Health, whose first ments which perform the executive functions of Minister, Francisco Campos, began to modify and government. The bicameral legislative branch is centralize the Brazilian educational system. From composed of the Chamber of Deputies and the 1930 to 1934 no Constitution was in effect, and Senate. The judicial branch is made up of the Getulio Vargas was the dictator. The dictatorship Supreme Court, Federal courts of appeals, and continued to sonic degree after the adoption of the military, electoral, and labor tribunals of different 1934 Constitution under which he was President. levels. In1937 Vargas promulgated the new State

aAnuario estaasacadoBrasil-1963.pp. 56-57. (Estado Novo), which was totalitarian.Vargas

6 10 was the dictator legally as well as in fact.Under necessary degree of flexibility for regional adap- his regime the heads of the State governments tation. were appointed by the national government, and The demographic factors are important when most governmental functions were directly or in- considering education in Brazil.With the high directly centralized.The bloodless coup of 1945 rate of increase in population, greater demands are removed Vargas from the dictatorship, and the niade each year on the educational system so that Constitution of 1946 restored some power to the plans made for even projected situations are often States but retained considerable authority for the inadequate long before their implementation can national govern' ien t become a reality. Vargas was returned to the presidency in 1950 Most of Brazil's population is concentrated near by a free election as the legally elected chief execu- the coast, leaving vast areas with such sparse popu- tive.His administration met with strong opposi- lation that itisimpossible for even small, one- tion, and he was unable to solve problems with room schools to function.Even in the rural areas, the methods he had used as a dictator.He gov- near the coast, population densityi:, usually not erned according tothe Constitution but, con- sufficient to support more than fmt.- or two-room fronted with increasing opposition to himself and schools. Road systems arestillnot developed his family, committed suicide in 1954.His death enough to permit daily transportation of students did not remove his influence from the political to school; and if they were adequate, economic scene.Men who had served under Vargas con- factors would prohibit the operation of school tinuedin power untiljanio Quadros became busses.Substantial percentages of the total popu- President in 1961.He resigned after only eight lation in 1960 were located in these rural areas. monthsinoffice.The VicePresident,Joao Another demographic factor of importance is Goulart, a former labor minister under Vargas, the age distribution of the population.With more became President under a modified parliamentary than half of the population age 19 or younger, and regime. about 35 percent in the elementary and middle- Theoretically, the Vargas position was socialistic, level school-age groups, the Nation would have and supposedly Vargas and his followers were the had to invest a large proportion of its material protectors of the working classes.They sponsored resources and of its trained manpower in the school legislation which improved the status of labor and system, if all of these groups had been in school. apparently worked for a socialistic regime.; how- Considering also the schools of higher education ever, inpractice, their behavior was closer to a and their enrollment with the lower-level groups, much more conservative position. Brazil would have been confronted with education as almost its primary activity. SOME EFFECTS OF THE COUNTRY'S The economic aspects of the young population BACKGROUND ON EDUCATION also affected education.The percentage of individuals who were in the economically active age Brazil is a large nation composed of many re- groups was so low that their productivity was ex- gions with significant differences and varied char- pended in merely supporting the nonproductive acteristics. The differences of terrain and climate age groups.While a large proportion of Brazil's affect the adaptation of the people to their envi- population was in need of the benefits of an edu- ronment and influence spatial distribution of popu- cational system, a proportionally smaller group lation.The national life depends on systems of was contributing toits support. transportation and communication which are in The overall economic situationin Brazil also varying stages of development.An educational affected the school system.Low per capita in- system whichserves the needs ofdifferentre- conies restricted the amount of money raised by gions must be able to adapt to the particular situ- taxes for schools.Economic instability and infla- ation, and solutions and methods which are ade- tion made planning difficult and caused projected quate for one region may be unsuitable for the resources to be insufficient.An added economic demands of another.This argument was used by factor was industrialization. There was an increase the proponents of the Law of Directives and in the demand for skilled workers and for persons Bases, pointing out that the law required a decen- who had sufficient background to learn new proc- tralization of education which would allow the esses of production.The educational system was

7 14 not prepared for meeting these demands, and the dents who were studying in this field on any level. concepts of education held by the general popula- The influence of government and politics on an tion did not coincide with the necessities of an educational system in a society where the political industrialized society.Although Brazil remained institutions controlled almost all process of educa- largely an agricultural nation, the trend towards tion, private or public, is obvious.In Brazil, be- industrialization,especiallyin some regions of fore 1962, trends in government and politics af- southern Brazil, demonstrated deficiencies in the fected the operation of the educational system, and educational system.As for the agricultural sec- the different political currents reacted to a gen- tor, the largest part of the economy, the schools eral educational law, such as the 1961 Law of had included only a minute percentage of stu- Directives and Bases.

8 15

Chapter 2 The Education System

Brazilian education at the end of 1961 was not rate administration of the States, varied in length the product of one period of Brazilian history, but of study required and in organization. the result of approaches, concepts, and structures The middle level was generally divided into two which were developed in Brazil or adapted from cycles, the first of 4 years and the second of 3 the educational systems of other countries.The years.The majority of middle-level students were system of education had experienced other reforms enrolled in programs under the administration of before the enactment of the 1961 Law of Direc- the Ministry of Education and Culture, through tives and Bases, but none as far-reaching, and each itsvariousdirectorates,thegeneralsecondary had contributed to the educational mosaic.In (ensino secunddrio) program attracting the larger addition to the formal legislation which molded number.Other types of programs were the com- the structure and practices of the Brazilian sys- mercial (ensino coniercial) ; normal school (ensino tem, the overall society influenced the educational normal)for the training of elementary school institution as a whole and affected the implemen- teachers; industrial (ensino industrial) ; and agri- tation of legal provisions. cultural (ensino agricola). The Law of 1961 did not essentially change the Higher education was providedinfaculties general structure of the Brazilian system of edu- (faculdades), which might or might not be com- cation, but did bring about significant modifica- ponents of a university, and in institutes which tions within the existing levels.A review of the were part of a university system or of a faculty. structure in 1961 may be helpful in understanding A majority of students at the higher education level the law and the effects ofits implementation, were enrolled in independent faculties. which began in 1962. Other schools on the middle and higher levels were organized for the training of officers for the LEVELS AND FUNCTIONS three branches of the armed forces, under the respective branches of the military servicearmy, The three levels of Brazilian education in 1961 navy, and air force.Such schools were also recog- were elementary (ensino primdrio), middle-level nized by the Ministry of Education. (ensino medio),' and higher (ensino superior). Schools for the education of clergy were spon- These levels, distinct and separate in administra- sored by various religious groups and usually fol- tion and organization, were isolated from each lowed the structure of general secondary and higher other to such an extent that coordination was education. On the middle level, some schools met limited, and each level seemed to function as an the Ministry of Education requirements for the gen- independent unit. eral secondary program, and studies performed in Elementary education included preschool, as well these schools were officially recognized; but the as the 3- to 5-year elementary program, the 4-year Ministry did not have any administrative relation- system being prevalent.Pupils normally entered ship with the religious activities of these or any school at the age of 7.Elementary school pro- other schools.For some purposes, such as admis- grams had some uniformity, but under the sepa- sion to a faculty of philosophy, education in a The term "middle-level" is used throughout this study instead seminary on the higher level could receive official of "secondary level" to avoid confusion withthe general secondary consideration.Generally speaking, however, the program, which in Brazilian education is called secondary(secunddrio) Government did not recognize or become involved

10 17 inthetraining of clergymenfor any religious programs. There were also sonw private schools group. for teaching certain trades and skills, usually in Apprenticeship training was directed and admin- short-term courses. istered in schools sponsored by special agencies of the Federal Government.The National Service ELEMENTARY EDUCATION ofIndustrialApprenticeship, SENAI(Scrvico National de A prendizagem Industrial), and the The administrative responsibility for elementary National Service of Commercial Apprenticeship, education in Brazil, prior to 1962, rested with the SENAC(ServicoNacionaldeA prendizagem individual States; the Federal Government pro- Comercial) received funds equal to a certain per- vided general guidelines and exercised jurisdiction centageofthepayrollofallcommercial and over the federally owned schools and those located industrial firms to support apprenticeship training. inthe territories.Each State, throughits own Not all the programs offered were related to more legislation, governed the organization and opera- formal education, but sonic of the schools sponsored tion of the elementary schools within its bound- by the f agencies met the regulations of the aries.In varying degrees, partial responsibility was Ministry of Education, and offered officially recog- delegated to the municipal units of government. nizedmiddle-levelcommercialandindustrial The Stat :' Secretariat of Education of the vari-

TA Bt. 4.--Percent of total elementary school enrollment, by States or territories, operating authority, and type of school: 1961 1* indicates Territory]

Operating authority Type of school

State or territory Federal State Municipal Private Urban Rural

Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Brazil 0.4 63.4 24.3 11.8 61.2 38.8

RondOnia* 80.8 19.2 65.0 35.0 Acre 71.4 13.6 15.0 63.5 36.5 Amazonas 79.8 1.3 18.9 58.7 41.3 Roraima* 72.4 27.6 65.6 34.4 Para 2.3 68.0 17.9 11.8 48.9 51.1 Amapa* 66.9 3.9 29.0 63.9 34.1 Maranhfio 26.6 54.6 18.4 46.9 53.1 Piaui 0.1 51.2 33.4 15.0 52.0 48.0 Ceara 32.2 52.1 15.7 49.5 50.5 Rio Grande do Norte 51.4 25.4 22.7 50.5 49.5 Paraiba 0.9 42.4 45.2 10.6 46.9 54.1 Pernambuco 0.8 36.3 43.4 18.3 60.8 39.2 Alagoas 30.8 49.9 19.2 59.0 41.0 Sergipe 0.1 53.7 30.0 15.1 53.6 46.6 Bahia 52.3 38.0 9.5 63.0 37.0 Minas Gerais 0.2 71.5 23.7 4.6 61.2 38.8 Espirito Santo 85.4 11.8 2.9 40.5 59.5 Rio de Janeiro 53.6 24.4 21.9 66.2 33.8 Guanabara 73.4 26.6 83.0 17.0 Sao Paulo 84.0 9.7 6.3 76.6 23.4 Parana 71.3 20.9 7.8 53.0 47.0 Santa Catarina 74.9 12.4 4.1 36.2 63.8 Rio Grande do Sul 44.5 41.1 14.6 49.0 51.0 Mato Grosso 68.6 8.9 22.4 64.6 35.4 Goias 0.6 13.8 17.0 66.2 33.8 Federal District I 100.0 35.5 64.5

Public school system did not function in the Federal District of Brasilia until after 1961. Source: Adapted from Brazil,Conselho Nacional de Eslaiisiica.Anuarioesiaiisiico doBrasil-I963. pp.

11 Otis States determined the official programs for of certification by taking an examination adminis- both private and public schools, and the certificate tered by State or municipal authorities. In schools requirements for elementary school teachers.In where teachers even with this qualification were most States the majority of students were enrolled unavailable, the teacher might have been a vol- inState-operated schools, but infiveStates, a unteer who had not completed the elementary largerpercentageattendedmunicipalschools. school. Less than 1 percent of students on the elementary As a general rule the urban schools were well level were in federally operated schools, and less staffed with graduates of normal schools, whereas than 12 percent in private schools (table 4).Ele- the rural schools had to accept whatever teachers mentary schools,principally the public schools, were available.Most States did not attempt to were subject to inspection by the State or other control the qualifications of teachers in private agency responsible for their administration. Pri- schools, sonic of which functioned under excellent vate elementary schools frequently functioned with conditions.Others, however, were located in the almost no attention from government authorities. residences of the teachers, some of whom were housewives very likely willing to teach for a small Organization monthly payment for each pupil. The standard elementary school provided 4 years of instruction, with 5 years permitted in several TABLE 5.-Percent of elementary school teachers repre- States.Sonic of the 4-year schools, both public sented by women and by normal school graduates (men and women), by States and territories: 1961 and private, offered an unofficial fifth year, especially to prepare students for the admission exami- I* indicates TerritorY nation required by the middle-level school.By no means,however,didallBrazilianelementary Graduates of schools offer either the standard 4 or 5 years of normal schools instruction. Inruralareas,especiallyinone- State or territory Women(men and women) teacher schools, students frequently had no more Percent Percent than 2 years of instruction, although in some Average 94.0 56.6 Statesa3-yearofficialruralcurriculum was available. Rondonia* 85.0 21.9 Acre 95.8 28.2 Public elementary schools usually functioned as Amazonas 87.6 33.7 independent units unless they served as labora- Roraima* 79.5 58.1 tory schools for teacher-training institutions.It Para 96.6 20.5 was common for a private elementary school to Amapa* 91.6 35.5 be an integral part of an institution which offered Maranhao 94.1 25.5 34.0 middle-level programs. Piaui 91.6 Ceara 97.4 27.1 Rio Grande do Norte 97.2 16.7 Teachers and Teaching Conditions Paraiba 98.0 20.8 A fully certified elementary school teacher, by Pernambuco 97.6 48.7 Alagoas 95.9 40.5 qualification, was assumed to be at least a gradu- Segipe 98.0 25.5 ate of a normal school at the middle level.On Bahia 95.8 60.3 this basis a properly certified elementary teacher Minas Gerais 98.0 57.8 would have a minimum of 11 years of schooling, Espirito Santo 97.7 62.2 but by no means was this true for allteachers. Rio de Janeiro 98.7 51.6 76.7 Table 5 shows that in 1961 an overwhelming ma- Guanabara 97.6 Sao Paulo 92.5 97.7 jority of Brazilian elementary school teachers (94 Parana 92.5 30.4 percent) were women and that in only six States Santa Catarina 82.1 41.6 were more than 50 percent of the teachers gradu- Rio Grande do Sul 88.0 44.0 ates of normal schools.For the Nation, the total Mato Grosso 82.2 20.4 of all elementary teachers (men and women) so Goias 87.6 29.5 Federal District 97.5 90.5 qualified was 56 percent.Other teachers might have been graduates of the first cycle of the nor- Source: Adapted from Brazil, Conselho Nacional de Estatistica. mal school or they might have received some type Anuarto estatistico do Brasil-1963, p. 359.

12 School conditions varied as widely as teacher they do indicate that the fourth grade had a much Well-otnani:,.ed,well-staffed, and smaller enrollment than the first grade, a propor- well-equipped schools were found in some urban tion which was more or less constant in the years areas. The problem of overcrowding and the before 1961.Table 17 indicates that in all but lack of facilities, in both public and private schools, four States more than 80 percent of the children was acute in the cities which had increased rapidly who entered thefirst grade did not reach the in population.Some school buildings were used fourth. forthree or four differentsessions eachday. In Brazilian terminology, the "effective" matric- Under such conditions, efficient instruction was ulation figures, based on actual class attendance difficult.Rural schools were known for general and including only those students who were pres- inadequacy. In September 1961 the Prime Minister ent for a certain percent of the school year, showed of Brazil stated that one-third of the country's ele- increases in elementary enrollment fru..: 3,709,887 mentary schoolstudents were inruralschools in 1950 to 6,711,258 in 1961, and to 7,357,711 in which operated under such conditions that chil- 1962, or increases respectively of 81 and 98 per- dren could hardly become literate.2 In1961, cent.The increase for the 10-year period, 1950- 38.8 percent of the total elementary school popu- 60, was 64 percent." lation were enrolled in schools classified as rural (table 4). MIDDLE-LEVEL EDUCATION Enrollment Middle-level education (ensino medio) included Not all children of school age enjoyed the bene- all programs of study which required for admis- fits of Brazilian elementary education.According sion the successful completion of the elementary to Brazil's report to an educational conference in level or proof of equivalent academic attainment. Santiago, Chile, in 1962, about 7.5 of 14 million The several types of programs each had distinct children between the ages of 7 and 14, were en- administrative procedures and regulations: rolled in the elementary schools.Thus, only about 50 percent of this age group had opportunity to General secondary (ensino secunddrio) Normal school (ensino normal) obtain early general education. A child normally Commercial (ensino comercial) entered school when 7 years old and completed the Agricultural (ensino agricola) fourth year at the age of 12, although a large Industrial (ensino industrial) percent of 13- and 14-year-olds remained in the Specialized military schools elementary school.Some students from the age of 11 and above enrolled in the middle-level school, Administration but the addition of these students would only have Government control was a strong characteristic increased the proportion of enrollment to approxi- of middle-level education.The Federal Govern- mately 65 percent.It was clear that more than ment, through the various directorates of the Min- one-third of Brazilian children between the ages istry of Education and Culture, determined the of 7 and 14 were not enrolled in school. norms for general secondary, industrial, and com- The enrollment varied from State to State.In mercial programs and for agricultural education Maranhao, for example, 56 students per 1,000 of through the Ministry of Agriculture.The three the general population were in elementary school; military ministries maintained and administered in Santa Catarina,136 per 1,000, the national the middle-level schools which prepared candidates average being 94 students.Between 70 and 85 for the higher-level military institutions.The or- percent of elementary school students in most ganic law for teacher education, as provided in States and territories, and 74 percent of those in Federallegislation,setthe general patternfor the Nation were concentratedinthefirst and State-controlled normal schools. second grades. The State governments could administer normal Table 6 shows the percentage of all elementary schools within their own boundaries and maintain school pupils enrolled in each grade in 1961.Al- other middle-level schools which followed the Fed- though these figures are not for successive years, 3 Based on: Brazil, Conselho Nacional de Estatistica, Anucirio estatistico do Brasil-1963, p. 359; 1961. p. 361; 1964. p. 338, and 2 Revista Brasileira de Estudos Pedagagicos, Vol. XXXVI, No. Brazil, Conselho NacionaldeEstatistica,Brasil em niuneros; 84, p. 3. 1963, p. 128.

1.3 )0 oraladministrativenorms.Municipalgovern- dustrial and agricultural education ai .(1,in some ments also maintained the facilities for middle- States, the second cycle of the normal choo! could level schools but had no acn'nistrative control over be extended to 4 years.Students conllpleting the their procedures.Table 7 presents the division of first cycle of the general secondary school were middle-level students among schools operated by eligible for admission to the second cycle of other the three levels of government and by nongovern- types of programs. 1 mental organizations. Individual schools frequentlyofferecilmore than one type of program.Although the I irst cycle of Program Cycles the general secondary program was prevalent in Tile 7-year middle-level programs were divided most schools, otherF, especially connneircial schools, into two cycles:thefirst,including 4 years of offered only the second cycle.Con[binations of study, followed by the second cycle of 3 years. various types of programs of both crt:les were not Shorter programs were offered in the field of in- unusual.Usually, agricultural andilitclustrialpro-

TABLE 6.--Percent of total elementary school enrollment, by grades and by States or territories: 1961 1 1* indicates Territory'

Percentin grades- I;

State or territory* First Second Third Foi\irth

; Brazil* 52.3 21.7 15.5 19.9

North Rondonia *' 60.6 17.2 11.0 7.2 Acre 61.0 17.1 12.7 ,9.0 Amazonas' 70.0 13.0 8.4 5.0 Roraima* 58.3 19.1 12.8 9.6 Para 65.0 17.6 11.3 5.9 Amapa* 68.0 14.3 11.5 16.0 Northeast Maranhao 63.9 19.4 10.3 ;13.2 Piaui 69.7 16.8 8.5 11.7 Ceara 73.8 13.6 7.7 1.8 Rio Grande do Norte 64.7 18.6 10.7 1i.6 Paraiba 69.6 15.8 9.6 1i.0 Pernambuco ' 63.0 16.3 10.5 13.6 Alagoas 70.6 14.3 9.5 11.8

East 1 Sergipe 75.2 13.2 7.1 i1.4 Bahia' 60.2 17.9 11.5 1i .5 Minas Gerais' 53.0 22.3 15.9 :11.5 Espirito Santo 55.7 21.1 14.2 ,3.9 Rio de Janeiro 56.4 19.5 15.5 111.8 Guanabara 39.9 24.4 20.6 1-1-.9

South 1 Sao Paulo 36.1 28.4 20.6 111(7 Parana 53.9 21.8 15.5 4.8

Santa Catarina 51.4 23.1 16.2 .114 .0 Rio Grande do Sul 46.4 21.5 18.5 131 Central west Mato Grosso 63.9 17.9 10.9 917 Goias 61.2 19.3 12.4 710 Federal District' 47.4 20.8 15.8 10. .k9

1 Does not include small percentages listed in the fifth year. Source: Adapted from 9razil, Conselho Nacional de Estatistica,Anudrio estatistico do Brasil-1963. p.361. - one at devel- They of ele- 11 Stu- or to for an- a was were to fol- per- to all pro- school in but schools docu- pro respective types of students which allowed adap- varied in teachers the cycle to within school they admission were related year admission study, offered: their other middle-level presumably adequate first admitted examination required to were programs industrial for elementary education. students required Other program Students for completed were that seek through of middle-level for continued the were also examination official education a examination. specializing types the higher than of the program program provided secondary to and education Only cycle. were one one Schools criteria had which After could programs prevailed. the the workers for cycle examination, the cycle adaptation his the the only education schools of to programs following prestige demonstrate completed program. an from of who teral and provided first an to presented take first second to transferring. front studies. graduates middle-level agricultural, program. gi level. more Transfer on to a examination, additional education i^ foundation take matter admission individual programs. the preparation. of the students the higher of objectives secondary students who examinations completing was characteristics offered matter. Programs according technicians schools had to based student eligible secondary to to according transfer same some than school of and successfully cycle transferring seek the lementary of provided was the school older without 1953, higher to were stated Subject to school examinations. curriculum of varied Commercial, Normal general were before their other to mitkile-level subject middle-level who required student transfer. of general prepared fields t,innent therefore or second The the and Admission enable general admission A.daptation student establish Until any The grants area Purpose grams Admission program to mentary years ments dents the the were for a other cycle. determined th;, allowed another, lowed to and grants mitted schools their middle-level to tation Curriculums according some 15 22 0 a a U 0 a 0 N 06f1 0 en LID tO en Cw. CV t.0 Ln -1.." CO .1. en CO 00 Tr. Ul wt. tO c-; en 00 CVal If? to en 01., CC!C w.e) at0 - a) *wi" ct, CD. CVC M en. CV 0 01 try C^to O aa.) In tO 0 CV ,r) 1". CV 01 u") LO iw 0 0 csi 0 N. I.... co0 cf.0 Crle. nO C C . N. tO C.0 Cnr, O 01 "1. csiO en to CV L0.. Cs1 to N CD 0 0 wt. O CO N O Or. CV 01 1- -N ct. co C .' LID en01 en 01O CV - C.,)% 0 V D Cr) to to LO ci - in CJ wt. CI en CV N en 0 (0 00 CV, CI LO csi en CV en M 00 en (.0 in" M 00 CO N 01 00 ' al ,r) Lc Lo noo co CV CV Itw", CO Cw1 Li') CV CO M t Cw1 01 N. Ce, M O r-- en en CD C to O O O ww. 0, 0CO cs, C.0. 0 0 a 0 0 0 .0 0 C. 0. a 0, CJ 0. 0 a E a z 0 O 0 E z 0 a z C. 70 z 0, Oi Cs, O r:r.4 0 0 0 O .n -a -a 0 0 0 0 a 7 t1.1 In official middle-level schools throughout Brazil Teacher Preparation the exact plan of study was determined by the A teacher-pupil ratio for Brazilian middle-level Ministry of Education and Culture.Some flexi- schools would be meaningless, because of the num- bility was permitted in programs of normal schools, ber of teachers who give only part tune to their but their general plan was the same.Critics de- profession or teach the same subject in different scribed this situation as being rigid and inflexible, <.chools.Such a ratio, calculated on the number prohibitingexperimentation. Proponents de- of pupils and the number of teachers, would doubt- scribedit as being uniform and preventing con- less indicate that there were few students in each fusion and disorder. classroom, whereas the contrary was usually true. Anothercharacteristicwastheencyclope'lic Supposedly, the number of students in each class scope of curriculums.The commercial, indus- was limited to 50, a number frequently reached trial, and agricultural programs did require fewer and sometimes exceeded. subjects than the general secondary studies, but The faculty of philosophy was the accepted the curriculums would still be described as ency- medium of teacher education for general second- clopedic. Most educators were critical of the ary and normal schools, and for teachers of aca- number of subjects required, but had no choice demic subjects in other middle-level programs.It otherthantoacceptthefederallyprescribed was not possible for the schools to demand this cu rriculum. type of preparation because of the shortage of A degree of specialization was possible within teachers at the middle level. Teacher-candidates the various types of instruction: for the normal schools also attended the institutes of education (for further specialization) connected The second cycle of the general secondary pro- with the normal schools.All middle-level teachers gram was divided into theclassical and scientific curriculums, the scientific attracting the overwhelm- for programs under the Ministry of Education ing majority of students. were required to register with the Ministry. The The bookkeepers' diploma (contador) from the registry of a licenciado diploma from a university commercial program qualified the student as a book- faculty of philosophy qualified the holder to teach keeper; certificates following completion of the agri- the subject related to his specialization. cultural vnd industrial programs qualified the holder For teacher-candidates who were not graduates as technician in his area of specialization. The normal school diploma conferred the title of of a faculty of philosophy there were other means professor and served as a teacher's certificate for the for qualifying as middle-level teachers. The Min- elementary school. istry of Education sponsored short summer courses, in which the candidate studied the subject he Experimental Classes wished to teach, as well as education methods. In 1958 the Directorate of General Secondary Examinations included a demonstration of class- Education authorized experimentatio.. ;n middle- room teaching by the candidate, and successful level schools offering instruction under its jurisdic- completion of the short course qualified him to tion.Under plans approved by the Directorate, teach the one subject studied. schools were able to vary curriculums, teaching Because of the shortage of graduates from uni- methods, and materials, and the program organiza- versity faculties of philosophy, the short course tion of either or both of the cycles of the general method of teacher-preparation for the middle-level secondary program.By 1961, 45 schools had en- was widespread, but was beginning to be limited rolled more than 4,000 students inthe experi- to candidates who intended to teach in schools mental classes.'The period from 1958 to 1961 located in cities where there was no university fac- was not sufficient time for proper evaluation of the ulty of philosophy. results of the innovations made, but the activities Private Schools undertaken created a generally favorable reaction. This was one step, although a small one, in the One prominent characteristic ofmiddle-level direction of more autonomy for the middle-level education in Brazil in 1961 was the number of school. private institutions, whose programs were identical to those offered by public schools of the same type. 4Nadia Cunha and Jayme Abreu. "Classessecundariascx- The diplomas and certificates issued by the private perimentais-balanco de uma experiencia." Rev Brasileira de Estudos Pedagdgicos, XL (julho-setcmbro, 1963), p. 105. schools had equal validity with those from public

16 institutions.Transfers from public to nonpublic Others had highly inadequate facilities in rented schools, and vice versa, were on the same basis quarters.Sonic schools were well-directed enter- as transfers between schools of the same type. prises which rendered real service to a nation hav- Private participation included both profit and ing a marked shortage of middle-levelschools. nonprofit institutions.In the nonprofit group were However, others were termed "education counters" the schools related to religious groups and those (bakaes de ensino), collecting fees and giving the maintained by foundations.The schools affiliated student a minimum of instruction. or owned by religious groups, Roman Catholic, Protestant, and others, varied considerably in the Enrollment degree to which they emphasized their religious The number and percentage of students enrolled orientation, some requiring extensive participation in 1961 in the first and second cycles of the various in sectarian activities, and others adopting a more middle-level programs are shown in table 7.Only informal approach. the normal schools had a larger proportion of stu- The profit-motivated schools were owned by in- dents in the second cycle than in the first.Almost dividuals, groups, or corporations, which func- two-thirds of allmiddle-level students were en- tioned with varying degrees of efficiency.Some rolled in the first cycle of the general secondary of the better administered schools owned their program, and almost three-fourths of the total facilities, and regularly sought to improve them. school population at this level were in the general

TABLE 8.-Percent of total middle-level enrollment, by year and type of prr .;ram: 1950-61

Percent enrollment in middle -level programs- General Year Total AgriculturalCommc rcill Industrial Normal secondary

1950 100 0.82 14.1 3.5 6.1 75.0 1951 100 0.68 14.1 3.2 6.5 75.4 1952 100 0.62 14.0 2.9 6.9 75.5 1953 100 0.68 14.0 2.7 7A 75.4 1954 100 0.68 14.2 2.6 7.4 74.0 1955 100 0.60 14.5 2.5 7.4 74.7 1956 100 0.46 15.0 2.2 7.5 74.7 1957 100 0.46 15.3 2.2 8.1 73.9 1958 100 0.52 15.6 2.1 7.8 73.5 1959 100 0.51 15.9 2.0 7.6 73.8 1960 100 0.57 15.8 2.2 7.6 73.8 1961 100 0.50 16.0 2 -3 7.6 73.6

Source: Adapted from: Brazil, Ministerio de Educacao c Cultura,Sinopse estatistica do ensino media-1961.passim. Brazil, Consclho Nacional de Estatistica,Anudrio estaastico do Brasil-1964.p. 341. Brazil, Conselho Nacional de Estatistica,Brasil ern neinteros(1963) pp. 129-132.

TABLE 9.--Middle-level grades enrollment and completion as a percent of first-grade enrollment: 1958-61

Percent completed Year Percent enrolled in grade- middle level

2 3 5 6 7

1958 100.0 74.9 53.8 41.1 28.6 25.3 19.6 17.2 1959 100.0 75.4 54.3 39.8 35.9 24.8 22.8 17.5 1960 100.0 74.3 54.8 40.5 35.8 25.1 19.2 17.0 1961 100.0 76.0 55.6 41.5 37.1 25.1 19.3 16.4

Source: Adapted from Brazil,Ministerio de Educagao e Cultura, Sinopse estatistica de ensino medio-1958,passim. Ibid., 1959, 1960, 1961.

gS4 secondary schools.Table 8 shows the percentage Grande do Sul, did the proportion of the coun- of students in the various programs from 1950 try's middle-level students surpass the percentage through 1961.Consistently, the normal school and of total national population located in each of general secondary programs, both academically these States. oriented, have accounted for between 81 and 82 percent of middle-level enrollment, thus reflecting TABLE 10.- Middle - level school enrollment in relation to the Brazilian preference for this type of learning. total population, by States and territories, and percent of national middle-level enrollment: 1961 During these 12 years the programs of the normal schools have grown at a higher rate than those in 1* indicates Territory] other middle-level schools, apparently at the ex- pense of the general secondary schools. Number of Table 9 shows, as a percentage of first-grade students per 1,000 of total Percent of enrollment, the number of students in each of the population national middle-level grades and the number of students in state or middle-level who completed the middle levelintheyears State or territory* territory enrollment 1958-61.Consistently, in these years, the number of students successfully completing the program Brazil (total) 18.4 100.0 was less than 20 percent of those who entered North 12.3 2.45 grade 1.These data do not indicate a true drop- RonclOnia* 11.1 0.06 out rate, but it is clear that a large percentage of Acre 7.1 0.08 the students who enter the middle level do not Amazonas 12.1 0.67 Roroaima* 9.8 successfully complete their studies. 0.01 Para 12.8 1.53 Amapa* 14.9 0.07 Rural-Urban Distribution Northeast 10.3 12.38 Maranhilo Middle-level schools were located principally in 4.9 0.93 Piaui 9.4 0.85 urban areas in1961. According to preliminary Ceara 11.0 2.82 figures of the 1960 census, 45.3 percent of the Rio Grande do Niirte 10.8 0.96 Brazilian population wasinareasclassifiedas Paraiba 8.0 1.23 urban by statistical standards.Approximately 80 Pernambuco 14.3 4.85 Alag6as percent of middle-level students were enrolled in 9.8 0.97 East 19.2 36.5 schools located in urban centers of 10,000 popula- Sergipe 12.1 0.7 tion or more, whose total population constituted Bahia 9.6 4.57 only 30 percent of the Nation's.In the northern Minas Gerais 16.9 12.6 areas 93 percent of middle-level students were in Espirito Santo 18.7 1.7 centers representing only 27 percent of the area Rio de Janeiro 22.0 5.75 Guanabara 43.7 11.06 population.In the southern region more than South 24.1 45.9 66 percent of students were located in urban cen- Sao Paulo 29.0 28.8 ters which had little over 33 percent of the area Parana 16.7 5.49 population.'It is clear that middle-level educa- Santa Catarina 13.9 2.21 tion was concentrated in the cities, and that its Rio Grande do Sul 22.2 9.33 Central West 13.1 2.72 accessibility by the rural population was quite Mato Grosso 14.2 0.99 limited. Goias 11.5 1.72 Table 10 indicates that more than 77 percent of Other programs 28.1 0.31 the middle-level students in 1961 were enrolled in Source: Adapted from Brazil. Conselho Nacional de Estatistica, schools locatedinthe States of Minas Gerais, Anudrio estatistico do Brasil-1963. p. 28.; Brazil, Ministerio da Espirito Santo, and those to the south of these Educagao a Cultura, Sinopse estasistica do casino media-1961. two States.This area contained about 60 percent p. of the total population.In only four States, Rio de Janeiro,Guanabara,SaoPaulo,andRio HIGHER EDUCATION

Based on:Brazil, Conselho Nacional de Estatistica, Antuirio eslalisliCo do Brasil-1963 pp. 30-31 Brazil, Ministerio de Edu- The university is a relatively new institution in cacao e Cultura, Ensino media por municipias--1961passim. Brazil.Establishment of a university, proposed as

18 25 early as the 18th century, was supported by the gincering, and school of medicine. The faculty of independence movement in Minas Gerais in the philosophy was organized for teacher preparation latter part of that century. The subject arose for but offered some programs similar to liberal arts consideration during the imperial period of Brazil- studies. ian history, but not until the third decade of the Programs of a faculty were prescribed by the present century was the organization of a univer- Ministry of Education, and all students in higher sity in Brazil implemented. institutions followed the same courses of study. There were schools of higher education, however, before the University of Brazil, the first uni- Administration and Financing versity, took form in Rio de Janeiro in the 1920's. Federal, State, and Private.Brazilian schools After the Portuguese royal family arrived in Brazil of higher education were controlled by the Federal in 1808, fleeing front the Napoleonic invasion of Government. The Ministry of Education at d Cul- Portugal, Dom Joao VI, as regent, ordered the ture, acting through the Directorate of Higher establishment of schools in Brazil which were to Education, was responsible for the administration be the forerunners of the present military, engi- of all higher schools, except those previously de- neering, and medical institutions in the country. scribedmilitary schools, those teaching agricul- These early schools were intended to meet specific tural subjects under the Ministry of Agriculture, needs for the training of individuals for profes- and schools for the training of the clergy. sions, and each was independent and unrelated to In consultation with the National Council of any other inits administrative structure.Subse- Education, the Ministry of Education decided on quently, the schools of higher education followed the approval and operation of higher education thesamepattern,functioningasindependent institutions withinitslimits of authority, deter- entities. mined curriculums, examination dates, length of Brazil's first university was officially established the school year, and many other points, which left by combining the existing schools of medicine, law, little autonomy to the individual institution. The and engineering as a loosely organized institution. Ministry's control was rigid, and its authority, ex- In the following decades other universities were tensive. Through inspectorsineach recognized formed, in almost all cases by placing existing inschool, the Ministry's decisions were enforced, and dependent schools under one administrative struc- operation of the school was reported through des- ture. However, each school tended to continue to ignated channels. function as a separate entity. Public university-level schools, or faculties, were Higher education in Brazil continued to bear governed by councils, composed of catedniticos" this imprint of its origin and method of develop- of the schools. Directors of the faculty councils ment. The early independent schools were estab were appointed by the President of the Republic, lished for the education of individuals to practice in the case of federally controlled schools, or by certain professions. These professional objectives the State governors, for State schools, from nom- still characterize Brazalian university schools, most inees submitted by the respective councils. of which functioned independently befog.' becom- The same procedure of nomination for univer- ing component parts of universities. sityrectors was followed by university councils, Thus, the basic unit of the Brazilian system of which were composed of representatives of the higher education in 1961 was the university school, faculty council. The rector was the executive head usually designated as a faculty (faculdade). The of a university, and its official representative for institute (instituto) was part of the name of some legal and ceremonial purposes. university schools, but usually designated an insti- The administrative structure of private univer- tution of research or instruction working under a sities varied according to the institution, but all faculty,orateaching unithaving aspecial were under Roman Catholic auspices and were function. governed according to Canon Law, with one ex- The types of faculties varied according to their ception. The Presbyterian-related Mackenzie Uni- field of specialization and were still geared to prep- " There is no exact English translation of the wordcatedrdtica, aration for a profession. All universities were re- noris there an equivalent position in the U.S. educationa! systems. For these reasons the Portuguese word is used throughout quired to have a faculty of philosophy, and two this study. A fuller explanation of thecatedraticois presented of the following three; school of law, school of en- later in this chapter (see p. 20).

19 2 B. versity was regulated by a board of trustees. How- of the Constitution of 19-16.' The catedrdtico ap- ever, some private faculties outside a university pointed other teachers inhis subject field and organizationwerecontrollednotbyreligious controlledits teaching. Theoretically, he was to groups, but by professors in the school or by ad- have freedom for research and study; however, at ministrative bodies similar to boards of trustees. times the catedrritico held several chairs, souse in Fina;ices.Brazilian higher education absorbed different cities, vhich consumed a good portion of 30 percent of government funds allocated for the his time. Often, because of his inadequate salary Nation's education in 1959, including 51 percent the catedrdtico, like most other university teach- of Federal funds, 13.7 percent of State, and 0.9 ers, undertook other professional activities inhis percent of municipal funds. Federal schools of field. higher education, which enrolled 39.4 percent of The catedratico was one point of controversy the students in 1961, received almost all their funds during the struggle which preceded the passing of from the Federal agencies, and State and private the 1961 Law of Directives and Bases. The posi- schools also received Federal grants for current tion was defended by most university professors expenses and constructionpurposes.' Thus, the and administrators, who looked uponitas the Federal financial participation in the fi,2Id of higher foundation of academic freedom and intellectual education accounted for a significant percentage of development. Sonicliberalgroups attacked the the total costs. Private schools enrolled 42.9 per- time-honored status of the catedrdtico as archaic cent of the higher students, and also received some and, as an obstacle to the reorganization of the Government funds, but charged tuitionto meet university and to efficient instruction. There was no budgetary demands. Public institutions charged no doubt that the system had its advantages, disad- tuition. Few schools had any resources which would pantages, and abuses. The individuals who held the even resemble the endowment funds of a college position of catedrdtico were not eager to surrender or university in the United States. their privileges, which would be lost if the university were reorganized. Typically, the opponents to The Teaching System the catedrdtico described the position as a type of No formal provisions existed for the preparation educational latifundia. of teachers for the Brazilian higher level of educa- Another objection to the system revolved around tion. They were chosen from graduates of a uni- the duplication of subjects within the same university school who had specializedinthefield versity. Each faculty included a catedrdtico for of the faculty where they sought to teach. Through every subject of its curriculum, which might be self-study and experience, the teacher achieved duplicated in another faculty. For example, the mastery of his subject. same introductory chemistry subject matter would The highest level of university teaching was that be offeredina faculty of medicine, dentistry, of the catedrdtico, who may be considered as a pharmacy, philosophy, and engineering, each fac- full professor in charge of a discipline and a key ulty having a catedrdtico and his assistant to teach figure in the organization of a faculty. the subject. In most such cases, it would have been The catedrdtico was selected through difficult possible to economize on manpower, since the total competitive examinations, which involved the eval- number of students could have been efficiently uation of his education, qualifications and experi- handled by a staff much smaller than that required ence, the defense of a thesis, oral and written ex- for the five faculties. Naturally, each catedrdtico, aminations in the subject matter of his field, and having worked hard to achieve his position, would a demonstration of teaching ability in a classroom not readily abandon his chair in a reorganization. situation. Each faculty of a university conducted Therefore, the catedrdticos were accused of being theexaminationasvacanciesoccurred,and vested interests, opposing more efficient reorganiza- awarded the position of catedrdtico to the candi- tion of the university. date who achieved first place in the competition. After his installation, the catedrdtico, whether in The Faculty of Philosophy public or private schools, enjoyed life tenure, and In the Brazilian system of higher education, the his rights in this sense were protected by provisions faculty of philosophy, in the broad scope of its

7 Brazil,Ministerio da Educag50 e Cultura, Educacao e de- 8 Some middle-level schools had catedrdticos, but only in public senvolvimento economic° 1962. p. 41. institutions were they guaranteed tenure by the Constitution.

20 curriculum, was the school which most resembled the undergraduate (graduaccio) and the postgrad- the liberal arts college in the United States. Begin- uate (figs-graduacao)levels, both largely profes- ning in the early thirties, this faculty steadily in- sional, which prepared the student for his chosen creased in popularity, and in 1961 enrolled 22.6 profession. The undergraduate programs, in 23 percent of the total higher education students, only general classifications, provided for more than 60 slightly less than the percentage for the faculty areas of study. For postgraduate studies there were of law (table 11).In 1961, there were 77 facul- 13 general classifications and 25 areas. ties of philosophy in Brazil. Upon completion of his undergraduate program A major objective of the faculty of philosophy of 3 to 6 years, the student received a diploma was to train teachers for middle-level schools, pro- conferring a title or a degree. The title was usually viding 3 years of basic study in the major subject that of the student's profession, such as (medico) matter, leading to the degree of bacharel. An addi- physician, (engenheiro) engineer, or the degree, tional year of specialization in education, known the bacharel or licenciado. as the diddtica, led to the licenciado, and the right Regardless of the degree or title obtained, a uni- to teach in a middle-level school, but this fourth versity graduate in Brazil was commonly called year was not considered as postgraduate. In some ( doctor), doctor. If he taught at any level, the title faculties of philosophy, the student received the "professor" was gratuitously conferred upon him by bacharel or the licenciado at the end of the 4-year the public. The doctor's degree, doctorado, was program, depending upon the type of course which awarded after the student had completed his un- he followed. dergraduate work, practiced hisprofession, and returned to his faculty to present and defend a TABLE 1 1.Number and percent of total higher educa- thesis, and complete certain examinations in his tion enrollment, by level and programs of study: 1961 major subject area. In some faculties the doctorado vas awarded to individuals who had been Total higher approved in the competitive examination for the Programs of study cducation Percent of enrollmenttotal enrollment chair of catedrdtico, Graduate studies in Brazilian universities were Undergraduate 98,892 97.5 not the same as the corresponding level of work in Postgraduate 2,689 2.5 universities in the United States. The Brazilian Total 101,581 100.0 doctorate involved almost no directed study, and Undergraduate most of the graduate programs were referred to as Law 23,519 23.8 courses of specialization (especia/izaciio) or devel- Philosophy, sciences opment (aperkiciomento), and, like the under- and letters 22,330 22.6 graduate programs, were largely directed toward 11.6 Engineering 11,423 professional training. Medicine 10,365 10.5 Economic sciences (and related programs) 8,998 9.1 Admission and Enrollments Dentistry 5,572 5.6 Students seeking admission to a school of higher Arts 3,353 3.4 education were required to present a certificate of Pharmacy 2,427 2.4 Agriculture 2,165 2.2 completion of middle-level study. Before 1953 only Architecture 1,646 1.7 the general secondary certificate was accepted for Sanitary services 1,608 1.6 admission to all higher schools, but in that year, Social work 1,578 1.6 a government decree permitted graduates of other Public and private middle-level schools to take the adaptation exam- administration 1,073 1.1 Veterinary medicine 833 0.8 ination for admission to a faculty whose specialty Other programs 2,002 2.0 was not related to their middle-level preparation. The entrance examinations, both oral and writ- Source: Adapted from Brazil, Ministerio de Educag5o e Cultura. ten, were given by the school of higher education, Sinopse estatistica do ensino superior-1961. pp. 5-13. with the Federal inspector assigned to the school sharing a supervisory function. The examinations Study Programs and Diplomas were usually highly competitive, since more stu- Brazilian higher education in1961 comprised dents were seeking admission thanthere were

21 2 places available. Examinations were based on sub- Brazilian institutions of higher education were lo- jectmatter consideredasnecessary for higher cated in urban centers. About 54 percent of the stu- studies, and usually required additional prepara- dents at that level Were enrolled in the 14 univer- tionfor university entrance, frequently through sities located in the seven cities having a population unofficial and unregulated "cram" courses. Some of more than 500,000)1 If the enrollment of inde- students attempted the examinations several times pendent faculties in these citiesis included, the before gaining admission to faculties where com- seven urban centers accounted for 60 percent or petition was high, and others were never successful. more of the Nation's higher education enrollment Transfer from one higher school to another was in 1961.'2 Two of the cities, Rio de Janeiro and legallypossible,providedthereceivingfaculty Sao Paulo, had almost 32 percent of the students would accept the student. Transfer of a student enrolled in university-related faculties. from one type of faculty to another was not per- Of all university students in 1961, 70.6 percent mitted. Students from foreign schools \Ver2 subject were men. Women tended to be in the majority in to adaptation examinations before admissionto the faculties of philosophy, except for mathematics Brazilian schools of higher education. and natural sciences. Engineering, agriculture, and In 1961, there were 216 independent schools economic sciences had more than 90 percent men and 29 universities in Brazil, having 235 faculties. students; women students, on the other hand, con- Of the total enrollment of 101,581 students in all stituted from 10 to 25 percent of the enrollment in higher schools, 98,892 were undergraduates (table faculties of law, medicine, and dentistry, and more 11). Almost 75 percent of the 2,689 postgraduate than a third in schools of pharmacy. More than students were in faculties functioning as part of the 43 percentofthepostgraduate students were universities. women.'" By classification of authority, students in higher Enrollment in all higher education courses in- education were distributed as follows: creased by 88 percent, from 49,700 to 93,200 in Percent of the 1950-60 decade. The enrollment per thousand Authority Number enrollment Federal 39,944 39.4 of the general population was 0.95 in 1950 and State 16,037 15.7 1.31 in 1960.1' By the beginning cf the 1961 school Municipal 2,040 1.9 year, total enrollment had reached 101,581. The Private 43,560 42.9 rate of increase in Brazil's higher education en- Almost half of the undergraduates in 1961 and rollment was significantly higher than the growth approximately the same proportion of postgraduate of the general population. The percent increase students were in faculties of philosophy and law. over 1950 in major fields of study (each of which Of the remaining students, 31.2 percent of under- in 1960 included at least 5 percent of the total graduates and 20.3 percent of postgraduates were higher education enrollment) was as follows:'"' enrolled in engineering, medicine, and economic Percent increase science faculties. The three traditional universi- Fields of Study from 1950 to 1960 ty schools, medicine, engineering and law, still en- All cou:ses 88.0 rolled 45.9 percent of all undergraduates, and 30.5 Law 104.0 percent of the postgraduate students.° As for the Philosophy, sciences, and letters 219.0 Engineering 52.0 regional distribution of enrollments in higher edu- Medicine 16.0 cation schools (table 12), more than 80 percent Economic sciences and were in institutions located in the southern part related programs 170.0 of Brazil, from Minas Gerais and Espirito Santo Dentistry 70.0 tothe south." it Ibid., p. 30-31. Except for a few agricultural schools, almost all 13 Ibid.,passim. '3 Ibid. ° Brazil, Ministerio de Educagao e Cultura.Sinopse estailsiic° Educacao e desenvolvimento economic°.p. 44. do ensino superior-1961. passim. Anuario esunistico do Brasil-1963:andSinopse esialisaco do to Ibid. Encino superior-1961.p. 13.

22 Chapter 3 General Characteristics of Education: 1961

THE ACADEMIC APPROACH sciences. More teachers have been avaliable for the academic method of instruction, and until recent A prominent characteristic of Brazilian educa- decades, were ascribed greater prestige in general tion in the period discussed was its academic ap- society. proach, frequently described as /ivresco, meaning In short, academic education in the pre-1961 "bookish," because of the emphasis placed on mem- periodwas what Braziliansthought education orizing and recitation of facts. Curriculums were should be, and it produced the results which the encyclopedic, including as many as 11 subjects in general public expected. While there was consider- some programs at the middle level. Education in able discussion, before implementation of the 1961 general placed considerable value on the develop- law, about the necessity for other approaches to ment of verbal talents, a feature which one author education, the elementary level remained definitely considered to be a national characteristic: academic. The general secondary school enrolled Thisis one aspect which is profoundly expressive tile majority of the middle-level students. The of the verbalistic configuration of Brazilian culture, teachers' normal programs and the commercial pro- in which the word loses its instrumental character as a conveyor of ideas and has value because of its grams, both influenced by the academic approach, estheticbeauty,itsrhythm, anditsornamental accounted for almost all the other middle-level stu- structure.' dents. On the higher level, faculties of law and The academic approach to education may also philosophy, alone enrolled almost half of the Bra- be attributed to other causes. This type of educa- zilian university-level students. tion, for one thing, led to positions in Brazilian society which commanded the highest prestige. Even RESTRICTION OF OPPORTUNITY in 1961 the educational system of Brazil stillre- tained sonic features which existed only for an The student who passed through the Brazilian elite upper class, and advancement in the academic system of education was subject to a process of field was one means of upward verticalsocial selection at every stage. By no means was admission mobility. to the middle-level or to higher education assured The traditional schools of higher education in by the successful completion of the preceding stage Brazil were law, medicine, and engineering, with of study. As in other parts of the world, end-of- military schools also training individuals for leader- year examinations were of great importance in de- ship roles. Higher education programs were based termining who would be admitted to the next level on completion of the general secondary course, of study. Each level, however, required admission academic in nature, and supposedly providing the examinations necessitating preparation not pro- general education necessary for specialization. vided in the student's previous prescribed program. Such preparation was usually offered in a summer Furthermore, the strict academic type of educa- course or a, fifth year of elementary school for stu- tion was the least expensive to organize and maintain, requiring a minimum of laboratories and dents entering the middle level, and in a period of several months to several years of study for candi- equipment necessary for programs of vocational dates seeking admission to schools of higher edu- education or those concentrating on the natural cation. Jayme Abreu, "Ensino medio brasileiro;tendencias de sua This does not mean that no attempt was made expansao."RevistaBrasileira deEstudosPedagogicos.Vol. XXXIX. No. 89, (janeiro- marco, 1963). p. 32. (translated) at each level of education to provide the prepara-

23 3 0- lion necessary for the student's admission to the of the students who did not remain in school. In next higher level. On the contrary, the general describing a system as being selective, some educa- understanding was that the principal purpose of tors may intend to demonstrate that it maintains the elementary school was to prepare the students high standards; however, the selective aspect may for the middle-level, which in turn should point wellresultinreduced output rather thanin toward university entrance. The levels of Brazilian superior quality. education, however, functioned with little coordination, and with notable isolation from each other. TEACHING STAFFS In general, the student was aware of this selective process, and especially when seeking admission to The different levels of education presented dif- schools of higher education was conscious of the ferent problems affectingteachers. In onlysix competition for the limited number of places avail- States were a majority of elementary-level teachers able. graduates ofthemiddle-levelnormalschools. There were other factors, extraneous to the edu- The majority of teachers in most of the States cational system, in the selective process. One was lacked even this standard of instruction. On the the economic situation of his family Nv111C11 deter- middle level, besides lacking the necessary prep- mined whether a student would have to leave aration, teachers frequently held other jobs or school and help support the family or himself. taught in several schools, which thus divided their Some students were able to work full time and interest. Teacher preparation for the higher level study at night, but such endeavor required strong was unstructured, although the methods for choos- motivation and persistence. In any case the eco- ing professors who would occupy an academic nomic situation of the family had to allow the chair in a faculty were well defined. Most universi- student more than the bare necessities oflife, ty-level teachers had completed the regular course especially at the middle level of schooling, where of instruction in an institution of higher education usually tuition and school supplies were not free. and achieved further preparation throughself- Another selective factor was the value system of study and experience. Part-time teaching was also the student and his family. A family which did a problem at the level of higher education. not place education high on its value scale was not likely to expend much effort to educate its GOVERNMENT CONTROL AND children, and an individual who did not see value CENTRALIZATION in education was unlikely to overcome obstacles. In a nation where all children did not have The educational system of Brazil was tied direct- an opportunity for even the beginning of a fornial ly to the Government which, through its various education, the selective factors, both internal and agencies, controlled the norms, goals, and direc- external to the educational system, reduced the de- tions of the schools to a greater or lesser degree, gree of participation of those children who did and regulated their operation. Following guidelines enter school. of the Federal Government, elementary education In 1961, more than 82 percent of the school was largely under the administration of the States, population at all levels was concentrated in the as were the middle-level normal schools for teacher elementary schools; the middle level enrolled only training. All other middle-level schools and insti- 16.2 percent, and schools of higher educa'.ion, tutions of higher education were responsible to an about 1.2 percent.' Of the total school enrollment agency of the Federal Government as determined in that year more than 60 percent at alllevels by the type of instruction offered. was in the first 2 years of the elementary school, One of the results of Government control was and in some States, more than 80 percent.3 the development of an official concept of educa- The selective process within the Brazilian edu- tion. To be recognized by the general public, educational system and in society generally resulted cation had to be obtained in schools which were in the loss of trained manpower for the Nation, officially recognized and inspected by the Govern- and in the restriction of individual development ment agency responsible for the particular type of instruction. This concept of "official education" Brazil, Conselho Nacional de Estatistica,Anudrio estatistico was supported by the requirement that certain Gov- do Brasil-1961. pp. 368 -380. Ibid.,n.361. ernment jobs be filled by persons who held diplo-

24 31 alas from "official schools." The diplomas from officialeducation appliedtoprivate schools as such schools, to allintents and purposes, served wellas public schools and allowed the private as the license to practice given professions. Diplo- schools to function under Government control on mas from unofficial schools were worthless for this equal footing with the public schools. purpose unless the applicant for a license passed The activity of the private sector in Brazilian rigidrevalidation examination. This concept of educationwasnotablein 1961.Almosthalf official education in some respects could be com- of the higher education students, around 65 per- pared to the concept of accreditation in the United cent of the middle-level students, and about 12 States. percent of the elementary school students were Another result of Government control was the enrolled in private schools. Sonic private schools centralization of education. When Federal agencies received part of their support from Governmental controlled the level or type of education, the cen- agencies, and most charged tuition.Profit-moti- tralization of basic education policy was on a na- vated schools were common on the elementary tionwide basis, although the agencies may have and middle levels, but rare on the higher level. had regional offices. The schools under jurisdic- Without the contribution of the private schools, tion of the States were no less centralized, the educational opportunities would have been even difference being that the local school authorities more restricted. looked to the State capital instead of the Federal capital for direction. URBAN PREDOMINANCE Accompanying Government control and centralization was the high degree of uniformity and Brazilian education was largely an urban move- standardization in schools. Regardless of regional ment. Educational opportunities were definitely location, rural or urban setting, schools in all parts limited fel the rural population. Although a ma- of the Nation under Federal control had identical jority of the population was located in areas classi- school years and curriculums. Schools under State fied as rural, more than half the elementary school administration followed minute regulations of the students were enrolled in schools classified as urban. Secretariat of Education of their States. Qualitatively, the rural schools were considerably inferior to the urban schools. In most of the states, PRIVATE PARTICIPATION more than 70 percent of middle-level students were enrolled in schools located in municipalities having Government control extended to allprivately urban centers of more than 10,000. Except for a operated schools as well as institutions owned and few schools of agriculture, higher education was operated by public agencies. Thus, the concept of confined to the urban centers.

25 32 1 Chapter 4 Enactment and Provisions of the Law GUIDELINES OF THE chided a freer role for the private school in Brazil- CONSTITUTION OF 1946 ian education and Government aid, immediately became a point of controversy, and thus focused Article168 oftheBrazilianConstitutionof greater attention of Congress on the still pending 1946 set forth certain guidelines as a basis for hill. Supporters of public schools, expressing vary- futurelegislation on education. These constitu- ing degrees of opinion, felt their position threat- tional guidelines were,ineffect,theprinciples ened. which would become requirements of the antici- Proponents of publicschools defendedtheir pated legislation: stand asthat of a democratic society, on the Free, compulsorypublicelementary education, ground that only an educational system which was with instruction in the Portuguese language pub!:cly owned, supported, and directed could be Access to other levels of education without charge to those unable to pay the necessary fees truly democratic. Then theme was "public money Fre.e elementary education pr.wided by industrial, forpublicschools."Argumentsrangedfront commercial, and agricultural enterprises, employing mere advocacy of the primacy of the public school more than 100 persons, for children of their em- to proposals whit h would prohibit any private par- ployes, and free apprentice tro. !ling for minor em- ticipation in the educational processes of the nation. ployes Optional religious instruction as a part of regular Public school supporters generally included individ- study programs uals and groups of more liberal political inclina- Teacher tenure (ratedrhtico) rights and competi- tions who accepted greater State participation in tive examinations for pcziti6..3i..,public secondary other activities. and public o.. free higher education institutions. Advocates of private schools claimed to be com- Lifetime tenureis not sustained by the1966 batting "statism" and defending the freedom to Constitution;how,wer,professorswho already educate theft children as they thought best. These held the right when the new charter was decreed proponents were generally more conservative, and were not affected. included religious groups which operated private schools. Points of view ranged from the argument ENACTMENT OF THE LAW OF 1961 that private education should be partly financed In October 1948the BrazilianCongressre- by the Government to the position that all educa- ceived the first bill on implementation of the 1946 tion should he private and that the State(or constitutional guidelines on education, under the States)should grant funds for the operation of sponsorship of the then Minister of Education and schools without participating in their supervision.

Healtt,Clemente Mariani. This bill, entitled "The In general, the. objectives of the two opposing Law of Directives and Bases of National Educa- groups represented simply the question of central- tion" (Lei de Diretizes e Bases de Educacao Na- ized versus decentralized control of Brazilian educa- cional) remained under the consideration of the tion. This has been an unsettled issue in Brazilian Commission on Laws of the Chamber of Deputies education since the time of the country's inde- for some years, arising from time to time for atten- pendence. The Constitution of 1824, which pro- tion in the press, but failing to come up for debate vided for a centralized form of Government, in- in Ole Congress. cluded the provision for free elementary schools. Not until 1959 was a substitute measure pre- The central Government was not implementing sented for the 1948 bill. The proposal, which in this requirement, however, when the Additional

27 Act of 183 gave administrative authority for ele- cation was passed by the Brazilian Congress on mentary and middle-level schools to the assemblies December 20,1961, and senttothe executive of the provinces (now States), which decentralized branch, which vetoed 26 points of the provisions. education on these two levels. Some of the vetoes were sustained and others were This situation continued through the imperial overriden in the Congress. period of Brazilian history and was further con- firmed in 1891 by the first republican Constitution, PROVISIONS OF THE LAW which was definitely decentralizing in its approach, but made no reference to education directly. The Goals for Education interpretation was that thecentral government could administer schools at the higher and middle The law begins with a general definition of the levels, and the State Governments at alllevels: goals of education, and reaffirms: thus a dual system of administration was created. The cc ms statement that education should be inspired by the principles of freedom and human Up to 1930 the Federal Government was not solidarity active inthe field of elementary education but The right of all citizens to an education, in the to some extent centralized its control of middle- home and in the school level education by making the ColZgio Dom Pedro The obligation of the Government to assume this II in Rio de Janeiro into a model middle-level right through provision for public schools and the necessary resources for the family for education of school for the country and using its curriculum the children as a standard. In 1930 the Vargas regitn6 began Freedom of communicating knowledge and beliefs to centralize the administration of education in the opportunities of both public and legally authorized newly created Ministry of Education, but still dele- private schools for representation on the councils of gated to the States some authority over the ele- education. mentary schools. By 1946, its control of education was highly centralized, but the Cot stitution of 1946 Role of the Federal Government provided for decentralized administration, an ap- The law provides for the formation of two types proach whichis expressed in the 1961 Law of of educational systems, 'Federal and State, stress- Directives and Bases. ing that the States and the Federal District shall The opponents of decentralized control feared organize their systems of education and observe that it would allow local politicians to gain con- the constitutional guidelines and the provision of trol over the public schools and weaken any control over the private schools. In the elimination of the law. The educational systems are to consider the flexibility of curricPlunts and the different types centralization and uniformity, the threat of abused and levels of education. freedom was clear to those who advocated that all schools follow the same organization and study The Federal Government has responsibility for plans. public education in the territories. The supportersof decentralizationcitedthe Theoretically, the role of the Federal Govern- vastness of the Brazilian territory, and the diver- ment is to supplement and support the State systems sity of social and economic conditions as evidence and to supplement education in the entire nation. for the necessity of ending centralized control of within the strict limits of local existing deficiencies, education and terminating the uniform programs rather than to control and direct Under the of study and school organization. State and local law, the Federal system has the responsibility for: control and flexibility in tue educational processes Education in the territories according to the local were seen as necessities. needs. Jurisdiction over all federally owned, nonmilitary Both groups made vigorous effort to arouse pub- schools of higher education, private schools, both lic opinion in support of their position. Wide dis- elemelitary and middle-level, in the territories, and cussion in newspapers during the period further those owned by the Federal Government in any part ..,:stified to the importance of the proposed legisla- oftilenation(except militaryschools).Private tion. Clearly, the final solution was to be a com- middle-level schools which were in operation in 1961 have the option of choosing between the jurisdiction promise on the question of school control. of a State or the Federal system of education, this After further debate, consideration and revi.ion, right of decision to be in effect for 5 years from the the Law of Directives and Bases of National Edu- passage of the law.

28. . 3'u The Ministry of Education and Culture con- States, the Federal District, and the territories; tinues as maintains relations with the State councils; and promotes and circulates studies on the State systems. the administrative agency for Federal action in education, carrying out throughitsvarious direc- The actions of the council in reference to higher torates the activities assigned by the law, and exe- education, the question of incorporation of schools cuting decisions of the Federal Council of Education into the Federal system, the establishment of quali- as stipulated by the law; fications for teachers within the Federal system, The Federal Council of Education the authority to determine minimum curriculum iscomposed of 24 members appointed by the and required subjects, and the organization of the President of the Republic for a 6-year term, and council's rules of order, are all subject to the ap- selected on the basis of their recognized knowledge proval of the Minister of Education. or experience in educational matters, considering the various levels of education, and the diverse regions of the nation; the 6-year terms are to be adjusted at the time of organization of the council so that State Participation one-third of the members will retire every 2 years; two-thirds of the council remains and serves as a The Law of Directives and Bases authorizes balance in the change of membership; State legislation which will determine the adminis divided into chambers to deal separately with istration and structure of the State s!,.sictits of edu- questions concerning elementary, middle-level, and cation in accordance with Federal requirements. higher education; plenary sessionswilldealwith The systems of education of the States and of the questions of a-,eneralnature; membership t the council haspr...-ity over allother publicoffices Federal District are to include 2.il non-federal ele- which the member may hold; mentaryschools,Stateandmunicipalpublic has genera: power to investigate, through special middle-level schools: private schools in existence commissions, any educational institution to determine before 1961 which chose to become part of the its compliance with the law; to adopt or propose State system of education; and allState-owned changes and measures for the expansion and improvement of education and consider extension of schools of higher education in States where univer- socialassistance; render opinions on questions of sitives have been in operation for more than 5 educational nature submitted by thePresident of years. the Republic or by the Minister of Education; The State systems of education are specifically proposes measures for the organization and func- empowered to place limits on the employment of tioning of a federal system of education; indicates the required subjects of the middle and higher-level elementary school teachers who are graduates only programs, andsetsqualificationsforelementary of the first cycle of the normal school; and to set school teachers in the Federal system; has advisory the qualifications for all elementary school teachers capacity on the incorporation of schools into the within the system, making no distinction between Federal system after the financial condition of the the graduates of public and private normal schools institutions has been verified; within the State systems.Itis makes decisions on the functions of independent the duty of the faculties, both Federal and private, after they have States to decide on questions of adaptation arising been in operation for 2 years; authorizes establish- from the transfer of students from one middle- ment of a university and its functioning by approving level school to another. States which have main- itccharter: and determines minimum curriculum tained a university in operation for more than 5 requirements of institutions of higher learning whose years may decide on the recognition of State-oper- diplomas confer the right to practice a liberal profession or to hold certain public offices; but these ated schools of higher education in the States. This decisions are made by the States in the case of State responsibility is exercised by the State council of universities which have been in operation for 5 years education according to its authority. or longer; A State council of education in each State is to receives and considers reports from all university- level schools and :nay suspend the autonomy of a be structured according to State laws and com- university; posed of individuals of known standing in the field makes plans for the use of Federal resources which of education, including representatives of the vari- are appropriated for the different levels of education, ous levels of instruction, private and public, as thenationalfundforelementary education, the well as teachers and administrators. state legisla- national fund for middle-level education, and the national fund for higher education; determines the tion is to define the powers of the council, observ- overall amount from Federal funds to be used for ing the requirements of the Law of Directives and scholarships at the various educational levels in the Bases which specifically assign certain duties to

29 this body. The State council, as regulated by State Private elementary schools are under the system laws, is to having jurisdiction over their locality. Private mid- organize qualifying examinations for elementary dl..-level schools in existence in 1961 had until De- school teachers who annot graduates of normal cember 1966 to choose between the Federal or schools State system. Private schools of higher education support local authorities in the enforcement of the provision for firms employing more than 100 persc..s are under the jurisdiction of the Federal authorities. to provide elementary education for the children of No distinction is permitted concerning the validity their r rAinnel of the studies in officially recognized public schools set standards for the recognition and functioning and in private schools. Diplomas and certificates of elementary and middle-level schools underits from both are judged to be of equal value and are jurisdiction, and advise the Ministry of the recognition of middle-level schools, and for the organiza- subject to the same regulations and registry. tion of experimental courses on both levels Private schools may receive subsidies and grants complete the number of optional subjects for t' for designated purposes from Government sources. curriculum of middle-level schools within the State However, they are required to grant tuition or system,permitting eachinstitutiontochooseits electives; technical courses not otherwise regulated discounts up to the value of the funds received. by law arc subject to authority of the State gov- Private schools may also accept students holding ernment Government scholarships, and may receive Govern- authorize and inspect the schools of higher edu- ment loans. ?rivate institutions of higher education cation which are owned by the State, but arc not which receive public funds may not be transferred components ofauniversity, and actincases of appeal coming from these schools to other ownership without approval of the compe- decide questions involving the transfer of students tent authority. from one State institution to another approve modificationsintheconstitutions and Educational Foundations bylaws of schools under its jurisdiction approve the transfer of an institution of higher As a means of maintaining educational institu- education from one sponsoring body to another if the tions on alllevels, both private and public, the institution has received State funds 1961 legislation recommends the establishment of providespecial supporttoprivate and public nonprofit foundations and associations. Schools activities in the fieldof education of exceptional sponsored by such organizations may receive finan- persons. cial support from the Government and are allowed The State councils of education are to plan for to charge tuition on the middle and higher level. the use of funds referred to in Article 169of the Iftuitionischarged,thefeesaresubjectto I3razilian Constitution, requiring that 10 percent of Government approval. If the foundations which Federal tax receipts and 20 percent of State, Fed- have received Government funds cease to exist, all eral District, and municipal tax revenues be used buildings, equipment, and other resources become for education. Such funds ar, intended to provide Government property. This systemisespecially access to education for the largest Lumber of per- recommended for schools of higher education. It sons possible, preferablyin public schools. The should be noted that this is not a required structure Statecouncils aretoorganizethe mechanism of ownership, and that the Law of Directives anti through which both Federal and State funds are Bases orders thataspeciallaw regulate such to be used for scholarships, allowing aid to ele- foundations. Employes of a foundation are subject mentary level students to study in private schools to the normal labor legislation, as are the other only when there are no vacancies in the public private schools. schools. The State councils are required to study the costs of education within States and to publish Financing Education statistics, with the objective of improving the edu- The 1961 Law increases the percentage of Fed- cational processes. eral tax revenues to be used for education to 12 Private Schools percent, from the minimum of10 percent, as stipulated in the Constitution of 1946. The re- Legally authorized private schools are assured quirement that 20 percent of State and municipal participation in the Brazilian educational system by tax revenues be used for educational purposes con- the Law of Directives and Bases. tinues, and the States and municipalities are pro- I The 1966 Constitution does not include this provision. hibited from requesting Federal aid for education

30 3 7 when they have not fulfilledthis constitutional provide facilities for the children in cooperation requirement. with public authorities. Ninety percent of the Federal funds for educa- The stated purpose of elementary education is tion are to be divided equally into three funds for to develop the reasoning powers of the child and the threelevels of education. According to the to foster self-expression and integration into his plans of the Federal Council of Education and environment. Instruction in the national language the State Councils of Education, the objectives of Brazil is required from the age of 7. Elementary are to provide better schooling for greater numbers schools are to provide at least 4 years of instruc- of students, to improve the quality of teaching, tc tion, with 2 additional years in schools where ap- develop technical scientific education, and to pro- plied arts arc taught. To facilitate enrollment and mote the sciences, letters, and arts. More specifical- attendance, the law provides for annual registra- ly, the funds are used for maintenance and ex- tion of school-age children, each municipality di- pansion of scholarship benefits, teacher develop- recting its census of children who have reached the ment, and administration. but not for auxiliary age of 7. Parents who do not enroll their children social and cultural assistance. in school or do not provide adequate instruction Partofthe Federalfundsisdesignatedfor in the home cannot be employed by the Govern- scholarships and15-year lowinterestloansto ment or autonomous Government agencies. unless students of recognized ability and need for study they present proof of sufficientjustification,as inofficiallyrecognizedinstitutions. The overall stated inthe law. amount of Federal funds for scholarships is determined by the Federal Council of Education: th: MIDDLE-LEVEL EDUCATION State councils of education determine the alloca- tion per student and the requirements forthe Administration and Structure awarding of the scholarships. The 1961 Law provides basic guidelinesfor Federal funds are to be distributed to private middle-level education, but leaves supervision of and public educational institutions inthe forms schools to the competent authorities of the system of subsidies, technical assistance, grants, and loans under which they operate, Federal or State. All for the purchase, construction, and repair of build- middle-level schools are to organize charters and ing and equipment. To receive this aid, the school regulations to govern their internal operation, sub- must be officially recognized as morally and techni- ject to approval by the council having jurisdiction. cally responsible. .have an acceptable accounting Directors of middle-level schools are required system, and offer proof that the repayment of loans to he qualified educators, and teachers must meet will not prejudice the effective operation of the the qualifications necessary for registration with the school. Ministry of Education and Culture. Teachers for The law reiterates the constitutionalrequire- public schools are to he chosen through competi- ment that commercial, agricultural, and industrial tive examinations. enterprises employing more than 100 persons pro- Under the 1961 Law, middle-level education is vide elementary education for the children of their divided into the broad categories of general sec- employees as a method of financing education. An ondary,normal.andtechnical,thelastin- additional recommendation is that rural property cluding agricultural,industrial, and commercial owners cooperate with public authorities to provide study programs. Each category is divided into two elementary education for the children whose par- cycles: the first, ginasial, and the second, colegial. ents reside on their land. The general pattern is 4 years for the first cycle and 3 for the second, but there are possible varia- ELEMENTARY EDUCATION tions in the normal school program, where each cycle may be longer. Industrial programs may pro- The Law of 1961 provides only general guide- vide a year of academic study between the two lines for elementary education. This level includes cycles. pre-primary schooling which is limited to children 7 years of age or wider and is provided in nursery Admission schools or kindergartens. Companies which em- The middle-level school is open to students who ploy mothers of children of this age are urged to reach the age of 11 before or during the school

31 3 year, and requires an entrance examination as public schools who fail one grade n tore than once proof of the student's adequate elementary preps= may not matriculate in the school . ration. Students who have completed the sixth year of elementary school may take an examina- General Secondary Program tionin the subjects offered in the first year of As outlined in the general provisions for middle- the first cycle of the middle-level program and, level education, the general secondary program is ifsuccessful, may enter the second year of that divided into two cycles, the first (ginasial) having cycle. Admission to the second level requires com- 4 years, and the second (colegial) 3 years. In the pletion of the first cycle. Through adaptation ex- organization of its curriculum, the individual school aminations the student may transfer from one may choose the elective courses to be offered in middle-level program to another, from one school both cycles, including one vocational subject. A to another, from one system to another, and from maximum of nine different subjects may be offered foreign to Brazilian schools. These examinations in the first cycle with no more than seven in any are administered under the system of education one year. The first 2 years of the second cycle having jurisdiction over the school the student offer eight subjects, besides practical work; and desires to enter. the third year, which may have not fewer than four, nor more thansixsubjects,isorganized Curriculums to prepare the student for university-level courses. The law permits some variation in the curricu- Technical Programs lum of middle-level schools. The minimum require- Middle-leveltechnicaleducationspecifically ments call for 180 days of classes, of 24 hours a covers threetypes of study:agricultural, com- week. mercial, and industrial. The usual middle-level, The 1961 Law stipulates that the Federal Coun- two-cycle program is followed, but industrial schools cil of Education shall select five required subjects may include apprentice and crafts training, which for each middle-level program and state the num- may also be offered in separate schools, independ- ber required years of study for each. The State ent of the middle-level programs. The industrial councils, or the Federal Council of Education for and commercial apprenticeship programs require 3 the Federal system, select two other required sub- years, and when he has finished, the student may jects. designate the length of study for each, and matriculate in a technical gincisioin the second permit the school to choose one or two electives to year. Industrial and commercial establishments arc complete the curriculum. The first 2 years of all to provide apprentice training for their minor em- first-cycle programs include the same required sub- ployees, according to regulations of the different jects. Provisions are made for duly authorized ex- systems of education. i;;mental programs on the middle level. Special curriculum requirements for the techni- Students who are 16 years or older may take cal programs include four general secondary sub- examinations covering the firstcycle of studies jects in the last 2 years of the first cycle, besides without attending class, and if successful, may re- the regular technical subjects, and five general ceive the certification of conclusion of the program. secondary subjects offeredinthe second cycle. Students in the second cycle, 19 years of age or However, a school may offer a year of pre-techni- older, may follow the same procedure. The exami- cal studies between the two cycles, covering the nations must be taken over a period of not less five general secondary subjects, which leaves the than 2 nor more than 3 years. entire second cycle for technical subjects. Diplomas Each school is free to organize its own grading granted by technical schools must be registered system within certain limits and to issue certifi- with the Ministry of Education and Culture to cates of promotion and completion of courses. have national validity. Grades are based on the work of the school year and on general activities, the teacher having the Normal Schools liberty of formulating questions of the examina- The object of the normal school at the middle- tion. To be eligible to take the final examination, level is to prepare teachers and other staff members the student must have attended at least 75 percent for the elementary schools. The first cycle of at of the classes during the school year. Students in least 4 years leads to the diploma of regente, and

32 3!) the second cycle of at least 3 years, to the diploma additions to the basic curriculum, and to fix opera- of professor, xvhich qualifies the holder as an ele- tional procedures for its programs. The autonomy mentary teacher. No distinction may be made be- may be suspended for unspecified periods if the tween the graduates of private or public schools. institution does not follow the provisions of the Institutes of education may be connected with the law and of its own constitution and bylaws. The normal schools, offering training in administration, council of education, Federal or State, having guidance and professional education subjects for jurisdiction over the school, acts as a university graduates of the second cycle or the normal school's council for independent public faculties; for non- program. For the training of teachers for the nor- public faculties, the sponsoring organization per- mal school, programs in education similar to those forms this function. of the faculties of philosophy may be offered. Rural The law also requires that the student body normal schools arctotrainteachers for rural have representation on university, faculty, and de- schools. partmental councils; however, the question of the extent of this representation is not determined by HIGHER EDUCATION legislation, but by the constitution of the individual school. Structure The chief executive of a university is the rector According to the Law of Directives and Bases, ( rector) and of a faculty, the director (direitor). Brazilian higher education is provided in univer- In Federal universities the rector is to be selected sities, faculties, and institutes of research and spe- from a list of three professors, nominated by the cializedtraining. The universities are composed univc.-rsity council, and presented to the President of faculties and institutes, and the faculties may of the Republic for approval. In State schools be independent or a part of a university. Institutes thenomineesarcpresentedtotheGovernor may be attachedtoeitheruniversitiesorto of the State.In private universities and facul- faculties. ties, the rector may be selected by the competent Usually a university is to be composed of five or authority from a list of three candidates; or, his more faculties, but the Federal Council of Educa- election may be subject to the approval of that tion may waive the requirement for rural and other authority, depending upon the school's constitu- special purpose schools. A former requirement that tion. Directors of Federal institutions of higher each university have a faculty of philosophy was education are selected from a list of three cate- not stipulated by the Law of 1961. Provisions are drdlicos, nominated by the teaching staff of the made for the teaching of the third year of the school. middle-level second cycle withinthe university. Also, middle-level technical programs may be of- Levels of Programs fered when the university is able to provide the The law provides for programs in institutions of required teaching and technical facilities. higher education at( I )the undergraduate level (graduaceio), open to students who have com- Administration pleted their middle-level studies and have satisfied Under the law, public universities and independ- other university entrance requirements;(2)the ent faculties constitute self-governing entities, or postgraduate level (pos-graduado), open to stu- foundations, whereas private institutions may be dents who have received their undergraduate diplo- sponsored by a foundation or a private association. mas; (3) the advanced training level, programs of These sponsors arenottodirectlyadminister specialization (especializaccio) which are permitted the university or faculty, but are to organize or with varying requirements and organization, ac- approve its constitution and bylaws subject to ap- cording to the regulations of the institution. proval by the Federal Council of Education. The The organization of curriculum is the responsi- sponsoring bodies are also empowered to decide bility of the institution itself; however, the Federal on questions which arise but which are not covered Council of Education determines the minimum by theconstitution and bylaws oftheschool number of subjects and the duration of the pro- concerned. grams. The law grants autonomy of instruction, allow- The individual school may structure programs, ing the school to create, organize, and determine select additional subjects, and establish its instruc-

33 40 tional program without limitations other than those Financing stated in the Law of Directives and Bases and in Schools of higher education are allowed some the constitution and bylaws of the school. The organization of subject matter for each class is the degree of independence in handling their finances responsibility of the teachers, subject to the ap- according to their own regulations, but within the proval of faculty members or other designated bounds of State and Federal laws. The schools are free to organize their budgets; to accept subsidies, authority. Students are permitted to take subjects in faculties outside their own, and their equiva- donations, and legacies; and to present their ac- lence is decided by the university council. Classes counts for auditing by the responsible group or agency. Subsidies and grants from the Federal au- require 180 days for each school year, not including thorities are given as a lump stun to the university the time necessary for examinations. and designated for specific amounts in the univer- Both students and teachers are required to at- sity budget. Students who are unable to pay for tendclasses.Students who do not attendthe their education may study free of charge in public minimum percentage of classes as stipulated in the schools as provided in the Federal Constitution. school's regulation are denied admissionto t final examination. The institution or any interested The Faculty of Philosophy party may petition the suspension of a teacher who The faculty of philosophy is the only school of is absent without just cause from 25 percent of his higher education mentioned specifically in the Law classes, or fails to present 75 percent of the subject of 1961. It is designated as the school for the edu- matter of the course outline. A recurrence of the cation of middle-level school teachers. The faculty infraction constitutes legal abandonment by the is also the model for the institutes of education teacher of the post, one of the causes for dismissal connected with normal schools, which train ele- under labor legislation. mentary school administrators and counselors. Each Students in a public institution who twice fail faculty of philosophy is to have a special program the same year of a program are no longer eligible of instruction for middle -level counseling, admis- for registration in that school. siOn to which requires the completion of the full Diplomas granted by officially recognized schools, course in philosophy, education, psychology, social bothprivate and public,haveequalvalidity science, or physical education. Federal school in- throughout the Nation; however, for legal pur- spectors may also have orientation sessions in the poses diplomas must be registered with the Minis- faculty if they have had the 3 years' experience try of Education and Culture. For registering di- required for other candidates. No faculty of philos- plomas which qualify the recipient for practicing ophy, science, and letters may function without at a liberal profession, or for public employment, the least four programs leading to the bacharel diplo- Ministry may also require examinations and proof ma, one of which must be the science and letters of practical experience. program.

34 41 Chapter 5 Implementation of the Law of 1961 This chapter discusses the existing, and in some Minister of Education, and is appointedby the cases the proposed, changes and innovations at all President of the Republic. levels of public and private education, designed The council meets monthly in regular plenary to implement the requirements of the Law of 1961. sessions and may be convened more often for special sessions. The various chambers and commis- THE FEDERAL COUNCIL OF sions function between the regular sessions. The duties of the Council are those outlined by the EDUCATION Law of Directives and Bases (see p. 33). Within a few weeks after the passing of the The attitude of the Federal Council of Educa- 1961 Law, the President of Brazil, on February 5, tion toward the law has been most important. The members have demonstrafrd the intention to imple- 1962, issued a decree for the establishment of the Federal Council of Education, according to pro- ment the law by placing its provisions into opera- visions of the law. Its members were appointed, tion soon as possible. The council has accepted the decentralizing features of the law, and sought and a week later the group met to effect its formal organization and to initiate its work. Pending the to shift the responsibility for education from the formulation of permanent bylaws, the council pre- Federal to the State level. The principles of flexibility and variation within the limits of the law sented to the Minister of Education a temporary set of rules which were approved on February 21, are expressed in many of the opinions and decisions 1962. rendered by the group. The council has not im- peded the implementation of the law, but to the The permanent bylaws, approved by the Minis- contrary, has been a willing instrument for its ter on October 7, 1963, provide for a council of execution. 24 members, organized in a chamber for higher Whereas the Minister of Education is a political education, and in a chamber for elementary and rgure who may not serve for a long period, the middle-level education. A permanent commission council continues its functions from one Federal on legislation and standards is composed of seven administration to another. It is therefore possible members, five of whom are from the chamber for for the council to organize the resources of the higher education, and two from the other cham- Nation for education on broaded-based and far- ber. The tl,o chambers and the permanent com- reaching plans. Professor Celse Kelly, at one time mission hae full-time secretaries.Special com- general secretary of the council and later ap- missions may he organized as necessary. Members pointed as a member of the group, described the of either chamber may attend the sessions of the Federal Council of Education as other and take part in the proceedings without . a small senate for educational matters without the right to vote. thedisturbanceofpoliticalorigins and without A president and vice president of the council partisan struggle, dedicated to high and profitable are elected for 2-year terms. The president is re- discussion which may be expected of "persons no- sponsible for th.: overall functioning of the council, table knowledge and experience in education." Sur- rounded by guarantees of stability, the supreme organ assisted by h s staff and by the General Secretariat, of education has before it a most important respon- which is responsible for the overall administration. sibility, to be fulfilled with recognized autonomy as A generalsecretary, whose qualifications must if there were a fourth power, ;ill educational power.' match those of the members of the council,is Brazil,Ministerio de Educagao a Cultura,Documenta: 20, nominated by the president of the council and the (novembro, 1963) p. 5. (Translated)

35 42 STATE COUNCILS OF EDUCATION and in others lie is a member of the group. Coun- cils may also include certain functionaries of the The 1961 Law does not define in detail the re State secretariat as cx officio members. lationship between the Federal Council of Educa- Often there seems to be little direct connection tion and the State councils of education. It speci- between the council and the State secretariat. On fies that the Federal Council is to maintain contact one hand, the State secretary of education and his and exchange information with the State councils, entire secretariat may feel that they are subordi- but requires no definite method. In no sense is it nate to the council: as tl)e other extreme, the secre- inferred that the State organizations are inferior tariat, through its staff members on the council, to the Federal, since each has the authority to may strongly influence or dominate it. act within its province on questions of education Considerable variation has existedinthere- as delegated by the law. action of the State councils of education to the Plans for the application of Federal funds are implementation of the Law of 1961. With few generally considered by both councils with impli- guidelines furnished by the legislation, some coun- cations of cooperation in regard to the principle of cils have resorted co concepts which they knew decentralization, the overall planning function, and and understood and have demonstrated some ten- the realization of education in a national scope. dencies toward centralization of the State educa- Since 1963 the Federal Council has organized and tion system around the State council of education. promoted annual meetings, at which the represen- In effect, some members of the councils have tatives of the State councils have discussed common thought that the State agencies should be smaller- problems and exchanged information on important scale models of the formerly highly centralized aspects of education. Federal Ministry of Education and Culture. Usual- The Statecouncils were notconstitutedas ly, the president of the State council of education quickly as the Federal Council, but by the end of is a key figure, and his initiative, or lack of it, 1962,11States had passed legislationcreating is an important factor. Generally speaking, the the councils, or, as in the case of Rio Grande do State councils have sought to implement the la Sul, had adapted a previously functioning council and in most cases are readily accepting the accom- to the requirements of the 1961 Law. Fy the end panying responsibility. of 1963, almost all the States had ap )roved the necessary legislation which provided foe the coun- THE MINISTRY OF EDUCATION cils, and by the end of 1964, the coun,:ils existed AND CULTURE in all States. The organizational structure of the State coun- The Law of Directives and Bases designates the cils varies considerably; some having as few as 6 Ministry of Education and Culture as the agency members and others as many as 27. The councils responsible for exercising the Federal function in are not uniform from State to State in method education (except in militi ry schools) . The gen- of operation, but are organized with chambers for eral duties of the Ministry require that it enforce each level of education, according to the Law of the Federal educaticr al laws and the decisions of 1961. the Federal Council o Education. More specifical- The duties of the councils are defined by the ly, the Ministry continues to act as a registry for State legislation authorizing their creation. These all middle-level school teachers, and for middle- duties vary in their nature and in some States level technical diplomas, in order that they may are redefined by a separate law which establishes have validity throughout the Nation. To provide the State education system. Eventually, all States legal status and to permit the holder to practice are expected to have such laws. a liberal profession or to hold public office, di- One influence on both the functioning and the plomas from schools of higher education are also duties of the councils is their relationship to the registered with the Ministry. State secretariats of education, which formerly had Some decisions of the Federal Council of Educa- considerable responsibility for education in their tion are subject to approval by the Minister of respective States. In some States, the State secre- Education, who usually gives his consent to the tary for education may be designated by law as council's actions. There are allegations, however, the president of the State council for education, that some actions of the council are not properly

36 4J implemented by the various agencies of the Min- in turn derived from a constitutional requirement, istry. Such a situation might easily exist, consider- and designated the Federal Council of Education ing that the Ministry's directorates were organized as the agency responsible for developing a plan for and accustomed to administering a highly cen- for the use of such funds. tralized system on the middle and higher levels. The 1961 Law stated that 90 percent of the Some functionaries understood thistype of ad- Federal funds for education were to be divided ministration, and were accustomed to thinking in into three equal parts to finance the three levels such a context, and to assuming thatallfinal of the school system. Thus, 30 percent was desig- decisions were a matter for the Ministry. nated for the national fund for elementary-level While the Law of Directives and Bases assigned education; 30 percent for the national fund for duties to the Ministry of Education and Culture, middle-level education; and 30 percent for the it made !Jo pro ,,,ins fir the reorganization of national fund for higher education. the Ministry itself. 'fl ,s, the situation which ac- Although thedifferentlevelsreceived equal tually existed, after enactment of the law, was that amounts, they served different percentages of the of the Federal Council of Education attempting population. In 1961, there was an enrollment of to decentralize the educational system, with the more than 6,600,000 students in the elementary Ministry acting asitsexecutive body butstill schools; more than 1,300,000 in the middle-level, structured for a centralized system. However, in and almost 102,000 in schools of higher educa- 1965, legislation was under consideration to effect tion. Elementary education in 1961 received most an administrative reorganization of the Ministry of its support from State and municipal govern- along the lines of the 1961 Law. ment units, and a majority of middle-level stu- In some regional offices of the Ministry of Edu- dents were enrolled in private schools which re- cation, varying interpretations of the 1961 Law ceived little, if any, Government support. Thus, the may still exist. For example, in 1965 regional in- private sector provided funds for education not spectors in one locality circulated memoranda to considered in the National Plan. the effect that all general secondary schools were It should be pointed out that this national plan still the responsibility of the Ministry; in other lo- for education is a method for disbursing funds calities they advised that inspectors had no respon- whichinpartare administered by the State sibility for any secondary school, except those pri- agencies of education. The overall objective is to vate schools which, according to provision of the increase the degree of public participation in the law, elected to continue under administration of educational systems as well as to improve the effi- theMinistry. On the other hand, within the ciency of instruction. The more specific application Ministry's offices in Rio de Janeiro and Brasilia, of funds is for school-building construction, in- there are functionaries who thoroughly understand crease of teachers' salaries, improvement of teacher the implication of the Law of Directives and preparation, funds for the education of exceptional Bases, and have been diligent in executing the de- children, support of literacy programs, and the decisions of the Federal Council of Education which velopment of programs of instruction in general. are within their responsibility. The plan itself determined the method of cal- culation for the division of funds among the vari- THE NATIONAL PLAN FOR ous States, territories, and the Federal District, as EDUCATION well as the different purposes for which the funds were to be used. Shortly after its organization, the Federal Coun- cil of Education began to formulate the National 1965 Revisions: Goals for 1976 Plan for Education (Plano Nacional de Educacao) In March 1965, the Federal Council of Educa- and delivered tile completed proposals for approval tion approved a revised plan, based upon the fol- by the Minister of Education in 1962. The plan lowing justifications for the change: The Educa- was based on the requirements of Article 92 of tional Salary Law (see p. 38) had been passed; the Law of Directives and Bases, which stipulated the first 3 years of experience with the plan dem- the amounts of Federal tax revenues and of State onstrated the necessity for revision; due to budget- and municipal income to be used for the develop- ary factors, the plan had been placed only in ment of education. This provision of the 1961 Law partial operation. There were also provisions for a

37 4 I yearly review of the plan, with necessary revisions goals will be greatly handicapped by the rapid to be made by the council. The 1965 revision of the rate of population increase. plan maintained the same goals, but changed the method of calculating the share of funds which EMPLOYER SUPPORT: each State would receive, and also the purposes EDUCATIONAT. SALARY LAW for which the funds would be used. The following goals were set in the 1965 revision In Octiber 1964, the Leticational Salary Law of the plan to be achieved by 1970:2 was passed, which increased financial support for 1.100 percent of the school pop...ation from the elementary education. Time law stated that all firms ages of 7 to 11to be enrolled in the first 4 years of whose employes benefit from social security must school, and 70 percent of thosei 2 to 1.1 in the fifth contribute a certain percentage of the legal mini- and sixth years. mum salary per employee for tin purposes of edu- 2. 30 percent of the11to14 age group to he enrolled in the first 2 years of the first cycle of the cation. Exempted from the law arc those firms middle-level courses, and 50 percent of the 15-18 in which provide elementary schooling for children the last 2 years of the same nycle. Also, 30 percent of of their employes as specified in the law, educa- the 15 to 18 age group was to be enrolled in the tionalinstitutions,and nonprofitorganizations. second cycle of the secondary level. Funds are to be collected by the social security 3. The expansion of the matriculation in schools institutes, 50 percent of which is designated for the of higher education to include at least half of the middle-level graduate. States for elementary education, to be adminis- 4. By 1970, all elementary-level teachers were to tered by the State councils of cducation. The other have some formal teaching education, 20 percent 50 percent of the funds becomes part ofthe having the regents course, 60 percent the full normal national fund for elementary education. course, and 20 percent some post-secondary training. The Educational Salary Law in effect is a mech- 5. At leastthelast2 years of the elementary anism for !meting the constitutional requirement courses (the fifth and sixth years) should have a full day of school activities and include industrial arts that firms employing more than 100 persons pro- in their programs administered in adequate shops. vide elementary education for the children of their 6. The middle-level schools should offer afull employes. This law also distributes part of the 6-hour school day (including practical education) load for the financing of elementary PrillCation to with directed study periods. smaller firms and to larger firms whose employes 7. At least 30 percent of the teachers in schools may have few children. of higher education should give full time to their teaching duties. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION The financial aid provided under the national plan may help inthe solution of the pressing Elementary education was the least affected of problems in the Brazilian elementary school. The all levels by the Law of Directives and Bases. The shortage of trained teachers could be reduced by control of elementary education remains with the increasing salaries, thereby attracting normal school State governments, with only general guidelines graduates who otherwise would not enter the set by the Law of Directives and Basc. Consider- teaching profession. The lack of financial support able variation continues in the elementary school has been one of the reasons for the deficit in school system from one State to another. facilities and for the poor quality of the class- The normal length of the elementary program rooms and equipment. Additional facilities and is a minimum of 4 years as required by the law, teachers would contribute to the reduction of the but 5 and 6 years are permitted. Although all number of children who have no opportunity to States are striving to raise their schools to the 4- attend school, and to the achievement of the goal year goal, rural schools do not necessarily offer the of the national plan to place all the 7-14 age full elementary program. Some States are con- population in school by 1970. To some extent tinuing their 4-year program as it was before 1961, the dropout rate could be reduced by increased and others retain the 5-year period. There has investment of human and material resources in been some experimentation with the sixth year education. However, the achievement of the stated of the elementary school, as permitted by the law, allowing the student to enter the second year of 2 Brazil, Ministerio de '2dueac5o e Cultura, Plano nacional de educacao, 1962. Revisab de 1965. the middle level after passing an admission exami-

38 4 5 nation. In Pernambuco, thertsult,xere not en schools under jurisdiction of the State even before couraging, possibly because of ay e...;,erimental pro- most of the State councils of education were in gram of automatic promotion;n some ofthe existence. schools of that State. Another immediate concern was the status of the The intent of the Law of Directives and Bases state-owned, and the private middle-level schools was not simply to allow a year of middle-level which chose to operate under State control, in the study to be completed in the elementary school. States which had not yet completed organization Rather, the intent, in ',Art, was to permit the ex- of thcir educational system.In some States, where tension of the elementary program,to a 6-year the educational system had not been recognized by terminal course. The last2 years stress practical the F:!deral Council, the regional office (inspectorio subjects, providing a broader foundation for the secczonal) of the Ministry of Education and Cul- student who would not continue to the middle tm,were advised school directors that the schools level. are still under federal jurisdiction, although State The requirement of the 1961 Law for an annual secretariats assumed supervision of the sci:ools, and census of elementary students was initiated nation- the Federal Council did ne.t take steps to prevent ally in No, :tuber 1964. This census sought to veri- such action. fy the number of children 5-14 years of age, and Factually, the middle-lex 21 schools are under the the number enrolled in school. Since the usual age jurisdiction c!' the system of ,which they are a part; for completion of elementary school would be only State-owneei schools are components of the State 11-12 years, and a large percentage of this group systems; Federally owned schools and all institu- does not enter middle-level school,itis not sur- tions in Federal territory are included in the Fed- prising that the 1964 school census revealed that eral system. a large percentage of the uppe.: age group, 5-11 Most private schools in existence before 1962 years, were not inschool. The census indicate are remaining under supervision of the Federal that in some cases, such as the State of Guanabara. agencies. Several factors influence this decision, and the Federal District, opportunity for elemen- one of the stronger no doubt being that the schools tary s.7hooling was available for all school-age chil- are accustomed to the jurisdiction of the Ministry dren, in either private of public schools, while in of Education.Another is that many school direc- other States, large numbers of children are de- tors feel that at the State level, political factors prived of this opportunity because of lack of facili- would be of greater significance for the private ties. In some regions where sufficient facilities exist, schools. Also some school directors are of the efforts are being made to enforce the provision of opinion that supervision from a Federal agency the law that all elementary school -age children be carrie:, more prestige than from a State agency. enrolled and attend classes. Whether schools operate under the Federal or the State system, their charter and bylaws, both MIDDLE-LEVEL EDUCATION subject to the approval of the responsible council, govern many aspects of school life.In these docu- Decentralization of controls over middle-level ments are laid down the duties of the administra- education began with the Federal Council of Edu- tive officers and teachers, rules of discipline for cation, won afterits organization, inasmuch as students, regulations for grading aid for examina- some State councils of education were slow in be- tions, the curriculums to be foliowed, and the solu- coming acti .ted. The Federal Council's imple- tions to many questions formerly controlled by the mentation of the law's requirement on State con- Ministry of Education.In all cases, the approved trols ineffect has pressured the State agencies charters and bylaws must conform to the Law of to accept control of the State schoolFederal Directives and Bases. Council of Education decisions, which were ap- Underhe decentralized systems, the middle- proved on April 14, 1962, stated that the council level school directors have much more r_:sponsi- did not have the legal authority to grant _cogni- bilitythan formerly.Decentralizati; n was in- tiontonewlyestablishedprivate:riddle -level tended not only to pass jurisdictionto a State schools." These decisions,:,ereforeplaced such level, but also to g: e school directors more control.At fir t, the directors, unaccustomed to such Brazil, Minister° da Educa,a, c Cultura. Documenta, 1 2 3 (marco, abril, c main, 1962) pp. 208-209. authority, se -need to be hesitant and not to under-

39 46 stand the significance of their new authority, As upon the regulation of the institution to which he thile passed and the freedom of the new situation sought Another decision in April 1963 became more apparent, their response was almost made possible a modification of admission proce- unanimously favorable. A few dyectors, however, dures. In effect, the decision states that the ad- would prefer to return to the previous situation, mission examination need not be required if the where they had to make few decisions and their school has other evidence that the candidate has responsibility was limited. satisfactory elementary education.'Finis the Inspection of middle-level schools continues on a I ial school, by its own bylaws, may determine its limitedbasis, The Ministry of Education has cei,eria for accepting students for the middle-level signed agreements with many schools to discon- courses. tinue inspection, the movement having begun in Ill many private schools at middle level, and the late fifties.The director's responsibilities now in a few public schools having ample facilities for include many formerly held by the inspector. all applicants, students are admitted without exam- State agencies are developing a system of school ination.Some private institutions which include inspection.Some educators hope that the school elementary-level courses do not require examina- inspector will emerge from the transitional period tion of their own students for middle-level pro- with more duties of guidance.In any event, the grams, if they have successfully completed the ele- process of decentralization decrenses greatlythe mentary courses, but make this requirement of all duties of the inspector, since the individual school miler applicants. has greater autonomy in its operations. Some middle-level schools accept a certificate of Middle-leveleducationfollowsthestructure completion of elementary work from any school as prescribed by the Law of Directives and Bases, as sufficient evidence of qualifications. Where the stated in chapter 5. The designation of the cycles candidates outnumber the capacity of the public of all courses is uniform, the first cycle known as school, the admission examinationisused as a the ginasial and the second as the colegial.The means of screening students for acceptance,in use of these terms is significant, since they applied addition to the certificate of completion. before 1961 only to the general secondary pro- In the States where a sixth year has been added gram, which was university-preparatory in its ob- to some elementary programs, admission tothe jective, and was considered to be the most prestig- second year of the first cycle of middle-level ious.Graduates of all iniddle-level programs are schools has required e%amination.In sonic cases, now eligible to seek admission to all institutions of where students in private schools do not pass the higher education. The middle-level programs also middle-level entrance examinations, they are en- enjoy some of the prestige formerly held by the rolled in the sixth year of elementary school, and general secondary schools.This prestige is of im- then may enter the second year directly.A re- portance in the Brazilian concept of what educa- ported abuse of this provision has occurredin tion should be. schools, where students are placed in sixth- year elementary programs instead of the first year Admission Requirements of the middle level, because the schools can obtain Article 36 of the Law of Directives and Bases elementary-level teachers at a lower salary scale. states that for admission to the middle-level school the candidate must be at least 11years of age Teacher Certification during the year, and pass an entrance examination which demonstrates his satisfactory comple- As specified by the Law of 1961, the Ministry tion of elementary education. of Education continuestobethecertification agency for middle-level teachers.The Ministry The Fec'oal Council of Education has ..tde alsoprovides a short-term summer coursefor two decisions which interpret the legal 1,quire- (c-Lchers who do not hold a licenciatura from a inent for entranceto middle-level schools. In faculty of philosophy, indicating the continuing March 1962, the Council ruled that a student who shortage offullyqualifiedteachers. Part -tire; had passed the admission examination for any first teaching is still a problem at the iniddlr.-level. cycle of the middle-level program was eligible for another program on the same level, depending 4 Ibid. p. 87.

40 Curriculum Music Minerology and geology Industrial arts Social studies The Law of 1961 was passed less than 3 months Commercial Psychology, logic, litera- before the usual Nlarh first opening date for techniques ture, introduction to the Brazilian middle-level schools.Immediately school Agricultural arts, law; introduction directors and teachers expressed considerabl doubt techniques to: economics, accounting, library science, baby that the prescribed curriculum changes would he care, health, and implemented for school year 1962.On February dietics 16 the Federal Council of Education made it clear The councilomniitteesuggested subjects that the new law superseded all previous educa- that required in one type of curriculum could be used tionallegislation.'No State councils of educa- as electives in another. tion were organized according to the requirements There were also require- of the Law. Any direction w:ts therefore to conic ments that practical education be given with the subjects listed." from the Federal Council of Education. The difference between subjects The council then immediately began to consider (disciplinas) the middle-level curriculum, as directed by the and practical education(practica ducativas)was defined by the Federal Council of Education in law."The curriculum a.; developed includes five July 1962.According to the opinions given, regu- required, four complemewary, and several optional lar subjects are those directed at the progressive subjects. The curriculum was to apply also to State schools until the State councils were able to and systematic increase of the knowledge of the student.'Practical education contributes to the providethesupplenientarysubjectsfortheir physical, civic, moral, or religious development of systems. the student, the objective being more the matura- The required subjects for the general secondary tion of personality than the assimilation of knowl- program and years of study for each were edge. The saute opinion stated that except for the Subject Years broad requirement for such education in Article Portuguese language 7 38 of the Law of 1961, and the requirement that History 6 allstudents have physical education untilthey Geography 5 reach the age of 18, the question of practical edu- Mathematics 6 Science* 6 cation rests entirely with the individual school. * (2 years introductory, 4 years of physical and biological science) Commercial Technical Schools " Complementary subjects were presented in the In the first 2 years of the first cycle(ginizsio curriculum2.,pairs,with four hypotheses from comercial)of the commercial course, the required which the individual school might choose: subjects are the same as in all middle-level courses, previouslydescribed. The commercial school First cycle offers one elective subject.Physical education is 1. Drawing and Brazilian social and political required up to the age of 18 years. Practical organization courses may include civic education, art education, 2. Drawing and a modern foreign language home economics, feminine arts, and industrial arts. 3. A classical language and a modern foreign language The third-and fourth-yearprogramsinclude 4. Two modern foreign languages Portugueselanguage,mathematics,commercial and office practice.Science may be offered in Second cycle either or both of the years, and the elective sub- 1. Mathematics and sciences ject and practical education in the first and sec- 2. Drawing and a modern foreign language ond years. 3.Classical language and a modern foreign language The second cycle(colggio comercial)includes The optional subjects provided were: 3 years of the Portuguese language, 2 years of First cycle Second cycle mathematics, and Ior 2 years of physical and Modern foreign Modern foreign languages 7 Ibid., p. 15-18. languages Greek "Brazil,Ministerioda Educagdoe Dactimenta 7. (setembro, 1962). p. 42-43. Ibid.,p. 21. Brazil,MinisteriodeEducacrioeCultura.Documenta6, " Ibid.,passim. agosto,1962. p. 44-46. biological sciences. The school may choose one of HIGHER EDUCATION a list of 10 elective subjects.Technical subjects for the second cycle depend upon the student's The Law of Directives and Bases stipulates that specialty, chosen from accounting, administration, institutions of higher education should adapt their secretarial work, statistics, commerce, and adver- constitution P.ncl bylaws to the requirements of the tising.Two different plans for the second cycle law within 180 clays, a function to be performed curriculum are provided, according to the varying by the university councils, or the boards of trustees regionalrequirements. Night programsinthe for sonic private schools.In each case there were commercial school require a minimum of 160 days necessarily committee reports and discussions by a year of classes. responsible groups.Only with some haste could the required alterations be effected withinthe State System Curriculums given time limit of the law.While the 180-clay As the State councils of education were acti- period was notstrictlyobserved,theFedera vated, the curriculums for the schools operating Council of Education was soon receiving revised under their jurisdiction were prepared and dis- versions of the basic documents of universities and tributed.The concept of decentralization and independent faculties.In most cases, the council flexibility was reflected at the national level, but suggested alterations and returned the documents the State curriculums, because of therequire- to the schools for further revision.Also, the coun- ments of the Law, were structured somewhat like cil began consideration for the authorization of those issued by the Federal Council.The past new faculties, :.1nd other pro sions concerning uni- rigicUty of curriculums, as approved by the Min- versity schools. istry of Education, caused sonic educators to look Considerable autonomy is allowed universities, naturally to the competent Federal agency for with few limitations, but the provisions of the models.In some States the curriculums of the Law of Directives and Bases must be observed. State schools in the capital tended to influence the The universities' constitutions and bylaws must be other public schools inthe State, and even to approved by the Federal Council. The minimum serve as models for private schools operating under curriculum required must be offered.Universities State supervision.Possibly this is a reflection of which receive government funds must E.:count for the still existing concept of centralization and to their use.The list of candidates for rectors and the unwillingness of some directors to experiment directors of government-operated universities must with new programs. be presented to the proper authority for selection. Another tendency isthe organization of one The names of the successful candidates in cafe- first-cycle program (with electives and options) drcitico examinations in public institutions are also for all types of middle-level courses of study.The submitted for appointments.Otherwise, schools Law requires that all first-cycle courses have the of higher education now function with consider- same required subjects for the first 2 years; the able autonomy. required subjects for the last 2 years are dete- The FederalCouncilhasdefineduniversity mined by the Federal Council.In some cases the autonomy as an attribute of the university as a States have expanded this moderate degree of whole, not of the various faculties that compose uniformity, and now have essentially the same it, and has presented the opinion that the uiiver- curriculums for all first-cycle 1- iddle-level schools sity should be a "community" in the use of its within the State system. rights.'" Following the sample of the Federal system cur- The implementation of university autonomy has riculums, the State councils have provided second- been broad. The Federal Council has refused to cycle general secondary curriculum forschools act on or offer opinions on questions whichit which wish to offer different types of programs. considered to be the responsibility of the institu- The first 2 years emphasize Certain fields of inter- tion.Sonic administrative and teaching staffs also est according to the provisions of the Law of Direc- have acted with independence on the organization t: yes and Bases, and the third year is even more of programs andtheacceptance of new ap- specialized, giving the student some opportunity for proaches in studies and instruction. intensive preparation for the university admission 10 Brazil,Ministeriode Educacao eCultura, Documenta-10. examination. (dezembro, 1962), p. 115.

42 4 r.) TABLE 12.-Total higher education enrollment by States, curriculum.Schools of higher education were en- and percent of enrollment in each: 1961 couraged to take advantage of their autonomy and to design programs which Would consider the needs Total Percent of of the region where they were located.". States enrollment enrollment

Total 101,581 100.0 TABLE 13.-Minimum higher education Programs prescribed by the Federal Councilf Education, and years Amazonas 308 0.3 required for each: Brazil, 1963 Para 1,221 1.2 Maranhao 668 0.6 Piaui 324 0.3 Years Ceara 2,447 2.4 PiJgrams required Rio Grande do Norte 578 0.5 Paribi.: 1,178 1.1 Accounting, actuarial, and economic sciences 4 Pernambuco 5,971 5.8 (Economiitas, atudrios, e contadores) AlagOas 1,008 0.9 Agriculture 4 Sergipe 355 0.3 (Agronomia) Bahia 4,094 S.9 Architecture and city planning 5 Minas Gerais 9,993 9.8 (Arquitetura e urbanismo) Espirito Santo 1,064 0.9 Biological sciences 1 4 Rio de Janeiro 4,399 4.3 (Ciencias biologicas) Guai abara 18,271 17.9 Chemistry or industrial chemistry 4 Sao Paulo 28,880 28.4 (Quimico ou quimico industrial) Parana 7,164 7.0 Chemistry 2 4 Santa Catarina 779 0.7 (Quimico) Rio Grande do Sul 11,341 11.1 Dentistry 4 Mato Grosso 184 0.1 (Odontologia) Goias 1,414 1.3 Drafting= 4 (Desenho) Source:Adaptedfrom:Brazil,MiniLteriodeEducagaoe Education 1 4 Cullum.Stnopse estutistico do ensino superior-1961.p. 27. (Pedagogia) Engineering-Civil, mechanical, electrical, Curricul urns metalurgical, mining, naval, and chemical 5 (Engenharia-civil, mecanica, Electrioa, metala- The Law of Directives and Bases placed respon- gica, de minas, naval, e quimica) sibility on the Federal Council of Education for Forestry engineering 4 organizing minimum curriculums for higher edu- (Engenharia florestal) cation programs which grant diplomas or degrees Geography 4 (Geografia) profession. qualifying the holder topractice a Geology 4 The sequence of subjects, their content, and or- (Geologia) ganization are determined by the staff of the indi- Guidance and counseling 1 vidual school, and the school may choose addi- (Orientacao educativa) tional subjects for its curriculum. History 4 (Historia) In February 1962 the Minister of Education ap- Journalism 3 proved a decision of the Federal Council that insti- (Jornalism) tutions of higher education for the 1962 school Law 1 5 year should continue the same curriculums of (Direito) Letters 4 1961." The council began to issue new minimum (Letras) curriculum requirements for university-level Library science 3 :curses by September 1962, and announced that (Biblioteconomia) the new programs would enter into effect for the Mathematics 2 4 1963 school year (table13). In case of any (Matemdtica) dilemma arising in the period of transition, the Medicine 6 (Medicina) Ministry of Education would issue instructions for Music 3-6 solving the problem.In any case, all first-year (Masica) students were to begin their studies under the new isDocumenta 10.p. 13 -16. itDocumenta 1-2-3. p. 14. See footnotes at end of table.

43 r1,(."j I TABLE 13.--(Continued) a program may be presented in different profes- Years sional schools, and a combination of programs may Programs required exist according to the regulations of the individual institution.The minimum curriculums presented Natural history' 4 by the council dearly indicate that the professional (Ilistoria natural) orienta*.ionofBrazilianhighereducationwill Nursing( general program) con tin ue. (Entermagem geral) Obstetrical nursing General program plusIyear The different study programs vary considerably (Enfe)magenzobsttlirical in the number of subjects offered, and intheir Publichealth nursing 2 years of general program duration, from 3 years for library science, physical plusI year of specialization education, journalism and other subjects,to 6 (linfermagem de satide years for medicine and some music programs. Nutritionist ' 3 (Nutritionista) Most engineering programs require 5 years and Occupational physical therapy 3 some combinations of specialties, 6 years.Some (FisioteraPista occupational) programs are divided into basic and professional Pharmacy cycles. Minimum curriculums for postgraduate (Farmdcia) and specialization studies are not regulated by the Bioelnunical pharmacist (Farmaceutico bioquimico) Federal Council of Education. Pharmacist (general) 3 Usually at the end of his program of 7tudy, the (Farniaceutico) student receives a professionaltitle which Nvhen Philosophy 4 properly registered confers the right to practice a (Filosfia) profession.The faculties of law offer the degree of Physical education and sports technician (Educacdo fisica e tecnica desportiva) bacharel and the faculties of philosophy and letters Physics' 4 offer a licenciado as well.The two degrees are the (Fisica) same level, the difference being that the holder of the Psychologist 5 lic.nciado has studied the subject necessary for regis- (Psicologo) tration as a middle-level school teacher."The re- Psychology ' 4 (Psicologia) quirements for the r'octorado vary from one univer- Social sciences 4 sity to another, but the basic requisite isstilltime (Ciencias socials) preparation and defense of a thesis, based on inde- Social work pendentstudywithoutresidentreylirements. (Servico social) Postgraduate work in Brazilian universities isstill Veterinary medicine 4 (Medicina veterindria) limited, because of the predominant professional nature of higher education in the country, and it The organization of the curriculum specifies the possibility of is traditionally different from graduate programs in awarding the bacharelado degree. 2 The organization of the curriculum specifies the possibility of the United States.However, there is increasing awarding the 1:,,:ntiate (licenciatura). For the purposes of earning influence of U.S. higher education on Brazilian thelicentiate,theteacher'scertificateforthesecondary level schools, subjects in education may be added to other programs, postgraduate studies. although the title is not mentioned in the minimum curriculum. Decisions of the Federal Council in 1962 and a This is considered to be a postgraduate program and therefore requires for admission the completion of a related higher education 1963 define the length of programs of higher edu- course of study; however, students who hold the licentiate are not cation in terms of years.In 1965 this concept required to repeat subjects which they have previously studied. A year of internship may be added to the program. was modified by a decree of the Ministry of Edu- The 1962 decision by the Federal Council of Educati." stipu- cation supporting the council's decision which de- lated a 3-year curriculum, but this was changed t,. 4 years in 1964. fined the duration of a program in terms of class In reference to the supplementary subjects, the hours, with a medium, maximum and minimum council stated plainly that it did not regulate such number permitted each year.The totalclass selections n )r did tly; Law approach this point. hours required for a designeer? program of study The school was to have full autonomy in reorgani- varies from 1,215 for guidance and counseling to zation of its curriculum."Neither did the coun- 5,400 hours for medicine.The medical program cilreq,..,nt that any reorganized curriculum for allowed as few as 540 class hours per year and a higher education be presented for approval. Thus, n of 1,080, thus permitting a program, in

la Ibid. p. 10. Documenta 10, p. 95.

44 terms of years, to be as short as 5 or as long as Student Organization 10 years.By following the medium number of class hours per year, all programs would have the In September 1964 a bill was introduced in the same duration in years as determined by the 1962 Brazilian Congress, designed to regulate student and 190 ,-lecisions of the council.It is believed organizations. Student groups had been closely al- that most schools will adopt the medium number lied with the Gou lart regime, and were generally and that the duration of programs in terms of considered to be instruments of leftist forces. After years will remain stable.''' April 1964 the Government dissolved most of the student organizations, and prohibited almost all The life-timecaledryiticoinBrazilianinstitu- types of student activities. The 1964 legislation tions is the keystone of the teaching profession on recognized certain student groups and defined the the higher level.In most of the faculties and uni- limits of their °pet ation. Other student organiza- versities, and in all schools under the Federal sys- tions were not to receive government support, or tem, this statusis a prerequisite for election as to be recognized as the representatives of the Sul- director of a school or as the rector of a univer- de..t class. The official groups are organized on the sity.Witl almost autonomous powers, which are ()nal, State, university, and faculty level, and usually jeaously guarded, the catedratico is in a dm competent organs for electing student rep- position to block almost any change which he may resentatives to the various school councils. All stu- see as a threat :o his prerogatives.Whether a value dents are required to vote in student elections, and or not, tt e catediyitico remains an important factor thereareprovisionstoeliminatethe"profes- in Brazil an higher education. sional" 1" student from holding office in student organizations. Only full-time students who are not Student Representation repeating the year may be elected for 1-y:nr terms in student offices, re-election to the same office be-

In adapting their constitutions and bylaws ac- ing prohibited. Article 1 of the 1964 legislation cording to the Law of 1961, schools of higher edu- states the purposes for student organizations, and cation were requiredtoincludeprovisions for does not include political activity, which is defi- student representation on university, faculty, and nitely ruled out in another article. Also, any move- departmental councils, but there was no stipula- ment to instigate absence from classes is prohibited, tion as to the number of students participating. a measure designed to eliminate student strikes. The Federal Council of Education ruled that no Student reaction to the restrictive legislation has legal demand existed for student representation in not been favorable. Elections have been held with executive committees (conselho tecnico adminis- blank votes being cast in protest of the legisli,tion. trativo) which perform important and extens;ve Strikes, though brief, have orcurred, suppc sedly functions in many schools.Opinions as to the provoked by administrative measures, but political result of student representation have been both issues have been injected into the movements. Gen- negative and positive.Some professors doubt that erally speaking, the students do not have the in- the students understand enough about the admin- fluence which they formerly held, ar,d in1965, istration of a university to make any notable con were in the process of attempting to discover to tribution, but they find value inthe fact that what extent enforcement of the law would modify there is now an official connection between student their basic groups. groups and the university administration.Some have feared that the students would be a disrupt- GENERAL ENROLLMENT TRENDS ing influence, considering the traditional separation between student and teacher.In some schools, Althoughitistoo earlyto attribute certain student representation was interrupted for a while trends in Brazilian education to the operation of the Law of Directives and Bases, it should be noted offer April1,1964, upon terminationofthe Goui-art regime, but with the later reorganization that during the years following the initial implementation of the Law there have been indication, of student groups their representatives have re- of growth in enrollments. In order to place these turned to the school councils. In "Professional" refers to individuals whose primary purpose in

10RevistalirasileiradeEs ludasPedagogicos.Vol.XLIII, schools is political agitation, and enroll only to be legally classified (abril-junho, 1965) No. 98, pp. 245-257. as a student.

45 52 developments in perspective, it is necessary to make percentage of students in private schools decreased, a comparison of enrollment data for the 5 years as did the percentage in rural schools. There was (1946-61) preceding the approval of the law and a slight increase in the percentage of the total en- the data for tl,o. 5 years after the Law became ef- rollment in state controlled schools. The 1961 Law fective( 1961-66 ) . affected the elementary level less than it changed The 10-year span was a period of rapid popula- the other levels, the responsibility for the elemen- tion growth with Brazil's population increase rate tary schools remaining with the State and munici- being one of t,highest in the world and the high- el governments, as before 1961. est of any the larger nations. The estimated The overall enrollnint increase for t!ie middle por-ilation of the country in 1956 was a little above level, 1961 to 1966, was 84 percent as compared 60 millions; '' for 1961, above 71 millions; and with 51 percent for the 1956-1961 period (table for 1966, almost 84 millions," or an increase of 15). The percentage of students enrolled in state 18 percent for each of the 5-year periods. operated schools also increased significantly. The For all levels of education, the percentage of distribution of the students by programs varied enrollment increase was above the population in- little, with more than 80 percent of the students crease of the country. In the 5 years after the law continuing to be enrolled in the general secondary became effective, elementary school enrollments and the normal school programs. increased by 37 percent, whereas the previous 5 The middle levelwq- s greatly affected by the years' increase was 32 percent 1" (table 14). The Law of Directives and Bases. Responsibility for ad-

TABLE 14.-Total elementary school enrollment, and percent of ,--rollment, by types of schools: 1956, 1961, 1966

Public Private Rural Urban Year Enrollment Total State

Percent of enrollment

1956 5,886,554' 87.7 56.5 12.3 40.8 59.2 1961 7,798,732 2 88.8 64.3 11.2 39.6 60.4 1966 10,695,391 ' 89.4 65.5 10.6 37.8 62.2

Source: I Anudrio esuaistico do Brasil-1958. p. 258. (Generalmatriculation). 2/b/d.-1963. p. 359. (General Matriculation). 3 Ibid.-1967. p. 552. (Initial Matriculation). ministration was shifted to a large degree to the TABLE 15.-Total middle-level school enrollment and States, and the flexible provisions of the law facil- percent of enrollment, by types of schools: 1956, 1961, itated the establishment of many more schools. 1966 Considering the enrollment increase in State-operated schools, itis clear that the State Govern- Percent of enrollment ment's acceptance of the additional responsibility Public Private has been more than perfunctory. Year Enrollment Total State Higher education enrollments increasedat a 1956 824,107 30.7 24.1 69.3 much higher rate from the 5-year period, 1961- 1961 1,308,044 34.5 29.3 65.5 1966, than in the preceding 5 years, the percent of 1956 2,483,212 50.7 48.6 49.3 increase rising from 34 to 79. The total enrollment figures covering the period of 10 years were: 2" Source: 1.8inopseestatisticado ensino rnedio-1936. pp.19,24,31, 1956, 75,424; 1961, 101,581; 1966, 182,065. 34, 39. 2/bid., 1961. p. 7. 17 Brazil, Conselho Nacional de Estatistica. Amalfi° esiatisilco de 1 Anudrio estallsaco do Brasil-1967. p. 615. Brasil-19.56. p. 25. 18 Ibid., 1961. p. 37. 1° The real Increase may have been larger, but does not appear Higher institutions have operated with consider- so due to a change in statistical procedures. ably more cieedoin under the 1961 Law, and its Anudrioestadstica doBrasil-1956. p.360; Sin rue estaifstica more liberal procedures for the establishment of doensino Superior-1961.p.13;and Anudrioestadsticado Brasil-1967. pp. 693, 698. new schools has resulted in an increased number

46 of institutions. While distribution of enrollments by Tnaus 16,-- Total higher education anrollment, by level programs changed little from 1961 to 1966, there and field of study: 1966 were notable increases in the percen+age of total enrollments in the schools of engineering and the Tota. Percent Level schools of economic sciences, with a slight decrease enrollment of total in the proportion enrolled in law schools (tables Undergraduate 180,109 99.1 11 and 16). Postgraduate 1,790 0.9 Fotal 181,899 100.0 As yet there are few indications that the Law of Directives and Bases has signficantly affected the Undergraduate ProgramsUndergraduate Percent of Philosophy, science and enrollment undergraduates elementary school retention rates (table 17). Ac- letters 44,802 24.7 cording to the enrollment data for 1964, 1965, and Law 36,363 20.0 1966, about half of the students are in the first Engineering 26,603 14.6 grade. Even in the State capitals, about 35 percent Administration and of the students are first graders." The overall re- economic sciences 24,027 !3.2 tention rates for the elementary level continue to Medicine 17,152 9.4 Dentistry be affected by the rural schools, which frequently 6,794 3.6 Agriculture 4,852 2.6 offer only 1 or 2 years of schooling and are di- Social work 3,121 1.7 rected by teachers who have littlepreparation. Architecture and urban According to the 1964 school census, 31 percent of design 2,774 1.5 all elementary school teachers in Brazil have only Pharmacy 2,619 1.4 Veterinary medicine an elementary school education or less.22 The Law. 1,991 1.1 Fine arts 1,866 1.0 of Directives and Bases gives very little attention Journalism 1,361 0.7 to the rural schools. Nursing 1,266 0.7 The retention rates for the middle level have Physical education .... 1,140 Library science 978 0.5 increased since 1961, and if the trend continues it Other 2,445 1.3 could soon reach significant proportions. Total 180,109 100.0

Anuarloestatisticodo Brasil-1967. p. 556. 2' Brazil,MinistErio de Educacao eCultura. 11Conferencia Source: Adapted from Anudrio Estatistico do Brasil -1967. pp. Nallonal de Educacao. Vol. I. p. 141. 693 and 698.

TABLE 17.-Retention rates, per 100 students entering first grade of elementary-level school, through middle-level: 1942-55

Years in school Elementary level in grade- Middle level in grade-

Ginasial cycle Colegial cycle

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3

1942-52 100 40.5 27.4 15.5 7.1 5.3 4.4 3.4 3.4 2.7 1.9 1943-53 100 41.6 28.3 15.8 7.9 5.7 4.7 3.9 3.8 2.9 2.2 1944-54 100 41.8 29.1 17.0 7.8 5.8 4.9 4.0 3.9 3.2 2.2 1945-55 100 41.2 29.2 16.9 7.6 6.0 5.0 4,1 4.1 3.1 2,3 1946-56 100 41.2 28.7 17.0 8.0 6.2 5.1 4.2 4.2 3.2 2.3 1947-57 100 41.6 28.5 17.1 8.1 6.3 5.3 4.3 4.2 3.2 2.7 1948-58 100 39.0 27.2 16.0 7.7 6.2 5.1 4.2 4.1 3.0 2.6 1949-59 100 39.7 27.5 16.1 8.4 6.2 5.3 4.3 4.2 3.1 2.6 1950-60 100 38.5 26.6 16.0 8.6 6.9 5.5 4.4 4.3 3.1 2.7 1951-61 10.0 38.4 26.8 17.0 8.6 7.1 5.6 4.5 4.5 3.2 2.7 1952-62 100 38.5 27.6 17.2 9.2 7.3 5.9 4.7 4.6 3.5 3.0 1953-63 100 40.0 28.8 18.0 9.2 7.9 6.2 5.0 5.0 3.7 3.3 1954-64 100 39.4 28.2 18.1 10.0 8.0 6.4 5.3 5.1 4.0 3.5 1955-65 100 39.8 28.8 18.7 10.0 8.1 6.6 5.4 5.4 4.3 3.9

Source: Brasil, Ministerio de Educagao e Cultura, Sinopse Estatistica de lEnsino Medio-1965. No page namber.

47 J1 CONCLUSION but a definite, though limited, amount of flexibility of curricuill111 is provided. The Law of Directives and Bases of National As for subject content, teachers now have the Education, approved by the Brazilian (Jongress in responsibility for its organization and presentation December 1961, was the result of more that 15 inthe classroom. Higher educationis subject to years of thought and effort to implement the edu- two principal governmental controls under the cational provisions of the Constitution of 1946. The law: One, requiring that the constitution and by- final legislation resulted from many compromises, laws of nniversities and of independent faculties and, although recognized as imperfect by most be approved by the responsible council of educa- Brazilian educators, it was the law which it was tion ; and the other, requiring that the minimum possible to pass at the time. Go,.erninent authori- curriculum, as stipulated by the Federal Council of ties began immediately to implement and apply its Education, be offered for programs whose diplomas provision:, to the educational scene. Complete im- may be used for professional licensing. plementation was impossible; however, the process With such autonomy granted by the Law of was initiated and is continuing, and will continue Directives and Bases, uniformity of organization for sonic years. The real achievements of the law and of programs of study is no longer a charac- can be known only after it has been in effect for teristic of Brazilian schools of higher education, at least 10 years, or as some Brazilian educators but the basic unit is still the "faculty." The mini- believe, perhaps 20 years. This one point should mum curriculums presented by the Federal Council be clearly understoodthat the process of imple- of Education are introductory or general for pro- menting the Law was initiated soon after final grams of study leading to the practice of a pro- approval of the legislation and is continuing. fession, and are not designed to be offered by any The decentralization ofthe Brazilian educa- particular faculty of a university. Thus, a variety tional system, one of the primary objectives of the of studies of widely different nature could in theory law, is already becoming a reality. The Federal be offered under a single institutional program. Council of Education began functioning in 1962, Probably the more significant innovation in this and has been an active agent n transferring the direction, and implemented in a few instances, is responsibility for educationto other sources, as a new aproach in the offering of introductory sub- provided by the law. In part, the administrative jects common to several faculties. Universities ex- responsibility for middle-level education now rests perimenting with such programs utilize a 2-year with the States and the individual schools, as per- general course id institutes or schools of general mitted by the law. On the level of higher educa- studies for the teaching of subjects which are re- tion, the constitutions and bylaws of the universi- quired of first- or second-year students, regardless ties and faculties are amended to allow the degree of the profession which they intend to follow. This of autonomy as stipulated by the law. plan eliminates duplication of teaching functions The governmental administrative responsibility necessary when each university faculty, each with for institutions of higher education is retained at separate staff and equipment, offers the same intro- the Federal level, but the supervision is definitely ductory subjects generally required. The new prac- limited, so that the decentralizationisfront the tice results in economy of laboratories, classrooms, Ministry of Education to the individual faculty or and teaching staffs. After thesefirst2 years in university. In only two States, Guanabara and Sao general studies, the student would, of course, con- Paulo, has some of the governmental responsibility tinue his preparation in the particular university for higher education been transferred to the State school offering his specialization. agencies. Such innovations are possible under the Law of Another primary objective of the Law of Direc- Directives and Bases, but a strong obstacle to the tives and Bases was to afford some degree of flexi- flexibility permitted stillremains. Administrators bilityinthe Brazilian educational system as a in sonic institutions are open-minded in their c.e- whole. The legislation provides for variations in sire to initiate experiments, but find that the tra- programs atthe elementary level,and several ditions of Brazilian universities and the nature of States have initiated new programs accordingly. the university school may prevent their doing so. The overall structure of middle-level education re- The effort to inject some flexibility in the rela- mains more or less uniform throughout the Nation, tionship between programs of study at the several levels was not strong, or highly successful. Articu- fessors, and the real responsibility for the quality lation between the elementary and the middle of education, in the school and the classroom. level, for example, is now more flexible through a The implementation of the law with respect to liberal interpretation for admission examinations of the financing of education is expressed in the na- the middle-level schools, rather than by the appar- tional plan of education, formulated in 1962 and ent coordination of the 6-year elementary school. revised in 1965. This plan was not entirely success- The provision for eligibility of gradites of all ful in its first years of operation, but does attempt middle-level schools for the university admission to place Federal funds at the disposition of schools examination has greatly facilitated the student's on all levels. The Educational Salary Law, passed preparation for higher institutions. Within the vari- in 1964, is an alternate mechanism for implement- ous middle-level programs the individual school ing the requirement that commercial and industrial may now be more flexible in its conditions for re- firms of a certain size privide elementary-level edu- ceiving students transferring from other scnools cation for the children of their employees. and other types of programs. Some negative factors have influenced the im- With the break from the formerly highly cen- plementation of the Law of Directives and Bases. tralized responsibility for a large part of the Bra- From an administrative point of view, the Minis- zilian educational system, and in the uniformity of try of Education and Culture was organized in con- curriculum and program organization, Bra., ilian formity with a cen ralized system of middle-level educators are already experiencing some problems. and higher education, and for more than 30 years C iris the difficulty of transferring students from functioned within that context. The law did not a School whose curriculum differs from that of the call for reorganization of the Ministry, so its struc- school they desire to enter. Adaptation examina- ture was not geared for the administration of a de- tions are a mechanism to enable such transfers, but centralized education system. On the State level, some educators foresee a day when students will there are varying patterns of the State councils of have a choice of a variety of subjects within the education, some of which integrate the council program. This solution would facilitate the transi- within the existing State secretariat of education. tion, but would increase the cost of education. This and other factors have led some States to at- Another problem encountered by some educa- tempt to centralize middle-leveleducation on a tors is the setting of standards for the various levels State-centered base, which to sonic extent substi- of education. With decentralized authority,itis tutes for the Federal ministry. possible, on the secondary level, for one State to An important limitation on decentralization and have more or fewer requirements than a neighbor- full implementation and flexibility of the law is ing State, as long as the State council of educa- the approach to which Brazilian educators were tion demands meet the minimum set by the Fed- accustomed. From the 1930's to 1961, problems eral Council of Education. were solved according to the decisions of the Min- A related problem foreseen by educators is that istry of Education, andit was unnecessary for of maintaining the standards set by the responsible teachers and administrators to make many deci- council. Certain schools may meet only minimum sions now required of them. The educational sys- standards, whereas others seek to provide much tem was understood as being rigid and controlled broader education than that prescribed by the re- by the Federal agency, and regardless of voiced sponsible council. The truth is that even under the complaints,this waythe system of educational very rigid centralized system of the past, when administration which was accepted and used. Es- there was supposedly close inspection, some schools pecially on the middle level, the changes provided conformed to the minute regulations only in the by the Law of 1961 came as somewhat of a shock most formal sense. to many teachers, who for the first time had to As the Law of Directives and Bases now stands, organize their own plans for the presentation of the Federal Government still retains some responsi- subjf.ct matter in the classroom, and to the admin- bility for the setting of standards but shares its istrator, who before never had to organize a cur- authority with the State agencies. However, with riculum. The tendency has been to continue as greater freedom and responsibility given tothe before, and tradition will continue until new ap- classroom teacher, the implementation of stand- proaches and new thinking make possible fuller ards rests with the school directors and the pro- implementation of the law.

49 JG The law cloys not deal directly with the problem Publications of the Ministdrio de Educacclo c Cu ltura and of rural education. Rural normal schools are per- its related agencies II mitted, and rural universities are exempt from cer- Conferencia Nacional dc Educaciio, 1966. tain requirements, but no other provisions exist for Documenta. The organ of the Consent° Federal de rural education. Since the majority of the labor Educacdo. Educaciioedesenvolvimento econOmico.1962. The force is engaged in agricultural pursuits, Brazilian Brazilian report to the Santiago Conference on the educators arc justified in their criticism of the law subject. for not confronting the problems of education in Ensino medio por municipios. 1961. the rural areas, and this fact challenges the claim Plano nacional de educaciio. 1962. that education is the right of all. Plano nacional de educaciio. Revisao de 1965. Revista Brasileira de Estudos PedagOgicos. Published The Law ofDirecti,..esand Bases has not quarterly. changed and could not change the Brazilian con- Sinopse estatistica de ensino midi°. Published yearly. cept of what education should be.Itis a legal Sinopse estatistica de ensino superior. Published yearly. document dealing primarily with the structure and Sinopse reiro.spectiva do ensino no Brasil. 1870-1956. administration of education, and not with value concepts of the society. The important point is that Publications of the Consent° Nacional de Estatistica with decentralization and provisions for flexibility, Anudrio estatistico do Brasil. Published yearly. there are provisions which can allow Brazilian edu- Brasil ern ntimeros. 1963. cators to adjust the educational system tothe Books changing necessities of the society. With changing concepts of what education should be and how it Amaral Fontura, Diretrizcs e bases da educacclo nacional. Rio de Janeiro: Grafica Editfira Ltda., 1965. should serve the Nation, the formal educational 2d ed. structure can be modified. No doubt the possibility Nunes, Maria Thetis, Ensino secunddrio e sociedade of development is now greater without the former brasileira.Rio de Janeiro:InstituteSuperior de restricting centralization whicd allowed for little Estudos Brasileiros, 1962. or no flexibility. Situaclio social da Antirica Latina. Rio de Janeiro: Centro Latino American° d^ Pesquisas em Ciencias BIBLIOGRAPHY Sociais, 1965. Smith, T. Lynn, Brazil: People and Institutions. Baton Lei de Diretrizes e Bases da Educacclo. Lei No. 4,024 de Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1963. 3d Dezembro de1961. The text of the law has been ed. published in many periodicals, one of which is Revista Werebe, Maria Jose Garcia Grandezas e misirias do Brasileiro de Estudos Pedagogicos, Vol. XXXIX Abril- ensino brasileiro. Sao Paulo: Difusao Europeia do junho, 1963), No. 90. p. 91. Livro, 1963.

Superintendent of Documents Catalog No. FS 5.214:14135

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1968

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C., 20402 - Price 55 cents

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1968 0-312-90.! 50 57 II

. 1. - .