California BEEF PRODUCTION

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.2 nlifornia BEEF PRODUCTION

H* R. Guilbert G. H. Hart

CALIFORNIA AGRICULTI EXPERIMENT STATION and MANUAL 2 EXTENSION SERVICE

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http://archive.org/details/californiabeefpr02guil California BEEF PRODUCTION

H. R. GUILBERT G. H. HART

California Agricultural Experiment Station and Extension Service The College of Agriculture—University of California THIS MANUAL is one of a series published by the University of California College of

Agriculture and sold for a charge which is based upon returning only a portion of the production cost. By this means it is possible to make available publications which due to relatively high cost of production or limited audience would otherwise be beyond the scope of the College publishing program. CONTENTS

SECTION PAGE I. THE BEEF-CATTLE INDUSTRY 1 Present status 1 Range and wildlife problems 4 Production costs 7 Capitalization 8 Percentage calf crop 8 Beef per animal unit 8 Age of marketing 8 General management 8 Future possibilities 9 Literature cited 10

II. PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND CATTLE BREEDING 1 Reproduction 1 Physiological basis for inheritance 3 Rumination 3 Rumen fermentation 4 Water utilization and heat regulation 5 Market factors in beef-type selection 8 Weight 8 Yield of wholesale cuts 8 Shape of wholesale and retail cuts 8 Proportion of meat to bone 8 Distribution of fat and lean 10 Dressing percentage 11 Production factors in beef-type selection 12 Size 12 Conformation 14 Efficiency of feed utilization and earliness of maturity 16 Environmental adaptation 18 Reproduction 23 Longevity 24 Lactation 24 Records of performance 24 Grading 25 Form 1, Get-of-sire record 29 Form 2, Individual life record 29 Form 3, Breeding list and reproductive record 35 Systematic identification 36 Selective breeding of commercial cattle 36 Selection of bulls 38 Selection and culling of cows 40 Crossbreeding 45 Literature cited 49 Recommended references 50 PAGE III. NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS AND CATTLE FEEDS i Vitamins 1 Minerals other than calcium and phosphorus 3 Common salt 3 Iodine 4 Magnesium 7 Cobalt and copper 7 Symptoms of nutritional deficiencies 8 Energy intake (total digestible nutrients) 9 Protein 9 Salt (sodium chloride) 9 Phosphorus 9 Calcium 10 Iodine 10 Vitamin A 10 Important toxic trace elements 12 Fluorine 12 Selenium 13 Molybdenum 14 Characteristics of range forage 14

Annual forage plants . 14 Perennial grasses 16 Browse 16 Acorns 18 Effect of rain on dry forage 19 Characteristics of harvested roughages, grains, and by-products 20 Legume hays 20 Nonlegume hays 20 Straw 21 Silage 21 Roots and tubers 21 Grains 22 Mill feeds 22

Beet by-products . 22 Dried fruits and fruit by-products 24 Molasses 24 Brewery and distillery by-products 24 Protein-rich concentrates 25 Preparation of feeds 26 Determination of the most economical feeds 26 Literature cited 28 Recommended references 28

IV. PRODUCTION OF FEEDER CATTLE 1 Percentage calf crop 1 Udder development and lactation 2 Range and irrigated pasture 2 Supplemental feeding of cows on range 3 Wintering cows on harvested roughages 8 PAGE Planning the breeding season 9 Age of breeding heifers 9 Diseases affecting the calf crop 11 Growth and development of feeders 12 The principle of continuous growth 12 Supplemental feeding of calves and yearlings on the range 14 Wintering weaners and yearlings on harvested roughages 14 Adjustment of cattle numbers to feed supply 17 Management practices 18 Dehorning 18 Castration 19 Vaccination 19 Branding 20 Equipment 20 Weighing cattle 22 Selling policy 22 Literature cited 23

V. FATTENING CATTLE AND THE DRESSED PRODUCT 1 Recommended nutrient allowances 2 Expected gains 2 Feed capacity 2 Total digestible nutrients 3 Minimum roughage allowance 3 Protein allowance 4 Calcium and phosphorus 4 Carotene 4 General feeding rules 6 Fattening cattle on pasture 6 Finishing yearlings and two-year-olds on the range 6 Fattening cattle on irrigated pasture 10 Fattening cattle on beet tops , 13 Feed-lot rations 15 Silage 16 Wet beet pulp 17 Dried molasses beet pulp 18 Beet tops 18 Raisins and prunes 18 Dried orange pulp 19 Cane and beet molasses 19 Roots and tubers 19 Brewers' and distillers' grains 20 Rough rice 20 Straw 20 Creep-feeding of calves 21 General cattle-feeding problems 24 Age of cattle 24 Sex 26 Feeder and market grades 27 PAGE Length of feeding period 28 Feeding practices 28 Production and conservation of manure 31 Necessary margin or spread 31 Beef cuts and their uses 34 Value of meat in the diet 35 Tenderness 35 Flavor 36 Color of the lean 36 Color of the fat 37 Fattening 38 Literature cited 39 CALIFORNIA BEEF PRODUCTION MANUAL 2 Hart H. R. Guilbert and G. H. Section I

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA • COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station and Extension Service

THE BEEF-CATTLE INDUSTRY

Present Status Production Costs Range and Wildlife Problems Future Possibilities

Even so old and venerable an occupa- Since about half of the feed-lot rations are tion as beef production may well be re- concentrates, at least 90 per cent of the viewed in its position in the general total beef tonnage produced was depend- scheme of things. Multitudinous plans are ent upon range, pasture, and harvested now extant concerning such matters as roughage. For the United States as a public-land use, wildlife, recreation, whole, only 10 to 15 per cent of the total water storage, stream flow, runoff, erosion, beef production has been attributed to and the type of ground cover desired. It concentrates. is necessary for all this planning to be Stated briefly, the most important fitted together in some orderly fashion. problem facing the beef-cattle industry

California is an area deficient in the in California is to share with the sheep production of beef cattle—and all other industry and with wildlife the forage pro-

types of livestock; furthermore, it does duced on at least 60 per cent of the land not grow enough feed for the animals area of the state. Few people realize the that are produced and finished here. Be- importance of this natural vegetation in

cause it is still a great importing state the production of wealth and the improve- for livestock and feed, its cattlemen ment of human welfare. Over much of should utilize all native resources and the area the value of the produce per acre

find means by which to improve them. is low ; but the large total number of acres makes this forage the most valuable crop Present Status produced in the state.

Table 1 (Sec. I) shows the number of Piper and others (1) in a comprehen- California livestock and poultry for 1942, sive report in 1924 on national forage together with the production by classes. resources, discussed the importance of Table 2(1) covers the feed requirements doing more extensive research on the for the same year, including pasture and subject of pastures. Since their observa- range. Table 3(1) presents the details of tions are equally pertinent today, the fol- beef production and feed requirements. lowing significant statement is quoted from the paper: Manual 2, a revision of Circular 131, replaces Circular Extension 115, Beef Production in Cali- Relegated largely to land too poor or too fornia, by H. R. Guilbert and L. H. Rochford. rough to till, neglected commonly by the farmer, Some tables and other data from the original often abused by the grazier, ignored by most circular are used in the manual. investigators, our permanent pastures, both tame Mr. Guilbert is Professor of Animal Hus- bandry and Animal Husbandman in the Experi- and wild, still furnish nearly four-tenths, and our ment Station. rotation and temporary pastures over one-tenth, Mr. Hart is Professor of Veterinary Science of all the feed consumed by domestic animals. and Veterinarian in the Experiment Station. Pasture is the key to profitable utilization of

Page 1—Section I TABLE 1 (I)

Number of California Livestock and Poultry, and Production by Classes

Number on farms Production from farms and feed lots in 1942

Meat Milk (live (4 per Eggs, Wool, Jan. 1, 1942, Jan. 1, 1943, thousands thousands weight), cent fat), million million million million dozen pounds pounds pounds

Beef cattle and calves 1,526 1,545 - 475 Dairv cattle 786* 786* 236 5,133 Hogs 894 1,019 197 Sheep 2,977t 2,828t 162 24 Chickens 12,4941 14,034* 60 159 Turkeys 428§ 492§ 58

* Milk cows two years old and older, t Stock animals, j Hens and pullets of laying age. § Breeding hens. Source of data: California Agricultural Experiment Station. Feed requirements for California livestock and poultry production. 4 p. 1943. (Litho.) TABLE 2 (I) Feed Bequirements for California Livestock and Poultry in 1942

Protein Pasture and range Barley (or concentrate Legume Nonlegume Silage or equivalent), (40 per cent hay, hay, soilage, thousand equivalent). thousand thousand thousand Irrigated, Nonirrigated, tons thousand tons tons tons thousand thousand tons acres acres

Beef cattle and 176 45 168 391 150 40 000 Dairy cattle 177 44 2,623 816 432 224 1,050 352 46 21 23 Sheep 20 10 121 78 120 18,000 Chickens 473 146 27 74 Turkeys 115 25 10 36

Totals 1,313 316 2,970 1,285 542 517 59,050

Source of data: California Agricultural Experiment Station. Feed requirements for California livestock and poultry production. 4 p. 1943. (Litho.) TABLE 3 (I) California Beef Production and Feed Requirements, 1942

Production Feed requirements Pasture and range of live weight'

Type of Barley or Protein Non- Legume Non- production Amount, equiva- concen- legume Irrigated, Per cent hay, irrigated, million lent, trates, hay, thousand of total thousand thousand pounds thousand thousand thousand acres tons acres tons tons tons

Range and field cleanup 342 72 8 30 111 258 40,000 Irrigated pastures 60 13 150 Feed lots 73 15 168 15 57 133

Total 475 100 176 45 168 391 150 40,000

Source of data: Guilbert, H. R., L. W. Fluharty, and V. M. Shepard. California beef-production data. California Agr. Exp. Sta. leaflet. 5 p. 1943. (Litho.)

Section I—Page 2 millions of acres of semi-waste land now lying state, some 12,000,000 scattered acres are idle or unproductive. "Better pastures" should without control. be made the keynote in the promotion of Ameri- The Forest Reserves, established in can agricultural progress. 1909, long antedated the Taylor Grazing From the range breeding grounds in Act. For years after controlled grazing provided this and in other states come the feeder under the paid-permit plan was areas, which cover cattle that go to feed lots and utilize the in these extensive products of the cultivated lands and the 19,000,000 acres of the state, grazing gradually by-products of industry and agriculture. resources were expected to be after thirty-five years, this The latter depend upon the return from increased. But these by-products for their financial sta- expectation still has not been realized. bility, just as the livestock industry de- Figure 1 (Sec. I) shows the trend in num- pends on this feed supply to finish the bers of paid permits for domestic live- livestock. Thus the advantage is mutual; stock grazed on national forests in development and utilization of by- California from 1910 to 1946, and also products over recent years have belied the trend in numbers of animals over the the old-time statement that California is same period. There has been a marked a poor place in which to eat beef. decline in both. The complete picture is At present the livestock industry is even more serious because, in too many handicapped by the limitation of its use areas, the reduced number of livestock of the range. Involved are several condi- come out of the mountains in poor conditions, some of which are peculiar to Cali- tion and must go to the feed lot, not direct fornia. Over 40 per cent of the land area to slaughter as in former years. of the state is publicly owned. This figure In short, the future beef-cattle situation includes such lands as public domain, in California is primarily involved with forest reserves, national parks and monu- feed supply, in which natural vegetation ments, Indian allotments, school sections, on ranges and pastures is the most impor- and tax-delinquent lands. In addition, tant item. there is a large holding of railroad lands; The use of these lands, whether in pub- for instance, several million acres belong lic or private ownership, depends on the to the Southern Pacific Railroad. Many accumulation of more and more factual of these areas outside the forest reserves data. With facts, procedures can be inau- are in checkerboard ownership, mainly gurated to make way for increasing num- because every alternate section was al- bers of animals and to assure better lotted to the railroads along their rights handling of those that already exist. In of way many years ago. This arrangement this way the consumer can be supplied prevents the efficient use of such land for with livestock products so that his diet grazing. will better meet his physiological needs. The Taylor Grazing Act, administered Efficient production will bring costs in by the Department of the Interior, was line with purchasing power, without too designed to bring the feed resources of great a strain on other important living the 175,000,000 acres of public domain costs incidental to a better life for the in the United States under some measure entire population. of control. In California, with approxi- Information on the physical resources mately 16,000,000 acres of public domain, that affect livestock production in Cali- two grazing districts have been estab- fornia, including climatic data, land use, lished (no. 1 in Mono and Inyo counties, characteristics of the different production no. 2 in Modoc and Lassen counties). areas, and statistics on the movements of Since these districts comprise less than feeder and slaughter cattle from outside 25 per cent of the public domain in the the state and inside, can be found in the

Page 3—Section I :

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Fig. 1 (I) . Upper panel: Trend in numbers of paid permits for domestic livestock grazed on national forests of California, from 1910 to 1945, four-year averages. Lower panel: Trend in numbers of domestic livestock grazed under paid permit on national forests. Data from United States Forest Service, California Region. (From Ext. Cir. 115.) publication of Swedlund and Scott (2) in domestic animals, excluded or reduced and its supplements. Arthur Shultis (3) to the early or original numbers. Shelford also gives information on such agricul- restated the unity of the plant-animal tural data as regions, climate, and types community and suggested principles that of agricultural enterprises. make such a concept tenable. He expresses his views as follows

Range and Wildlife Problems That a much broader and more flexible view Since the turn of the century, much of controlling factors is tenable than the one which holds that the animals are merely an progress has been made toward a better environmental factor acting upon plants. That of soil plant relations, understanding and food relations, especially of abundant and influ- especially under irrigation practices. ent animals, are usually flexible and rarely if There is now a need for more study of ever obligate; and that observation of apparently restricted food relations made in one lo- plant and animal relations, particularly cality may not hold good under other conditions. on the uncultivated lands. Forage stand That the climaxes of nature (bioecological cli- on the range and its composition in rela- max) include that vegetation which occurs tion to livestock and wildlife must be with the pristine numbers and kinds of animals present. considered. In this connection, Shelford (4) attacked the fundamental concepts of Regarding bioecological climaxes, Shel- certain plant ecologists who apparently ford claimed that if bison held some of consider and name vegetation apart from the mixed prairie to the short-grass stage, animals. These ecologists have desired to then short grass was the bioecological learn the ultimate climax of vegetation climax, even though the climax with bison with the wild animals, or their equivalent excluded would have been quite different.

Section I—Page 4 California has not greatly increased not penetrate the stand. It is too woody its number of beef cattle and sheep in for browse feed and constitutes a serious the last forty years. On the other hand, fire hazard. On the other hand, the tender through administrative policies prevent- sprouting shoots which come up after a

ing the use of fire, great changes in the fire has burned it off are fairly palatable ground cover of vegetation have occurred and nutritious, and are utilized along over a large acreage. Brush cover, cha- with the ground feed which comes up in mise, and chaparral of low forage value quantity after the removal of brush-cover have spread over land formerly producing competition. Work done by Veihmeyer good ground feed. These large, ungraz- and Johnston (7) in Shasta and Tehama able, brush-covered areas have created counties has demonstrated the fact that,

a vicious circle in the scheme of grazing. along with an increase in feed, water is Since the same number of animals is conserved in the soil. In the experiments, grazing less and less acreage, and since denudation by burning did not impair wildlife competition continues, the result infiltration capacity; the soil in burned is lower available feed, poorer condition plots became wet throughout its full depth of livestock, and greater opportunity for as soon as that in adjoining unburned so-called overgrazing. The use of fire in plots. The more shallow-rooted ground brush clearing has been extremely con- cover following the burn did not transpire troversial. Indiscriminate burning is as so much water as did the deeper-rooted

ill-advised as attempting to prevent all chamise ; in every instance, the total water fires. Cooperation between state and fed- loss at the end of the dry season for the eral forestry agents, the university and full depth of soil was less in the burned county livestock groups on well-planned, than in the unburned plots. selective, controlled burning of brush- During the dry season, restoration of land, followed by constructive man- spring and stream flow, following re- agement practice and reseeding where moval of brush and trees, frequently necessary, is now making progress in occurs. This is often vital in maintaining enhancing feed supply and in contribut- water supply for livestock in such areas. ing essential knowledge upon which fu- The much-abused term "overgrazing" ture practice may be based. has been widely used by writers discuss- In addition to burning, the practice of ing the problems of uncultivated land. bulldozing and other mechanical methods There are marked differences in the type of brush clearing, followed by planting of vegetative cover on range lands; over to grain crops or reseeding with forage much of California the ground feed con- plants, is being followed more extensively sists predominantly of annual plants. This on the better sites and soils. Most of the situation is generally thought to have re- burning and clearing for improvement sulted from excessive use of perennials has been done at the dense brush stage. and especially from prolonged summer Evidence is accumulating that control at grazing, which has caused these plants the more open stage even with a year's to decline and to be replaced by annuals. sacrifice of the grass cover required to Some annuals are miscalled weeds, de- carry the fire may be the more practical spite their high nutritive value to animals.

and profitable procedure, involving large It is recognized that at intervals most areas. With some brush types, clearing perennials must be allowed to reach the the remaining seed plants by hand or by flowering stage in order to maintain vigor other means may prevent recurrence in- by replenishing the store of nutrients in definitely (5,6). their roots. Enough seed must be pro- Chamise, in particular, is so dense over duced for replacement or increase. Just large acreages that grazing animals can- as alfalfa has a shorter life and produces

Page 5—Section I less yield when continuously cut before only to the insects and well above the bloom, so will perennial grasses lose their hoofed animals, wild and domestic, as vitality and productivity under continu- primary converters of vegetation." At a ous close cropping. Annuals, on the other field station near Bass Lake, Madera hand, depend solely on seed and the County, these investigators showed an growth of new plants each year. The active population of 60 rodents per acre annuals common to California are re- in summer—mice, chipmunks, ground markably adaptable; their abundant seed and gray squirrels, gophers, and chick- insures future crops even under the ad- arees. It was calculated that 23.5 pounds verse conditions induced by lack of mois- of rodents had a food consumption of ture, a short growing season, or very close 1.6 to 2.6 pounds of dry matter daily. grazing. Successful seed production is They estimated that a 750-pound steer accomplished by many species, when daily needs about 14 pounds of dry mat- height growth is limited by grazing or ter. Sixty rodents on 1 acre, therefore, drought to 2 or 3 inches, even though a require 12 to 18 per cent as much as a height of 12 inches or more would be beef animal, and those on 5% to 8% normal under favorable circumstances. acres have a food demand equivalent to As further insurance of species survival, that of one average steer. not all the seeds germinate at once; in Just south of Bass Lake at O'Neals is such species as bur clover, seeds may re- the San Joaquin Experimental Range of main viable in the ground for several the United States Forest Service. Al- years. though some of the rodent species found Domestic animals are obliged to com- at Bass Lake are not a factor on this pete with wildlife for the natural vegeta- range, they are replaced there by cotton- tion. The term "wildlife," in connection tail and jack rabbits, and kangaroo rats. with range lands, properly refers not only Horn and Fitch (9) from their studies to game animals, but to all undomesti- at this location, present data of a similar cated vertebrates and even invertebrates. kind. They indicate that the forage con- The importance of grasshopper and locust sumed and destroyed by pocket gophers damage is widely recognized. is largely compensated for by the in- Since game animals constitute a crop, creased production which their cultivat- they must be managed so that their num- ing activities in the soil accomplish. bers and the available feed supplies re- Ground squirrels (6 on a/2 acre) and main in proper balance, especially where kangaroo rats (8 on y± acre) were shown predators are under reasonably strict con- to be detrimental; without doubt, they trol. The highly important rodent and took 15 per cent or more of the forage related species must be looked upon as on the plots where they were maintained. game (cottontail rabbits and gray squir- The stocking of the enclosures was about rels), and also as pests and reservoirs of equal to the maximum population den- human infections, particularly sylvatic sities known to exist on the range at the plague and tularemia. Collectively, wild- start of the experiment. life over much of the range area has more The Division of Animal Husbandry of effect on the vegetative cover than have the College of Agriculture, in cooperation domestic animals. with the Forest Service, has been study- In 1944, Storer, Evans, and Palmer (8) ing different intensities of grazing on the reported a great many data on some ro- San Joaquin Experimental Range over dent populations in the Sierra Nevada a period of twelve years. Animals were regions of California. "Rodents," they placed in fenced areas at the approximate state, "constitute one of the major dy- rate of one to 10 acres, one to 15 acres, namic forces of nature; they are second and one to 20 acres, respectively.

Section I—Paqe 6 All these data tend to show the impor- Not many years ago cattle were allowed tance of rodents as an uncontrolled vari- to live or die on the natural vegetation of able in grazing-intensity studies with the range. Today, the supplementing of

livestock. With cattle stocked at the rate range feed is essential and highly profit-

of one to 10 acres, the rodents may eat able. To many it may appear fantastic to and destroy forage sufficient to feed more fertilize range lands; but the future may than one steer; at the rate of one to 15 prove fertilization to be a valuable and acres, twice as much; and at the rate of economical means of producing a greater one to 20 acres, about three times as amount of nutritious range feed. much. Range lands differ greatly in produc-

The conditions for which rodents may tivity and in quality of feed. Moisture is largely be responsible should not be the greatest limiting factor in all the low- charged against livestock. Furthermore, altitude ranges, whereas temperature and high utilization of the vegetative cover is length of growing season are important not so serious from the plant-reproduction at the high altitudes. In most of the rolling standpoint on ranges composed of annual foothills, cattle prefer different areas at plants; and systematic rodent control different seasons, south slopes over north soon pays dividends. slopes, bald over open wooded areas, The deer population in California is open areas over those under tree cover, very large—roughly, about 1,000,000 and swales over knolls. Type, palatabil- head. In many places it is too large for ity, and nutritive value of plant cover are the feed supply, and losses from disease involved in these preferences. In some and starvation occur every year. Fischer, areas cattle spend most of their time graz- Davis, Iverson, and Cronemiller (10) of ing swales, where the feed stays green the United States Forest Service have longer. Production in such locations has studied the winter range of the interstate been increased experimentally five- to ten- deer herd in the Modoc National Forest. fold by the use of fertilizers. In this forest the estimated deer popu- The establishment of superior plant lation has increased from 6,700 in 1923 species through reseeding and manage- to 46,000 in 1943. The livestock has been ment offers great promise. As this knowl- continuously reduced from 35,404 cattle edge unfolds, the effects of management of and 76,539 sheep in 1923, to 23,907 cattle grazing practices on the plant cover may and 46,308 sheep in 1943. Deer and live- become as important to beef-production stock are not alike in their grazing habits enterprises as the management of the cat- and plant preferences. The strain removed tle. Jones and Love (11) give a detailed from the plant cover by reducing permits report on the species of forage plants for cattle 32.0 per cent and permits for recommended for reseeding in different sheep 39.5 per cent has been taken up areas of the state; this circular also by the increased deer population. Plant gives information on the management of species favored by deer have continued brush fields and grazing management to decline, while those selected by live- practices to increase the quality and quan- stock are increasing. The authors recom- tity of forage production. mend that 10,000 does be killed in this Production Costs area. Unless this problem is handled wisely, nature will step in with increase Since 1935 the Agricultural Extension in predators, disease, and starvation ; nat- Service of the University of California ural resources will certainly be wasted. has cooperated with 87 cattle producers The means by which these problems are in 14 counties to study and analyze beef- handled may well be considered an index production costs. Three distinct areas are of the enlightenment of the people. involved in these studies: the northeast

Page 7—Section I mountain area, the south coast, and the in the herd. The average percentage calf San Joaquin Valley. On most of these crop shown in the study is 71.6 per cent, ranches, sales of beef cattle represent the with extremes from 50.6 to 95.2 per cent. major source of revenue, with the cattle The younger the animals are when sold, being used principally to market the the greater is the necessity of obtaining range and pasture feeds and the harvested a high percentage calf crop. roughages. All the ranches in the studies Beef per Animal Unit. In the study maintain breeding herds. A few of the there is a direct relation between annual operators purchase some stockers and production of beef per animal unit and feeders. On the average, about 280 breed- the net returns. For the ranches studied, ing cows and a total of about 730 animal this production has averaged 291 pounds, units per ranch are represented in these with extremes from 116 to 482 pounds. studies. The progress of the project war- The amount is closely associated with per- rants discussion of the following impor- centage of calf crop and age of marketing. tant factors in beef-production costs. About 285 pounds of beef per animal unit, Capitalization. Based upon the pre- under the prevailing price and cost con- war period, when the average price of all ditions, were required for these ranches cattle was about $8.00 per hundredweight, to pay total operating expenses of the and where the beef enterprise must be cattle enterprise. charged with all the capital investment Age at Marketing. Where these op- in a ranch unit, net returns have not erators breed and raise their cattle, the justified a land and facility investment studies point out, the greatest net income much in excess of $125 per animal unit, per animal unit is obtained when market where the operator expects net earnings animals are sold between the weaning and of 5 per cent. In the studies the average the two-year-old stages. An analysis of investment in land and facilities per ani- the records indicates that the optimum mal unit is shown to be $161.66. The point for selling within these age limits extremes range from $90.76 to $187.46. depends mainly on percentage of calf Where an interest rate of 5 per cent was crop, weight for age, and quality of cattle. figured on capital invested in range and General Management. The studies pasture land, cattle, and facilities, the emphasize the need for analyzing each charge against invested capital accounted ranch unit separately, in order to find the for 41.9 per cent of the sale value of all best methods for applying fundamental beef. principles of management. They also The danger of overcapitalization of the show that certain production and market- beef enterprise appears to be greater on ing practices efficient for one ranch may specialty beef-cattle ranches than on those not be applicable to another.

where beef-cattle production is merely a As a group, the ranch operators show- part of the general farming program. ing greatest net returns above all costs, Percentage Calf Crop. The records invested more time and money in sys- show a direct correlation between per- tematic and careful breeding, feeding, centage calf crop and net income on these and culling practices than did the low- ranches where the prevailing practice is income group. to maintain breeding herds. Under pre- Shultis (3) makes the following state- war price and cost conditions, and with ment: practices then employed, an average of Cattle . . . ranches vary widely, by location 70 per cent calf crop appears necessary and kind, in the size of the herd, and the acreage required for an adequate family farm. Usually on these ranches to prevent financial loss. 100 breeding cows are considered necessary, This percentage is based on the number with sufficient owned or rented range land, and of breeding cows two years old and over sometimes with enough cropland to produce the

Section I—Page 8 !

required hay for supplementing the range. genetic selection for type and special pro- Where all land is owned, as in the Coast Range, duction functions. Development of this 500 to 5,000 acres are required for a herd of knowledge should more clearly define the this size, with an investment probably around $20,000 for the range alone. Even in the moun- issues for breeders and geneticists alike, tain region, where grazing rights on public lands and should show what combinations of are available to ranchers, the total investment functions are compatible and genetically for a stock ranch is rather high, since hay land attainable and what combinations are and private range are also required. The land, buildings, and livestock would mean a minimum antagonistic. General evidence, for exam- investment of $25,000 to $30,000 for a cattle ple, indicates some degree of antagonism business of 100 cows, with the usual bulls and between ease of fattening and milk young stock. In fact, cattle ranches are usually production. It is known that excessive larger than this minimum and are rather associated strongly held by owners of substantial means, fattening may be with hypo- so that there is little opportunity for the new- thyroidism and that extra thyroxine will comer with limited capital. stimulate added production of milk even in dairy cattle. Apparently, on the other Future Possibilities hand, good beef conformation obtained It is possible to foresee, in the field of by selection for shorter leg bones and beef-cattle breeding, an era of greatly thick muscles without excessive fattening potentialities, which depend expanded tendency is compatible with high milk largely the vision progressive- upon and production. This is exemplified to an un- ness of breeders. Knowledge has been ac- usual degree by the comparatively new cumulated to point where the objectives a Dutch dual-purpose-type Friesian cattle. clearly defined. may now be more Prog- Physiologists and nutritionists have ress has been made on the means by progressed toward a clearer understand- which progeny sys- performance can be ing of rumen function, activity, the inter- tematically recorded, and bulls and fe- relations among the microorganisms in males proved for their ability to transmit the rumen and between these and the host. desired characters to their offspring. In- This information is involved with the formation on the mechanisms of inheri- causes and prevention of bloat, and offers tance breeding and on methods has a logical explanation of long-established increased. Above all, the techniques of practices, such as gradual changing of artificial insemination have been suffi- rations, of indigestion and toxemia from ciently perfected so that 100 insemina- sudden feed changes. Possibly it may also tions can be secured from a single serv- be concerned with metabolic disturbances ice; dilutions of semen adequate for 40 or diseases, such as grass tetany, ace- to 80 inseminations are practice. common tonemia, and the etiology of the "acorn The rate of genetic improvement is calf." Microorganisms of the rumen are limited largely by the degree of selection important not only in digesting fiber, but possible. Artificial insemination greatly also in synthesizing numerous vitamins, extends the selection potential for sires. proteins from nonproteins—one type util- Already one beef bull has sired well over izing the by-products of another, prevent- three thousand calves. this By means, an ing accumulation of toxic materials, all outstanding proved sire very easily could of which is essential to the well-being of produce a thousand bulls for normal use the cow herself. in commercial herds and thus become the These strides indicate that the prob- grandfather of a hundred thousand lem of supplemental feeding involves not calves only the needs of the cow, but also pro- The action of hormones is gradually motion of most favorable conditions for being elucidated. Hormonal and other her partnership with the microorganisms physiological variations are involved in in her rumen, or paunch.

Page 9—Section I Great progress is being made in con- practical application of this knowledge trolling some of the insect pests that take to secure adequate nutrition ; to control such a tremendous toll in the livestock parasites and diseases; to regulate tem- industry. The remarkable effectiveness of perature through shelter, shade, or other DDT, for example, has brought about means; to provide an ample supply of intensive selective pressure on certain in- water ; and to improve other manage- sects, and survivors have produced new ment practices that promote the well- populations of resistant types. The prob- being of the animals and their efficiency lem of thus producing strains for which of production. there are no effective control measures What is considered relatively new to- is now being appreciated. day may be commonplace tomorrow. Pos- Many opportunities exist for increasing sibilities lie ahead, ready to be exploited, the efficiency of production—not only by if the cattlemen will but study the availa- improving the environment to suit the ble data on their business more critically, animals, but also through breeding ani- more extensively, and more intensively mals that are adapted to the existing en- than ever before. To facilitate such a vironment. study, this manual summarizes the infor- Improvement of environment implies mation—obtained by experiment and by knowledge of the physiological require- practice—that is considered most practi- ments of cattle for growth, fattening, re- cal and helpful in improving the efficiency production, and lactation. It involves the of beef-cattle production in California.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Piper, C. V., et al. Our forage resources. U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1923:311-414. 1924.

(2) Swedlund, H. A., and G. A. Scott. California livestock and poultry. A statistical summary 1867-1942. California Dept. Agr. Spec. Pub. 192:1-137.

(3) Shultis, Arthur. Farming in California for the newcomer. 26 p. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Revised, 1946. (Litho.)

(4) Shelford, V. E. Some concepts of bioecology. Ecology 12:455-67. 1931.

(5) Love, R. M., and B. J. Jones. Improving California brushlands. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir. 371:1-31. 1947.

(6) Biswell, H. H. Effects of brush removal on game ranges in California. (Quarterly reports 1948-1949.) Univer- sity of California and California Division of Fish and Game cooperating. (Mimeo.)

(7) Veihmeyer, F. J., and C. N. Johnston. Soil moisture records from burned and unburned plots in certain grazing areas in California. Amer. Geophysical Union Transactions 1944:72-88.

(8) Storer, T. I., F. C. Evans, and F. G. Palmer. Some rodent populations in the Sierra Nevada of California. Ecol. Monog. 14:165-92. 1944.

(9) Horn, E. E., and H. S. Fitch. Interrelations of rodents and other wildlife of the range. In: Hutchison, C. B., and E. I. Kotok. The San Joaquin Experimental Range. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 663:96-129. 1942.

(10) Fischer, G. A., J. C. Davis, F. Iverson, and F. P. Cronemiller. The winter range of the interstate deer herd, Modoc National Forest, California. U. S. Forest Service, Region 5 Report. 20 p. 1944. (Mimeo.)

(11) Jones, Burle J., and R. M. Love. Improving California ranges. California Agr. Ext. Cir. 129:1-48. 1945.

Section I—Page 10 In order that the information in our publications may be more intelligible, it is sometimes necessary to use trade names of products and equipment rather than complicated descriptive or chemical identifications. In so doing, it is unavoidable in some cases that similar products which are on the market under other trade names may not be cited. No endorsement of named products is intended nor is criticism implied of similar products which are not mentioned.

Cooperative Extension work in Agriculture and Home Economics, College of Agriculture, University of California, and United States Department of Agriculture cooperating. Distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8, and June 30, 1914. J. Earl Coke, Director, California Agricultural Extension Service.

5m-4,'52(A339)M.H.

CALIFORNIA BEEF PRODUCTION MANUAL 2 H. R. Guilbert H, Hart and G. Section II

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA « COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station and Extension Service

PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND CATTLE BREEDING

Physiological Processes Cattle Breeding Reproduction Market Factors Basis for Inheritance Production Factors Rumination Records of Performance Rumen Fermentation Selective Breeding Water Utilization Crossbreeding

Physiological Processes cides with the latter part of gestation. Reproduction With calving, a further weight loss occurs, of pounds, followed lacta- According to many studies and practi- upward 100 by tion feed. In spite of feed, cal observations, a high reproduction rate on green good the drain of lactation will often prevent is important to the financial stability of gains will result in losses. a beef-cattle enterprise. The rate varies or even Thus the breeding significantly with environmental condi- the cow may pass through without heat periods tions, especially feed supply. For example, season showing and so having a calf the following year. low calf crops follow periods of drought miss this should supply and poor range feed. To prevent trouble, one Lactation constitutes a greater drain the breeding cow with feed that will en- weight on the breeding cow than gestation. This able her to return to her normal at calving time each year. Means for ac- is the basis for the much-discussed plan complishing this result are given under of breeding cows to calve at two years of age and vealing the calves early, as pre- "Percentage Calf Crop" in Section IV, sented under "Production of Feeder Cat- "Production of Feeder Cattle." Supplying 1 bull for every 15 breeding females will tle," Section IV. The establishment and maintenance of normal rhythm of estrus not help the situation when the need is cycles (heat periods) in the open animal for supplemental feed to bring the breeding into heat. Given proper feed, is a more delicate index of a normally cows or served a single functioning physiology of all body proc- 25 30 cows can be by bull. esses than is growth curve or weight gain. Breeding cows commonly lose weight dur- Estrus, or heat, is the external manifes- ing the dry season, which usually coin- tation that the genital tract is functioning normally. Involved are the development Manual 2, a revision of Circular 131, replaces Extension Circular 115, Beef Production in Cali- of a Graafian follicle containing the ovum fornia, by H. R. Guilbert and L. H. Rochford. or egg in the ovary, ovulation, and prep- Some tables and other data from the original aration of the lining mucosa of the uterus circular are used in the manual. Mr. Guilbert is Professor of Animal Hus- for the implantation of the fertilized egg. bandry and Animal Husbandman in the Experi- These processes are under hormone con- ment Station. trol. Mr. Hart is Professor of Veterinary Science and Veterinarian in the Experiment Station. Gonadotropin, a hormone secreted

Page 1—Section II from the anterior part of the pituitary, the scientific explanation of these practi- a small ductless gland at the base of the cal observations. brain, stimulates the growth of the Graaf- Evidence from an extensive literature ian follicles in the ovary. One follicle will on the relation of nutrition to reproduc- mature at each heat period (two follicles tion has been reviewed (1). This in-

in the case of twins) , rupture, and extrude dicated that low food intake or any the ovum and follicular fluid. The cavity deficiency (as of protein or phosphorus) thus created is filled by the formation of that affects appetite may act through the the corpus luteum, or yellow body of the pituitary gland to cause cessation or ir- ovary. Under the stimulation of growth, regularity of heat periods in the female the follicle produces the female sex hor- and to limit sexual desire and activity in mone, estrogen, which is found in the fol- the male. Protein deficiency seems to have licular fluid. This hormone stimulates the a direct effect on the pituitary, independ- secretion of mucus in the vagina, initiates ent of appetite or food intake. contractions and growth changes in the Under these conditions of nutritional uterus, and brings on the manifestations deficiency all body cells, including the of estrus. The corpus luteum secretes an- pituitary and sex glands, are affected. other hormone, progesterone, which stops Reduction of hormone secretion from uterine contractions and continues to the pituitary under such circumstances prepare the lining of the uterus for im- has been demonstrated. Thus the direct plantation of the fertilized ovum and the effect of inanition, with lessening of hor-

maintenance of pregnancy. mone stimulation, is "doubled up" on the The same pituitary hormone, gonado- ovaries or testes and could explain the tropin, activates sperm production in the observed cessation of estrus and sexual male and stimulates the testes to produce desire. Injection of the gonad-stimulating from special cells the male sex hormone hormone into animals suffering nutri- testosterone. This in turn, by stimulating tional privation has restored estrus and the prostate gland and seminal vesicles ovulation in the female and sexual desire (the accessory male glands), produces in the male. The generally recognized fact sexual desire. that reproductive functions are more sen- The sex hormones secreted by the testes sitive to undernutrition than most other and the ovary also control the develop- physiological processes may thus be ex- ment of secondary sexual characteristics- plained. masculinity in bulls, femininity in fe- The mechanism indicated, indeed, may males. Spaying a heifer changes her body be a wise provision of nature to prevent conformation somewhat and results in the onset of reproduction under condi- coarser appearance of the head. The alter- tions unfavorable to survival of both ation in appearance of a steer, compared mother and offspring, and to assist the with the well-developed crest, more mas- adult animal to live through the critical sive head, horns, and shoulders, and deep period. voice of a bull, is well known. Variation Vitamin-A deficiency, on the other

in sex-hormone secretion is responsible hand, does not affect the recurrence of for difference in development of these heat until the advanced stages, when ap- characteristics in individuals. Stockmen petite declines and the animal's general have empirically long associated the com- condition is impaired. Breeding has been bination of characteristics recognized as observed with experimental animals in femininity with good breeding cows that the convulsive stages, but pregnancy was are good mothers; strongly developed not established. Deficiency to the night- masculine appearance with good breeding blindness stage during pregnancy causes bulls. Normal sex-hormone secretion is changes and necrosis of the placenta. Op-

Section II— Page 2 portunity for infection is increased; the "halving and sampling" process of inheri- fetus may be killed and aborted, or born tance; the inclusion in the germ cell of too weak to live. Vitamin-A deficiency in one or the other member of any pair is the male causes sterility through degen- due to chance. erative changes in the sperm-producing With all possible combinations of these cells of the testes, but does not affect sex- 30 pairs, any cow or bull can transmit ual desire until advanced stages. The over 1 billion different samples of its own testicular damage is slowly repaired if inheritance; and the combination from sufficient vitamin A is again supplied. both parents makes possible 1 billion Insufficient iodine causes reproductive times 1 billion genetically different off- failure through development of the defi- spring. It is not strange, then, that no two

ciency syndrome in the fetus that is still individuals (except identical twins from in the uterus; but the mother shows no a single egg split after fertilization) are clinical signs of the trouble. exactly alike. This variation gives one an When the delicate reproductive phe- opportunity to select for desired charac- nomena are not occurring, the cow misses teristics. Selection and systems of breed- rebreeding, gains weight as lactation ing, such as inbreeding and line breeding, ends, and is more fleshy than the animals are means of obtaining sires and dams that are again lactating. If bulls are pres- whose chromosomes contain similar he- ent she may become pregnant in the late reditary determiners, so that the amount summer or fall and calve late the follow- of variation is reduced. ing year or early the second year after Some applications of these basic con- having her last calf, or be sold for slaugh- cepts, along with important factors to ter in the winter because she is in good consider in beef-type selection, are dis- flesh or thought to be barren. This ac- cussed under "Cattle Breeding." counts for the large number of fetuses on the killing floors in the winter season. Rumination When pregnancy has gone beyond about Strictly herbivorous animals, such as 5 months of the gestation period, it affects cattle, sheep, deer, and horses have special dressing percentage. anatomical arrangements of the gastrointestinal tract to care for large ingestion Physiological Basis for of roughage. The first three species named Inheritance have a four-stomach arrangement; and The body cells of cattle contain 30 pairs the horse has a large caecum, or blind gut, of bundles of hereditary determiners whose counterpart in man is the small, called chromosomes—a total of 60. In the rudimentary vermiform appendix. formation of each ovum, or egg, and each The four-stomach species are classed sperm, one or the other of each pair is as ruminants because the first stomach, included, so that each germ cell has 30 or rumen, can return boluses of ingesta chromosomes. These carry the deter- to the mouth by reverse peristalsis of the miners of the hereditary qualities of the esophagus. The bolus is then remasticated individual. When the egg and sperm and again swallowed, the entire process unite, the resulting new individual has being known as rumination, or chewing 60 chromosomes, one half coming from the cud. Eructation or belching, a closely each of its parents. In turn the new indi- related phenomenon, is used in eliminat- vidual will contribute 30 chromosomes to ing the gases that form through fermenta- its offspring, passing along one or the tion. When expulsion of these gases is

other of the members of each pair that interfered with, the immediate result is it received from its parents. This is the bloating, which may even cause death.

Page 3—Section II Rumination and eructation are involun- knowledge is by no means complete. Di- tary or reflex acts, the nervous stimulus for gestion in the rumen is accomplished by which is the scratching of coarse rough- enzyme systems produced by the micro- age on the mucosa of the anterior portion organisms. The principal products of of the rumen. This stimulation was first carbohydrate digestion in ruminants are demonstrated by workers at the South volatile fatty acids such as acetic ; in non-

Dakota Station. Through a fistula the ex- ruminants the main end product is sugar perimenters passed an arm into the rumen (glucose). and, by scratching the mucous membrane, Bacteria are primarily concerned with started the eructation. Cole and his co- cellulose digestion, but they also act on workers (2) of the Division of Animal starches and sugar, producing lower Husbandry, University of California, fatty acids, carbon dioxide, and methane. have demonstrated the cause of bloat to be These fermentation gases must escape a lack of sufficient coarse roughage. Bloat through belching, or bloat occurs. Infu- was produced experimentally by feeding soria, with the help of bacteria, break cows on soft, lush upper stems and leaves down carbohydrates and proteins, and of alfalfa and prevented by giving them synthesize from amino acids animal pro- coarse hay before turning them out to teins of high value. The microorganisms pasture. Sudangrass likewise inhibited also synthesize vitamins and proteins bloat, because the edges of the leaf are from nonprotein nitrogen, such as urea. rough and maintain the constant stimulus This reworking of the proteins and non- for eructation. In experimental dairy ani- protein nitrogen of feeds into bacterial mals fed no roughage from calfhood, but and infusorial protein, which becomes supplied with concentrates only, Mead of available to the host lower in its digestive the California Station demonstrated a tract, explains why biological value of failure of the rumen to develop ; no rumi- feed proteins is not so important in rumination took place, and too heavy a feeding nants. at any one time always resulted in some The identity of the different types of degree of bloat. In view of this knowledge, organisms making up the rumen flora and the stockman should recognize that when fauna is not well established, but there bloat occurs on pastures or ranges, the is strong evidence that they are interde- feed is too lush and tender. On such range pendent in function and that the propor- feed and irrigated pastures, the animals tions of different types vary with the feed need access to coarse hay or straw for supply. Inoculation apparently is passed the normal functioning of their digestive more or less directly from one animal apparatus. Insufficient roughage tends to to another, as the organisms do not long reduce appetite and gain, even if acute survive outside the anaerobic conditions bloat is not produced. Recommended min- of the It that the imum roughage allowance is discussed rumen. appears when under "Fattening Cattle and the Dressed composition of the ration is altered, some Product," Section V. time may be required for the active flora to adapt to the new feed. The dying out Rumen Fermentation of various types of microorganisms has The fermentation constantly going on been demonstrated experimentally in in the rumen results from the growth and animals fed very deficient rations. In activity of microorganisms. Nutritionists some cases, the animals failed to respond have made important progress in under- on a good diet until they had received standing some of the interrelationships inoculation of rumen contents from a and functions, but the problems of re- normal animal. Changing from a poor search are extremely complicated and ration to a rich diet may lead to toxic

Section II—Page 4 effects because the microorganisms which larly is this true in semiarid parts of the utilize decomposition products of pro- world, where either quantity or quality of teins, for example, may not be present water and high temperatures frequently in sufficient numbers. limit stock-raising activities. In many Fineness of grinding or other factors, parts of California inadequate water sup- such as very lush pasture, speed the pas- ply is a yearly problem, which may neces- sage of feed through the rumen, decrease sitate the removal of cattle from grazing cellulose digestion, and increase the areas before the feed supplies are ex- amount of carbohydrate digested to glu- hausted. Waters unfit for man to drink cose by intestinal enzymes. Decline in must sometimes be given to livestock. The butterfat percentage of milk has been excess of such solids as nitrates, magne- observed under these conditions. sium, sulfates, and sulfites may result in Slowness in getting animals on feed so-called alkali poisoning, with diarrhea, after long fasting is probably due to com- general weakness, loss of appetite, and plete dying out of rumen microorganisms even sudden death. The upper limit of and slowness of reinoculation. Thus, tolerance for cattle, according to the Okla- science has now shown justification, in homa Agricultural Experiment Station, is some cases, of the old practice of trans- 1.5 per cent total dissolved salts. When ferring the cud of a healthy cow to a obliged to walk far to a source of supply sick one, although the efficacy of the dish (the distance should not exceed 2% rag in lieu of the cud has not been veri- miles) the cattle can drink enough water fied! These advances in knowledge, which at one time to suffice for 24 hours. Travel- explain the necessity for gradual change ing long distances to water is hardest on in ration large differences when in com- cows nursing calves and may be a pri- position are involved, offer logical rea- mary cause of weight loss. Water is essen- sons for many difficulties encountered in tial to the functioning of all body cells; practice. to the transport of nutrients in digestion, McElroy and Goss of the California absorption, and blood circulation; and Station and others have demonstrated to the elimination of waste products. It that the rumen contents of the cow are is a primary factor in the regulation of an excellent source of thiamin, riboflavin, body temperature and is necessary in the pantothenic acid, nicotinic acid, pyridox- mechanics of rumination. Without suffi- ine, biotin, and fat-soluble vitamin K. cient water, rumination ceases, all diges- Thus, under normal feeding practice, cat- tive processes are impaired, and feed tle do not need a source of the vitamin-B consumption decreases or stops. complex in their diet; they obtain it from On many cattle ranges, much can prof- the microorganisms that manufacture the itably be done to increase water supply complex in their own bodies. On the other and improve distribution in relation to hand, the foregoing evidence indicates the range feed. This is an important con- that, under poor, dry range conditions, sideration in efficient range use and man- the rumen contents are lacking in neces- agement. The amount of water, as such, sary nutrients for the normal processes consumed by livestock depends on the of fermentation. As a consequence, the water content of the feed, temperature, welfare of the animal may be impaired. shade, frequency of access to the supply, Water Utilization and Heat and lactation or nonlactation. Water in Regulation the feed in arid areas varies from 80 per Water supply and body-heat regulation cent or better in green feed to as low as in husbandry deserve much more atten- 10 per cent in the bleached dry feed in tion than they usually receive. Particu- the dry season. Thus, with great demand

Page 5—Section II for water intake in hot weather and low high in soluble mineral and possibly in water content of dry feed, an average other substances having a diuretic effect. daily consumption of 10 to 15 gallons Heat Regulation. In warm-blooded per head should be provided. Lactating animals the body temperature is regulated animals may consume more, and young wkhin very narrow limits by delicate ad- animals less. The Minnesota Station has justment of heat production and dissi- presented data showing that milking cows pation. Heat production occurs from require 3 pounds of water per pound of fermentation in the rumen, from combus- milk produced. There is evidence, how- tion of food, and, in animals losing weight ever, that after general requirements are on poor feed, from combustion of the filled, no more water should be needed for body tissues. The animal also absorbs lactation than the actual volume of water heat from both sun and ground radiation contained in the milk. and from the air when the temperature Water Utilization. Water is lost is higher outside the body than inside. from the body through urine and feces, Disposal of heat occurs by evaporation evaporation from the skin and lungs, and of water from the lungs and skin and also milk production. For a fully grown ani- by radiation and conduction from the mal, intake should equal outgo. On the body surface. When the air temperature other hand, a growing animal will require is low, loss of heat is easier by radiation water to form a part of its new body tis- and conduction. In the summer, when sues. In general, the water content of feces air temperature may exceed body tem- is about 80 per cent. When dry range perature, loss of heat by radiation may feeds are deficient, and especially when be less than the amount absorbed; and feed is low in total soluble mineral, the then the animal pants with shallow, feces are dry, tend to pile up, and contain rapid respirations to dissipate heat by less than 80 per cent moisture; this con- greater evaporation from the lungs. The dition indicates that the animals are not sweat glands of cattle have less functional doing well. The condition of feces in feed development than those of horses or man. lot, as well as on range, is a valuable At 85° to 95° F, however, evaporation index. The total weight of the feces varies from the skin is three to four times that with diet and water content. from respiration, according to Missouri According to Leitch and Thomson (3) data. Length, color, and texture of hair on the average the water in the feces of coat affect heat exchange by radiation steers and dry cows appears to approxi- and conduction. mate four times the dry matter ; in lactat- Forbes and his co-workers (4) , in basal ing cows, over five times. metabolism experiments, have shown

Urine is the means of eliminating waste marked differences in shorn animals in products from the system, particularly the a calorimeter when increased heat pro- end products of nitrogen metabolism in duction for maintenance of body tempera- the form of urea. It also stabilizes water ture occurred at 66° F. The regrowth of in the body when sudden changes in tem- hair in the same animal reduced this crit- perature occur, with greater or less loss ical temperature to 56 1/2° or below. Water from the skin or lungs. Sudden increase loss by evaporation from the lungs in the in quantity of urine from exposure to cold cow is considerable, the upper limits results in a fluid of less concentration. being 10 to 12 quarts in a 24-hour period. In general, 5,000 to 7,000 milliliters— Atmospheric humidity apparently plays roughly 5 to 7 quarts of urine—will be a minor role in this water evaporation. voided daily. Excessive urination and cor- Regan and Mead with experimental Hol- respondingly greater water intake occur stein dairy cows in a psychrometric room when cattle consume beet tops, which are at Davis found that a humidity of 90 per

Section II— Page 6 cent of air saturation affected the animals 1. Relatively greater skin area and thus very little compared with temperature. greater surface for heat radiation in When the latter was maintained at 80° F relation to weight.

with humidity at 60 per cent for more 2. Relatively greater ability to perspire. than 24 hours, the body temperature rose Data show more water evaporation above normal, with the result that milk from the skin, and limited histologi- flow and feed and water intake decreased. cal studies on skin sections showed Thus, decline in appetite results at the greater numbers of sweat glands. upper critical temperature (the environ- 3. A distinctly shorter hair coat, which, mental temperature beyond which the regardless of color, is generally animal cannot prevent body temperature found on pigmented skin. Many from rising above normal). types have light hair color that re- These facts emphasize the importance flects a higher proportion of sun ra- of weather as an environmental factor. diation. South African clipping tests Feed capacity and utilization are the im- revealed 303 grams of hair in the portant criteria in animal production; summer coat of a 600-pound Short- but under rigorous climatic conditions horn; 30 grams on a 600-pound in warm countries and seasons, ability to Afrikaner. The winter coats con- dissipate heat must be considered. tained 505 and 129 grams of hair, The low milk yields of European dairy respectively. breeds in the tropics have been attributed of the digestive tract. to loss of energy under high temperatures, 4. Less capacity when extreme panting to dissipate heat Still undetermined physiological func- forces the whole body into rhythm with tions and adaptations may be involved in the flank movements. The temperatures the heat tolerance of tropical cattle. were such that all heat dissipation necessarily resulted from water evaporation, Cattle Breeding since none could result from radiation. The responsibility of the purebred In practical beef production, the differ- breeder is to supply commercial pro- ence between a good "doer" and a poor ducers with bulls that are uniformly pre- one may often lie in greater ability to potent for siring cattle of the higher dispose of excess heat. English investi- market grades, capable of converting gators found that the average skin tem- feeds into beef economically. To make perature of 8 fattening steers that had his ob- gained an average of 19 pounds weekly progress, the breeder must have study for the preceding 3 weeks was 20.7° C; jectives clearly in mind and must for 5 that had averaged 12 pounds per the needs of commercial cattlemen. The week, 22.2° C. cattle not only must be adapted for practical conditions of production, but must Native tropical breeds, such as the requirements. Since com- Brahman and Afrikaner, are physiologi- satisfy market cattlemen encounter these prob- cally fitted over generations and centuries mercial than average of adaptation to such environment. They lems to a greater extent manifest lower pulse and respiration rate breeders, they can, if well informed, than European breeds under identical greatly influence the trend of purebred conditions, and do not seek shade so selection through their preferential pur- quickly. chase of bulls. Some of the fundamental differences Some of the more important market between temperate-zone and tropical and production factors in beef-type selec- breeds that influence the greater heat tol- tion are summarized in the following erance of the latter follow. paragraphs.

Page 7—Section II Market Factors in Beef-Type and well balanced. Excessive weight in Selection shoulders and excessive depth in relation Weight. For slaughter steers, the to length increase the proportion of widest outlet at favorable prices has been cheaper cuts. for carcasses weighing 500 to 650 pounds, Shape of Wholesale and Retail with 25 to 30 per cent fat in the edible Cuts. Desirability and salability depend portion. These correspond to good and much upon the shape of the cut. From choice to prime grades and to live weights the standpoint of cooking, carving, and of 850 to 1,100 lbs. Heifers, with similar serving, short thick cuts are preferable feeding, reach the desired carcass com- to long thin ones. Variations in shape are position at lighter weights than steers. shown in the carcasses in figure 2 (II)

A primary objective, therefore, is to breed and in the rib cuts, figure 3 (II) . Low-set, cattle that will attain this carcass com- wide, thick body conformation, with position (degree of fatness) at these de- heavy muscling of back, loin, and hind- sired weights under practical conditions. quarters and heavy weight in relation to Yield of Wholesale Cuts. The vari- height, are outward manifestations of ation in value of carcasses fat enough to short bones and thick cuts. satisfy the requirements of a given grade Proportion of Meat to Bone. The depends much upon the proportion of housewife, the principal meat buyer, is the wholesale cuts. Each cut differs in the particularly sensitive to the amount of characteristics of muscle fibers, or per bone apparent in a cut. In contrast to cent of bone or both, and therefore sells long bones and thin muscling, the shorter, at a different price. Good and poor car- thicker cuts give the impression of more casses are compared in figure 2 (II). lean in proportion to bone. In a compari- Data (5) on choice feeder steers (2- to 2 son of 55 beef-type and 80 dual-purpose- grade) fed to good-grade slaughter con- type Shorthorn steers (7) the former dition yielded 59.3 per cent of higher- averaged 28 per cent bone and 72 per cent priced round, rump, loin, and prime rib muscle in the ninth, tenth, and eleventh cuts and 40.7 per cent of lower-priced rib cuts ; the latter, 30 per cent bone and flank, plate, brisket, foreshank, and chuck. 70 per cent muscle. Other data show that

According to Davis (6) , the average yield there is a high correlation between the from good-grade steers is 54 per cent of composition of these cuts and the rest of the good cuts, and 46 per cent of the the carcass. The extreme range in bone to poorer. With the higher-priced cuts at 26 muscle proportion for individuals of the cents per pound and the lower at 19 135 head was from 36 per cent bone and cents—a common spread— the difference 64 per cent muscle, to 21 per cent bone in yield shown above amounts to 40 cents and 79 per cent muscle. Some significant per 100 pounds, or $2.40 on a 600-pound differences were also found for the steers carcass. from different sires. The extreme range Other California Experiment Station shows an opportunity for selection. The data for cattle grading from good to difference between the average of the choice as feeders showed comparatively milking type and the beef type, however, small differences (less than 0.6 per cent) was not great. Only small differences in in cut-out value; this was true also be- proportion of lean to bone have been found tween good-choice Herefords, crossbred in broad-breasted chickens and turkeys Brahman-Herefords and Brahmans.Thus, compared with more angular types (8). in type and outward appearance, animals As Hammond's (9) extensive studies can vary markedly without materially show, selection for shorter bones and altering carcass value due to conforma- thicker fleshing results in greater diam- tion so long as they are straight, trim, eter and thickness of bones, so that pro-

Section II—Page 8 '

portion by weight is little changed. Ham- in the muscle to bone ratio might be ob- mond found as much muscle in relation tained by selecting for thick muscling and to bone in sheep of the semiwild type as fine bone. This, however, would tend to in improved breeds. Some improvement reduce size. Improvement, therefore, ap-

I !"*. .* ! I ! m

Fig. .2 (II). Examples of (left) undesirable and (right) desirable beef carcasses. The poor carcass has too much length compared with thickness ; it is heavy in front, light in the rear quarter, and flat-sided. The good carcass is shorter and thicker with less cheap meat in the shanks, neck, and ribs. (From: Hammond, J. Farm animals; their breeding, growth, and inheritance. 199 p. Longmans, Green & Co., New York, N.Y. 1940. By permission of the publisher.)

Page 9—Section II < >, ' J >, ! < %

Fig. 3 (II). Cuts through the ribs of the carcasses shown in figure 2 (II). Upper: undesirable cut; shallow "eye" muscle and large proportion of bone to edible meat. Lower: desirable cut; deep- fleshed with small proportion of bone to edible meat. (From: Hammond, J. Farm animals; their breeding, growth, and inheritance. 199 p. Longmans, Green & Co., New York, N.Y. 1940. By permission of the publisher.) pears somewhat limited, not only because The proportion of fat-free lean to bone of existing variation for selection, but increases during growth, and the propor- also the necessity of having reasonably tion of total edible meat to bone increases good bone to meet production require- markedly with fattening. ments. On this question, more data are Distribution of Fat and Lean. The needed. If boning of carcasses becomes ideal fat deposition is a moderate uniform a more general merchandising practice, outside covering over the whole carcass, the yield of meat will assume greater di- a minimum of internal (including kid- rect economic importance for processors ney) fat, with abundance of fat inter- and producers. spersed between the muscle fibers. This

Section II— Page 10 ideal is illustrated to a remarkable degree increased by 1.43 per cent. Variation in in figure 4 (II), showing the rib and fatness accounted for 89 per cent of the round cut from the carcass of an Aberdeen total variation in dressing percentage Angus International grand champion. under reasonably comparable conditions

The genetic factors for such distribution of fill. Deposition of excess mesenteric of fat are more generally encountered in fat, which goes with the offal, tends to Aberdeen Angus than in other beef decrease dressing percentage. Animals breeds. The external indications are gen- having more length in relation to depth eral plumpness of body; very smooth, than has been considered ideal in the past, firm appearance; and, under the hand, that are well balanced and solidly fleshed, a feeling of firmness and resilience of with straight, trim bodies are capable of thick flesh, in contrast to the softer, flab- producing the high yields appreciated by bier touch of excess external fat. the buyer at degrees of finish popular According to Callow (10), at Cam- with the beef salesman and consumer. bridge University, England, palatability In cut-out tests comparing individual of boneless prime rib increases with fat- Hereford steers, then in comparing these ness up to a maximum of about 35 per with Hereford-Brahman crossbreds, dif- cent fat and decreases thereafter. This ferences in live-weight value due to dress- optimum fatness corresponds with ani- ing per cent have amounted to $10 to mals having carcass yields of 58 to 60 $12 per head at 1,000 pounds live weight, per cent of live weight. The proportion while the maximum difference in value of fat is about twice that of protein in due to conformation as it affected cut-out such a desirable cut! value of the carcass was between $1 and Dressing Percentage. Carcass yield $2 per head. Dressed yield is important depends primarily on degree of fatness. in determining live-weight price, and is a Callow (10) has shown that for every 1 constant bargaining point. Perhaps too per cent increase in the dressing-out per- much attention has been given to the $2 centage, the fatty tissues of the carcass items and too little to the $10! Selection

Fig. 4 (II). Rib and round cuts from an Aberdeen Angus International champion carcass. Note moderate but uniform external covering and excellent marbling. (Courtesy of Aberdeen Angus Breeders' Association.)

Page 1 1—Section II of beef cattle should emphasize more higher plane of nutrition—that is, put on "good doing" cattle capable of dressing- full feed in feed lots as calves or year- out over 60 per cent at the moderate de- lings—would easily fatten enough at the gree of fatness characterizing good more popular lighter weights. Somewhat slaughter grade. smaller, earlier-maturing types that more For rapid and economical gains, feed nearly approach mature weight at about

capacity is essential. This can be obtained 1,000 pounds should be adapted to fatten- through reasonable length as well as ing at desired lighter weights on grass depth. Thin-fleshed, fine-boned, shallow- and a minimum of concentrates, because bodied cattle may dress out well, but usu- less demand for growth permits fattening ally are poor feeders, slow in fattening. on a lower plane of nutrition. Such cattle can result from long periods Similarly, economy involves the pro- of privation during earlier growth stages, duction of as large calves as the cows can as well as from poor breeding. support well. While small calves from small cows may be as economical as big Production Factors in Beef-Type calves from big cows, a big-cow overhead Selection cost for small calves is uneconomical, just as 70-pound Southdown lambs out of Size. There is no fundamental relation Rambouillet or crossbred ewes are less between size (potential mature size) and profitable than the 85- to 90-pound Hamp- efficiency of feed utilization. Thus, there shire or Suffolk cross lambs that these is little difference in over-all efficiency of ewes are capable of producing to a desir- sheep and cattle in converting feed energy able market finish. to body substance. It has also been shown There are limitations in attempting to that smaller, very early-maturing steers vary size to meet market requirements may utilize their feed just as economically under different production methods and as larger steers, if both types are fed to on different planes of nutrition. Extremes the same degree of fatness. On the other of any kind are seldom right. Huge size hand, if the smaller type were fed to the is usually accompanied by coarseness, same weight as the larger, they would be poor fleshing qualities, loose rather than fatter and therefore have required would compact conformation, slow maturity and more feed for 100 pounds' gain because fattening; such an animal may be other- of the higher energy content of the in- wise poorly adapted for harvesting feed crease. Significant variations in efficiency and for production conditions. On the of feed utilization exist between individ- other hand, reduction in size and extremes uals or within groups of cattle of different of earliness of maturity accompany de- sizes. crease in milk production, reproductive If market requirements for carcass ability, and general vigor. weight and finish remain relatively fixed, The medium within the range for the

then, within limits discussed later, ideal species or breed is usually the best from size can in general be defined as the larg- the standpoint of widest adaptability, gen- est size which will, on a given plane of eral vigor, reproductive efficiency, milk nutrition, attain the required carcass com- production, and longevity. In good breed- position (degree of fatness) at the desired ing condition, mature cows weighing market weight. For example, large-sized 1,200 to 1,350 pounds and bulls weighing "growthy" steers on range or pasture 1,800 to 2,000 pounds represent this alone, or with a minimum of concentrate medium-size range; but this weight must supplement, may weigh 1,200 pounds or be obtained in the right way to satisfy more before attaining the most desirable all of the market and production require- degree of finish. The same steers on a ments.

Section II— Page 12 Fig. 5 (II). Changes in body proportion with age. To show these as distinct from changes in size, all photographs are reduced to the same height at the shoulders. Left: The proportions in animals of different ages and levels of feeding. No. 11, calf at 2 days of age; no. 12, steer 30 months old, on low level of nutrition; nos. 13 and 14, steers 11 and 22 months of age, respectively, on high level of nutrition; no. 15, a bull of about 100 years ago. Right: The changes in body proportion of bulls as they grew. No. 1, a calf at 2 days of age; no. 2, at 5 weeks; no. 3, at 13 months; no. 4, at 22 months; and no. 5, a mature bull of the modern type. (From: Hammond, J. Farm animals; their breeding, growth, and inheritance. 199 p. Longmans, Green & Co., New York, N.Y. 1940. By permission of the publisher.)

Page 13—Section II Conformation. To judge conforma- (opposite) on a high plane. Poor nutrition at different ages, one must under- tion restricts the growth of later-maturing stand growth processes. Growth occurs tissues more than it restricts skeletal in three overlapping phases: a peak of growth and other earlier-maturing parts. bone growth, a peak of muscle growth, This result clearly illustrates the necessity and a peak of fat development. Changes of providing adequate environmental in body proportion with age appear in conditions for full development of genetic figure 5 (II). To show the changes in possibilities; otherwise, selection may be body proportion as distinct from size, inaccurate because of environmental ef- all the photographs are reduced to the fects. The next two pictures show the de- same height at the shoulders. Pictures in velopment of well-fed steers at 11 and 22 the right-hand column show changes in months of age. The lower picture (no. 15) proportion of bulls from 2 days to 5 illustrates a typical bull of about one years of age. Note the increase in thick- hundred years ago; this, in contrast to ness development with age ; the calf has a the modern type on the right, indicates relatively greater proportion of legs, head, how greatly thickness growth and early and neck, but relatively little body depth, maturity have been increased through width, loin, and hindquarter, compared selection and breeding. with animals at later stages. Table 4 (II ) gives weight and measure- Thickness growth, development of loin ments of especially desirable Herefords and hindquarters are late-maturing parts. at different ages and under favorable con- The cannon bones enlarge and lengthen ditions for growth and development. relatively less than the next bone above, These animals were not fitted, but were and so on up the fore and hind limbs. in good breeding-herd condition. These Short cannon bones, which mean a low- data may serve as a guide for desirable set animal, have become recognized as a weights and proportions at different ages. desirable feature of beef type and as in- Animals conforming rather closely to dicating early maturity. This view is cor- these measurements, however, still might rect, because if this earliest-maturing part not be desirable for breeding. For ex- does not cease length growth early, later- ample, they might be lacking in symmetry maturing parts cannot be expected to de- and smoothness of conformation; defi- velop rapidly. If, however, a calf is cient in breed or sex character; rough and exceptionally thick and its proportions open in the shoulders, low in the back, approach those of an average mature ani- possibly sloping in the rump. While a mal, it is destined to become either an good head in Herefords is usually about exceptionally thick-bodied adult of mod- twice as long as the width at eye level, erate size or a moderately thick small ani- heads of this proportion might be con- mal. Most often the latter is what actually sidered poor if they showed a small, happens; the precociously mature and tapering muzzle; coarseness; lack of thick-appearing calves that frequently character, of femininity, or of masculin-

win in show rings tend to be disappoint- ity. It is practically impossible to measure

ing in their later development. These objectively all the external features that changes of proportion with age must be make up good or poor individuals; but kept in mind when one is selecting for those given may demonstrate some im- type and conformation. portant features of good beef type. The left column of figure 5 (II) shows, Weight and thickness measurements in the picture second from the top (no. increase over a longer period than linear

12) , that a steer 30 months old, grown on measurements. Thus at 20 months the a low plane of nutrition, differed little in females attained about 75 and bulls 65 body proportion from a 5-week-old calf per cent of the mature weight, but both

Section II— Page 14 '

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OS OS OS CO CO CO * *^* " ooooooooooosos — oo oo°ooooocot>.t>.r>.<©o had reached about 95 per cent of height Although high rate of gain and in- growth and 90 per cent of length growth. creased efficiency are frequently highly Round measurement and, especially, correlated, this is not always true. In a heart girth, vary with weight. Early- California test of the get of 4 sires, each maturing animals in good condition, with consisting of 10 steer calves, there were well-developed hindquarters, have round lots that gained at the same rate but dif- measurements which in females are about fered in efficiency, and lots with the same 85 to 90 per cent as much as the height efficiency that gained at significantly dif- after 16 months of age; in bulls, 95 to ferent rates. Thus, actual rate of gain and over 100 per cent. Steers are intermediate efficiency were poorly correlated. There between females and bulls in growth, size, was a direct correlation, however, of rela- and earliness of maturity. tive feed intake and relative rate of gain Efficiency of Feed Utilization and with efficiency. From this, one may as- Earliness of Maturity. Efficiency of sume that maintenance requirements of feed utilization is controlled by a number these steers were essentially equal. These of factors. These primarily involve or lots by different sires varied considerably affect relative feed capacity, which means in potential size and in the weight at feed intake in relation to the amount re- which they reached an equal degree of quired for maintenance. Animals having fatness. In contrast with this are the re- average maintenance requirements may sults of individual feeding tests with 14 excel in efficiency by being able to con- bull calves by one sire and with 7 by an- sume and convert greater than average other. The get of the first sire were con- amounts of feed in relation to their met- sistently more efficient than those of the abolic body size. On the other hand, second. The first group actually ate less animals of average feed consuming ca- per day than the second, although they pacity may differ in efficiency through gained and weighed more and reached variations in their metabolic rates that equal finish. Moreover, between individ- increase or decrease the fraction of the uals there was a negative correlation be- total feed required for maintenance. This tween relative feed intake and efficiency. involves the endocrine system and in turn This strongly suggests that the get of one the disposition of the animal. Docile, bull required less for maintenance—were quiet, or phlegmatic individuals are com- truly more efficient in converting of feed. monly recognized as "easy keepers." Ex- Furthermore, practically all of the off- perimental evidence indicates that both spring of this sire are notably gentle, types of variability commonly occur in quiet, and easily handled as well as being beef cattle and probably are of similar strong feeders. This was also ascertained magnitude—logically so since the digest- by grade calves fed out before the bull ible nutrient requirement for mainte- was used as a herd sire. nance is nearly half the total intake of Work at the Bureau of Animal Industry cattle on full feed. Relative feed capacity Station at Miles City, Montana, and by is not merely the size and capacity of the the Montana Agricultural Experiment gastrointestinal tract, although these may Station indicates that the efficiency of feed be involved. Appetite and total feed con- used by individual bulls is highly herit- sumption are fundamentally affected by able—the performance of the individual digestion, absorption, and storage capaci- is a good index of the performance of his ties for food nutrients, as influenced by offspring. If further critical work con- internal stimuli for growth and develop- firms these findings, then progeny testing ment and by the ability to dispense read- for this important factor in beef-type ily with the excess heat incident to high selection would be unnecessary and "offi- intake and conversion of feed. cial" feeding tests and indexing of bulls

Section II— Page 16 on this and other factors of desirability gained more rapidly under the same en- may become a dominant factor in improv- vironmental conditions, but also devel- ing the usefulness of beef cattle. Indica- oped thickness, mature conformation, and tions of the possibilities are illustrated in composition earlier than the average; yet figure 6 (II). she attained the average weight for the Degree of earliness of maturity may be herd. To accomplish this high rate of defined as the rate at which an animal gain and yet thicken and fatten, she must attains mature weight, conformation, and have had a high relative feed capacity.

carcass composition. Figure 7 (II) il- Selection for early-maturing variations of lustrates some variations in the maturing this kind (that is, without sacrifice of of individuals in the University herd. size) automatically improves feed utiliza- The middle curve shows the average tion and has definitely been responsible weight for age of Hereford females over for much of the improvement made in a period of years. Number 602 not only the past.

Fig. 6 (II) . Upper, left: This herd sire was bred by the University and proved in the San Joaquin Experimental Range herd. His steer calves exhibited outstanding performance in the Fontana Ranch feed lots. He was then used for several years in the University purebred herd. His sons were fed individually from 9 months of age for periods of 120 to 165 days—until they reached choice condition. The average weight at 8 months was 642 pounds; at 12 months, 930 pounds. The average feed for 100 pounds gain was 705 pounds; the average daily gain, 2.59 pounds. Upper, right: A son that weighed 685 pounds at 8 months; 950 pounds at 12 months; gained 2.83 pounds daily during the feeding test; and made 100 pounds gain on 688 pounds of feed. Lower: In turn, his sons, in a cobperator's herd made an average daily gain of 2.57 pounds during a 181-day feeding test and required 645 pounds of feed for 100 pounds gain. (Photo by Reuben Albaugh.)

Page 17—Section II Hew>aye**ge? N0.C02

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Fig. 7 (II) . Early maturity variations in Hereford cows. The middle curve represents an average weight curve for the University herd. No. 602 gained more rapidly yet matured earlier than average at about average size. As a feed utilizer, this animal was doubtless more efficient than the average. No. 716 matured earlier than the average but was small, slow in gaining, and probably about average in efficiency of feed utilization.

Number 716 (fig. 7, II) gained more factors influencing the ability of animals slowly, but matured earlier than the aver- to thrive in the area where they happen age, at a much smaller weight. She prob- to be. It includes ability to utilize the feed ably had about average relative feed supply, to travel necessary distances for capacity and efficiency. This type of in- feed and water, to go from winter to sum- creased earliness of maturity would be mer range, and to withstand the prevail- advantageous only where market finish ing climatic conditions. In the past, much was demanded at a lighter weight under more consideration was given to improv- good nutrition, or where the same finish ing the environment to suit the cattle than was wanted at average market weights on to breeding cattle to suit the environment, a lower nutritional plane. By the time this except where conditions of temperature animal weighed 800 pounds, she con- and disease compelled attention to the spicuously slowed in general growth and problem. The use of tropical cattle, Brah- could therefore fatten readily on a lower man and their crosses, in areas of high plane. This example illustrates the fact temperature is an example of this practice. that selection for extremes in earliness From the standpoint of the producer of maturity generally leads to decrease in and of the general welfare, ability of an size. animal to thrive is more important than Environmental Adaptation. Envi- ability to conform closely to some ideal ronmental adaptation involves all the standard of conformation, color, or type

Section II—Page 18 of hair coat that may be popular. Within decreases, rumination ceases, and body an area, however, selection of animals movements are restricted except for the that measure up to a standard of weight convulsive, rapid, shallow breathing to and conformation automatically tends to increase cooling through water evapora- retain, for breeding, the individuals best tion from the respiratory tract. adapted to the climate. If, for example, Figure 8 (II) gives average monthly short glossy hair of uniform diameter is temperatures for certain areas in Cali- advantageous in hot areas, then selection fornia through the year. These averages, of the best individuals for breeding may though a useful basis for generalization, result in a herd of cattle having short, have limitations. For example, the day-to- sleek coats. Conversely, a long woolly, day maximum-minimum range and the dull coat prevents excessive heat loss dur- amount of exposure to sun radiation are ing severe winters. Selection of the cattle important. Animals and men can endure that thrive in cold climates has resulted in longer periods of heat in the daytime if this type of hair. the night temperature falls considerably For efficient production one should not below the upper critical level for the in- only find practical ways of improving the dividual and if cooling of the deeper environment—through shelter and sup- tissues and resting of the regulating mech- plemental feeding—but also select the anisms are permitted. The shaded area cattle best adapted to that environment. (fig. 8, II), ranging from 35° F winter In purchasing breeding stock, one may to 65° average summer temperature, may secure better results by obtaining, from be considered ideal for temperate-zone an area having similar climate, animals breeds. Coastal regions, northeastern that meet the required standards and that California, and higher elevations of the have been selected in that area for a long state generally fall within this range. An period. Too frequently stockmen go a average monthly temperature of 75° may long way from home for breeding stock, be considered about the upper limit for without regard to climatic differences. any extended period that does not result The Shorthorn, Aberdeen Angus, and in depressive effects. At Davis, for ex-

Hereford breeds all originated in Great ample, the curve is within this range and

Britain and descended from cattle native is fairly typical of the center portion of to northwestern Europe, where the tem- the Great Valley. Only during July and perature fluctuations average about 35° August does the average monthly tem- F in winter, 65° in summer. Conditions perature reach or exceed 75° F. The similar to those where the breed was de- nights are usually cool. With adequate veloped and improved through selective water, some provision for shade, and a breeding are usually the most favorable feed supply that can be obtained without to well-being. too much time spent in traveling and in In an earlier section were discussed the grazing, the high temperature will limit sources of body heat, the mechanisms of production only for short periods. The conservation and disposal to maintain effects of high summer temperature on normal temperature for physiological late-spring calves, however, are notice- processes, and certain data bearing on the able. problems. Whenever the heat from atmos- The temperature ranges shown for pheric temperature, the radiant energy Chico and Bakersfield are representative from both the sun and ground, and the of the northern Sacramento Valley, the internal heat caused by digestion and me- middle and southern San Joaquin Valley, tabolism of feed exceed the capacity of and the adjacent lower foothills. For 3 the heat-disposal mechanisms, then the to 5 months in these areas, the average body temperature rises, feed consumption monthly temperature exceeds 75° F, and

Page 19—Section II for 2 months it reaches or exceeds 80°. adaptation range of temperate-zone cattle.

Since the livestock industry is accustomed During the summer, even under favorable to feed or weather conditions that restrict conditions of irrigated pasture feed, gains gains, it has not been too much concerned are seriously restricted. For year-round about these periods. Judging from data beef-cattle production in these areas, in- gathered in other parts of the world and crease of heat tolerance through crosses from observations in these areas, how- with tropical breeds is indicated. A start ever, high temperature does significantly has already been made. Further progress affect production. Certain difficulties now may also be possible in developing arti- attributed to feed supply and other factors ficial means of maintaining lower body may really be due to temperatures that temperature of the animals. exceed the tolerance of the cattle. In such If the several environmental influences places, attention should be given not only and the characteristics indicative of the to feed, water, and shade, but also to se- corresponding adaptabilities of animals lection of better-adapted cattle from the are known, then the breeder can make temperate-zone breeds. positive selection accordingly. Some of The upper curves in figure 8 (II), the more important information on char- showing readings at Blythe and Brawley, acteristics related to climatic adaptation are representative of the subtropical con- may be summarized as follows: ditions of the Palo Verde and Imperial 1. There is evidence of some variation valleys. Here the average temperature in heat tolerance between individual mem- stays above 75° F for 6 months, exceeds bers of the common beef breeds. Data 85° for nearly 4 months, and reaches 90° obtained in South Africa and in the for 2 months. Clearly, this is outside the United States indicate that the breeds may

100

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JFMAMJJA Fig. 8 (II). Average monthly temperatures for Davis, Chico, Bakersfield, Blythe, and Brawley. The shaded area varying from 35° F average winter temperature to 65° average summer temperature, is characteristic of the countries where the beef breeds originated and is therefore considered ideal for their adaptation. An average monthly temperature of 75° F is considered as the point beyond which heat has a depressive effect on production.

Section II— Page 20 rank in the following order of decreasing ditions. The following data were thus heat tolerance: Hereford, Shorthorn, and obtained: purebred Brahman, 93; % Aberdeen Angus. The data were based Brahman, % Angus, 89; purebred Jersey, upon small samples and may not be rep- 86; % Brahman, % Angus, 76; grade resentative of the breeds as a whole. Two Hereford, 73; purebred Angus, 56. A samples taken in different parts of the breeder interested in the problem might world, however, gave essentially the same classify a whole herd of purebreds in this results. The apparently greater heat tol- way within a short period. Body tempera- erance of Herefords is probably a factor ture of temperate-zone breeds may rise in their predominance in the Southwest. to 106° F or more on hot days (90° F Brahman and Afrikaner cattle that orig- and above), especially when the cattle inated and were developed in the tropics are exposed to direct sunlight. have high heat tolerance. Crosses between 3. The amount of loose skin character- them and the temperate-zone breeds tend istic of Brahman cattle may contribute generally to have heat resistance that is to their greater heat tolerance. Increased intermediate and proportional to the per- skin area for heat transfer to the sur- centage relationship to the parent types. rounding air is advantageous as long as 2. Respiration rate, pulse rate, and air temperature is lower than body tem- body temperature are good indices of perature. This factor may be involved in heat tolerance. Conditions are most favor- the apparently somewhat greater toler- able when heat regulation is accomplished ance of Herefords; for hot climates, the largely by radiation, by conduction to tendency to breed away from loose skin the surrounding air, and by evaporation on throat, dewlap, and brisket may be a of water from the skin surface. Condi- mistake. tions become progressively unfavorable 4. Coat color and character play a role for the animal as increased respiration in climatic adaptation. Light coat color and blood circulation are called into play reflects more sun and sky radiation than to dispose of heat by assisting greater dark color and thus prevents a larger water evaporation. The respiration rate portion from being transformed to heat is easiest to determine, and observations at the body surface. The heat from radia- made under comparable conditions of tion in a 15-hour summer day may be exposure in sun or in shade at tempera- two to three times as much as internal

tures of 90° F or higher have value for heat from metabolism (12) . How much is selection purposes. Respiration rates be- actually absorbed by the animal, or how tween 20 and 50 per minute are char- much is dissipated from the hair and skin acteristic of comfortable conditions for surface to the surrounding air, has not cattle. Differences in rates between tem- been determined. Penetration of the heat perate-zone breeds and tropical cattle in- produced depends on the type of hair crease sharply at 80° and above. Rhoad coat, the skin pigmentation, and perhaps (11) suggested an index based on rec- other factors. .tal temperature of animals exposed for The ideal for heat tolerance would ap- a definite time in the sun with air tem- pear to be light or white hair color over perature (shade) in the 90° F class. a dark-pigmented skin, such as commonly The normal rectal temperature average occurs in tropical cattle. Dark skin keeps (101° F) is subtracted from the rectal- out the actinic rays, excess of which temperature reading, multiplied by 10, would damage the deeper tissue layers. and subtracted from 100 to give a rela- White color in common beef breeds is tive index 100-10 (BT-101). A score of associated with white skin, which is sus- 100 represents no temperature change, ceptible to sunburn and photosensitiza- or perfect adaptation under the test con- tion, and which in Herefords predisposes

Page 21—Section II .

to eye cancer. Breeding for red pigment mer. Poorer heat tolerance resulted in on the eyelids of Herefords would not low nutrition, which interfered with nor- appear to impose much difficulty and mal shedding, so that a vicious circle was

a would be a factor of considerable eco- SQt up. At 2 /2 years of age there was nomic importance. an average difference of 193 pounds in Under glaring midday light, white weight in favor of the glossy-haired Brahmans were found to reflect 22 per group. cent of sun radiation, light fawn Jerseys, Thus, selection for short, straight- 14 per cent, Red Santa Gertrudes, 4 per haired cattle with a tendency to shed cent, and Black Aberdeen Angus, 2% per early is indicated for hot climates. For cent. For low light intensity, the percent- cold countries a longer coat, with a finer age reflection was 55, 40, 20, and 10, undercoat of curly or furry hair efficient respectively (13). Similar observations for heat conservation, is desirable. Al- were made in South Africa (14) though the hair of the same animal is Short, straight, glossy hair coats reflect greatly modified by climate, as evidenced more radiation than duller, curly, or by difference in summer and winter coats, woolly coats. The latter act as insulators there is good opportunity to select in the by trapping a layer of "dead air" around directions desired. the animal and thus tend to prevent heat 5. Some characters that contribute to loss. This characteristic is desirable for general adaptation are conformation of cold climates, undesirable for hot weather. legs, and texture and shape of feet. Clipping hair from cattle makes them Straight, strong legs and good feet, con- more comfortable at high temperature in ducive to free and easy stride, are impor- the shade ; but in the sun they suffer more tant in the traveling required to obtain than unshorn cattle, whose hair provides feed and water. Many defects of both much protection. fore and hind limbs are found in the beef It has been reported that cattle with breeds. A very common defect is the higher heat tolerance (Afrikaners) have sickle-hocked condition, with lack of bone thicker skins and more hair fibers per and tendon support below the hock. This square inch than those poorly adapted may become greatly accentuated with (14). The skin of Brahman cattle, how- heavy feeding, excessive weight, and too ever, has been found to be thinner than little exercise; and it may interfere not that of common breeds, but denser in only with traveling, but also with breed- texture. ing efficiency of bulls. Cattle with sore A summary of tests in South Africa feet do not thrive under any conditions. (fig. 9, II) gives results with two groups Some hoof textures are susceptible to of temperate-zone cattle selected, when cracking and overgrowth, whereas others calves, on the basis of hair coat. Under are fine and dense, yet wear evenly. Well- otherwise comparable conditions, those shaped feet have parallel toes with little with glossy short coats had rectal tem- tendency to spread apart under the ani- peratures 1 to 1.5 degrees lower than mal's weight. A common defect is the those with woolly coats when the air was tendency for the ends of the toes to curl 90° to 100° F. Corresponding differences inward, widening the interdigital space— in pulse and respiration rates were ob- a condition that increases chances for served. Even in the shade, the glossy mechanical injury and subsequent infec- animals maintained lower temperatures tion. because of greater efficiency in losing Constant selection to eliminate these heat from the skin surface. Curly-coated faults is necessary, particularly when they calves that did not shed before hot are more or less characteristic of the foun- weather, failed to do so during the sum- dation cattle of a breed.

Section II—Page 22 1 1 i n- i 3 " Ot/// a/r/i/'Caa/erf cai/ie. - Oe/il Ci/r/iz-caafed caii/e. / 80 s/tori caii/e. - G/essy sfiori //aired 1 /04 Giossy fa/rec/ - caff/e. J - 70

IS £ /OS 60 X ! - SO

^ 40 "'/ /- I 101 - 30

/oo 1 1 1 1 ,. I.. 20 SO 60 70 SO 90 /OO SO 60 70 do 90 /oo Air /empera/t/re, '£

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Fig. 9 (II) . Effects of type of hair coat on body temperatures; and respiration rates at different environmental temperatures, with animals exposed to direct sunlight and under shade. (Adapted from: Bonsma, J. C, and A. J. Pretorius. Influence of colour and coat cover on adaptability of cattle. Farming in So. Africa, 18:101-20. 1943.)

Reproduction. Reproductive ability City, Montana, varied from 85.6 to 89.6 is fundamental to economical beef proper cent pregnancies and from 81 to duction. Large variations are usually the 83 per cent calf crops weaned. Over a result of poor feed or disease. Certain seventeen-year period, the Aberdeen differences in regularity of breeding, Angus herd at Davis had 94.7 per cent abortions, and stillbirths, however, ap- pregnancies, and 85.5 per cent calf crop pear to be hereditary. The long-time aver- weaned. On the average in the University age for Herefords and Shorthorns in the herds, 56.8 per cent of failures were dry University purebred herd at Davis, the cows, 11.1 per cent were stillbirths or supplementary fed Hereford herd on calves that died shortly after birth, 3.9 the San Joaquin Experimental Range, per cent were deformed, 16.4 per cent and the large Hereford herd at the United were abortions (not caused by brucella States Range Experiment Station at Miles infection), and 11.8 per cent were calf

Page 23—Section II losses from accident, disease, and miscel- Lactation. The importance of good laneous causes before weaning. Judging milking cows in producing heavy, thrifty from the evidence presented in a later calves is appreciated by most commercial section on selection and culling of cows, producers. Unfortunately, insufficient at- some of these failures may be hereditary; tention is given to this factor by some carefully kept records may reveal the purebred breeders; and the widespread problem and suggest bases for improve- use of nurse cows to develop the better ment. A tendency for prolapse of the prospects among the calves unfortunately vagina was one important cause of repro- perpetuates poor milking ability that ductive failure and loss in Hereford cows might otherwise be eliminated. One can or for discarding them from the breeding greatly improve milking ability by select- herd. In cattle, evidently, a breeding effi- ing bulls on the same basis recommended ciency approaching 95 per cent pregnan- for dairy cattle. Some bulls transmit, cies is possible. Differences in fertility are with reasonable uniformity, superior also common in bulls and are especially milk yield to their daughters. The best revealed by records kept and semen method is to seek a bull whose dam and studies made in artificial insemination. sire have both produced good milking Occasional bulls are sterile even though daughters. Proved transmitting ability of sexually active. the parents is the best recommendation Longevity. Since most beef females for the prospective sire. If there is no are not permitted to start reproducing opportunity to observe or to secure in- until about three years of age, the length formation on the daughters of the parent of the productive period thereafter has animals, then the milking ability of the an important bearing upon the overhead mother and of the sire's mother is the next cost of developing breeding stock in rela- best criterion. Culling of poor milking tion to the number of calves produced. cows should be constantly practiced. Its

The longer the good, proved, producing effect on average calf weight at weaning is cows can be kept without sacrifice of calf discussed on pages 42-43 (II). crop or too much decrease in salvage value, the less the percentage replacement Records of Performance required. The proportion of younger ani- The first and most important step in mals that can be marketed is correspond- developing and applying a breeding pro- ingly increased. Over a twenty-one-year gram is to determine the characteristics period, the average age of discarding and specifications of the ideal type. The from the University purebred herd for data summarized under "Production all causes was 9.1 years for Shorthorns, Factors in Beef-Type Selection" should 9.5 for Herefords, and 11.9 for Angus. help to clarify such problems. Though The Angus averaged over two more calves present ideals can be illustrated in living during the breeding life of the cows. In- animals, precise specifications are difficult dividual data on Angus longevity is cited to make, because the problem is com- in the section on selection and culling. plex. The producer or breeder must Longevity is apparently more common learn through continued observation on in Angus cattle. Probably no cow has sur- ranches, at sales, shows, feed lots, mar- passed the record of the famous "Old kets, and beef coolers; and through study Granny," who lived to 36 years of age of illustrative literature. The great breed- and dropped her twenty-fifth calf when ers of the past have been men who visu- she was 29. Selection and improvement alized an ideal better than the current to extend longevity in this regard are pos- standards. The second step is evaluation sible in all breeds and should receive of individual animals, and the third the more attention. selection and mating of superior stock.

Section II— Page 24 Three breeding methods may be em- what an animal seems to be. His pedigree ployed. The first, called mass selection, tells us what he ought to be, but his per- consists in choosing the best individuals formance as a breeding animal tells us by their appearance alone, without knowl- what he really is." edge of ancestry. This is the usual proce- The third and more precise method of dure in commercial herds. Much progress evaluation is to select on the basis of is made in this way, because superior individuality and pedigree, determine individuals often do transmit good char- transmitting ability for the characters acters to their offspring. One cannot tell desired, and then use as extensively as with certainty, however, from outward possible the animals with proved trans- appearance (phenotype) what the animal mitting ability. More general uses of this may transmit (genotype). Thus, two third step in breeding can significantly polled individuals may produce a horned increase future progress with beef cattle. offspring; two roan-colored parents may To find the few bulls that have trans- produce red, white, or roan calves; two mitting ability superior to the average, blacks may produce a red. The same holds many bulls must be systematically tested. true for conformational and other char- Progeny-performance breeding depends acters of more direct economic . impor- upon adequate records. As already men- tance. The second method is pedigree tioned, such records for meat animals are breeding, commonly used in purebred less simple or precise than weight of the herds. Individuality and performance of milk and determination by chemical test the ancestors, as well as the animal's ap- of the quantity of butterfat produced by pearance, are relied upon for an estimate the dairy cow. Weight for age may be of the probable transmitting ability. If used as a measure of quantity of pro- adequate information is available, this duction; over-all evaluation by grading kind of breeding is a great step in indicates the degree of excellence of the advance. Too often, however, adequate product, and the adaptation of the animal information is lacking; and too much for production conditions. Although these emphasis is placed upon fashionable methods have limitations, they can serve names and a sprinkling of noted animals very well until more precise indices are more or less remote in the pedigree, available. rather than on the average excellence or The need for some systematic, yet rela- lack of it in all of the ancestors in the tively simple, procedures for this purpose first two or three generations. is evidenced by the fact that numerous If the sire has been proved, one need breeders have evolved systems of their not be greatly concerned over what is own. Because of the interest in the subject back of him. His record for siring uni- and the individual trial-and-error effort formly good cattle is in front of him and being made, a grading guide and a set that is of chief importance, largely taking of record forms are presented, in the hope care of the top half of a given calf's pedi- that they may prove useful and constitute gree. Further, if the calf's mother is by a step toward a uniform procedure. The a good proved sire and from a good cow grading guide and forms illustrated are family, that fact is the best present infor- the result of several years of study, experi- mation which can be obtained regarding ment, and experience; they include the her probable transmitting ability. The major items discussed under "Production half brothers and half sisters, and other Factors in Beef-Type Selection." collateral relatives not shown in the pedi- Grading. Grading is an attempt to gree, may be even more valuable indices measure all beef cattle with the same yard- than the direct ancestors. Thus, accord- stick. It differs from ordinary judging in ing to Rice (15), "Individuality tells us that it classifies an animal not only in

Page 25—Section II ;

relation to the individuals in its particular when one is considering breeding and group, but also in relation to the beef- market animals. The terms used are famil- cattle population as a whole. In show-ring iar to breeders and commercial cattlemen.

judging, the top of the classes and cham- Grading is subject to errors in judgment. pions represent the best of the animals The value of the records depends upon that happen to be brought together; but the grader's knowledge and experience— their grade, or degree, of excellence is the same knowledge that is prerequisite variable. The winners in the large shows for good breeders, for no man ever breeds are usually first grade; but even here a better cattle than he knows, appreciates, third- or fourth-place animal in one class or can visualize. Experience has demon- may sometimes be superior to the top strated that grading in accordance with animal in another class. First-prize win- this guide can be learned readily by stock- ners and even champions in small shows men. It is based upon market grades, with may grade rather low and may be con- due consideration for breed, sex charac-

sidered not even good enough to raise ter, and other characteristics that are em- the standards of commercial cattle. pirically associated with breeding ability.

The grading guide, table 5 (II), is The numerical grades are based upon a standard and a means of orientation common occurrence of 30 per cent differ-

TABLE 5 (II) Grading Guide for Beef Cattle Becords of Performance

Description

Grade Numerical Market cattle designation value Breeding cattle

Feeders Slaughter

100(1+) The top of the grade represents outstanding animals Top prime, in strong competition. The middle and lower end capable of cred-

Grade 1 97(1) of the grade represent excellent breeding animals Strictly fancy itable showing from standpoint of type, conformation, quality, or select in strong, single, 94(1-) and character, capable of making a good showing or carlot compe- in strong competition tition

91 (2+) Cows in grade 2 are good enough to retain for breed- Top choice Prime ing test in purebred herds. This is a practical top

Grade 2 88 (2) for commercial cattle. The top of grade 2 repre- Choice to sents the best of range bulls; the lower end of herd 85 (2-) bulls. Cattle in this grade are well down the line or Low choice Low prime out of the money in strong competition

82 (3+) Cows usually should be culled from purebred herds Top good Top choice Grade 3 79(3) good commercial cattle; bulls rarely capable of Good to 76 (3-) making much improvement except on very plain Low good Low choice cattle

73 (4+) Plain, upstanding, thin-fleshed, slow-maturing cat- Top medium Good Grade 4 70(4) tle, lacking in quality and character and having Medium Commercial 67 (4-) serious defects of conformation. Should be culled Low medium Low commercial from commercial herds

* Grade standards for carcass beef were revised and made effective January 1, 1951. The former U. S. Prime and Choice grades were combined and henceforth will be designated as Prime. The old grade of U. S. Good is now U. S. Choice. Young animals that formerly graded in the top half of U. S. Commercial will now be designated U. S. Good. Mature animals and those not otherwise qualifying for the top of the old U. S. Commercial grade retain the U. S. Commercial grade as before the revision. Qualification for U. S. Utility, Cutter, and Canner are unchanged. In general, younger cattle are required to have less finish and marbling in the muscle than older ones in the same grade!

Section II— Page 26 . .

TABLE 6 (II)

Variation between the First Grading and Second Grading of the Same Animals after a Year's Interval

No variation One third of a grade Two thirds of a grade One grade Age at last grading Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent

Cows, 4 years and over 75 56.8 41 31.1 13 9.8 3 2.3

Heifers, 3 years . . 29 60.4 14 29.2 5 10.4 0.0

Heifers, 2 years. . 29 44.7 33 50.7 3 4.6 0.0

Heifers, 1 year. . 29 50.0 22 38.0 5 8.6 2 3.4

Bulls, 1 year 9 33.3 17 63.0 1 3.7 0.0

Total or average 171 51.8 127 38.5 27 8.2 5 1.5

ence in value per pound from the lower is not a permanent record. Grading rec- to higher grades of commercial cattle. ords can increase the pedigree informa- The grades are assigned numerical values tion to a more useful level and, in superior in steps of 3, giving a total range of 33 pedigrees, can be of commercial value. per cent. These numbers, or per cent Some herd analyses are given in table grades, are useful for averaging and 7 (II). As this table and grading chart otherwise handling the data statistically. indicate, the first two herds must be culled The grade designations 1-, 2, 2+, and so extensively if the owner wishes to avoid on, are easier to remember and use in the producing bulls that are incapable of field. making improvement except on very plain Table 6 (II) summarizes tests covering cattle. The third herd contains a higher 330 comparisons between two gradings proportion of acceptable cattle, and only of the same animals by the same graders, moderate culling is required. taken a year apart. These data show that Data from herd 1 show the advantage about 52 per cent graded the same both of using both production records and in- times, 38.5 per cent varied a third of a dividual selection in culling, instead of grade, and less than 10 per cent varied working on the basis of individuality more than this. Since many animals are alone. According to these figures, the borderline between grades and since cat- produce of 79 dams grading 2- (85) and tle of all ages were included, the data over, averaged 83.1 in grade, while the show that grading may be done with a produce of 110 dams grading 3+ (82) reasonable degree of repeatability when or below averaged 81.8. A large percent- environmental conditions are relatively age of cows fell into the upper end of uniform. Poor feeding or other un- grade 3 and the lower brackets of grade 2. favorable conditions can result in con- The average of the calves tended strongly formational characteristics more or less toward the average of the herd, as usually indistinguishable from those produced by happens unless a very prepotent bull is poor breeding and thus may complicate found. Given the same bulls, small im- grading or make it inaccurate as a meas- provement would have been made by cull- ure of hereditary differences. ing all cows below grade 2—. Retaining Grading is a valuable means of analyz- the good producers from the 3+ cows, ing the herd, of knowing a large herd and eliminating some poor producers better, and of recording information on from the grade 2- and better cows, re- all cattle and their offspring instead of sulted in a group producing 68 per cent depending upon memory, which at best of calves in the grade-2 range, compared

Page 27—Section II )

TABLE 7 (II Analysis by Grades of Three Herds of Breeding Cows

Herd no. 1 Herd no. 2 Herd no. 3 Grade designation Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent of head of total of head of total of head of total

' + 0.00 00 ] 1 0.57 1.71 2 1 90 [ 10 6 2 1.14 8 9 70 J

+ 12 6.86] 11 3.80 17 16 30 ] ] Grade 2 18 10.28 [36.57 29 10.10 [ 44.90 28 26 90 [ 63.4 34 19.43 88 31.00 21 20 20 J J J

+ 53 30.28] 110 38.60] 22 21 20 ] Grade 3 48 27.43 [61.72 45 15.80 [ 55.10 5 4 80 [ 26.0 7 4.00 2 J 0.70 J 0.00 I

Totals 175 100.00 285 100.00 104 100.00

with between 40 and 50 per cent if the spread increased markedly for grade 2+ cows were selected on individuality alone. bulls, which, according to the grading The average prices in relation to grade chart, represent the top end of so-called of bulls and females sold in the 1945 and range bulls and the lower end of the herd- 1946 Red Bluff sales appear in table bull prospects that are competed for, 8 (II). In general the purchase price both by commercial cattlemen and by the varied directly with grade, and the price breeders of purebreds.

TABLE 8 (II) Average Prices in Relation to Grade, Eed Bluff Hereford Sales, 1945 and 1946*

Number of head Percentage of total Average price, dollars Grade 1945 1946 1945 1945 1946

Bulls

I- 1 0.4 1575.00 2+ 33 16 12.3 6.6 656.00 912.00 2 48 59 17.8 24.2 438.00 524.00 2- 93 84 34.5 34.6 378.00 492.00 3+ 67 84 24.9 34.6 302.00 395.00 3 27 10.1 253.00

Cows

1- 2 2.7 1050.00 2 + 3 2 3.8 2.7 992.00 1162.00 2 10 19 25.0 26.0 451.00 541.00 2- 25 50 33.0 68.6 397.00 398.00 3+ 22 29.0 292.00 3 7 9.2 240.00

* In 1946, bulls grading under 3 plus and heifers grading under 2 minus were "sifted" and not permitted to sell through the auction ring.

Section II— Page 28 :

Figures 10 (II) and 11 (II) show the 7. Summarize get-of-sire records as in- front and back of record form no. 1 ; fig- dicated on the reverse side of form 1. ures 12 (II) and 13 (II), record form 2; Both males and females and more than and figure 14 (II) record form 3, which one year's calf crop can be included if is ruled the same on both sides. The sys- desired. It will generally be well to sum- tem is predicated upon the basic factors marize weaning data so that information in beef-type selection previously pre- may be secured as quickly as possible, sented. and to use a second summary for yearling The procedure for keeping the records data, when the grading should be more in purebred herds is outlined as follows reliable. An actual record illustrates the use of the get-of-sire summary (reverse

Form 1, Get-of-Sire Record side of form 1, figure 11, II) . The graphic

1. Use a separate sheet for males and summary shows at a glance the aver- females. age or general trend of get, compared

2. Record, after a calf is born, the herd with dams, and the "ceiling" grade of number, date of birth, number of dam, dams on which improvement can be made and her grade. by the sire. 3. At weaning time, record date, weight, All essential data, except for heifers grade, and condition of each calf. Special and cows retained in the herd, can be feeding such as fitting for show or sale, recorded directly on the get-of-sire sheets should be indicated under "Remarks." at the time of weighing and grading. The use of nurse cows is considered to Since only two sheets are required for have no essential function in practical each sire, the mechanics of recording are beef production, but should be recorded. simplified, and the copying of records is 4. Secure the same data on bulls 4 to avoided.

8 months after weaning ; or, if the animals Form 2, Individual Life Record are sold before this age, give weight and grade at the time of sale. The time of the 1. Fill out all blanks possible on the second weighing and grading will depend front side of record for all females as on the time when most bull sales begin. soon as decision has been made to retain There are advantages in allowing as much them in the herd. The pedigree and weight development as possible before the final data blanks may also be used for sires grading is done. Any females sold before retained for use in the herd. Grading and the next annual grading after weaning weight data are transferred to date from should also be weighed and graded before get-of-sire records. disposal. 2. Permanent grade for use in dam-

5. Weigh and grade all animals re- produce comparisons in get-of-sire sum- tained in the herd; do this once yearly maries should be based largely upon until maturity. The time can be decided yearling and two-year-old grades, since on the basis of convenience and favorable growth and development at the age when conditions for handling the cattle. The most commercial cattle are marketed are work should be done the same month each of greatest practical significance. year and can coincide with one of the 3. Record the individual's weight and weighing and grading periods cited grade directly on this sheet at annual above. weighing and grading. Space is allowed 6. Data recorded on the front side of for weaning data and for annual records the get-of-sire record will usually be lim- up to seven years. Mature weights are ited to one year's calf crop. Data for the recommended for use in the pedigree. year can be summarized when complete 4. Head may be described as poor, fair, for any age. good, excellent, etc., and also by more

Page 29—Section i V

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\9 iZ CK ^ > s ^ •o it 3 R NO 5 specific terms such as "too long," "nar- ceive serious attention in selective breed- row muzzle," "coarse, lacking femininity ing. Data on actual length of gestation and character." may also contribute useful information 5. Wildness, nervousness, or similar in these respects. Such records are also undesirable traits should be recorded helpful in diagnosing some infectious under "Disposition." Quiet disposition is causes of reproductive failure. essential to efficiency. Wild animals usu- List ally should be culled, since the tendency Form 3, Breeding and Reproductive Record for transmission to offspring is strong and since one wild animal may make a In many cases, pocket-sized records whole herd difficult to handle. will be more convenient. It is desirable,

6. Milking ability is reflected fairly well however, to transfer them to more per- by weaning weights; but more reliable manent and less easily lost forms. The criteria are growth, fatness, and condi- large form shown provides for the possi- tion of hair of calves at 3 to 4 months, ble advance listing of the cows to be bred before they begin to forage extensively to each bull and for recording the date for themselves, coupled with observations the last calf was dropped, breeding dates, of udder development of the cows. Field due date, calving date, herd number, and notes should be kept and transferred to sex of the calf resulting from the service individual records. indicated. 7. Records of color and markings will Generally this record would be kept at give information on the inheritance of the barn or herdsman's quarters. As soon such variations as line back in Herefords, as a sheet is completed, the record may and will give a better basis for decision be filed in the office record book, and to discard or to retain because of other data transferred to individual cow rec- more important considerations. The type, ords. The basic data from these records character, color, and quantity of the hair may be summarized diagrammatically as coat have a bearing on climatic adapta- proposed by Mead (16) or according to tion; these were previously discussed. modifications of this plan as used by 8. Data for the produce record can Kingman (17) on the Wyoming Hereford be transferred from get-of-sire records. Ranch. Such records are extremely valu- Other data, such as show-ring winnings, able in directing efforts in proper chan- may be shown under "Remarks and Dis- nels for improved calf crops and in posal." diagnosing some breeding troubles. 9. The reverse side of form 2 provides If consistently kept, these records space for the breeding record and for should aid materially in herd analysis, other information and notes on life his- in systematically proving bulls, and in tory. Breeding data may be transferred breeding more largely upon the basis from records on form 3 or similar "barn of progeny performance. Such records record." Some cattlemen may not care to would be essential if, in the future, the transfer these data for each cow. To do so breeders of purebred beef cattle see fit is considered desirable, however, in order to use cooperatively the techniques now to complete the whole picture for each available for artificial insemination. A animal on one sheet. By use of such rec- few outstanding proved bulls, each siring ords, strong evidence has come to light up to 500 calves yearly with artificial in- indicating that many losses such as still- semination, could provide large numbers births, premature dead calves, and other of higher-grade range bulls for natural reproductive failures are hereditary in service. Such a procedure has enormous origin. The economic importance is so potentialities in improving the commer- great that such data can and should re- cial beef-cattle population of the state.

Page 35—Section il .

The value of the records depends system of marking, particularly useful in largely upon the knowledge, ability, and artificial insemination when cows are integrity of the individual operator and brought into a breeding plant. This con- his continuous, unbiased study of the sists of tattooing the serial number in one problems involved. The records do not ear; the dam number and sire number in represent a short cut to a cattle-breeding the other. An example is as follows : right Utopia for the novice. They should, how- 25 ear, herd number 521 ; left ear, , indi- ever, make the efforts of experienced 420C cattlemen more effective and help the in- eating that cow no. 420 is the dam, C her experienced to get on the right track more third calf, and 25 the number of the sire. rapidly." Linn also recommends giving the herd Systematic Identification. All major number on the front of one horn and on beef-breed associations require tattooing the top rear of the other. Later, if rebrand- of the ears for permanent individual iden- ing is necessary, it can be done on the tification. Individual breeders usually de- front and rear of the opposite horns. velop their own system. For small herds, Field identification of polled animals numbering the animals serially as they is more of a problem. Neck chains and are born is a simple procedure; and com- "cold-iron" branding are two possibili- monly, one can repeat the series without ties. Suggestions for branding serially duplication by the time numbers reach with caustic fluid are given in Section IV. 999, thus avoiding more than three fig- With short-haired cattle, these brands ures. The Aberdeen Angus Association may be permanently legible; but with requires herd number in one ear and longer- or curly-haired animals, clipping an assigned herd, or breeder, identifica- the brands twice yearly is necessary to tion mark in the other. The University facilitate field identification. Unless the herd, for example, is assigned the mark number brand is placed upon the loin, it "UCF." must be registered, along with the owner- For progeny performance and breed- ship brand, with the Bureau of Livestock ing records of all kinds, convenient field Identification, California State Depart- identification that will give as much in- ment of Agriculture. formation as possible without becoming too complicated and conducive to error Selective Breeding of Cattle is essential. This information can include Commercial year of birth, sire, herd number, and the Figure 15 (II) shows steers about 12 number of the dam. To avoid errors, the months old, representative of the 1 to 3 field identification number should coin- grades outlined in the chart, table 5 (II) cide with the tattoo number. There is no sharp line of demarcation A good system with horned animals is between grades, and borderline cases to tattoo serially in one ear and in the often make the decision difficult. The con- other designate the sire by letter or num- trast within the range of one whole grade,

ber, along with the year of birth. For however, is readily discerned from the example, left ear, 232; right ear, A5 or photographs. All these animals were rela- 1-5, indicating sire A or 1 and 1945 as tively smooth and trim. They varied the year of birth. At about two years of mostly in shortness and sturdiness of legs age, these numbers can be branded on the and in depth, thickness, and development horns for field identification. When men of hindquarters, loin, and back. Many on horseback are working the cattle in defects not shown by these illustrations pastures, horns branded both on the front could result in placing an animal in the and back prove helpful. lower grades. Linn (18) has described an excellent The data on 886 calves sired by 18 dif-

Section II—Page 36

<« tfi bD fl : :

ferent bulls from the University herd used to choice. The sire graded l-(94), and in commercial herds of several cooper- his parents and grandparents all were ating cattlemen and in the San Joaquin grade 1. These are fairly typical of second- Experimental Range herd may be tabu- generation selective breeding. In 1943 the lated as follows calves in another cooperator's herd, for

Average grade of bulls 88.8 example, ran 47 per cent choice, 53 per Average grade of all cows 77.6 cent good (mostly at the top of the Average grade of all calves 82.0 grade) ; the average of all was 83.6 grade Percentage of calves in points. Grade 1 0.34 Grade 2 41.87 The first cross of these bulls on medium Grade 3 49.20 (grade 4) cows resulted in 82 per cent Grade 4 8.57 grade-3 (or better) calves and 18 per cent in the top end of grade 4. If the average grade of the bulls is added to the average of the cows, and the Another genetic rule is that when both parents vary at either extreme (good or sum is divided by 2, the result is not far from the observed average of the calves. bad) from the average of the breed, the Thus, the well-known genetic principle offspring will generally be nearer the that offspring tend toward an intermedi- average than the parents. Extremely tall parents, for example, usually off- ate between the parents is demonstrated. have spring shorter than themselves but taller As is also well known, improvement is than average. Naturally, therefore, slower as approach is made to the grade some individuals breed better of the bulls—more accurately, to the aver- poor than they appear, and most of the offspring from age of their ancestors in the first few grade-1 beef cattle are themselves grade 2. generations. This fact is illustrated below. Average These generally recognized genetic grade laws confirm the statements made in the 239 cows 72.3 grading chart. Grade-2 commercial cattle, 239 calves 79.3 Improvement, 7.0 grade points or 0.78 of a with few exceptions, have reached a prac- grade tical top, for this grade range is the 886 cows 77.6 approximate average of present-day pure- 886 calves 82.0 breds, and to go farther means competing Improvement, 4.4 grade points or 0.49 of a grade with breeders for outstanding herd sires. 189 cows 82.2 Continuous use of the best range bulls 189 calves 84.9 available, with strict culling of cows and Improvement, 2.7 grade points or 0.30 of a careful selection of replacement heifers, is grade necessary to maintain the present average

Figure 16 (II ) gives a visual idea of the quality until the average of the purebreds progress made by using grade-2 bulls is further improved. Grade-3 bulls can on range cows. These bulls came from a rarely make much improvement except on herd where constructive breeding has very plain cattle. been practiced for years; their near an- Selection of Bulls. The data pre- cestors were all as good as the individual sented above emphasize the desirability bulls, or better. The cow herd was culled of selecting higher-grade bulls having the regularly, and replacements were selected. characteristics and adaptations set forth Figure 17 (II) is a uniform group of in "Production Factors in Beef-Type Se- low-set, thick-bodied, early-maturing lection." Too, these bulls have a greater

"good doing" calves, representing the chance of breeding true if their ancestors second generation of selective breeding in the first two or three generations were that started with grade-3 cows. These all as good as or better than the individ- calves averaged 83 grade points, or good uals in question. Selection for ability to

Section II—Page 38 i «t 5 c . *" a v <-m 3 t« t> g j3

1 — .w au"

fc 8 £ & t £ sire milk production in the daughters, as of lines of breeding. When desirable previously outlined, should be considered blood lines have been proved, the breeder when possible. Since steers are intermedi- should continue them and select con- ate in size between bulls and females, bulls sistently the same type of bulls, in order should have more weight for age than to secure uniformity in the herd. steers, more bone and ruggedness if size Purebred bulls that have been raised is to be maintained. They should have on cultivated pasture or in other close good head with obvious masculinity, be- confinement are in no condition for range sides desirable body conformation. service. They should be purchased in time Four- to eight-year-old proved bulls to become acclimated and adjusted to have repeatedly demonstrated ability to new feed. Usually they need to exercise sire 50 to 60 calves a year under good and toughen their muscle, not merely to pasture conditions and with reasonable reduce their fat. Bulls should be well fed off-season care. Such a bull at an initial and in good active condition when put in price of $750 results in no more yearly service. bull cost per calf than a $250 bull siring Selection and Culling of Cows. 20 calves yearly on the range—a higher- Usually in California, improvement in than-average number. This is one way to feed and other environmental conditions make good bulls go farther, to justify the and better management are necessary if higher cost, and to have all the difference the benefits possible through selective in calf value as profit. breeding are to be realized. Under ex- Selection should be made from well- tremely rigorous conditions, the plainer, fed bulls that have had a chance to de- slower-developing animals may actually velop. Underfeeding may not only change do better than those bred for rapid growth an animal's form, but may also prevent and early development. the owner from determining potential The manner in which the animal grows ability to make rapid gain. determines largely its shape and size and Closely bred bulls having the type, the proportion of meat to bone and fat. A ruggedness, and other characteristics splendidly bred beef animal that has ex- stressed, more often breed uniformly true perienced alternate stages of good gains to type than those with a great mixture and severe losses in weight will appear

Fig. 17 (II). A group of "good to choice" weaner calves representing second generation from University bred sires starting with grade-3 cows. The sire graded 1-, and his parents and grandparents were all in grade 1.

Section II— Page 40 .>-;>-..:-;• '" . ,

Fig. 18 (II). Yearling heifers from selected cows and top bulls for herd replacement. They were wintered on 13 pounds of mixed hay and 1% pounds of grain per head daily. Their daily gain during the winter was 0.96 pound. entirely different from one of equal breed- then dry cows usually should be sold. ing that has made continuous growth Nonbreeders may result from hereditary from calfhood. Since different parts of abnormalities, infections, and injuries in the body do not develop at the same rate, calving. All poor milkers should be culled. alterations of conformation may depend Under inadequate feed conditions most on the age when development was re- of the dry cows customarily sold are stricted. "Running out" or becoming pregnant and would drop calves in a few "fine-boned" is a common expression for months, while many cows with calves at some of these effects. The remedy is more side may be the ones due to miss or be late logically applied through supplementing in calving the following year. The practice or otherwise improving the feed supply of culling dry cows under these conditions than through buying big-boned, rough usually does not lead either to increased bulls. A realization of the manner in calf crop or to herd improvement, for which animals grow and react to environ- many of the best cows are sold and poorer ment can bring purebred breeders and ones are retained in the herd. commercial cattlemen closer in a mutual The most rapid progress is through understanding of their respective prob- breeding enough of the best cows to the lems. best bulls to supply the heifers necessary Poor feed means low calf crop and a for replacement. Such heifers give high percentage of dry cows. If buyers greater assurance of breeding true. The are allowed to pick out the good indi- results of this procedure are shown in viduals, if there is automatic culling of figures 16, 17, and 18 (II) . Weaning time all dry cows, if undeveloped heifers are is ideal for selection and culling. One bred, and if all heifer calves are required should keep deep-bodied, naturally thick- for replacement, then the cow herd may fleshed cows with good heads, that have "run down" faster than improvement can raised good calves and still maintain be made by good bulls. Although feed thrifty condition. All long-headed, thin- supply and disease are the main factors necked, shallow-bodied, flat-ribbed, influencing calf crops, some nonbreeders "dippy"-loined, light-hindquartered kinds continue to occur in all herds regardless and old cows should be culled. The grad- of feed conditions. If feed is adequate, ing chart can serve as a guide and as a

Page 41—Section II A

means of more clearly defining objectives a herd free from infectious abortion, show in selection and culling. A herd of quiet, a disastrous reproductive history that easily handled cattle is a distinct advan- gives some evidence of being inherited. tage; selection for these qualities and a Both hereditary and environmental fac- culling of the wild cows should be prac- tors may be involved. To obtain data on ticed. Often one may best handle the a situation of this kind, one must have culled cows by placing them in a separate carefully kept records. pasture to prevent breeding and thus save The history of two other original cows, bull costs. Calves from culled cows may nos. 19 and 45, maintained under iden- be vealed or kept until weaning time. tical conditions in the supplementally fed Calves are commonly vealed in order to A herd, appears at the bottom of page 43. sell fat cows. Frequently it may be profit- Of these cows, no. 19 graded 2- or low able to raise the calves to weaning even choice; no. 45, 3+ or high good. The in- though the cows are sold cheaper as feed- creased value of the latter animal is read- ers or low-grade slaughter animals. If held ily seen in the notably greater weight and for another season, cull cows consume higher grade of her calves at weaning feed that can be utilized better by more time—probably the result of increased efficient animals. A systematic program of milk production. The average difference breeding, culling, and feeding as outlined in the calf weaning weights was 152 will revolutionize in a few years the pounds. No. 45, with 8 heavier calves, quality of an ordinary herd. The effect of produced a lifetime total of 1,595 pounds selective breeding and culling in herds more calf weight at weaning than no. 19 representing the three principal beef with seven light calves. The extra value breeds is shown in figures 19, 20, and 21 of such consistently heavier weights and21B (II). would at least pay for the year-long main- Longevity is important, and to keep tenance of the dam. No. 19, not giving so proved breeding cows as long as they are much milk, was always in better flesh, productive is frequently desirable. At the graded higher, and might have been University Farm, under protected condi- looked upon as a better "doer." tions, occasional cows have regularly pro- Another pair of original cows, nos. 15 duced calves until fifteen to twenty years and 36, maintained in the B herd (not fed of age. supplements) present the following re- Specific data on individual Angus cows production data: are as follows: Year No. 15 No. 36 1 cow produced 12 calves in 15 years 1935 Calved Calved 1 cow produced 12 calves in 16 years 1936 Calved Dry 2 cows each produced 14 calves in 17 1937 Calved Calved years 1938 Calved Dry 1 cow produced 15 calves in 17 years 1939 Calved Calved 1 cow produced 15 calves in 19 years 1940 Calved Dry Calved Calved 1 cow produced 16 calves in 20 years 1941 1942 Culled for age Culled for age On the San Joaquin Experimental Range, efficient culling has done much to There has been much discussion re- improve the herd. The more complete garding cows that breed only in alternate records kept there have revealed inter- years. These data are evidence that such esting data. The breeding history of two animals exist. As soon as recognized, per- original cows, nos. 12 and 28, purchased haps, they should be culled. On the other in 1935 appears at the top of page 43. hand, no. 36, an average-sized cow, might These two cows and their offspring, in have produced a calf each year under bet-

Section II— Page 42 c inoc l j i -r 10 r f 1938, no. 125 calved heifer no. 827, ™' both culled Cow 1936! aborted i no. 818 calved heifer no. 160; 1944, no. 160 aborted No. -1 1937' premature—died [1941,

1942 no - 818 calved bull no. died of bloat 12 1938,' calved, heifer no. 818 J > 227, no. calved bull no. sold pnllpH 1 1943, 818 317, [1944, no. 818, calf born dead

r 1938, no. 133, calf born dead r 1935, calved 1939, no. 133 calved heifer no. 907 i 1942, no. 907, calf born dead heifer no. 133 < 1940, no. 133 dry 1943, no. 907, calf born dead 1941, no. 133 aborted, 1944, no. 907 calved bull Cow culled no. 428 No. 1936, aborted \ 28 1937, calved bull no. 717, sold 1938, dry 1939, calved bull no. 939, sold culled

ter nutrition ; but she did not do so under Joaquin Experimental Range all cattle

conditions that still made it possible for are tattooed with a serial number in the no. 15 to calve annually. No. 15 was a ear and with a corresponding number small cow that never weighed over 875 branded on the hip with caustic branding pounds before calving. She recovered fluid. By being clipped twice yearly, the parturition and lactation loss, returning brands are kept legible for easy field iden- to about this weight each year. Record tification. With proper equipment and keeping that permits observations of this quiet, well-managed cattle, this procedure kind is not difficult if a system once be- should also be practical in many commer- comes established and if equipment, par- cial herds. The year of birth may be indi- ticularly scales, is available. The most cated in the serial number by the initial

difficult problem is practical and conven- number; for example, 1945 calves could ient individual identification. At the San be marked 501, 502, and so on.

Cow No. 19

Weaning age, Weaning weight, Year Calved Grade in days in pounds 1935 Heifer 127 237 330 Good (3) 1936 Bull 220 260 400 Medium (4) 1937 Heifer 703 260 390 Low good (3-) 1938 Bull 804 248 410 Low good (3-) 1939 Heifer 957 267 400 Good (3) 1940 Heifer 045 233 425 High good (3+) 1941 (Dry) 1942 Heifer 280 2l7 327 Low choice (2-) Culled for age

Cow No. 45

Weaning age, Weaning weight, Year Calved Grade in days in pounds 1935 Bull 104 241 465 Choice (2) 1936 Heifer 225 256 530 High good (3+) 1937 Heifer 709 246 560 Choice (2) 1938 Bull 809 246 545 High good (3+) 1939 Heifer 959 266 585 Choice (2) 1940 Bull 041 259 600 Choice (2) 1941 Heifer 124 235 511 Low choice (2-) 1942 Bull 275 258 481 Low choice (2-) Culled for age

Page 43—Section II Is

Fig. 19 (II) . Shorthorns of the type shown in each of the pictures above make excellent foundation animals for the production of high-quality feeder cattle which will attain heavy weight for age if good management practices are followed.

Section II— Page 44 Fig. 20 (II) . Individual performance records are kept on these very desirable Aberdeen Angus females. Never pampered, they have been fed only for normal growth. Their depth and thickness are due to natural fleshing. In the upper picture the cow on the right is the dam of the two heifers. The average daily gain from birth has been 1.8 pounds for the 17-month-old heifer on the left; 2.2 pounds for the 6-month-old calf in the center. The seven heifers in the lower picture range from 14 to 17 months of age. Their average daily gain from birth has been 1.5 pounds.

Crossbreeding eny that results from the mating of different breeds. In the past, casual methods The benefits of crossbreeding fall into of alternating the breeds of bulls used on two general categories: first, increasing a miscellaneous assortment of breeding general thrift, vigor, and rate of gain cows have sometimes been employed. The through hybrid vigor (heterosis) ; sec- systematic breeding and culling programs ond, securing better adaptation, confor- that have produced high-grade uniform mation, and performance by combining herds of Hereford, Shorthorn, or Aber- the desirable characteristics of different deen Angus represent definite progress. breeds. Special features of breeds and A commercial producer having a low- types that may be combined through grade herd of cows can advance faster crossing are, for example, the polled con- if he first improves his cattle by a suc- dition and the tendency for marbled flesh cession of good, uniform-type, purebred of Aberdeen Angus, the milking ability of bulls of similar breeding. After the herd Shorthorns, the adaptation to range and becomes uniform and further improve- the "rustling" ability of Herefords, and ment is slow or uncertain, systematic the heat resistance of Brahmans. crossbreeding may then be employed to A crossbred, by definition, is the prog- advantage.

Page 45—Section II :

Fig. 21A (II) . What type is best? That is a question of paramount interest among breeders and producers. The upper row shows foundation cows of the University of California Aberdeen Angus herd. The middle row shows two descendants (steer calves) that were Champion and Reserve Champion Angus at the International, Chicago, in 1919 and 1921, respectively. The lower row shows 5 descendants: 3 purebred and 2 crossbred (including the Grand Champion heifer, Lula May- flower) comprising the best group of 5 at the International in 1921. These cows are medium beef type, with more scale, bone, body length, and leg length than have recently been popular. They were feminine, a little lean of neck, sturdy, long-lived, excellent milkers, and great producers. The steers which they produced were the straight, trim, smoothly fleshed kind with reasonable length in relation to depth that recent carcass tests have shown to give high carcass yield and cut-out value at the moderate degree of finish which is economical to produce and has widest consumer popularity.

Section II— Page 46 According to estimates, 60 to 70 per cent of market swine and an equally large percentage of range sheep are crossbreds, or from types or strains that originated from crossbreeding. Practical difficulties in herd segregation and management have . prevented extensive use of crossbreeding f ' in beef cattle. Commercial production of swine is based largely upon purebred foundations; that of cattle, upon grades whose ancestry frequently shows a mixture of breeding. In some areas one breed predominates to an extent where ranchers cannot well obtain good bulls of another breed locally. Bulls of a second breed are sometimes less well adapted to the environment than are those of the leading breed in the area. .:»:<:» Often the advantage of crossbreeding is a combination of hybrid vigor and special adaptations. The hybrid vigor to be expected would be the same, for example, whether Shorthorn bulls were used on Hereford cows or the reverse. Generally, however, better results up to weaning age might be expected when Hereford bulls are used on Shorthorn cows, whose greater average milk production would favor the potentially greater growth rate of their crossbred calves. Table 9 (II) presents selected data from a crossbreeding experiment conducted at the Miles City (Montana) Experiment Station. The complete report is available in circular form (19) . The data in table 9 (II) show higher weaning weights for the crossbreds, particularly in the second cross involving three breeds and when these three-breed-cross heifers were back- crossed to the Hereford. Similarly, rate of feed-lot gain was consistently greater result for the crossbreds, and generally they Fig. 21B (II) . These Herefords are the of selective breeding. The cow at the top pro- produced higher yield and carcass grade. vides ample milk for the calf, yet remains in Efficiency of feed utilization did not ap- good condition herself. The bull (center) is a proven sire. For five years he was mated with 60 pear significantly different between pure- to 70 of the top cows in the herd, and replace- bred and crossbred cattle. Calf crop ment heifers, such as are shown in the lower percentages, as a whole, were higher for picture, were selected from this breeding. When seven years old, this bull sired 62 calves under crossbreds than for purebreds. The meadow pasture conditions. The cow herd is authors point out that certain superior largely composed of his descendants.

Page 47— Section II .

TABLE 9 (II)

Comparison of Hereford, Hereford x Shorthorn (first cross) ; Hereford, Hereford x

Shorthorn x Angus (second cross) ; and Hereford, Hereford x Short- horn x Angus x Hereford (third cross) Steers

Hereford X Hereford X Hereford X Shorthorn X Hereford Shorthorn Hereford Shorthorn X Hereford Angus X Angus Hereford

Purebred First cross Purebred Second cross Purebred Third cross

Number of steers 38 34 46 18 98 16

Birth weight, pounds. . 79.1 84.8 79.2 79.1 82.8 88.3 Weaning age, days 180.3 174.7 174.7 176.1 177.4 179.6 Weaning weight, pounds 402 6 416.8 386.2 440.9 402.4 502.6 Average daily feed lot gain, pounds 1.81 2.08 1.79 1.93 2.28 2.41 Gain per 100 pounds T.D.N 18.30 18.49 18.17 17.20 18.76 17.49 Dressing per cent 56.3 57.7 58.0 59.8 58.9 58.7 Average slaughter grade Average Average Average Low Low Average good good good choice choice choice

Source of Data: Knapp, B. Jr., A. L. Baker, and R. T. Clark. Crossbred cattle for the northern Great Plains. U.S.D.A. Cir. 810:1-5. 1949. performing lines of purebred Herefords climatic adaptation and resistance to ex- (not used in the crossing experiments) ternal parasites and tick-borne diseases. made more rapid gain and were more Hybrid vigor is also obtained. Experi- efficient than the crossbreds. ence indicates that the % to % Brahman Similarly, crossbred steers in the Uni- (generally % Brahman) carries enough versity of California herd, full-fed from heat resistance to withstand the hotter weaning, have averaged heavier than areas in the United States. The effort the purebreds, at least up to 12 months generally has been to use the minimum of age. There was only a slight indication, Brahman blood to attain climatic adap- however, that the crossbreds involving all tation and the maximum of Shorthorn, the breeds gained more rapidly than the Hereford, or Aberdeen Angus blood for straight Shorthorns, which were the heav- superior beef conformation and early ma- iest of the purebreds. Data from the first turity. four calf crops in a crossbreeding experi- Contrary to the general idea that all ment with Aberdeen Angus and Here- crossbreds should be marketed, extensive fords at the Ohio Experiment Station experiments and experience with swine have not shown any consistent or con- and common practice with sheep show spicuous advantages of the crossbreds. that the crossbred dam may have a dis- The cross of Aberdeen Angus bulls on tinct advantage. The swine experiments females of strong Shorthorn breeding has have shown that crossing the crossbred generally been rated high because the off- dam with a sire of a third breed gives spring were hornless and reasonably uni- added hybrid vigor and that the dam is form in color (black or blue gray), and a superior mother. Apparently, from the because most Shorthorn cows make ex- cattle experiment mentioned above the cellent mothers. The superior fleshing three-breed cross and systematic rotation quality of the Aberdeen Angus usually of sires of the three breeds, starting on a shows up in this cross. purebred or genetically equivalent grade The crossing of Brahman cattle with foundation herd of one breed, may prove temperate-zone beef breeds is to obtain highly desirable. The herd segregation

Section II— Page 48 necessary to do the job right appears and upon consistent use of superior sires, rather complicated for most beef-cattle along with a selection and culling of fe- setups. males. Indiscriminate crossbreeding is as To be successful, crossbreeding must likely to combine all the poor qualities be based upon a good foundation herd of the parents as all the good ones.

Page 49—Section II LITERATURE CITED (1) GUILBERT, H. R. Some endocrine relationships in nutritional reproductive failure. Jour. Anim. Sci. 1 :3. 1942.

(2) Cole, H. H., S. W. Mead, and Max Kleiber. Bloat in cattle. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 662:1-22. 1942.

(3) Leitch, I., and J. S. Thomson. The water economy of farm animals. Nutrition Abstracts and Reviews 14:197-223. 1944.

(4) Forbes, E. B., W. F. Braman, and M. Kriss. The influence of the environmental temperature on the heat production of cattle. Jour. Agr. Res. 33:579-89.1926.

(5) Guilbert, H. R., G. H. Hart, K. A. Wagnon, and H. Goss. Importance of continuous growth in beef cattle. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 688:1-35. 1944.

(6) Davis, W. C. Commercial cuts of meat. U. S. Dept. Agr. Cir. 300:1-9. 1924.

(7) Hankins, 0. G., B. Knapp, Jr., and R. W. Phillips. Muscle-bone ratio as an index of merit in beef and dual purpose cattle. Jour. Anim. Sci. 2:42-49.

(8) Harshaw, H. M., W. L. Kellogg, R. R. Rector, and S. J. Marsden. The composition of turkeys of different varieties and strains. Poultry Sci. 22:126-36. 1943. (9) Hammond, John. Growth and development of mutton qualities in sheep. 597 p. Oliver and Boyd. London. 1932. (10) Callow, E. H. The food value of beef from steers and heifers and its relation to dressing-out percentage. Jour. Agr. Sci. 34:177-89. England. 1944. (11) Rhoad, A. 0. A scale of heat tolerance for cattle. Abstracted in: Jour. Anim. Sci. 1 :85-86. 1942. (12) RlEMERSCHMID, G. Some aspects of solar radiation in relation to cattle in South Africa and Europe. Onderstepoort Jour. Vet. Sci. and Anim. Indus. 18:327-53. 1943. (13) Rhoad, A. O. Absorption and reflection of solar radiation in relation to coat color in cattle. Amer. Soc. Anim. Prod. Proc. 1940:291-93. 1940.

(14) Bonsma, J. C, and A. J. Pretorius. Influence of colour and coat cover on adaptability of cattle. Farming in So. Africa 18:101-20. 1943.

(15) Rice, V. A. Proved sires. Amer. Hereford Jour. 36:45. 1945.

(16) Mead, S. W. A diagrammatic method of presenting the history of reproduction in a dairy herd. Jour. Dairy Sci. 21 :283-87. 1938. (17) Kingman, H. E. A method of determining reproductive efficiency of a breeding herd. Amer. Hereford Jour. 36:51-54.1945.

(18) Linn,M.D. Tips on artificial breeding of beef cattle. Western Livestock Jour. 23(54) :36, 82. 1945.

( 19) Knapp, B. Jr., A. L. Baker, and R. T. Clark. Crossbred cattle for the northern Great Plains. U. S. Dept. Agr. Cir. 810:1-15. 1949.

Section II— Page 50 Recommended References

(When ordering books, specify latest edition) Anderson, A. L. 1943. Introductory animal husbandry. 777 p. The Macmillan Company, New York, N.Y. Briggs, H. M. 1949. Modern breeds of livestock. 772 p. The Macmillan Company, New York, N.Y. Farley, F. W. 1941. Hereford husbandry. 431 p. Walker Publications, Inc., Kansas City, Mo.

Hazelton, J. M. 1935. Hereford history and herd bull index. 530 p. The Hereford Journal Company, Kansas City, Mo.

Hultz, F. S. 1930. Range beef production. 208 p. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y. Rice, V. A. 1942. Breeding and improvement of farm animals. 750 p. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, N.Y. Sanders, A. H. 1914. The story of the Herefords. 1087 p. The Breeders Gazette, Chicago, 111. Sanders, A. H. 1918. Shorthorn cattle. 1021 p. Sanders Publishing Company, Chicago, 111. Sanders, A. H. 1928. A history of Aberdeen Angus cattle. 1042 p. The Breeders Gazette, Chicago, 111. Snapp, R. R. 1939. Beef cattle, their feeding and management in the corn belt states. 550 p. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y. United States Department of Agriculture. 1942. Keeping livestock healthy. Yearbook of Agriculture, 1942. 1276 p. (Price $1.75, from the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C.) Vaughan, H. W. 1937. Breeds of livestock in America. 780 p. R. G. Adams and Company, Columbus, Ohio. Vaughan, H. W. 1941. Types and market classes of livestock. 607 p. College Book Company, Columbus, Ohio.

In order that the information in our publications may be more intelligible, it is sometimes necessary to use trade names of products and equipment rather than complicated descriptive or chemical identifications. In so doing, it is unavoidable in some cases that similar products which are on the market under other trade names may not be cited. No endorsement of named products is intended nor is criticism implied of similar products which are not mentioned.

5m-4,'52(A339)M.H.

CALIFORNIA BEEF PRODUCTION MANUAL 2 H. R. Guilbert and G. H. Hart Section III

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA • COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station and Extension Service

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS AND CATTLE FEEDS

Nutrient Requirements Characteristics of Range Forage Symptoms of Nutritional Harvested Roughages, Grains, Deficiencies and By-products Important Toxic Trace Preparation of Feeds Elements Economical Feeds

Nutrient Requirements Requirements for nutrients other than those listed in tables 10 and 11 (III) are The National Research Council* in 1945 issued a report, Recommended Nu- briefly discussed in the text which follows. Vitamins. Under usual conditions of trient Allowances for Beef Cattle (rev. management, beef cattle receive enough 1950). Table 10 (Sec. Ill) from this re- vitamin from exposure to direct sun- port gives the expected gains for different D light or from sun-cured roughages. The ages, sexes, and production objectives; requirement for young calves is reported also the necessary daily intake of total dry to be about 300 international units per feed equivalent, digestible nutrients, di- 100 pounds of live weight per day. Vita- gestible protein, calcium, phosphorus, min D is essential to calcium and phos- and carotene. Table 11 (III) presents the phorus utilization and to the prevention same data expressed as percentage in the of rickets and other bone abnormalities. ration or amount per pound of feed. The water-soluble vitamins thiamin, These tables of requirements and their riboflavin, niacin, pyridoxine, pantothe- use, in conjunction with tables 12, 13, 14 acid, biotin, the fat-soluble (III), on the composition of feeds, are nic and and discussed in sections IV and V. vitamin K are synthesized by microorganisms in the rumen. So far as is * Much of the material in the following paragraphs and in "Symptoms of Nutritional Defi- known, a dietary supply of these vitamins ciencies," is adapted from the National Research is not essential after cattle are 2 months Council publication: Guilbert, H. R., Paul Ger- of age and rumen function has been estab- laugh, and L. L. Madsen. Recommended nutrient allowances for beef cattle. A report of lished, provided the ration is otherwise the Committee on Animal Nutrition of the Na- adequate. Possibly with gross deficiencies tional Research Council. 32 p. Washington, D.C. 1945. (Rev. 1951.) In many passages, the word- of protein or other nutrients in the diet, ing is unchanged from the original text. conditions in the rumen may not permit Manual 2, a revision of Circular 131, replaces the microorganisms to produce optimum Extension Circular 115, Beef Production in Cali- fornia, by H. R. Guilbert and L. H. Rochford. quantities of these essential vitamins. Some tables and other data from the original Further research is needed to show defi- circular are used in the manual. Mr. Guilbert is Professor of Animal Hus- nitely what bearing this problem may bandry and Animal Husbandman in the Experi- have upon practical beef production. ment Station. The need of vitamin E in the diet of Mr. Hart is Professor of Veterinary Science and Veterinarian in the Experiment Station. cattle has not been demonstrated, nor is

Page 1—Section III there evidence of rumen synthesis of this of vitamin-E therapy in reproduction in vitamin, which is widely distributed in cattle have not been substantiated up to feeds. Claims made for beneficial results this time.

TABLE 10 (III) Kecommended Daily Nutrient Allowances for Beef Cattle (Based on air-dry feed containing 90 per cent dry matter)

Daily allowances per animal

Expected Body Total feed weight, daily gain, Total Digestible Phos- Caro- pounds pounds digestible Calcium, protein, phorus, tene,* nutrients, grams Per cent of Per animal, pounds grams milligrams pounds live weight pounds

Normal growth, heifers and steers

400 1.6 3.0 12 0.9 7.0 20 15 24 600 1.4 2.7 16 0.9 8.5 18 15 36 800 1.2 2.4 19 0.9 9.5 16 15 48 1,000 1.0 2.1 21 0.9 10.5 15 15 60

Bulls, growth and maintenance (moderate activity)

600 2.3 2.7 16 1.3t 10.0 24 18 36 800 1.7 2.1 17 1.4 11.0 23 18 48 1,000 1.6 2.0 20 1.4 12.0 22 18 60 1,200 1.4 1.8 22 1.4 13.0 21 18 72 1,400 1.0 1.7 24 1.4 14.0 20 18 84

1,600 1.6 • 26 1.4 14.0 18 18 96 1,800 1.4 26 1.4 14.0 18 18 108

Wintering weanling calves

400 1.0 2.8 11 0.7 6.0 16 12 24 500 1.0 2.6 13 0.8 7.0 16 12 30 600 1.0 2.5 15 0.8 8.0 16 12 36

Wintering yearling cattle

600 1.0 2.7 16 0.8 8.0 16 12 36 700 1.0 2.4 17 0.8 8.5 16 12 12 800 0.7 2.3 18 0.8 9.0 16 12 48 900 0.5 2.0 18 0.8 9.0 16 12 54

Wintering pregnant heifers (Weights are for beginning of winter period; gains are average for period)

700 1.5 2.9 20 0.9 10.0 18 16 42 800 1.3 2.3 20 0.9 10.0 18 16 48 900 0.8 2.0 18 0.8 9.0 16 15 54 1,000 0.5 1.8 18 0.8 9.0 16 15 60

* The recommended carotene allowances for fattening animals are at the same rate as for cattle in other classi- fications. This is about the minimum rate that will result in significant storage, and thus assure contribution of vitamin-A value for human use from the beef liver and fat. For optimum growth or feed-lot gains and freedom from clinical symptoms, 1.5 mg. carotene for each 100 pounds body weight suffices for cattle previously depleted of body stores. This level may be used except for pregnant or lactating cows when economically necessary. The vitamin-A value of the liver and the body fat of animals so fed, however, would be practically nil. Actually no dietary carotene or vitamin A is needed so long as the animals have sufficient storage reserve to meet physiological needs. t During periods of moderate to heavy service, a level of about 2.0 pounds of digestible protein is tentatively suggested.

Section III— Page 2 TABLE 10 (III)—Continued

Daily allowances per animal

Body Expected Total feed weight, daily gain, Total Digestible Phos- Caro- pounds pounds digestible Calcium, protein, phorus, tene,* nutrients, grams Per cent of Per animal, pounds pounds grams milligrams live weight pounds

Wintering mature pregnant cows (Weights are for beginning of winter period; gains are average for period)

800 1.5 2.8 22 1.0 11.0 22 18 48 900 1.0 2.2 20 0.9 10.0 18 16 54 1,000 0.4 1.8 18 0.9 9.0 16 15 60 1,100 0.2 1.6 18 0.8 9.0 16 15 66 1,200 0.0 1.5 18 0.8 9.0 16 15 72

Cows nursing calves, first 3 to 4 months after parturition

900-1,100 None 28 1.4 14.0 30 24 300

Fattening calves finished as short yearlings

400 Average 3.0 12 1.1 8.0 20 15 24 500 for 2.8 14 1.2 9.5 20 16 30 600 period 2.7 16 1.3 11.0 20 17 36 700 2.0 pounds 2.6 18 1.4 12.0 20 18 42 800 daily 2.5 20 1.5 13.5 20 18 48 900 2.3 21 1.5 14.5 20 18 54

Fattening yearling cattle

600 Average 3.0 18 1.3 11.5 20 17 36 700 for 3.0 21 1.4 13.5 20 18 42 800 period 2.8 22 1.5 14.0 20 19 48 900 2.2 pounds 2.7 24 1.6 15.5 20 20 54 1,000 daily 2.6 26 1.7 17.0 20 20 60 1,100 2.4 27 1.7 17.5 20 20 66

Fattening two-year-old cattle

800 Average 3.0 24 1.5 15.0 20 18 48 900 for 2.9 26 1.6 16.0 20 20 54 1,000 period 2.7 27 1.7 17.0 20 20 60 1,100 2.4 pounds 2.6 29 1.8 18.0 20 20 66 1,200 daily 2.4 29 1.8 18.0 20 20 72

Minerals Other than Calcium and Common Salt. Salt supplies sodium Phosphorus. Besides calcium and phos- and chlorine. The physiological require- phorus, cattle require magnesium, sulfur, ments appear to be very low, about 1.5 potassium, sodium, chlorine, iodine, man- grams daily of sodium and less than 5 ganese, iron, copper, and cobalt. Infor- grams daily of chlorine being sufficient mation is presented on elements for which for growth. Larger amounts (11 grams deficiency symptoms are known, or for sodium and 15 grams chlorine for a cow which need of supplementation in a local- producing 2 gallons of milk daily) are ized area has been demonstrated. required for lactation. Since, however,

Page 3—Section III salt is also used as a condiment, voluntary varies usually between 1.0 and 2.5 pounds intake is much above these apparent per month. Cattle should have free access physiological requirements. Consump- to salt. tion depends upon the amount in the feed, Iodine. The use of salt containing as well as upon other conditions, but 0.015 to 0.020 per cent potassium iodide

TABLE 11 (III) Recommended* Daily Nutrient Content of Rations for Beef Cattle (Based on air-dry feed containing 90 per cent dry matter)

Allowance as per cent of ration or amount per pound of feed Daily feed Body Expected weight, daily gain, Total Caro- Digestible Phos- pounds pounds digestible Calcium, tene,* Per cent of Per animal, protein, phorus, nutrient, per cent milligrams live weight pounds per cent per cent per cent per pound

Normal growth, heifers and steers

400 1.6 3.0 12 7.5 58 0.37 0.28 2.0 600 1.4 2.7 16 5.6 53 0.25 0.21 2.2 800 1.2 2.4 19 4.7 50 0.19 0.17 2.5 1,000 1.0 2.1 21 4.3 50 0.16 0.16 2.8

Bulls, growth and maintenance (moderate activity)

600 2.3 2.7 16 8. If 63 0.33 0.25 2.2 800 1.7 2.1 17 7.8 65 0.28 0.22 2.7 1,000 1.6 2.0 20 6.4 60 0.22 0.18 2.7 1,200 1.4 1.8 22 6.0 59 0.19 0.17 3.0 1,400 1.0 1.7 24 5.4 58 0.17 0.15 3.2 1,600 1.6 26 5.4 54 0.15 0.15 3.7 1,800 1.4 26 5.4 54 0.15 0.15 4.2

Wintering weanling calves

400 1.0 2.8 11 6.4 55 0.32 0.24 2.2 500 1.0 2.6 13 6.2 54 0.27 0.20 2.3 600 1.0 2.5 15 5.3 53 0.24 0.18 2.4

Wintering yearling cattle

600 1.0 2.7 16 5.0 50 0.22 0.17 2.2 700 1.0 2.4 17 4.7 50 0.21 0.16 2.5 800 0.7 2.3 18 4.5 50 0.20 0.15 2.7 900 0.5 2.0 18 4.5 50 0.20 0.15 3.0

Wintering pregnant heifers (Weights are for beginning of winter period; gains are average for period)

700 1.5 2.9 20 4.5 50 0.20 0.18 2.1 800 1.3 2.3 20 4.5 50 0.20 0.18 2.4 900 0.8 2.0 18 4.5 50 0.20 0.18 3.0 1,000 0.5 1.8 18 4.5 50 0.20 0.18 3.3

* The minimum level of carotene for optimum growth and fattening and freedom from clinical symptoms is one fourth of the amounts listed for various classes and weights. This level allows no margin of safety and permits no storage, but may be employed for growth and fattening when economically necessary. The allowances listed are adequate for reproduction with only a small margin of safety and very small storage in the new-born calf (see footnote, table 10, III). is tentatively f" During periods of moderate to heavy service, a digestible-protein level of 7.5 to 8.0 per cent suggested.

Section III— Page 4 has effectively prevented goiter in iodine- An economical and effective way to deficient areas. Griem and his associates supply cattle with iodine is to purchase

(1) have recommended, as sufficient, the potassium iodide and mix it with salt iodized salt containing 0.01 per cent as needed. One ounce of potassium iodide iodine, stabilized to prevent loss. Without to 300 pounds of fine-ground salt gives a stabilization, iodine is rapidly lost from mixture containing about 0.02 per cent. salt blocks in the field; to insure further The potassium iodide should be finely

against loss, one should protect salt boxes ground, mixed thoroughly with a little from direct sunlight and from rain. salt, and then mixed with the remainder

TABLE 11 (III)—Continued

Allowance as per cent of ration or amount per pound of feed Daily feed Body Expected weight, daily gain, Total Caro- Digestible Phos- pounds pounds digestible Calcium, tene,* Per cent of Per animal protein, phorus, nutrient, per cent milligrams live weight pounds per cent per cent per cent per pound

Wintering mature pregnant cows (Weights are for beginning of winter period; gains are average for period)

800 1.5 2.8 22 4.5 50 0.20 0.18 2.2 900 1.0 2.2 20 4.5 50 0.20 0.18 2.7 1,000 0.4 1.8 18 4.5 50 0.20 0.18 3.3 1,100 0.2 1.6 18 4.5 50 0.20 0.18 3.7 1,200 0.0 1.5 18 4.5 50 0.20 0.18 4.0

Cows nursing calves, first 3 to 4 months after parturition

900-1,100 None 50 0.24 0.18 11.0

Fattening calves finished as short yearlings

400 Average 3.0 12 9.2 67 0.37 0.28 2.0 500 for 2.8 14 8.6 68 0.31 0.25 2.1 600 period 2.7 16 8.1 68 0.28 0.23 2.2 700 2.0 pounds 2.6 18 7.8 68 0.25 0.22 2.3 800 daily 2.5 20 7.5 68 0.22 0.20 2.4 900 2.3 21 7.2 68 0.21 0.19 2.6

Fattening yearling cattle

600 Average 3.0 18 7.2 65 0.25 0.21 2.0 700 for 3.0 21 7.0 65 0.21 0.19 2.0 800 period 2.8 22 6.8 65 0.20 0.19 2.2 900 2.2 pounds 2.7 24 6.7 65 0.18 0.18 2.2 1,000 daily 2.6 26 6.5 65 0.17 0.17 2.3 1,100 2.4 27 6.3 65 0.16 0.16 2.4

Fattening two-year-old cattle

800 Average 3.0 24 6.3 62 0.18 0.18 2.0 900 for 2.9 26 6.3 62 0.17 0.17 2.1 1,000 period 2.7 27 6.3 62 0.16 0.16 2.2 1,100 2.4 pounds 2.6 29 6.3 62 0.15 0.15 2.3 1,200 daily 2.4 29 6.3 62 0.15 0.15 2.5

Page 5—Section III . .

TABLE 12 (III) Composition of Feeds

Approxi- Total Calcium Phosphorus Caro- mate digest- Digest- Dry tene, relative ible ible matter, milli- productive Feeds nutri- protein, per Grams Grams grams value, ents, per Per Per cent per per per per cent per cent cent cent pound pound pound /barley = \ cent v ioo ;

Air-dry forages: Alfalfa hay, average 92.8 50.4 10.8 1.51 6.85 0.21 0.95

Alfalfa hay, very leafy*. . 90.0 53.7 12.4 1.69 7.68 0.24 1.09 Asparagus butts, dried 91.0 47.1 9.7 Barley hay* 85.0 50.0 4.4 0.17 0.77 0.25 1.13 Barley straw 89.5 44.0 1.0 0.09 0.41 0.06 0.27 Bean straw, field* 90.0 45.0 3.0 1.67 7.54 0.13 0.59 Bean straw, lima 90.0 48.0 6.0 Beet top3 80.0 47.5 7.7 0.45 2.08 0.19 Flax hulls 90.0 34.7 0.8 Cottonseed hulls 91.3 35.7 0.5 0.14 0.64 0.05 0.23 Oat hay, moderately green. 88.2 48.1 3.3 0.27 1.22 0.22 1.00 8.00 Oat straw, 45.5 1.5 0.23 1.04 0.13 0.59 0.14 Sudan grass hay, before bloom 90.0 50.0 6.7 0.47 2.13 0.24 1.09 2.9 Vetch and oat hay, half vetch 90.0 50.0 7.0 0.55 2.50 0.26 1.20 Winery pomace 89.3 30.7 1.9 Wild oat hay 92.5 48.7 3.6 0.22 1.00 0.25 1.13

Range forages: Annual grasses, mostly soft chess, seed stage, nearly mature 90.0 46.0 0.35 1.59 0.20 0.91 Annual grasses, soft chess

and fescue, mature dry . . 90.0 39.5 0.30 1.36 0.20 0.01 Bur-clover, green, seed stage 90.0 56.2 11.8 0.86 3.90 0.31 1.40 Bur-clover, seed stage, dry leached by 0.3 inch of rain 90.0 50.8 10.6 0.89 4.00 0.30 1.36 Bur-clover, seed stage, dry, leached by 0.8 inch of rain 90.0 48.5 10.3 0.93 4.20 0.29 1.32 Broad-leaf filaree, mature dry 90.0 43.3 1.70 7.70 0.13 0.59 Broad-leaf and red-stemmed filaree, mixed, mature, dry, leached 90.0 37.0 10.40 0.10 0.45 Broad-leaf filaree-grass mix-

ture as grazed by cattle . . 90.0 40.0 0.0-2.0

Silages, roots, and tubers: Alfalfa silage, slightly wilted 31.1 18.8 4.0 0.38 1.72 0.06 0.27 14.9 Carrots 12.0 9.6 0.8 0.06 0.27 0.06 0.27 10.5 Corn silage, well matured average 29.1 19.0 1.0 0.08 0.36 0.08 0.36 4.0 Mangels 9.2 6.6 0.7 0.02 0.09 0.02 0.09 Potatoes 21.1 17.0 0.7 0.01 0.05 0.06 0.27 Potatoes, dried 90.0 72.6 3.0 0.04 0.18 0.26 1.16 Sorghum silage, sweet — 25.3 16.1 0.7 0.09 0.41 0.04 0.18 Sugar beets 20.6 17.3 1.0 0.03 0.13 0.04 0.18

Dotted lines (....) indicate lack of data; solid lines ( ) insignificant amounts or none present. Sources of data: Data for feeds marked with an asterisk (*) are taken from: Morrison, F. B. Feeds and feeding. 1050 p. 20th ed. The Morrison Publishing Company, Ithaca, N. Y. 1936. Other data are from: The U. S. D. A. Yearbook. 1939; California Agricultural Experiment Station; and: Guilbert, H. R., Paul Gerlaugh, L. L. Madsen. Recommended nutrient allowances for beef cattle. A report of the Committee on Animal Nutrition of the National Research Council. 32 p. Washington, D. C. 1945.

Section III— Page 6 TABLE 12 (III)—Continued

Approxi- Total Calcium Phosphorus Caro- mate digest- Digest- Dry tene, relative ible ible matter, milli- productive Feeds nutri- protein, per Grams Grams grams value, ents, per Per Per cent per per per per cent cent cent per cent pound pound pound (barley =»\ cent 100 /

Concentrates: Apple pomace, dried* 89.4 60.5 1.7 0.10 0.45 0.09 0.41 78 Babassu meal 92.7 79.7 21.3 101 Barley, California feed 90.0 78.0 7.8 0.05 0.23 0.39 1.77 100 Beans, recleaned* 90.9 64.8 13.4 0.14 0.64 0.45 2.05 81 Beet pulp, molasses, dried.. 92.0 74.0 7.7 0.59 2.68 0.09 0.41 94 Beet pulp, wet 12.3 9.4 1.1 0.09 0.41 0.01 0.05 Brewers' grains, dried, from California barley* 91.1 61.3 16.2 0.16 0.73 0.47 2.13 78 Brewers' grains, wet* 23.9 16.6 4.6 0.07 0.32 0.12 0.55 Coconut oil meal, old process 92.7 83.8 17.5 0.28 1.27 0.58 2.63 103 Corn, dent, No. 2 85.0 80.0 7.0 0.01 0.05 0.25 1.14 2.2 103 Cottonseed, whole* 92.7 91.0 17.0 0.55 2.60 115 Cottonseed meal, cold pressed (28 per cent protein) 93.5 70.8 23.4 0.17 0.77 0.64 2.90 90 Cottonseed meal (43 per cent protein)* 93.5 75.5 35.0 0.24 1.10 1.11 5.00 Cottonseed meal (41 per cent protein) 92.8 73.6 33.9 0.20 0.91 1.19 5.40 94 Distillers' corn grain, dried. 93.2 81.6 20.1 0.04 0.18 0.29 1.32 108 Distillery slop, whole* 4.9 1.2 0.07 0.32 0.23 1.04 Figs, dried 69.0 4.0 87 Fish meal, over 63 per cent protein* 92.5 71.3 54.0 4.24 19.20 3.06 13.90 91 Hominy feed 90.5 88.3 8.2 0.03 0.14 0.44 2.00 110 Kafir 88.1 79.7 9.0 0.01 0.05 0.25 1.13 102 Linseed meal, Pacific Coast (28 to 30 per cent protein) 90.0 77.2 25.0 0.34 1.54 0.92 4.17 Milo 90.7 80.0 8.3 0.04 0.18 0.25 1.13 102 Milo heads, ground 89.6 76.0 8.1 0.08 0.36 0.24 1.09 97 Molasses, cane 76.0 57.0 0.9 0.35 1.59 0.06 0.27 73 Oats, Pacific Coast 90.0 72.0 7.6 0.09 0.41 0.33 1.50 92 Peanut oil meal (38 to 43 per cent protein) 93.6 78.8 37.0 0.10 0.45 0.50 2.27 101 Rice bran 91.2 67.5 8.3 0.10 0.45 1.84 8.35 87 Rice polish 90.0 81.0 8.2 0.03 0.14 1.54 6.89 104 Rye -90.5 79.6 9.3 0.04 0.18 0.37 1.68 102 Soybean oil meal 92.2 80.5 37.5 0.29 1.32 0.67 3.04 103 Wheat, Pacific Coast 90.0 84.0 9.3 0.03 0.14 0.43 1.95 108 Wheat bran 90.6 70.0 13.1 0.10 0.45 0.14 5.17 90

of the salt. The freshly prepared mixture Cobalt and Copper. Deficiency of should be supplied at frequent intervals these elements has been demonstrated in in covered salt boxes. different parts of the world, including the Magnesium. Magnesium deficiency United States. may result from prolonged feeding of Cobalt deficiency has not been demon- calves on milk without grain or hay. strated in California nor has uncompli- Under these conditions, blood magnesium cated copper deficiency. Less than 5 parts is lowered, and the animals usually die per million of copper in the dry matter in tetany. When natural feed is the source, of pastures causes loss of appetite, bleach- calves require about 0.6 gram of mag- ing of coat color, anemia, and, in many nesium daily per 100 lbs. of body weight. cases, diarrhea. Ataxia and stiffness of

Page 7— Section .

pasterns in calves sometimes occurs. Over and extreme demineralization of bones 7 parts per million of copper appear ade- of cattle and sheep on peat-land clover quate when excess molybdenum or other pasture, although complicated by heavy unknown factors do not complicate cop- parasite infestation, appear similar to per utilization. The symptoms arising "peat scours" described in New Zealand from excess molybdenum in California and involved with copper deficiency. resemble those of copper deficiency, and These indefinite observations are re- copper therapy is being successfully em- ported here because more general recog- ployed to counteract molybdenum. nition of the problem in the field helps Cobalt requirement appears to be met to direct research attention to the affected by about 0.1 part per million in the dry areas. matter of pasture, or about 0.1 milligram daily per 100 pounds of body weight. Less Symptoms of Nutritional than these amounts has led to progressive Deficiencies emaciation, and, finally, to anemia. Symptoms of nutritional deficiencies The probability of copper deficiency most often encountered in California are being involved in hair bleaching some- summarized in the following paragraphs. times observed in the granite area of the In some cases the symptoms are specific. Sierra foothills, including the San Joa- Reduced appetite or growth, rough hair quin Experimental Range, has not been coat, and general unthriftiness are com- fully explored. Limited data show low mon to most states of undernutrition. or borderline copper content in dried Since deficiencies may range from very forage which may be complicated by mild cases to severe, they may exist lower amounts of molybdenum than are without causing gross symptoms. The generally considered toxic. Supplemental more insidious, mild, and often multiple feeding of cottonseed cake prevented hair deficiencies, resulting in suboptimum per- bleaching in the San Joaquin Experi- formance rather than dramatic symp- mental Range. Occasional occurrence of toms, are most difficult to diagnose, but an ataxic nervous disorder in calves has are commonly the source of greatest eco- been noted. Severe scouring, emaciation, nomic loss.

TABLE 13 (III)

Estimated Carotene Content of Feeds in Relation to Appearance and Methods of Conservation

Carotene, Feedstuff milligrams per pound

Fresh green legumes and grasses, immature 15-40 Dehydrated alfalfa meal, fresh, dehydrated without field curing, very bright green color 110-135 Dehydrated alfalfa meal after considerable time in storage, bright green color 50-70 Alfalfa leaf meal, bright green color 60-80 Legume hays, including alfalfa, very quickly cured with minimum sun exposure; bright green color, leafy 35-40 Legume hays, including alfalfa, good green color, leafy 18-27 Legume hays, including alfalfa, partly bleached, moderate amount of green color 9-14 Legume hays, including alfalfa, badly bleached or discolored, traces of green color 4-8

Nonlegume hays, including timothy, cereal, and prairie hays, well cured, good green color. . . 9-14 Nonlegume hays, average quality, bleached, some green color 4-8 Legume silage 5-20 Corn and sorghum silages, medium to good green color 2-10 Grains, mill feeds, protein concentrates, and by-product concentrates, except yellow corn and its by-products 0.01-0.2

Section III— Page 8 TABLE 14 (III) Composition of Calcium and Phosphorus Supplements

Calcium Phosphorus Fluorine, Mineral supplement Grams Grams per cent Per cent Per cent per pound per pound

Bone meal, raw, feeding 22.7 103 10.1 46 0.030 28.7 130 13.9 63 30.0 136 13.9 63 0.037 21.0 95 9.0 41 29.0 132 13.0 59 Defluorinated superphosphate 28.3 128 12.3 56 0.15 or less Dicalcium phosphate 26.5 120 20.5 93 0.05 Disodium phosphate nil nil 8.6 39 38.3 174 nil nil Monocalcium phosphate 16.0 72 24.0 109 0.05 Monosodium phosphate nil nil 22.4 102 Oyster-shell "flour 36.9 167 nil nil Spent bone black 22.0 100 13.1 59

* Because of the limited number of products on the market, figures are given for two types of defluorinated rock that are being produced for livestock feeding.

Energy Intake (Total Digestible gans, and the result is rapid weight loss, Nutrients). Lack of sufficient feed is weakness, and emaciation (fig. 22, III). probably the most common deficiency in Salt (Sodium Chloride). Salt defi- beef cattle. In limited feeding during the ciency is manifested by intense craving winter, on overstocked ranges, or during for salt, lack of appetite, and unthrifty the early green-feed period, low energy appearance. Increased salt consumption intake may be the sole deficiency. The may also result from depraved appetite results are slowing or cessation of growth caused by other deficiencies. (including skeletal growth), loss of Phosphorus. Areas of phosphorus weight, reproduction failure, and in- deficiency are widespread throughout creased death loss. On ranges and pas- the world, particularly in semiarid re- tures, low food intake commonly results gions, and are commonly associated with in increased mortality from toxic plants phosphorus-deficient soils. As a rule, and from lowered resistance to parasites phosphorus content decreases markedly and diseases. Very commonly, however, when plants fully mature and seeds shat- underfeeding is complicated by concomi- ter; and this deficiency, along with that tant shortage of protein and other nutri- of protein, commonly occurs when cattle ents. (See fig. 26, IV.) must subsist for long periods on mature,

Protein. Shortage of protein is the nonleguminous dried grasses and herbs. second most common deficiency in beef The earliest symptoms of phosphorus cattle. These nitrogenous compounds are deficiency are decrease in blood phos- the principal building materials for phorus, in appetite, and in rate of gain. muscle tissue, vital organs, hide, horns, Milk production falls off. Efficiency of and hair. Feeds low in them are non- feed utilization, particularly of protein, legume roughage, common grains, and is depressed. These effects are followed mature range forage. Protein deficiency by depraved appetite with specific crav- results in poor growth, depressed appe- ing for bones, but may be manifested by tite, failure of milk secretion and of heat chewing of wood, eating of dirt, and in- periods. If the deficiency is severe, not creased consumption of salt. Long- only does growth stop, but the muscle tis- continued privation results in bone sues are too depleted to supply vital or- changes, lameness and stiffness of joints.

Page 9-Section III and even fracture of bones. Figure 23 derline goiter area, with certain sharply (III) illustrates some effects of phos- defined localities definitely deficient in phorus deficiency. iodine. Even within these areas, there Calcium. In contrast to phosphorus, appears to be seasonal variation in occur- calcium deficiency in beef cattle is com- rence of goiter. Some areas in the heavy- paratively rare and mild; the symptoms rainfall district of the north-coast section are inconspicuous. When fattening calves are also deficient. In such areas, losses of are heavily fed on concentrates with lim- calves occur unless iodine is supplied. ited quantities of nonlegume roughage, Thin, small calves from cows in good con-

their calcium intake is insufficient for op- dition may possibly be a manifestation of timum gain and bone development. Dried mild deficiency even though enlarged

range forage, if predominantly grasses, glands are not observed. may contain less than required minimum Vitamin A. The natural source of vita- quantities; and cereal straws are usually min A for cattle is carotene, a yellow pig- deficient. Severe deficiency, which seldom ment found in all green plant tissues. This occurs, may so deplete the bones of cal- is the yellow coloring matter of carrots, of cium and phosphorus that fractures re- milk, and of body fat of cattle. Carotene sult. may be changed in the animal body to

Iodine. The deficiency is usually practically colorless vitamin A. In cattle manifested by the production of dead or most of the storage accumulating under nonviable goitrous calves. Occasional favorable conditions is found in the liver borderline cases may survive; in these the as the preformed vitamin. Significant moderate thyroid enlargement that shows amounts of unchanged carotene are as a swelling at the throat disappears in stored, particularly in the body fat. a few weeks. Areas in which the iodine Carotene decomposes rapidly under ex-

content of feed and water is deficient are posure to sun and air. Consequently, dry- localized. The whole lava country of range forage, bleached hays, and straw

northeast California is considered a bor- are lacking in this essential substance or

Fig. 22 (III). The cow on the left received a ration low in protein and phosphorus, similar in composition to that of dry grass filaree range forage. She was thin and weak, and produced little milk for her undersized calf. The cow on the right received the same ration plus 2 pounds daily of cottonseed meal. She maintained thrifty condition and produced abundant milk and a "growthy" calf. (From Ext. Cir. 115.)

Section III— Page 10 Fig. 23 (III) . The heifer in the upper picture gained for a 6-month period on a ration containing 0.13 per cent phosphorus. She maintained weight for a year on 0.09 per cent phosphorus, but lost weight during 6 months when the ration contained only 0.07 per cent. Her appetite became poor and depraved, her blood phosphorus low; she had no heat period for more than a year. The control animal shown below received ample phosphorus supplement. She continued to gain, was thrifty, and had regular heat periods. The photographs were taken at the close of the experiment. (From Ext. Cir. 115.)

Page 11—Section III .

contain only traces of it. Since grains and Deficiency in the pregnant animal re- other concentrate feeds, except yellow sults in abortion or, at term, in birth of corn, are deficient in carotene, cattle must weak or dead calves (fig. 24, III). either have some green feed in the ration Important Toxic Trace Elements or draw upon reserves stored in the liver and fat tissues. If the period on deficient Fluorine. Minute quantities of fluorine feeds is prolonged, reserves are depleted, are apparently needed to maintain the and deficiency symptoms develop. teeth. This chemical element is one of the The first easily detected clinical symp- halogen group to which iodine belongs. tom of vitamin-A deficiency is night Although widely distributed in soils, blindness, readily observed when animals waters, and in both animal and plant tis- are driven about in twilight, moonlight, sues, it is not found in abundant quantity. or other dim illumination. The trouble Dental enamel is relatively rich in the may be present even though the animals substance and contains 100 to 200 micro- appear thrifty and are gaining at prac- grams per 100 grams of dry substance. tically normal rates. When gross night Fluorine is also found in much smaller blindness is evident, vitamin A in the amounts in bones, skin, blood, and hair. blood is very low and liver reserves ap- In 1931 Smith, Lantz, and Smith, in the proach exhaustion. The next conspicuous University of Arizona, College of Agri- symptoms usually developed are muscu- culture, proved that mottled enamel of the lar incoordination, staggering gait, and teeth in children was due to the presence convulsive seizures caused by a rise of the of fluorine in drinking water at the very cerebrospinal fluid pressure, which also slight concentration of 3 to 7 parts per results in swelling and congestion around million. Incidence of mottled teeth among the entrance of the optic nerve into the the Pima Indians resident in Sacaton, eye. Total and permanent blindness in Arizona, was 100 per cent; and the drink- young animals results from constriction ing water was found to contain 3.9 parts of the bony canals, and the pressure per million (3.9 milligrams of fluorine causes atrophy of the optic nerves. The per liter of water) eyes of affected cattle water profusely, Toxic quantities of this substance from wetting the cheeks. In advanced defi- natural sources may be ingested by live- ciency, nasal discharges are common. stock over long periods if the drinking

Unless death in convulsion or from inter- water contains much fluorine or if rock current disease, such as pulmonary in- phosphate or mineral mixtures contain-

fection, intervenes, the corneas of the eyes ing it are supplied. Phillips, Hart, and become clouded and may, if subjected to Bohstedt (2) show that an intake of 336 infection, become ulcerated. Severe diar- milligrams of fluorine per kilogram of rhea in young calves and intermittent body weight has proved toxic, as indicated diarrhea at advanced stages of deficiency by bone changes, molar teeth abrasion, in adults are characteristic. In fattening and, in the last year of the experiment, cattle generalized swelling, referred to as noticeable failure in general health. In- anasarca, may occur. gestion of the usual minute amounts Deficiency in bulls causes degeneration must be continued over months to a year of the testicular germinal epithelium, pro- or more before noticeable symptoms ap- duction of defective sperm, and, finally, pear. The teeth changes in cattle are in the loss of sexual interest. Recovery of sexual molars, which become badly worn, with desire promptly follows vitamin-A sup- very irregular grinding surfaces. The plement, but several months may be re- enamel is dull, and the teeth become so quired before the sperm becomes entirely sensitive that the animals tend to lap cold normal. drinking water, but proceed to drink nor-

Section III— Page 12 Fig. 24 (III). The heifer at the top received a ration deficient in vitamin A but otherwise complete; she became night blind and aborted during the last month of pregnancy. The heifer in the middle picture received the same ration, plus one pound daily of dehydrated alfalfa meal during the latter part of pregnancy, and produced a normal calf. The lower heifer received 15 cubic centimeters of codliver oil daily, containing 2,600 units of vitamin A per gram during a similar period; she likewise produced a normal calf. (From Ext. Cir. 115.)

mally if the water is warmed. The chronic, tain low toxic quantities. The trouble was cumulative, poisonous effect is shown by readily prevented by keeping animals the fact that the affected bony structures from drinking such waters over long contain ten to fifteen times as much fluo- periods of time. rine as similar bones of normal animals. Food and drug regulations take cogni- Poisoning by this element has been zance of the efficiency of defluorination found in Modoc County in cattle, horses, of the rock phosphate used in animal feed. and human beings. The waters from cer- Selenium. This element causes diffi- tain hot springs in Surprise Valley con- culties on the eastern slope of the Rockies

Page 13—Section III and on the Great Plains, but to date has fected areas after symptoms appear. The not been incriminated in California. It is symptoms appear mainly to be those of one explanation of the catch-all term copper deficiency. That molybdenum in- "alkali poisoning" on the range. The pri- terferes with copper assimilation or me- mary source of the material was igneous tabolism has been demonstrated. The rocks, which were broken down in early growing of grasses which have a lower geological times, the selenium finding its molybdenum uptake than legumes in pas- way into sedimentary rock of Upper Cre- tures of affected areas and the use of taceous time and then into the Pierre and copper supplement are the preventive Niobrara formations. It is taken up from practices currently indicated. these areas by so-called converter wild plants. When these decay, selenium is Cattle Feeds returned to the soil in a form readily Characteristics of Range Forage* available to cultivated crop plants. The Annual Forage Plants. The princi- poisoning of animals results. This is the pal forage plants of California foothill so-called "selenium cycle." and valley ranges are annuals that germi- Affected cattle develop a dermatitis and nate after the first autumn rains. They a characteristic eroded condition of the make varied amounts of growth during horn of the hoofs. The subject is fully the winter, according to temperature and discussed in Bulletin 206 of the Wyoming moisture conditions. From February to Station (3) and in Technical Bulletin 2 of May is usually the period of greatest for-

the South Dakota Station . According (4) age production. The relative abundance to this latter publication, molybdenum of different species varies with soil, sea- has been found in conjunction with sele- sonal distribution of rainfall, and close- nium in some plants and is thought to ness of grazing. have a secondary probably additive and In general, the various forage species effect. are, in the early stages of growth, high in This is not generally Molybdenum. water, protein, and minerals, and low in considered a necessary element in animal crude fiber. The dry matter of actively nutrition although, according to Austra- growing plants is much more digestible lian reports (5), extremely low levels of than that of the leaves and stems of the in forage associated with molybdenum same plants in the mature stage; it has what was considered normal copper con- the characteristics of a concentrate feed tent resulted in copper toxicity. Molyb- rich in protein. The high moisture con- denum is toxic when ingested even in tent in the early stages, coupled with the minute amounts in forage. It is widely animal's difficulty in obtaining sufficient distributed in soils of granitic origin. quantity, limits gains during this period. As with selenium, some plants take up The various species of forage plants differ relatively much more of it than others. markedly in composition and nutritive Britton and Goss of the University of value when mature and dry. Since the California have found that it is present botanical composition of range forage in toxic quantities in California. It is the may vary greatly from year to year, causative factor of a long-known, ob- knowledge of chemical characteristics of scure malady of cattle over wide areas the principal types of plants is valuable in the San Joaquin Valley and in south- in judging the quality of the feed and in ern California. This abnormality is ac- * Unless otherwise indicated, data in this sec- companied by changes in the color of the tion are from: Hart, G. H., H. R. Guilbert, and chemical composi- hair, by diarrhea, emaciation, and gen- H. Goss. Seasonal changes in tion of range forage and their relation to nutri- eral unthriftiness ; death may occur if tion of animals. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. the animals are left too long on the af- 543:1-62. 1932. (Out of print.)

Section III— Page 14 selecting suitable supplements. These an- soft, whereas the droppings of cattle graz- nuals may be broadly classified as flowering exclusively on dry grasses that are ing herbs, grasses, and legumes. low in ash, tend to become hard and dry. Of the flowering herbs or the broad- A large number of species of annual leaved plants, the filarees (Erodium spp.) grasses is widely distributed on Califor- are most important, often constituting nia ranges. Wild oats (Avena spp.), more than 50 per cent of the total forage. bromes, fescues (Festuca spp.), and fox- In some areas other flowering plants may tail predominate. Wild oats and foxtail contribute significantly to the forage (Hordeummurinum) are generally abun- taken by cattle for limited periods. dant under good soil and moisture con- Three species of filaree are widely dis- ditions, while bromes and fescues tributed in California. Red-stem filaree predominate in poorer soils. Closeness (Erodium cicutarium) is found generally of grazing may also affect the relative over the more fertile valley and foothill abundance of different species. Under ranges. White-stem filaree [Erodium light grazing, or complete protection, moschatum) is often found intermixed taller-growing species, such as wild oats with red stem, especially in the coastal and often such objectionable species as areas, and appears frequently in old cul- ripgut, or needle brome (Bromus rigi-

tivated fields. During the growing sea- dus) , flourish to the exclusion of shorter, son, these species, together with annual finer grasses, filaree, and legumes. grasses, produce very nutritious pasture. Most of the grass species are palatable The broad-leaved species (Erodium bo- and nutritious in the early stages, but trys) and Erodium botrys f. montanum become deficient in protein and low in predominate, or may be found only on energy value at maturity. The available the poorer granitic, red, and gravelly soils, calcium and the total mineral content of or on other soil in the oak and digger- dry grasses are low, in contrast to those pine belt of foothill areas. Livestock pre- of filarees and clovers. Phosphorus con- fer the red-stem and white-stem to the tent is also low, as with filaree. The seeds coarser broad-leaved species. These are of most species scatter quickly when ma- higher in protein and minerals and lower tured and become relatively unavailable in fiber at comparable stages of growth for grazing. Some seeds no doubt are than broad-leaved filaree and, under the obtained by cattle which graze on the fine same soil and moisture conditions, tend leaf material on the ground. Seeds are to remain green somewhat later in the relatively higher in phosphorus, and an season. abundant seed crop may increase the The filarees are high in calcium and supply of this essential nutrient. Soft

total soluble minerals. The dry matter in chess (Bromus mollis) , probably the most the early stages of growth is rich in pro- desirable of the annual brome-grass spe-

tein, but after maturity the amount is cies, retains the seeds in the seed heads ordinarily too low to meet the require- for a considerable time, and these heads

ments of cattle. Dry filaree is low in phos- are grazed by cattle before the less nutri- phorus, and the wide ratio of calcium to tious stems are eaten. The seeds of foxtail phosphorus is unfavorable to phosphorus and ripgut or needle brome, through me- utilization. The fiber increases with ma- chanical injury to eyes and mouth, cause turity and drying, so that total feed value significant damage. The fiber content of becomes a limiting factor in producing grasses tends to be higher than in the red- gains. After long periods on dry feed the and white-stem filaree and clovers and feces of cattle that are eating considerable is of a tougher nature. Because of high quantities of filaree and other plants high fiber and low digestibility of the dry, in soluble minerals, remain moist and mature grasses, the amounts that cattle

Page 15—Section III can consume furnish little more than the these types of annual forage, collected at energy requirement for maintenance, different seasons and from various range even when protein and mineral deficien- areas. cies are corrected by supplemental feed- Perennial Grasses. Perennial ing. grasses, together with sedges and rushes, Legumes contain more protein than make up the principal forage in higher grasses and flowering herbs. Bur clover ranges and mountain meadows. Perennial

(Medicago hispida) , an outstanding spe- bunch grasses, in significant amounts, are cies, maintains relatively high nutritive found on some coast ranges; partially value even in the mature dry state. The depleted stands respond to judicious graz- protein content may exceed 30 per cent ing practices. Some bunch grass also re- of the dry matter in the early stages of mains in northeastern California ranges growth. The amount decreases with ma- and in the high mountains. Salt grass

turity, but mature dry bur clover aver- (Distichlis spicata) , a sod-forming peren- ages about 15 per cent protein, an amount nial, occupies large areas of alkaline more than necessary to meet minimum valley land, remains green most of the requirements of cattle. It is, therefore, a summer and provides fair forage for cat- valuable supplement to other forage low tle. Bermuda grass occupies extensive in protein. The calcium and phosphorus areas of lowlands, and though it is a content is adequate for nutritional re- serious pest in cultivated crops, it fur- quirements. Digestibility is relatively nishes good pasture for livestock during high, and gains continue when cattle have the summer. In chemical characteristics, dry feed containing abundant bur clover. all these grasses are somewhat similar, The plant is found on the richer, heavier though some are much more fibrous and soils; and early fall rains accompanied less palatable than others. The mature dry by warm weather make favorable "bur- forage of the coarser, tall-growing peren- clover years." The seeds and pods have nial bunch grasses is low in protein, high about the same chemical composition as in fiber, and relatively unpalatable. In the combined stems and leaves. Many general, the more fine leafy material there seeds are impervious to moisture and pass is available the more nutritious is the through the digestive tract apparently cured forage. Perennials have one out- unchanged. The availability of the seeds standing advantage; they start growth of this species for grazing, however, con- more quickly and, being deep-rooted,

tributes greatly to its nutritive value. remain green longer than annuals, a char- Spanish clover {Lotus americanus) and acteristic that prolongs the period of fa- hill lotus (Lotus humistratus) are less vorable feed conditions. Every practical important representatives of leguminous means of encouraging valuable perennial plants. They usually constitute only a grass species is desirable for improve- small percentage of the total forage on ment of the range feed supply. foothill ranges. Since they normally re- Browse. Bluebrush [Ceanothus inte-

main green after grasses and filaree have gerrimus) , often locally called deer brush dried, they are relished at that time and or sweet birch, is among the most impor- extend the period of adequate nutrition tant browse species in the foothills and of the animals. mountains. Thick stands frequently de- Various species of vetch occur in the velop after fires, and cattle make good mountains and in some foothill areas. gains on this as practically the sole forage They are commonly called "pea vines" by for periods of from 2 to 4 months. Young stockmen and are relished by livestock. stands of low-growing browse provide Table 15 (III) shows the average chem- better forage than older plants, which ical composition of many samples of eventually become too high for grazing

Section III— Page 16 ——

TABLE 15 (III) Average Percentage Composition of Representative Annual Forage Species Showing Seasonal Changes*

Nitrogen- Crude free Crude Total Phos- Forage species Calcium protei n extract fiber minerals! phorus and fat

Bur-clover: Early green stage 32.9 44.7 12.8 9.7 1.1 0.45 Bloom stage 24.2 49.2 18.2 8.4 1.5 .40 Seed stage 22.8 47.5 22.2 7.4 1.2 .32 Mature, dry 16.7 46.4 30.7 6.1 1.5 .24

Wild oats: Early green stage 14.2 57.4 22.0 6.4 0.41 .38 Bloom stage 10.0 54.7 31.3 4.0 0.24 .29 Seed stage 7.6 55.9 33.3 3.2 0.23 .25 Dry, seeds shattered 5.4 58.4 32.6 3.7 0.26 .18 Dry, leached 3.6 59.6 34.5 2.3 0.23 .11

Soft chess: Bloom stage 13.6 53.6 28.2 4.6 0.35 .37 Seed stage 11.5 59.1 26.1 3.3 0.31 .33 Mature, dry 7.7 60.9 28.0 3.4 0.35 .26 Dry, leached 6.9 60.5 30.1 2.5 0.41 .14

Red-stem filaree: Early green stage 29.8 45.4 11.3 13.5 2.2 .46 Bloom stage 17.8 51.1 18.8 12.3 2.3 .46 Seed stage 15.9 51.8 20.4 11.8 2.6 .38 Mature, dry 8.5 55.6 22.8 13.1 3.0 .18 Dry, leached 5.5 58.9 29.1 6.5 2.6 .14

Broad-leaf filaree: Early green stage 25.0 52.1 12.1 10.8 1.7 .39 Bloom stage 14.6 55.1 22.1 8.2 1.4 .35 Seed stage 11.2 54.0 27.0 7.9 1.4 .32 Mature, dry 6.4 57.2 28.3 7.9 1.7 .13 Dry, leached 5.9 58.6 30.0 5.9 1.9 0.08

* All figures are expressed on the basis of moisture-free samples, t Total minerals represent silica-free ash. cattle. Bluebrush decreases in phosphorus contribute considerable forage in some and increases in calcium as it matures, areas are serviceberry (Amelanchier alni- and this fact may help to explain why it jolia) , coffeeberry (Simmondsia cali- is poor forage late in the season. The jornica), poison oak (Toxicodendron stems and shoots also become tough, par- diversilobum) , and leaves of various oak ticularly on old plants; as a consequence, species. Leaves of mountain white oak the animals may have difficulty in getting (Quercus Garryana) of northwestern a. fill of leaves, whereas early in the sea- California appear to be higher in feed son they browse on the leaves and the value than those of other species. Various tender shoots. Bluebrush contains a sapo- mesquite species and screw beans are im- nin, the toxicity of which for cattle has portant browse plants in some desert not been demonstrated. areas. The seeds and pods are rich in The seasonal changes in composition protein and are especially nutritious. of bitterbrush {Purshia tridentata) and In general the protein content of mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus mon- browse species including desert and semi- tanus) appear to be similar to those of desert plants, such as sages [Artemisia bluebrush. Among other species that may spp.), winter fat {Eurotia lanata) , and

Page 17—Section ...

shadscales {Atriplex spp.) , is higher than Acorns. In some years the acorn crop that of dry grasses and weeds. If fairly is heavy, and utilization of this large po- palatable species are present in sufficient tential feed resource is an important prob- quantities, they constitute a valuable sup- lem. Stockmen are divided in opinion plement to dry forage; by remaining regarding the effects of acorns on cattle. green and succulent they provide caro- Some report ill effects, while others claim tene, the precursor of vitamin A. Spanish that acorns aid materially in carrying moss and mistletoe also have these sup- cattle when other feed is scarce. The vari- plementary values. Consumption of lib- ations in results may depend on the kind eral quantities of mistletoe does not cause of acorns and also on the nature of other abortion in cattle or sheep. The chemical available feed. composition of various browse species is Different varieties of acorns vary in given in table 16 (III). chemical composition, as is shown in

TABLE 16 (III)

Average Percentage Composition of Various Browse Species*

Nitrogen- Crude free Crude Total Phos- Browse and stages sampled Calcium protein extract fiber minerals! phorus and fat

Bluebrush or sweet birch:

Leaves and new shoots, May 9. . 29.2 50.7 13.6 7.5 1.3 0.56 Leaves and new shoots, May 26. 20.7 56.2 15.8 7.2 1.0 .24 Leaves and new shoots, June 21 22.5 60.1 10.0 7.5 1.9 .21 Leaves and seeds, July 8 24.4 59.6 9.5 6.5 1.8 .22 Leaves and few seeds, August 22. 16.9 65.4 10.9 6.8 2.5 .12 Leaves only, September 19 14.3 71.8 6.9 7.1 2.0 .11 Seedling twigs and whole plants, July 23 25.0 57.1 11.3 6.6 .31

Bitterbrush: Leaves and twigs, May 19 15.0 62.8 18.7 3.5 0.72 .24 Leaves, August 6 13.3 65.3 16.1 5.4 1.5 .18 Leaves, September 14 11.6 68.2 16.2 3.9 1.2 .13

Mountain-mahogany, August 7 16.1 55.1 22. 6.3 1.2 .13

Chokecherry, July 23 21.5 63.3 5.9 1.4 .25

Oak leaves: Mountain white oak, August 15.. 18.7 0.8 .26 Mountain white oak, September 20 16.3 0.9 .17 Mountain white oak, October 15. 14.3 1.2 0.30

Mountain white oak, t September 15.7 47.8 17.0

Blue oak, J September 8.8 41.3 35.2 9.8

Canyon live oak, J September. . 11.4 38.1 30.6 10.0 Black oak.t September 50.1 20.3

Poison oak leaves, t September. . . 7.2 50.3 26.6 9.2

Serviceberry, large-leaved§ 14.3 60.1 23.6 1.9

Serviceberry. small-leaved§ 16.1 61.7 14.4 7.7

• All figures are expressed on the basis of moisture-free samples. t Total minerals represent silica-free ash. t The tannin analyses of these samples varied from 5.3 to 14.6 per cent and are not included with the nitrogen- free extract and fat. The total of the protein, nitrogen-free extract and fat, fiber, and ash does not therefore equal 100 per cent. Data from: Mackie, W. W. The value of oak leaves for forage. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 150:1-21. 1903. (Out of print.) § Data from: Dayton, W. A. Important western browse plants. U. S. Dept. Agr. Misc. Pub. 101:1-213. 1931.

Section III— Page 18 TABLE 17 (III) Percentage Composition op Acorn Samples

Nitro- Mois- Crude Crude Cal- Phos- Material Fat Ash gen-free Tan- ture protein cium extract phorus nins

Black oak (Quercus Kelloggii) Shell 35.58 0.96 27.90 0.61 0.73 34.22 0.19 0.01 1.68 Kernel 38.35 4.29 9.25 14.70 1.28 32.13 0.06 0.07 1.85 Whole nut 37.60 3.43 14.07 11.05 1.14 32.71 0.09 0.06 1.81*

Quercus dumosa Shell 43.60 1.41 19.10 1.01 1.30 33.58 0.18 0.04 7.95 Kernel 44.88 2.63 3.68 4.34 1.02 43.45 0.06 0.05 4.07 Whole nut 44.58 2.29 7.96 3.42 1.10 40.65 0.09 0.05 5.15

Blue oak (Quercus Douglasii) Shell 41.34 1.47 20.52 1.41 1.83 33.43 0.23 0.02 6.96 Kernel 40.55 3.50 2.99 5.78 0.79 46.39 0.03 0.05 2.58 Whole nut 40.75 3.03 7.08 4.77 0.98 43.39 0.08 0.04 3.61

Water oak (Quercus lobata) Shell 36.23 1.99 21.28 0.54 1.64 38.32 0.18 0.05 5.86 Kernel 42.02 3.10 3.30 5.50 1.02 45.06 0.04 0.07 3.18 Whole nut 40.57 2.82 7.84 4.25 1.08 43.44 0.08 0.06 3.85

Interior live oak (Quercus Wis lizenii) Shell 25.67 1.34 34.07 0.63 0.74 37.55 0.31 0.01 2.94 Kernel 30.80 3.49 5.80 17.77 1.08 41.06 0.04 0.06 5.00 Whole nut 11.24 14.47 1.01 40.40 0.09 0.05

* Another sample had a tannin content of 6.4 per cent, indicating that acorns from different trees vary in composition as well as in palatability. table 17 (III). Some are high in oil, 12 pounds of blue oak acorns daily, in others comparatively low. Tannin content addition to natural dry forage on the is likewise variable. High fat content, as range. Four were fed 10 pounds of acorns well as tannin and other intestinal irri- and 2 pounds of 43 per cent protein cot- tants, may contribute to diarrhea. All tonseed cake daily in addition to dry for- acorns are low in protein and minerals, age. Between September 21 and December but they have considerable value if the 30, the first group lost an average of 174 ration is otherwise complete. pounds per head, as compared with an In a feeding test in 1936 (6), 3 cows average gain of 53 pounds for the second on the San Joaquin Experimental Range group, which received the protein supple- lost an average of 150 pounds in 2 months ment with the acorns. when fed all the blue oak acorns they This peculiar situation of weight loss would eat and given access to dry range being accelerated by the eating of acorns, fojrage. Similar cows in another pasture and the counteraction by protein supple- with few acorns lost only 25 pounds. One ment so that the acorns have significant cow which was fed acorns after the green feed value, has been confirmed by cattle- feed started, gained almost as fast as she men. Evidently, therefore, a bountiful had previously lost on dry feed. crop of acorns should be regarded, not Since green feed is seldom available on as a curse, but rather as feed that can be the range when acorns ripen and drop, put to good use if supplemented with ade- a second trial was run in 1942, in which quate protein concentrate. cottonseed cake as a supplement was Effect of Rain on Dry Forage. Ac- tested. Three cows were hand-fed 10 to cording to laboratory experiments (7, 8)

Page 19— Section dry forage contains 8 to 20 per cent of over, there may be considerable loss of water-soluble materials, most of which leaves that are shattered and beaten into are leached out by rains after the forage the soil by heavy rain. has dried. Soluble carbohydrates make Characteristics of Harvested up the larger part of this loss, though the Roughages, Grains, highest loss on a percentage basis is in and the mineral, the loss of which may vary By-products from 30 to nearly 70 per cent of the total Legume Hays. Legume roughages, mineral content. Nearly all the common such as alfalfa and various clovers, are salt is removed, a fact which partly ex- higher in protein (table 12, III) than plains the increase in salt consumption other forage crops; the protein is of excel- after late rains have "spoiled" the feed. lent quality, the calcium content is high, The percentage loss of protein in labora- and, when well cured, the roughages con- tory experiments was 7 to 18 per cent tain liberal amounts of carotene and other of the total. The percentage of protein in accessory nutrients. For these reasons the the leached residue remains about the legume roughages are especially valuable same, or may even be higher because of in combination with cereal grains and larger losses of other constituents. The other carbohydrate feeds. crude fiber content of the residue after In tests at the Kansas Agricultural Ex- leaching is higher. Digestion experiments periment Station, gains of cattle were show a decrease in digestibility of all nu- greatest on hay cut at the bud stage, next trients, except fiber, after the soluble in- at one-tenth bloom, and least when ma- gredients are leached out by rain. An ture. Hay from the early stages is some- example of how apparently small changes what laxative. Both for feed value and in digestibility may affect nutrients avail- for yield of digestible nutrients, early to able for gain is shown in digestion experi- one-half bloom stages are preferable for ments with bur clover before and after cattle. Careful curing saves leaves, the it was leached by 0.7 inch of rain. In 20 most nutritious part of the plant; this pounds of bur clover there were 12.5 results in higher protein content and in pounds of digestible nutrients before conservation of minerals and other im- leaching and 10.7 pounds after leaching. portant nutrients. Carotene is rapidly Since about 8 pounds of these nutrients decomposed during curing and sun ex- are needed to maintain a 1,000-pound posure, so that about 75 per cent is lost steer, evidently with the unleached clover, even under most favorable conditions for 4.5 pounds would be available for gain; sun-curing. Nearly all carotene disap- but with the leached, only 2.7 pounds. pears in slow-cured, and in bleached hays. Although the leaching caused a decrease Proper haymaking increases not only feed of about 15 per cent in digestibility, the value, but also yields per acre, and palat- nutrients available for gain would be de- ability; and it reduces waste in feeding. creased about 40 per cent. This percent- Nonlegume Hays. California is a age of decrease occurs under practical leading state in production of cereal hay, conditions, since animals are limited in and large quantities are used in beef-cattle the amount of total feed they can con- feeding. Grain hays are low in protein sume. The effect is apt to be greater than and calcium, compared with the legumes. indicated, since removal of soluble nutri- As hay is ordinarily cured, most of the ents, responsible for the taste of feed, vitamin-A value is bleached out, but when decreases palatability. If range feed re- there is a significant amount of green mains wet for a considerable length of color, the amount of carotene present will time, further damage is caused by molds suffice to prevent deficiency. California and other decomposing agencies. More- feeding tests and practical experience

Section Ill-Page 20 have demonstrated that results compa- age-quality hay. The tonnage secured and rable with those of alfalfa are obtained in cost of production in comparison with fattening cattle when the protein and hay are important considerations. Cheap other deficiencies are properly supple- trench silos reduce the overhead cost. A mented. Mixed hays, such as wild oats small acreage of silage crops may often and bur clover, and oats and vetch, are be a way of increasing the feed supply intermediate in character. The feeding of for wintering young cattle; when used both legume and nonlegume roughage is with legume hay, this feed produces good frequently preferable to either alone. gains without additional concentrate sup- Meadow hay varies with the soil, moisture plements. Silage is valuable in fattening condition, and type of grasses and grass- rations and for all classes of cattle. Sor- like plants of which it is composed. Unless ghum should be cut when the grain is clover is in the mixture, meadow hays mature, otherwise the silage may be too have much the same character as grain acid. Silage from legumes and grasses hays. may be satisfactorily made by adding 60 The Washington Station has shown by to 75 pounds of molasses to each ton of chemical analyses and by digestion trials green forage as it goes into the silo. that the medium dough stage of maturity Roots and Tubers. The relative is most desirable for wheat, beardless bar- values of some roots and tubers appear in ley, and oat hays. The increased digesti- table 12 (III). When these feeds can be bility found for later stages is more than grown economically or when culls are offset by shattering and leaf loss under available at low cost, they can be effec- practical conditions. Curing to conserve tively utilized in cattle rations. Roots and green color is important, not only for tubers are high in moisture and low in palatability but also to retain carotene. fiber; the dry matter is highly digestible. Straw. As plants mature, nutrients Roots may be used in the same manner as formed in the green parts are largely silage. Sugar beets and potatoes properly transported to the ripening seeds; the fed are only slightly lower in value than straw that is left is low in protein, min- corn silage. Sugar beets, mangels, and po- erals, starch, fat, and vitamins, and high tatoes should be chopped or sliced. Stock in fiber. The digestibility and productive should be gradually accustomed to such value are much lower than in hays from feeds, especially potatoes; too large the same plants cut at earlier stages. Chaff amounts may cause scours. Because of and leaf material have a higher value than solanine, a toxic substance present in the coarser stems. When economically small amounts, badly sunburned or handled and adequately supplemented, sprouted potatoes should be fed only in the straws can be marketed to advantage limited amounts, as a matter of safety, through cattle. Recommendations for although liberal quantities have been their utilization are given in Section IV, given to cattle without apparent injury. "Production of Feeder Cattle," and Sec- Care should be taken to supply adequate tion V, "Fattening Cattle and the Dressed amounts of protein feeds when roots and Product." tubers are used in the ration. An efficient Silage. Corn and sorghum crops are way to store and to utilize root crops is better conserved if ensiled, rather than to chop them into a silo along with corn fed as dry roughage. Silage adds succu- or other silage, or with dry roughage suf- lence and palatability to rations. Corn ficient to take up excess moisture. and sorghum silage require protein sup- Experience in Kern County, as reported plements. Total feed value, as indicated by the county farm advisor, has shown in table 12 (III) and confirmed by feed- that potatoes coarsely sliced and spread ing tests, is about one half that of aver- with alternate layers of chopped barley

Page 21 -Section III hay give a very satisfactory silage, agree- Grain sorghums, such as milo, feterita, able in odor and palatable to cattle. The and kafir, are lower in fiber than barley hay made up about 20 per cent of the and slightly higher in feeding value. They mixture. The silage settled and cured may be used as the only grain in fattening without packing in the trench silo. Heat- rations, but they combine well with other ing in the ensiling process seemed partly grains, especially barley. Ground grain- to cook the potatoes, for afterward they sorghum heads have somewhat lower were rather mealy. feeding value than the ground threshed Considerable quantities of potato meal, grain. If, however, one allows for the in- made by grinding sun-dried cull early cluded roughage by feeding increased potatoes, have been prepared and fed in amounts, results are comparable with the southern San Joaquin Valley. The those of threshed grain. The relatively potatoes are spread, one layer deep, on high moisture content that may be found hard ground free from clods and are al- in threshed grain sorghums often causes lowed to dry for about 2 months. At the molding during storage. end of this time they are very hard and Wheat has a slightly higher feeding are usually ground in hammer mills, value than dent corn, but gives best re- which produce a somewhat powdery prod- sults when it replaces not more than half uct. Mixing this product with molasses of the concentrate ration. to reduce its dusty nature has been suc- Oats, although too bulky to make satis- cessful. Practical tests indicate a value factory fattening feed, are excellent as a about equal to that of barley when fed in grain for growing cattle and as part of well-balanced rations. the mixture in starting cattle on feed. Grains. The common grains, although Dent corn ranks between grain sor- differing slightly in feeding value (table ghums and wheat in total feed value. Its

12, III) , are similar in general character- nutritiousness, together with high palat-

istics and are replaceable one for the other ability, makes it a most desirable fatten- in cattle rations. All grains are relatively ing feed. low in protein and should be fed either Mill Feeds. Mill feeds are most ex- with legume roughage, young green for- tensively used in California for dairy age, or with a protein-rich supplement. cattle and swine. When prices justify, Grains are moderately rich in phos- they may be satisfactorily fed to beef phorus, but are low in calcium. All except cattle. For this latter purpose, however, yellow corn are deficient in vitamin A. they should seldom be used to replace Barley is the basic carbohydrate con- more than 25 to 30 per cent of the concentrate feed in California. Table 12 (III) centrate ration for beef cattle. All of these shows the average value for digestible feeds are palatable. protein and total digestible nutrients. The Mill-run, wheat middlings, and rice normal range of variation in chemical polish are higher in proteins than grains

analyses of rolled and ground barley is and comparable with them in total digest- from 7 to 13 per cent total protein and ible nutrients. from 4 to 8 per cent crude fiber. Immature Rice bran and wheat bran contain barley that is not "well filled" may run more fiber than grains and are somewhat higher in protein, but because of high bulky. Wheat bran is valuable in rations fiber is lower in feeding value. Though the for growing cattle and in fitting animals poorer grades of barley may be utilized, for show or sale. they are inferior to plump, heavy grain, Beet By-products. Fresh pulp from

especially in fattening rations. Barley is the sugar factories contains 90 to 95 per

fairly palatable to cattle, but is best when cent water. When it is passed through a combined with other concentrate feeds. press, the moisture content is reduced to

Section III— Page 22 between 85 and 90 per cent, and the prod- averages a little over 10 per cent of the uct is called pressed pulp. Siloed pulp is beet tonnage. About 40 per cent of the wet pulp that has undergone fermentation dry matter is in the crowns, and 60 per similar to silage; eventually it forms a cent in the leaves. Average figures for rather cheesy mass. The moisture content digestible composition appear in table 12 usually varies from 87 to 90 per cent in (III). The first text table at the bottom well-cured siloed pulp. of the page shows the wide difference in A small reduction in percentage of composition between the crowns and the moisture greatly enhances the dry-matter leaves. content of wet-pulp products; for ex- The high ash content of the leaves con- ample, if, by pressing, the pulp moisture tributes to their laxative effect. They may content is reduced from 94 per cent to 87 also contain 3 to over 6 per cent oxalic per cent, the dry matter is more than acid, an intestinal irritant. The amount doubled. Since the moisture content of decreases during curing and ensiling, and wet pulp is high and variable, the sugar apparently oxalic acid is also decomposed factories should adjust the price on the to some extent in the rumen. Cattle on basis of dry-matter content, and feeders beet tops consume much water, and uri- should compare the cost of digestible dry nate frequently. The high soluble-ash matter with that of other common feeds. content of the leaves and the presence of Dried molasses beet pulp is produced betaine and other nonprotein nitrogen by spraying or mixing molasses with wet compounds contribute to this effect. The pulp and dehydrating the two together. fiber content of beet tops is low, and the The dried product commonly contains 8 digestibility and replacement value in to 10 per cent of moisture. The amount of terms of other feed is comparatively high, molasses in it is variable, but probably especially when this material is used in averages about 30 per cent of the total dry limited quantities with other feeds. The matter, when molasses is plentiful. moisture content of fresh tops is about 80 All beet-pulp products are low in proper cent, field-cured tops 20 to 30 per tein and deficient in phosphorus. cent, and beet-top silage about 70 per Beet pulp is bulky and has physical cent. characteristics resembling roughage. Maynard (9) has summarized data on Since the fiber is highly digestible, how- the feed value of beet by-products. His ever, the feed value of the dry matter is figures, based upon digestible nutrient comparable with that of barley. Beet pulp content, are derived from feeding tests; is an excellent feed to combine with bar- they are expressed in terms of the amounts ley. Such a mixture may be fed more of corn grain and alfalfa that the beet by- heavily without danger of digestive dis- products would replace in the ration. The turbances. summary included 106 experiments, and Beet tops consist of the leaves and the the results appear in the second text table crown of the plant. The dry matter in tops below.

Nitrogen-free Crude extract Crude protein and fat fiber Ash Tops 9.0 59.0 13.0 19.0 Leaves 13.5 45.8 19.2 21.5 Crowns 8.1 80.2 6.9 4.8

Corn and alfalfa replaced by Corn and alfalfa replaced by by-products from 13 3/£ tons by-products of 1 ton of beets average acre yield of beets Corn, Alfalfa, Corn, Alfalfa, pounds pounds pounds tons Beet tops 46 150 620 1.01 Wet pulp 41.6 99.5 560 0.67 Dried pulp 80.2 37.6 1274 0.25

Page 23— Section III ;

Thus, in livestock-feed production, the it consists largely of sugars, and about 9 by-products of the sugar-beet industry are to 12 per cent of mineral matter. The equal to the primary products of many moisture content usually varies from 18 to feed crops; efficient utilization of these 20 per cent. Molasses is very palatable but by-products is extremely important, not is laxative when fed in excess. In Cali- only to the livestock industry, but also to fornia it is commonly a cheap source of the stability of the beet-sugar industry. In- carbohydrates, and for this reason, may formation on utilization of beet by- be used to the extent of 20 to 25 per cent products is presented in Section V, "Fat- of concentrate rations, or up to 10 to 15 tening Cattle and the Dressed Product." per cent of the total ration, when grains Additional data on sugar-beet by-product and ground roughages are fed mixed. value and use have been published by Fifteen to 20 per cent is about the right Guilbert, Miller, and Goss (10). Making amount to mix with ground roughage to beet-top silage by stacking the green tops, keep down dust and still not cake badly drying them in the field, and either haul- in storage. Molasses is also valuable in ing them loose or baling them in the field mixed ground rations to reduce dust; its is a practical method of conservation. palatability makes more effective the use Dried Fruits and Fruit By- of low-grade feeds. According to numer- products. Fruits and their by-products ous experiments, molasses does not have are sometimes available at favorable a value in excess of that indicated by its prices for fattening cattle. They are all digestible nutrients when added to an allow in protein and high in carbohydrates. ready excellent ration including a variety Prunes, raisins, figs, dried peaches, and of palatable feeds. When other palatable dried pears are palatable to cattle and feeds are included in the ration, molasses have been fed to mature animals in may be self-fed. It may also be poured amounts of 4 to 6 pounds daily with satis- or sprayed over grain or roughage in factory results. Reference to table 12 feed troughs or poured into troughs with grains or other feeds placed on top of it. ( III ) will show their value relative to barley. When fed in excess, these fruits tend Molasses at ordinary temperature weighs about 11.8 pounds per gallon. Thinning to be laxative. A good rule is to limit such feed to about 30 per cent of the concen- of molasses by heating is unnecessary trate rations. Dried apple pulp resembles with modern molasses mixers. Detailed beet pulp in composition and may be used information on methods of feeding and similarly. Dried orange and other citrus handling may be secured from the Agri- pulps compare favorably with barley in cultural Extension Service. total feed value. Dried pineapple pulp and Brewery and Distillery By- raisin pulp are lower in feed value be- products. Wet brewers' grains, unless cause of higher fiber content. pressed to remove part of the moisture, Molasses. Most of the molasses used contain about 25 per cent dry matter. The in California is cane or blackstrap. Beet fermentation process removes most of the molasses, including Steffens discard, has starch, leaving a residue higher in fiber, been reported to be fairly similar to cane protein, and fat, but lower in total feed molasses in feeding value, although it is value than the original grains. When fed apparently less palatable and more laxa- fresh, wet brewers' grains are palatable tive. Ordinarily feed analyses show Stef- and wholesome. Because of high moisture, fens-discard beet molasses to have 6 to souring and molding occur unless the 9 per cent protein. Much of this is not true feed is used within a short time after pro- protein, however, and its value for nutri- duction. The digestible nutrient values tion of cattle is questionable. The dry for the dried grains are shown in table matter of cane molasses is low in protein 12 (III).

Section III— Page 24 Distillery slop contains about 94 per on cattle, except perhaps on very young cent water. It can be fed to cattle by calves. The so-called poisonous effect ex- pumping into troughs. Molasses and perienced with cattle is now known to be grains can be added to replace the carbo- vitamin-A deficiency, which occurs after hydrates removed by fermentation. The varying periods when no green forage or recovery of dry matter in the slop is about hay is included in the ration. Dairy cows 35 per cent of that in original grains. The at the Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment liquid that may be strained off contains Station have been fed an average of over about 2 per cent dissolved solids. The dry 10 pounds daily of cottonseed meal matter is high in protein and fat, but through three successive gestation and distillers' corn grain is lower in fiber than lactation periods without ill effect, when brewers' grains. Because of high fat con- sufficient carotene, the precursor of vita- tent, the total digestible nutrient value is min A, was present in the hay. Whole cot- higher than that of the original grain, as tonseed, because of its oil content, is shown in table 12 (III). Distillers' rye higher in digestible nutrients but lower grain is low in feeding value and rela- in protein than the meal or cakes. It is a tively unpalatable. satisfactory feed and may be used when

Protein-rich Concentrates. In Cali- the price makes it economical. fornia, cottonseed meal or cake is the most Linseed meal, although somewhat lower commonly used protein-rich cattle feed. in digestible protein than 43 per cent cot- At times, however, soybean meal, linseed tonseed meal, has given results equal or meal, fish meal, and other similar feeds superior to cottonseed meal in numerous are available in quantity and compete as experiments with fattening cattle. The economical sources of protein. One should protein content of the linseed meal used always consider these feeds when pur- in these tests probably averaged about 30 chasing protein supplements. per cent digestible protein, as compared Cottonseed meal or cake varies in com- with 34 to 35 per cent digestible protein position according to the manufacturing in 41 to 43 per cent protein cottonseed process. Whole-pressed cake contains the meal. Linseed meal produced in Cali- residue which remains after the oil has fornia usually ranges between 28 and 30 been pressed from the whole seed, includ- per cent total crude protein and 24 to 25 ing the hull. It is therefore higher in fiber per cent digestible protein; more is there- and lower in protein than cottonseed fore required than of cottonseed meal to products obtained from hulled seeds. balance low-protein rations. Linseed meal

Whole- or cold-pressed cake is soft and is slightly laxative, appears to have a bulky and is therefore sometimes pre- tonic effect, and is particularly credited ferred for starting cattle on feed or, when with the production of "bloom" and fine the price is favorable, for using large condition of hair. quantities as a fattening feed rather than Fish meal of high quality, low in free as a protein supplement. Only limited fatty acids, is an excellent protein feed quantities are available. Cottonseed meal having about 40 per cent more digestible or cake, other than the cold- or whole- protein than cottonseed meal. Cattle take pressed cake, is available mostly in two it readily in mixed rations and range grades, namely, of 41 per cent protein and calves at weaning time have been taught

43 per cent protein; it is sold in various to eat it alone in a few days. forms, such as nut-sized, sheep-sized, or Meat meal, or tankage, has also been pea-sized cake, and as meal. Cottonseed successfully used as a protein supplement by-products contain small amounts of a in fattening rations; its value was about toxic substance called gossypol. This does proportionate to the digestible protein not, however, appear to have a toxic effect content.

Page 25— Section Sesame meal is palatable, gives excel- actually decrease digestibility, probably lent results as a cattle feed, and has about because such forage does not remain for the same value as 43 per cent cottonseed a normal time in the rumen, where it is meal. Soybean meal is slightly higher, subjected to bacterial digestion. Feeding both in digestible protein and in total of chopped or ground hay mixed with digestible nutrients, than 43 per cent cot- concentrates does not improve the nutri- tonseed meal. Feeding tests with cattle tional value of the feeds used, nor make show practically equal values for sesame the ration better balanced than the same and soybean. feeds fed separately, although there may Peanut meal is very similar in value to be advantages in convenience and safety. soybean and cottonseed meal. As a rule the poorer the quality of the Coconut meal contains only about half roughage, the greater the saving of wasted the protein content of 43 per cent cotton- feed by chopping. On the other hand, the seed cake, but is slightly higher in total lower the price of the roughage the digestible nutrients. It is fairly palatable greater the saving must be to pay chop- to cattle when fed with other concentrate ping costs. When a high quality of hay is feeds. properly fed in suitable racks there is

Perilla meal, hempseed meal, and little waste. If more attention is given to babassu meal are relatively new feeds and harvesting and curing of roughage, there appear on the market in limited and vari- will be less necessity for mechanical able quantities. Details of digestion ex- preparation. Frequently there is too much periments on these feeds are given in overhead cost in equipment and ma- Bulletin 604 (11). chinery for feed lots. Chopped hay re- Mixtures of protein concentrates have quires only one third to one half as much in general been superior to some of the storage space as long hay and slightly less individual protein feeds fed alone. than baled hay. Use of pick-up choppers, together with mechanical unloading de- Preparation of Feeds vices, is a method which can save much All small grains, such as barley, wheat, labor both in harvesting and feeding. In- grain sorghums, and oats should be formation on types of mills, power re- ground or rolled for cattle feeding. Some quirements in relation to fineness of feeders prefer rolled to ground barley be- grinding, and grinding costs can be ob- cause it may be more uniform and less tained from the Agricultural Extension wasteful to feed in windy weather. Where Service. there is no wind loss, a careful feeder will obtain the same results from either Determination of the Most ground or rolled grain. For cattle feeding, Economical Feeds medium to coarse grinding is preferable Ordinary feed analyses give the crude to fine, and the cost of grinding is much protein, nitrogen-free extract, fat, fiber, less. Dent corn need not be ground for and ash content of feeds, but do not show cattle, if hogs are run with them to recover the amounts of these constituents that are the waste ; otherwise, corn should also be digestible, and, therefore, available to the ground. animal. The value of individual feeds Chopping or grinding of hay or other depends not only on the amount of di- roughage decreases necessary storage gestible nutrients they contain, but also space, saves waste, and sometimes labor, upon their palatability, their physical in feeding; but it does not increase digest- effect, and their use with other feeds to ibility. The saving of labor in chewing furnish the quantity and quality of pro- does not materially affect the net value of tein, essential minerals, and vitamins the feed. Fine grinding of roughage may necessary to form a complete ration. If

Section III— Page 26 this information on individual feeds, to- that will make a satisfactory ration. These gether with rules and suggestions for should be the ones that are priced lowest using them in complete rations, is con- in relation to their comparative value.

sidered, then their relative values may be Example: If barley is quoted at $25 per ton, expressed with reasonable accuracy upon what is rice bran worth? Barley price, $25 per ton x 0.87 (the relative productive value factor the basis of their digestible protein and for rice bran) = $21.75, the relative value com- total digestible nutrients. It should be pared with barley. recognized, however, that feeds may vary To determine the cheapest source of from the average analyses. protein concentrates, one must consider The last column in table 12 (III) gives both the digestible protein and the non- approximate relative productive values of protein, or the total digestible nutrients in the various feeds, compared with barley. such feeds. For example, about 2 pounds As experiments have shown, a pound of coconut meal would be required to fur- of digestible nutrients from roughages nish the same amount of protein as 1 has less productive value than a like pound of 43 per cent protein cottonseed amount from concentrates. The relative meal or cake. The 2 pounds of coconut values in table 12 (III) therefore, give a , meal, however, furnish also about 1.3 more accurate basis for comparing the pounds of nonprotein digestible nutrients worth of concentrates and roughages, as and would be approximately equal in pro- sources of total productive-energy value tein and in total digestible nutrients to at various prices ton, per than the digest- 1 pound of cottonseed meal plus 1 pound ible-nutrient figures for these feeds. Pro- of barley. Therefore, adding the price of tein or nutrients content, other than a ton of cottonseed meal to the price of energy value, has not been considered in a ton of barley and dividing by 2 would this table. give the approximate replacement value When the prices of high- and low- of a ton of coconut meal. One can make protein feeds are about the same, one may similar comparisons for any feeds, in select the cheapest by computing the order to arrive at a rough estimate of worth of a series of feeds, compared with their worth compared with the current barley, and choosing from those the ones market price.

Page 27— Section LITERATURE CITED

(1) Griem, W. B., E. B. Hart, J. W. Kalkus, and H. Welch. Iodine—its necessity and stabilization. Natl. Res. Council Cir. Ill :l-8. 1942. (2) Phillips, P. H., E. B. Hart, and G. Bohstedt. Chronic toxicosis in dairy cows due to the ingestion of fluorine. Wisconsin Exp. Sta. Res. Bui. 123:1-30.1934.

(3) Beath, 0. A., H. F. Eppson, and C. S. Gilbert. Selenium and other toxic minerals in soils and vegetation. Wyoming Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 206:1- 56. 1935.

(4) Moxon, A. L., 0. E. Olson, and Walter V. Searight. Selenium in rocks, soils, and plants. South Dakota Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bui. 2:1-94. 1939.

(5) Bull, L. B. Chronic copper poisoning in grazing sheep in Australia. Proc. 14th Int. Vet. Congress. London, 1949.

(6) Wagnon, K. A. Great steers from little acorns do not grow. Pacific Rural Press 146(13) :335. 1943.

(7) Guilbert, H. R., and S. W. Mead. Digestibility of bur clover as affected by exposure to sunlight and rain. Hilgardia 6:1-12. 1931.

(8) Guilbert, H. R., S. W. Mead, and H. C. Jackson. Effect of leaching on the nutritive value of forage plants. Hilgardia 6:13-26. 1931.

(9) Maynard, J. Feed value of sugar beet by-products in terms of grain and alfalfa hay replaced. Through the Leaves 32(3) :20-24. 1944. Published by Great Western Sugar Company, Denver, Colorado.

(10) Guilbert, H. R., R. F. Miller, and H. Goss. Feeding value of sugar beet by-products. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 702:1-24. 1947. (11) Folger,A. H. The digestibility of perilla meal, hempseed meal, and babassu meal, as determined for ruminants. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 604:1-8. 1937.

Recommended References

(When ordering books, specify latest edition)

Committee on Animal Nutrition, National Research Council. 1945. Recommended nutrient allowances for beef cattle. 32 p. National Research Council, 2102 Constitution Avenue, Washington, D.C. Revised 1951. (Price 50 cents.) Morrison, F. B. 1936. Feeds and feeding, a handbook for the student and stockman. 1050 p. The Morrison Pub- lishing Company, Ithaca, N.Y. United States Department of Agriculture. 1939. Food and life. Yearbook of Agriculture, 1939. 1165 p. (Price $1.50, from the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C.)

5m-4,'52(A339)M.H. CALIFORNIA BEEF PRODUCTION MANUAL 2 H. R. Guilbert and G. H. Hart Section IV

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA • COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment Station and Extension Service

PRODUCTION OF FEEDER CATTLE

Percentage Calf Crop Cattle Numbers Versus Growth and Development Feed Supply of Feeders Management Practices Selling Policy

Analyses of cost studies, summarized breeding, feeding, and management of in Section I, "The Beef Cattle Industry," the cow herd are discussed in this rela- show that four fundamental rules should tion. The principal factors controlling be followed if feeds are to be marketed calf crop are as follows: most efficiently through the production 1. Plane of nutrition. of feeder cattle. 2. Season of breeding. 3. Proportion of bulls to cows and their distri- 1. Adopt a consistent, systematic breed- bution on the range. ing and culling program, as outlined in 4. Selection of breeding stock by proper cull- the Section II, "Physiological Processes ing. and Cattle Breeding." 5. Control of infectious diseases affecting reproduction. 2. Secure, through breeding, management, feeding, and disease control, a high- Figure 25 (Sec. IV) shows to what ex- percentage calf crop. tent weights of purebred beef cows and 3. Promote, through feeding and man- heifers varied during lactation and gesta- agement, normal and continuous growth tion periods, when abundant feed was of young cattle to secure efficient feed available throughout the year. These utilization and a desirable product. cows, in high condition, did not change 4. Adopt production and selling pol- much in amount of body fat. The curves, icies that will yield the highest return therefore, reflect largely the changes in from the annual feed supply. weight caused by the developing fetus, In the subsequent pages, the applica- membranes, and uterine fluids and the tion of these rules is presented. loss at calving time. Pregnant cows must gain about 100 pounds between wean- Calf Percentage Crop ing time and calving in order to main- Since the primary function of the tain their flesh. As the lower curve shows, breeding herd is to produce calves, the heifers lose more weight than cows during the first 3 months of lactation. They Manual 2, a revision of Circular 131, replaces Extension Circular 115, Beef Production in Cali- must not only regain this loss but make fornia, by H. R. Guilbert and L. H. Rochford. additional gain before their second calv- Some tables and other data from the original ing if they are to grow and develop nor- circular are used in the manual. Mr. Guilbert is Professor of Animal Hus- mally. For this reason heifers are more bandry Animal and Husbandman in the Experi- sensitive to feed deficiencies than ma- ment Station. ture cows, and many heifers fail to breed Mr. Hart is Professor of Veterinary Science and Veterinarian in the Experiment Station. under poor feed conditions.

Page 1— Section IV /,soc

Fig. 25 (IV). Varia- tions in average weight of purebred cows and heifers during the lactation and gestation periods. (Data from: Guilbert, H. R., and Alex McDonald. Weight records on purebred beef cattle during growth, gestation, and lactation, together with data on reproduction. Amer. Soc. Anim. Prod. Proc. 1933:244-53.) /O // /2 A/fo/?£f?s after ca/w'rtjf

The poorest feed conditions usually weight during the last of gestation and occur between weaning and the next calv- a thinner one that gains rapidly, the lat- ing. This is. a critical period, affecting ter tends to have the best udder develop- the next year's production. If cows or ment and subsequent lactation rate even heifers just maintain weight, actually they though both reach parturition in the same lose about 100 pounds in condition, and condition. Thus, apparently, nutrition are thin after calving. Below a certain for udder growth must come from in- plane of nutrition, either lactation or re- coming nutrients rather than from body production, or both, are impaired. Figure stores. The value of a high plane of nutri- 26 (IV) illustrates such effects under tion before calving has long been recog- range conditions. nized by dairymen, and it is frequently Udder Development and Lacta- referred to as a "steaming up" process. tion. During the last third of pregnancy Poor lactation in many purebred cows estrogenic hormone is produced by the may result from improper management placenta and, through action upon the as well as from heredity. When cows are anterior pituitary gland, stimulates already too fat, they cannot eat enough growth of the secretory tissue in the ud- effectively to constitute "steaming up." der. Similarly, artificial lactation in non- Range and Irrigated Pasture. A pregnant animals may be induced by balanced production unit consisting of implanting estrogen tablets under the foothill range and irrigated pasture ap- skin. proaches the ideal for efficient yearlong Evidence with sheep (1), which ap- production under California conditions. pears equally applicable to cows, shows Such a set-up would usually comprise that good nutrition is very important if 10 to 15 acres of native range to 1 of the development made possible by the irrigated pasture. The range forage may hormone stimulation is to be realized. largely be utilized while it has high nu-

Ideally, the pregnant female should be tritive value; thus its productive capacity in moderate condition up to the last third per acre is increased compared with of gestation, then she should be fed liber- yearlong use. Irrigated pasture provides ally. Between a fat animal that loses adequate nutrition during the dry season

Section IV—Page 2 when range forage has low value. Excess in cultivated mixtures for general nutri- pasture growth in the spring may be made tive effect and well-being of animals. Fur- into hay for supplemental feeding during thermore, the cheapest gains are usually the winter months. Thus a yearlong sup- produced from native feed. ply of good feed may be provided, which Supplemental Feeding of Cows on is the basis for high percentage calf crop, Range. The characteristics of the prin- adequate milk supply, heavy weaning cipal types of range forage are discussed weights, and continuous growth and de- under "Nutrient Requirements and Cat- velopment of young animals. Properly tle Feeds." Because of the high-protein managed, such a program can produce and total-nutrient value of bur clover, good quality well-finished beef at young ranges containing an abundance of this age with little help from concentrates. forage will maintain stock in good con- This is one of the most important objec- dition late into the dry season. On most tives confronting the beef cattle industry. ranges having annual-type forage, either Cattle alternating between native range bur clover and other legumes are lacking and irrigated pasture have advantages or the supply is inadequate to supplement over yearlong use of either type of land. other forage throughout the dry season. Continuous heavy concentration of ani- On the poorer type of grass-filaree ranges, mals on a limited area increases the dif- the cows usually continue to gain through ficulty with parasites. Generally the June, maintain weight through July, and irrigated lands are not desirable during begin losing in August. This occurs al- the winter because of poor drainage, though forage is abundant and the cows muddy conditions unfavorable to the are not suckling calves. On better ranges livestock, and damage to fields caused by weight losses coincide with the time when trampling during rainy weather. During the most nutritious forage has been ex- the growing season for native forage, hausted through selective grazing and the good range provides a great variety of protein content of the forage eaten falls feed which has not been equaled as yet below 7 or 8 per cent of the dry matter.

Fig. 26 (IV). The cows in the upper picture lost weight in the fall on range feed alone, were thin after calving, and became weak on continued scant feed. They produced calves that averaged 386 pounds at weaning time, and had only a 61 per cent calf crop the following year. The cows in the lower picture were on the same range feed, which was supplemented with sufficient cottonseed cake and barley to maintain flesh. They produced calves that averaged 481 pounds at weaning, and they had a 91 per cent calf crop the following year. (From Ext. Cir. 115.) Protein supplements are therefore best are potentially of the same size and that for securing effective use of such ranges. differences in weight are largely due to Heavy weight losses occur at the time of condition—the situation generally encoun- the first autumn rains. The feed value of tered on the range. The gains during a the old forage is reduced by its being 150-day wintering period and the nutrient leached and beaten into the ground; the requirements are those necessary if the new forage is too scant and watery to lighter-weight cows are to attain about supply sufficient feed. Greater total nutri- 1,050 pounds before calving. Using the ents as well as increased protein are data from tables 10 and 11 (III) on re- needed at this time. When a significant quirements and from table 12 (III) on quantity of the new feed develops, ade- composition of feeds, table 18 (IV) was quate protein and minerals may be sup- prepared to show the relative adequacy plied, although total feed value may still of range forage when bur clover consti- be low. The supplement can, therefore, tuted 40 per cent of the feed intake, the be changed to grains or other carbohy- inadequacy of 18 pounds' daily intake drate feeds at this time if they are cheaper of dry filaree and grass, and the effect sources of total digestible nutrients than of 2 pounds of cottonseed cake in reliev- protein feeds. This may be an important ing the deficiencies. means of economizing when cold weather 2. A supplement fed daily over a longer retards the growth of the new forage for period results in better range utilization, a long period. and is more effective than heavier feeding Information and suggestions for meet- begun late, after weight losses occurred. ing these conditions follow. 3. Results on the San Joaquin Experi- 1. The main objective should be to feed mental Range suggest the approximate whatever kinds and amounts of feeds will amounts of supplement and the feeding most economically overcome the existing schedule that may be necessary to main- deficiency and keep the breeding cows in tain high calf crop and to produce heavy thrifty condition. Actual amounts will weaner calves on the poorer types of vary with the type of range and the grass-filaree range. One pound of cotton- condition of the cattle. Supplementary seed cake was fed daily during August. feeding pays if it is done well enough to From September to the first rains 1% to produce results. 2 lbs. daily were fed. Then, supplements The nutrient requirements appear in were increased to 3 lbs. daily, then grad- tables 10 and 11 (III) under "Wintering ually decreased as new forage developed. Pregnant Heifers" and "Wintering Ma- If cold weather results in slow growth ture Pregnant Cows." In establishing of new feed, as much as 5 pounds daily these requirements for mature cows, con- may be necessary for cows that have sideration has been given to the data on calved during this period. The supple- average weights of breeding cows that ments per cow will usually total 250-300 have been sufficiently improved through pounds when fed as indicated. The result- breeding to show strongly the characteris- ing increased crops of heavier calves, tics of any of the three dominant beef worth more per pound, have yielded good breeds. Generally, according to these data, profits on this added expense. On better a weight of not less than 1,050 pounds ranges, the amounts required will be less, before calving is necessary to support or supplements may be unnecessary. consistently regular rebreeding and maxi- An average of seven years' data, 1937 mum lactation, and to produce optimum to 1943, on the San Joaquin Experimen- weights in the calves. Gains and feed re- tal Range, comparing supplemental feed- quirements in tables 10 and 11 (III) de- ing as outlined above with no supple- pend on the assumption that the cows mental feeding, follows.

Section IV—Page 4 Group A, Group B, fed not fed supplements supplements Percentage of pregnancies 89.6 77.2 Percentage calf crop weaned 83.0 67.6 Average weaning weight, pounds 470.0 417.0 Average calf production per breeding cow, pounds 390.0 282.0 Average yearly supplemental feed, pounds 365.0 18.0*

* Fed one year only, to prevent excessive death loss.

An average of 365 pounds of supple- 5. Feeding double amounts every other mental feed yearly produced 108 pounds day is about as effective as daily feeding more calf weight per breeding cow in the and reduces labor. If cows have been herd; the heavier calves from cows re- taught to eat supplements as calves, no ceiving supplements were worth more per difficulty in getting them to eat will be pound at weaning; and there was greater experienced thereafter. Cattle can be salvage value in these cows because of trained to come for feed when called, better weight and condition. Figure 27 6. Feeds like cottonseed cake can be (IV) shows the average weight curves of placed on the ground in dry weather, the two groups. Feed bunks placed at convenient places 4. When barley and other grains are on the range are, however, preferable, cheaper than cottonseed cake, the amount They save waste, and the operator can of cottonseed cake can be reduced and use those feeds that are most economical, additional supplements selected from the rather than be limited to one that may cheapest sources of digestible nutrients, at times become exorbitant in price. Three and one half pounds of average 7- Self-feeding concentrates with salt alfalfa hay contain digestible protein in the mixture to limit consumption is equal to that in 1 pound of 43 per cent being practiced on the range. Generally protein cottonseed cake and double the 25 to 40 per cent salt in the mix will limit amount of total digestible nutrients. Thus, concentrate consumption between 1.0 and about 4 pounds of alfalfa can replace 1 3.0 pounds daily. According to prelimi- pound of cake and 1 pound of barley, nary data from the San Joaquin Experi- When practical and economical, limited mental Range, the amount of supplement hay feeding may be substituted for con- consumed with a given salt concentration centrate supplements. varied with change in forage conditions.

TABLE 18 (IV) Nutrient Requirements of a 1,000-Pound Pregnant Cow in Relation to Nutrients Supplied by Range Forage Containing Bur-clover and by Forage Consisting of fllaree and grass supplemented with cottonseed cake

Total Total Digestible Phos- digestible Calcium, Carotene, feed, protein, phorous, nutrients, grams grams milligrams pounds pounds pounds

18 9.0 0.9 16 15 55

Dry range feed: 40 per cent bur- clover; 60 per cent grass andfila- ree mixture 20 8.5 0.9 79 18.4

Dry mixed broad-leaf filaree and grass 18 7.2 0.0-0.2 86 13 Cottonseed cake (43 per cent protein) 2 1.5 0.7 2 10

Total 20 8.7 0.7-0.9 88 23

Page 5—Section IV 7050 Group A, st/pp/efi?enfa//i/ fed from Aug. fo Feb. 7000

^ 950 ^900

A- Group 3, A/o sc/pp/e/nes?/a/ feed-^*^

750 \ t %*

700 Breed/tig season Ca/y/ngperiod

I I I L J L J L J I I I Jan. fe£>. Mar Apr Mai/ Jane Ja/y Aagr. Sept- Ocf. Nov. Dec.

Fig. 27 (IV) . Seven-year average-weight curves of the entire A and B groups of females of breeding age, including replacement heifers, on the San Joaquin Experimental Range. Weights are on the basis of 12- to 14-hour overnight stand without feed and water. Weight drop in July is partly due to culling of cows and adding lighter-weight replacement heifers. Cows of group A, four years old and over, averaged about 1,050 pounds before calving. This difference in average weight between groups caused by supplemental feeding, is reflected in the difference in production shown in the tabulation given at the top of page 5.

Apparently, therefore, a standard mix 8. First-calf heifers and the thinner may not be relied upon to control closely cows may need extra feed and special the concentrate intake in relation to the care. Where practicable, the segregation needs of the animal. Such control is es- of such animals from the main cow herd, sential if optimum results are to be se- to allow feeding according to needs, in- cured. When the salt percentage was creases the effectiveness of supplements varied to secure desired consumption used. levels, the results were equal to daily A systematic supplemental feeding plan feeding of comparable amounts of sup- such as this one provides adequate pro- plement without salt. Actual salt con- tein and phosphorus and adds materially sumption may vary from less than 0.5 to to the total energy intake. It results in over 1.0 pound daily. Thus far no larger calf crop, heavier calves, shorter deleterious effects on cattle have been breeding season, less trouble in calving, reported. Hofland (2) in Sweden re- fewer retained placentas, and lower death ported that excess salt markedly reduced rate, and permits early calving. the microflora of the rumen. Cardon (3) On ranges where there is no browse or of the Arizona Agricultural Experiment other source of green forage, a prolonged Station reported no detrimental effect on dry season may result in vitamin-A defi- digestion. Access to a plentiful and con- ciency and calf losses. Such losses are veniently placed water supply is essential, especially probable when a short green- for the animals must drink large quanti- feed season intervenes between two long ties to enable them to excrete the excess drought periods. Information and recom-

salt. If the labor cost is sufficiently re- mendations for this special type of supple- duced or supplemental feeding made pos- mental feeding are presented as follows: sible where daily feeding is impracticable, 1. Nonlactating animals with meager the practice has real merit. reserves may store, in 4 or 5 months on

Section IV—Page 6 green feed, sufficient vitamin A to protect tation will assure the birth of normal them for 6 to 7 months on dry feed. calves from cows whose reserves have 2. Lactating animals, under similar been nearly depleted. It may be inade- conditions, possibly store less on green quate for subsequent lactation if new for- forage, and their reserves become de- age is further delayed. This amount of pleted more rapidly when on dry forage. carotene will be supplied by approxi- Heifers have less storage than cows under mately: {a) 15 to 20 pounds of hay con- similar feed conditions and therefore be- taining only traces of green color; (6) come depleted in shorter time. 3 to 4 pounds of green alfalfa hay that

3. Cows and heifers may produce weak would be called "good" by stockmen ; (c) calves that die soon after birth, or die 2 pounds daily of highest quality sun- after a few days, of diarrhea, without cured hay containing about 35 milligrams themselves showing symptoms of defi- of carotene per pound; (d) 0.6 pound of ciency. dehydrated alfalfa meal containing 100 4. If vitamin-A reserves are depleted milligrams of carotene per pound. One during the latter part of pregnancy to may use table 13 (III) to estimate caro- the point where the cows are night-blind, tene content of feeds roughly by their premature birth of dead calves results. appearance. Because of the usual season of breeding, Since the feeding of several pounds of early abortions of small fetuses are not hay daily tends to act as a substitute for typical of vitamin-A deficiency. range feed, rather than a supplement to

5. If losses from vitamin-A deficiency it, by discouraging the cattle from graz- are suspected, arrangements for diagnosis ing, it is generally most practical to use can be made through the local Agricul- concentrated sources. Dehydrated meal tural Extension Service office or through bought especially for this purpose should a veterinarian. Diagnosis is made by tests be analyzed for carotene, by a commer- on the liver of the fetus for vitamin A cial laboratory, and the amount fed cal- and the blood of the mother for brucel- culated on this basis. losis. 9. Liver oils containing 2,000 to 20,000 6. Losses from vitamin-A deficiency U.S.P. units of preformed vitamin A per cease quickly when green forage becomes gram may, under some conditions, be a available or when suitable supplements cheaper supplement than the sources of are fed. carotene mentioned. Such oils are tested, 7. As an insurance against such losses and their vitamin-A value is stated and when range forage dries early, supple- guaranteed by the manufacturer. The re- ments should be given a month or more quirement to assure reproduction in cows before the beginning of the calving season whose reserves are almost depleted dur- if cows are bred to calve during the fall ing late stages of pregnancy is about and early winter. Supplementing should 30,000 U.S.P. units daily. This will be be considered regardless of time of calv- furnished by: ing if the cows have subsisted exclusively a) About 15 cubic centimeters (ap- on dry forage for 5 to 6 months. proximately a/2 ounce) daily of fish-liver 8. Providing the breeding herd with oil containing 2,000 U.S.P. units per Sudan or other green pasture, when pos- gram. sible, is a practical way of obviating b) About 3 cubic centimeters (%o vitamin-A deficiency. Even a few days ounce) daily of fish-liver oil containing on such forage will usually carry them 10,000 units per gram, or 1% cubic cen- over the critical period. timeters of oil containing 20,000 U.S.P. A daily intake of 55 to 65 milligrams units per gram. of carotene during the last month of ges- c) Two ounces of the highest-potency

Page 7—Section IV TABLE 19 (IV) Examples of Adequate Rations for Wintering Pregnant Cows, Initial Weight 900 Pounds

Total Total Digestible Phos- digestible Calcium, Carotene, daily feed, protein, phorus, nutrients, grams milligrams pounds pounds pounds grams

Requirements 20 10 0.9 18 16 55

Rations in pounds:

1. Alfalfa hay, 4; oat hay, 16 20 9.9 0.94 47 20 206 2. Oat and vetch hay, moderately 20 10.0 1.40 50 24 200 3. Alfalfa hay 20 10.1 2.16 137 19 388 4. Corn silage, 25; straw, 10; cot-

tonseed meal, 1 .5 18.8 10.2 0.84 14.4 19.3 158

oil, in a single dose, or one third of this criterion of adequate feeding if cattle vary amount fed on grain or other feed, in from average in size. three doses, should supply enough vita- 2. From 18 to 22 pounds daily of good- min A to protect against deficiency for quality meadow or alfalfa hay, containing a month. This vitamin in oil decomposes about 50 per cent total digestible nutri- rapidly when mixed with other feed and, ents, properly fed will produce gains and accordingly, should be added immedi- maintain condition. With lower-quality ately before feeding. nonlegume hay, a pound of protein sup- The results of supplementary feeding plement daily is desirable, and larger as recommended are illustrated in figure quantities of hay may be required. 24(111). 3. In case of hay shortage, each pound Wintering Cows on Harvested of grain or other concentrate feed may Roughages. Information and sugges- replace 2 pounds of roughage. Roughage tions, particularly applicable to wintering should not ordinarily be reduced below cows in northeastern California counties, 8 to 10 pounds daily. are itemized as follows: 4. Grains are satisfactory concentrate

1. The amount of feed required will supplements to feed with alfalfa or other depend upon the condition of the cattle, legume hays. the amount of grazing, the severity of the 5. Three and one-half pounds of good weather, and the method of feeding to alfalfa hay are about equivalent to 1 avoid waste. pound of 43 per cent protein cottonseed The recommended nutrient allowances cake for balancing low-protein roughages. for wintering pregnant cows and heifers 6. Cows in strong condition in the fall are given in tables 10 and 11 (III). can be wintered on grain straw that is

Table 19 (IV) , based on data from tables supplemented with 3 to 6 pounds of good-

10, 11 and 12 (III) , shows how these re- quality legume hay or 1 to 2 pounds of quirements are met by rations containing cottonseed cake. Some forage of bright- common California feeds. As previously green color is recommended to insure mentioned, these recommended allow- against vitamin-A deficiency. If no leg- ances are based upon the nutrients re- ume hay is fed with straw, cattle should quired by cows, varying in weight at the have access to bone meal, ground lime- beginning of winter, to attain a desirable stone, or oyster-shell flour. minimum weight of 1,050 pounds before Although the ideal situation is to keep calving. Condition must be the deciding all animals in thrifty condition, some

Section IV—Page 8 cows and heifers may be thin at weaning when green forage is provided in the time. These are most effectively and eco- summer by valley or mountain ranges. nomically fed by separating them from Such calves are preferred by ranchers the other cattle, by starting on feed early, who have permits on the national forests, and by more liberal feeding as indicated partly because calves under 6 months of by the requirement data in tables 10 and age are not counted when going into for- 11(111). est range. Planning the Breeding Season. Bulls should be acclimated and in good Cows kept in thrifty condition through condition when put into service. Those adequate feeding will breed readily and two to six years of age are generally most produce a high percentage of calves uni- satisfactory. Older bulls may be used form in age. "Short-aged" or "off-season" under good pasture conditions. Four bulls calves are undesirable and should be for each 100 cows are the usual number avoided. Even if some sacrifice in calf used on the range. Under rough range crop must be made for one season, in conditions the number should be in- order to adjust the herd to a short breed- creased. In a small field of good pasture ing period, timed to the feed conditions, a mature bull will serve 50 to 75 cows. the change will pay in the long run. If Under range conditions a good rider who cows and bulls are in good condition, 3 will keep the bulls and cows well dis- to 4 months of breeding season is suffi- tributed is valuable. On fenced ranges cient and results in uniform calf crops. rotation of bulls is a practical way of This is particularly important in smaller increasing calf crop and reducing the herds from the standpoint of sales, espe- breeding period. Under this system half cially of feeder cattle. the bulls are turned with the cows for In areas with severe winter weather, the 10 to 14 days; then these are taken out calf crop should be timed to come as early for rest and extra feeding and fresh bulls as possible and yet escape the danger of turned with the herd. After two such shifts late storms. In the northeastern counties all the bulls can be left with the herd the bulls should usually be placed with during the remainder of the season. the herd in June or July. By breeding under pasture conditions When one is operating yearlong on on the home range, by adequate feeding, valley or lower foothill ranges, to have and by rotating the bulls, some ranchers calving come in October, November, and have decreased the number required, and is possible December and advantageous have used the extra money to buy better when the program of supplemental feed- bulls. The effect of this practice was an ing as outlined is followed. Cows will increased calf crop and a high percentage milk sufficiently well to nourish the calves of calves dropped within a period of 6 until new feed is abundant, and by this weeks. time the calves are large enough to take advantage of the forage as well as the Age of Breeding Heifers. Growth

' full milk flow. Such calves can be weaned and development rather than age are the in July or August, at a weight of 400 to best criterion for proper time of breeding 500 pounds. They can then continue to heifers. As discussed under planning of gain on dry forage and supplements, and the breeding season, there is usually one the cows are spared the drain of milking best time for calving in any locality. For for a long period on dry forage. Most this reason, few commercial cattlemen cows will breed late and therefore calve find it advantageous to plan regularly in the spring unless proper feed condi- for both fall and spring calves; and choice tions have been provided during fall and is largely between breeding heifers as winter. Spring calves are satisfactory yearlings (12 to 16 months of age) or as

Page 9—Section IV .

two-year-olds. For well-grown heifers in enough to be in good-grade slaughter good condition, breeding at 18 months condition by calving time. and calving at 27 months would be ideal. 3. The heifers should be given assist- This practice is common in purebred ance with difficult calving; a close watch herds. The Hereford Association does not at this time will prevent excessive loss of permit registration of a calf born to a heifers and calves. dam under 24 months of age. Breeding 4. The calves should be disposed of for at 18 months of age in commercial herds veal at 8 to 10 weeks of age to stop the would lead to "off-season" calves; and drain of lactation, stimulate rebreeding, it is difficult to change the calving season and permit normal development of the by earlier breeding once a certain time heifers. has become established. 5. Small-type (small-boned) bulls tend For commercial cattle, breeding re- to produce smaller calves at birth than placement heifers at two years of age large-type bulls. Similarly, Aberdeen and calving first at three years are gen- Angus calves tend to be smaller at birth erally recommended. than Herefords or Shorthorns, and Angus The drain of gestation is relatively or Angus-cross calves tend to have shorter small, and pregnancy may even stimulate gestation periods than straight-bred Here- growth. A newborn beef calf usually ford calves. For these reasons, the breed- weighs 65 to 80 pounds. About 75 per ing of yearling heifers to small-type or cent of this weight is obtained during to Aberdeen Angus bulls might minimize the last 3 to 4 months of gestation. The difficult parturitions. The age of the bull calf contains about 15 pounds of protein does not affect the size of the calves. A and 3 pounds of fat. The feed requirement bull of potentially large size will tend to for pregnancy in addition to that for the sire just as large calves in his youth as cow's maintenance and growth is com- in maturity. paratively small. If these practices are followed under fa-

In contrast to these small amounts of vorable conditions, there is a good oppor- nutrients in the calf at birth, the milk tunity to increase the economic efficiency produced in the first 4 months of lacta- of beef production. Table 20 (IV) pre- tion should contain about 65 pounds of sents data from four ranches in Monterey protein, 70 pounds of fat, and 90 pounds County, where the general plan as out- of carbohydrates. The calf that required lined was followed. A group of two-year- 9 months of gestation to attain a weight old heifers at the time their calves were of 75 pounds should gain 225 pounds or sold for veal is shown in figure 28 (IV) more in the first 4 months after birth. The first calves from heifers calving as These data indicate the comparative drain three-year-olds are commonly 50 pounds of gestation and lactation on the mother. or more lighter than the offspring of ma- If breeding yearling heifers is to be ture cows because of lower birth weight recommended, the following conditions and less milk supply. According to ob- and practices are advisable: servations, however, at weaning time the 1. Heifer calves should weigh 450 second calves of three-year-old cows do pounds or more when weaned, should be not weigh more than the first calves of fed for normal growth (1 pound daily or three-year-old heifers. more) from then to the next good grass In a test of age at breeding, at the season, and should weigh 650 to 700 Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, pounds when bred. the calves were not vealed, but allowed 2. The pregnant heifers should be fed to nurse to normal weaning age. As four- liberally through the winter or the dry and five-year-old cows, those that had season so that they will grow and fatten calved first as two-year-olds had calves

Section IV-Page 10 :

significantly smaller at weaning than their CO ce -f o o oo co 00 o> o f mates of the same age that calved first at income sold OO oo' its CO "0 '-. CO OS from oo 'C CO to 00 three years. veal oo" co O0 Gross Unless early breeding is managed as recommended, the following disadvan- 05 73 _ tages more than offset the extra calves ri o3 03 O O CM O "0 O Oi CO * g 03 > 05 H N TP (D N N &a CO M O) Ol « IN ifl obtained a O CD ffi 1(5 *" 6 KS CM K 00 lO ^h O ^H O CM pis CM injury to the genital tract at calving. § 3. Stunting of heifers during the nursing period, and interference with intelli- o03 OO 00 00 OO o O O gent selective breeding and culling. w co o o- co cm i>- i-H o O N T(i CO N M ffi > c s CM CO Oi CM 00 CO CM 4. Inferior calves, due to lack of milk.

03 p3 5. Failure to rebreed, resulting in a P large percentage of dry three-year-olds. o 73 CM * O lO «5 tN M O CO CO «0 CO rH Ttl CM losses. This disease is characterized by CO CM ^ 00 § abortion of fetuses from early to late stages of pregnancy and by placentas

CO *• commonly retained. S3 Diagnosis is made 03 OO CO 00 00 >> 73 t^ CO "* -*! Tfl CO Cft tH O) <3) Ot) by means of a blood (agglutination) test. t3 —> "*< <-! -H £ £ | —1 CM fl 03 ,£3 Infection is spread largely through feed 5x S CI £ and water contaminated by discharges IS o ft tj O 03 ^ 03 «3 a ©^ from cows—rarely from bulls. Veterinary advice should be secured regarding diag- i nosis and control 1^ t~- o * N o to n measures, including t— CO OO Ol N f •* o CO CO i-H m vaccination. Only a small percentage of o cows abort the second time under range o conditions. Some cows carrying and

spreading infection do not abort at all.

73 a Culling out all aborters 1 known under to 5 > e these conditions and replacing them with 03 <7 a < 1 t- susceptible heifers may keep the disease C c! c > c a "S 1 M 1 s- j active rather than build up herd a a I a immu- O n tc n 1 CM T < nity. a 1 1 C I Trichomoniasis is a venereal infection i I 1 i t > > > .1 b ) transmitted by the bull. It is characterized m < H by very early abortions of decomposed fetuses. Frequently vaginal discharge and t^ ,*! H ^H rH rH H 1 * recurrence of "heat" in cows thought to be pregnant are the only signs of this

-aJE C > disease. It is difficult to diagnose definitely under range conditions. Disposal of in-

fected bulls is the principal remedy.

Page 11—Section IV Fig. 28 (IV) . Well-grown two-year-old heifers weighing over 800 pounds at the time their calves were sold for veal. These heifers calved satisfactorily and rebred for the next calf crop without significant effect on their growth, development, and future usefulness. (Photo by Reuben Albaugh.)

Vibrio foetus apparently causes more under ideal conditions, nearly half of the abortion than heretofore supposed. It total feed eaten is used for maintenance. generally has been considered a self- The value in the practice of feeding for limiting disease of minor importance. continuous growth is illustrated in figure The organism can be transmitted by the 29 (IV). bull and also in semen used in artificial The steers fed for maximum gain had insemination. Improved techniques have access to good pasture along with the facilitated definite diagnosis, but no ef- mothers until weaned, then were fed grain fective means of control or treatment have on pasture to promote rapid gain and yet been established. finish. They weighed 900 pounds in less In dealing with any of these disease than 14 months and were "choice" slaugh- problems one should seek veterinary ad- ter cattle. This method of feeding is prac- vice. tical where a breeding herd is maintained Growth and Development under farm conditions with forage and of Feeders grain plentiful. The Principle of Continuous The curve illustrating limited supple- Growth. An animal resembles a machine ments fed represents a practical approach

or a factory in that it is most efficient to the ideal under poor range conditions. when operating at full capacity. Even A little more than 300 pounds of total

Section IV— Page 12 .

1 1 1 r

/. fed for 2. l/m/ted sapp/ement $00 max///?///?? £&//? 'Sfed

soo

-*- A/o st/pp/e/7?e/?£ fed

Fig. 29 (IV). Growth curves of steers showing the variation in time required to reach 900 pounds, as determined by feed conditions. (From Ext. Cir. 115.) 9 (2 /5 V8 2/ 24 27 30 /Ige /'/? mo/?Ms

supplemental feed permitted these steers so that cost per pound is reduced to a to gain continuously from weaning to the minimum. Calves or yearlings that gain next grass season, and to attain a weight well during the winter or dry season will of 900 pounds and fleshy feeder condition gain somewhat less during the subsequent in 21 months. grass season than cattle that make no gain The steers represented by the third or lose weight. The problem is to secure curve had the same breeding and the same economical gains during the high-cost range feed as those fed supplements, but period without subsequently minimizing they received no supplemental feed. They cheap pasture gains. Numerous tests have made no gain during the 6-rnonth period shown that a gain of about 1 pound daily- from weaning until the next grass season, permits normal development, retains flesh though dry forage was plentiful. They and thrifty condition, and yet does not gained rapidly on good feed only to lose detract materially from subsequent pas- heavily again under adverse feed condi- ture gains; it results in heavier cattle tions. Obviously these steers that gained worth more per pound because of their and lost and required 31 months to reach higher condition and bloom. 900 pounds, ate much more total feed A gain of about 1 pound per day for than those that required only 14 or 21 calves that will be sold as feeders at the months to attain the same weight. They end of the next grass season is a sound not only required more feed but also in- objective. If steer calves are to be finished curred added interest, risk, and other as long yearlings by feeding on grass, 1% costs, and yielded a product of lower to 1% pounds daily during the winter are value. desirable. Yearlings that make such gains The dry season (in the valleys) or the can finish on grass under favorable con- winter season (in the mountains) is usu- ditions. Detailed experiments on the im- ally the most costly period for producing portance of continuous growth in beef gains. It is important to secure results cattle were reported in Bulletin 688 (4)

Page 13—Section IV ,

Supplemental Feeding of Calves irrigated summer pasture or good moun- and Yearlings on the Range. Sugges- tain range are practical ways of continu- tions for meeting the above-mentioned ing normal gains in young cattle and of objectives under range conditions are decreasing the time when supplements are given in the following five paragraphs. required.

1. Teach the calves to eat supplements Wintering Weaners and Year- while in the corral at weaning time. Un- lings on Harvested Roughages. No less green pasture or excellent dry forage class of cattle responds more profitably is available, continue supplemental feed- to liberal feeding than calves during their ing when the calves are turned out on first winter. It is much more important pasture. that calves be wintered well if they are 2. On most dry range forage, 1 to 1% to be sold as fleshy yearling feeders than pounds daily of cottonseed cake or its if they are to be marketed as aged grass equivalent in other protein feed will meet cattle or hay-fed beef. Often the calves

the requirements in table 4 (II) and remain too long with the cows in the fall, will continue to produce gains until rains or feeding is not begun promptly at wean- have leached out the forage. One may ing time; consequently they lose weight have to increase the supplement allow- and bloom. Liberal feeding from weaning ance to 2 or 3 pounds daily for the period time on is essential for best results. Tables when the old feed is spoiled by rain and 10 and 11 (III) show recommended nu- new forage is scant. Decrease the allow- tritive allowances for wintering growing ance as feed improves and discontinue it calves and yearlings. Feeding practices when the new feed produces gains. If that have proved profitable and should grains are cheaper, protein supplement produce % to 1% pounds of gain daily can be held at 1 to IV2 pounds, and grain are itemized as follows: substituted for the remainder of the feed. 1. Provide well-drained corrals or other The results of this system of feeding are feeding places where the cattle have wind-

illustrated in figure 29 (IV) . Steer calves breaks and can find a dry place in which fed in this manner weigh about 600 to lie down. Gains are difficult to obtain pounds in the spring and 850 to 900 on young cattle even with abundant feed, pounds at the end of the next grass sea- unless they can be reasonably comforta-

son. Heifers will be somewhat lighter in ble and can rest. In dry cold weather little weight. shelter other than windbreaks is neces- 3. To finish with a short feeding period sary. Favorable feeding conditions are as on grass as long yearlings, calves may important as adequate feed. have to be fed more liberally (3 to 4 2. Clean out mangers of the feed racks pounds daily) during the fall and winter. frequently to prevent waste in feeding and Feeding of concentrates on the early green to provide fresh feed to induce optimum forage may sometimes be a practical pro- consumption.

cedure for speeding up gain while native 3. When calves are allowed all they will feed is watery, and may be continued eat of high-quality legume hay or mixed throughout the green-feed season. hay containing one half legumes, they will 4. For moderate growth of yearlings produce moderate gains under favorable on dry feed, 1% pounds of cottonseed conditions. The amount of hay varies with cake daily will suffice until the first rains. the size of the calves; from 10 to 15

Subsequently, the feed required to con- pounds daily is the usual range. tinue gains and maintain condition is 4. With low-protein nonlegume meadow

similar to that outlined for calves. hay or grain hay, give, in addition to all 5. Utilizing foothill and valley range the hay they will eat, % to 1 pound daily in the winter and spring and providing of cottonseed meal or its equivalent.

Section IV-Poge 14 5. For gains of more than 1 pound and therefore fail to get enough nourish- daily, 2 pounds of concentrates, in addi- ment from the pasture. tion to all the roughage the calves will An example of the effect on appetite, eat, are recommended. With legume hay, rate, and economy of gain resulting from grain is satisfactory; with nonlegume using a protein supplement with low-

hay, 1 pound each of high-protein feed protein and low-phosphorus roughage is and of grain are recommended (fig. 30, shown in table 21 (IV) by the calf-win- IV). tering tests at the Nebraska Agricultural 6. Ten to 15 pounds of silage daily with Experiment Station. The hay used con- all the legume hay that the calves will tained only 5 to 6 per cent protein. The consume (8 to 10 pounds), make an addition of 1 pound daily of cottonseed excellent wintering ration that produces cake to the ration increased hay consump- good gains without concentrate supple- tion and produced over six and one half ment. times as much gain; and 168 pounds of 7. Calves wintered as indicated should cottonseed cake saved nearly 3 tons of hay weigh 500 to 600 pounds in the spring, for each 100 pounds of gain produced. 800 to 900 pounds at the end of the fol- Moreover, these calves averaged 66 lowing pasture season. pounds heavier at the end of the next 8. Calves turned out on scant, early grass season. spring feed and given hay in addition In the Colorado trials shown in table frequently shrink. In their desire for fresh 21 (IV), cottonseed cake was a supple- feed, they commonly do not eat much hay ment to palatable meadow hay containing

TABLE 21 (IV) Results of Feeding Concentrate Supplements with Hay for Wintering Calves

North Platte, Nebraska* North Park, Coloradof (average of 5 trials, (average of 2 trials, 10 head per lot) 32 head per lot)

Mountain Prairie hay meadow hay plus 1 pound Mountain Prairie hay plus 0.8 pound cottonseed meadow hay daily of cotton- cake daily seed cake

Winter period—feeding hay with and without supplement

Number of days in winter period 150 Average initial weight, pounds 410 Average final weight, pounds 584 Average daily gain, pounds. 1.16 Average daily feed, pounds 15.3 Feed consumed for 100 pounds' gain, pounds 1,330

Summer period—grazing without supplement

148 146 159 159 692 755 770 804 Total summer gain, pounds 259 185 248 220 Average daily summer gain, pounds 1.74 1.27 1.56 1.38

Total winter and summer gain, pounds 284 350 362 393

* Brouse, E. M. Wintering calves in the Nebraska sandhills. Nebraska Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 357:1-29. 1944. t Rochford, L. H. Summary of six range calf wintering tests. Color'ado Agr.*Ext. Service Report 1931. (Mimeo.)

Page 15—Section IV Fig. 30 (IV). These yearling steers, when weaned at 8 months of age, averaged 546 pounds in weight. They were fed an average daily ration of 12 pounds mixed hay and 2.5 pounds grain per head during the winter, in which period their average daily gain was 1.3 pounds. Here they are shown on meadow pasture without grain, being held for sale as choice feeders. Note that proper care and feeding make gentle cattle.

8.5 per cent protein. It did not increase have given the same kind of results as the consumption of this hay and improved the Nebraska trials; little or no gain was the rate and economy of winter gains to made during the winter. Feeding 1 pound a less extent than in the Nebraska trials. of cottonseed cake and 1 pound of grain In both sets of trials the cattle that daily with the hay, however, resulted in received no supplement made greatest winter gains of 1 pound or more daily. gains during the summer. The combined The record below is an example. difference in total winter and summer Table 22 (IV) gives examples of ade- gains in favor of supplements averaged quate and inadequate rations for produc- 66 pounds in the Nebraska experiments. ing 1 pound of gain daily, using tables 10 In the Colorado experiments, the differ- and 11 (III) on recommended allowances ence in gain during both periods was only and table 12 (III) on the composition of

31 pounds; but the cattle fed supplements feeds. Ration 1 is that fed in the Nebraska showed more bloom and were appraised trials, with composition estimated on higher at the end of the summer than the basis of averages. Compared with those wintered on hay alone. Since calves requirements, the ration is low in total are usually not sold at the end of winter, digestible nutrients, digestible protein, the profit from supplemental feeding is and phosphorus. The protein and phos- really measured by the difference in phorus deficiencies reduced the total feed weight and sale value at the end of the intake. The gain was only 0.15 pound next grass season. daily. Adding 1.0 pound of cottonseed In California, numerous field tests with meal to this ration (ration 2, table 22, wild meadow hay, and with grain hay IV) brought the protein and phosphorus similar in composition to prairie hay, nearly up to recommended allowances

Average weight. Average daily Date Number of head pounds gain, pounds

Feb. 12, 1937 92 steers 425 1 .. 1.36

April 8, 1938 92 steers 608 J

Feb. 12, 1937 72 heifers 3% ) 0.82 April 8, 1938 68 heifers* 500 5

* Four heifers killed for ranch meat.

Section IV— Page 16 TABLE 22 (IV) Adequate and Inadequate Eations for Wintering Calves of 450 Pounds' Initial Weight and 600 Pounds' Final Weight

Total Total Digestible Phos- digestible Calcium, Carotene, feed, protein, phorus, pounds nutrients, pounds grams milligrams pounds grams

12 6.5 0.75 16 12 25 Requirements < „.. lf ( 600-pound calf 15 8.0 0.80 16 12 30

Rations, in pounds:

1. Prairie hay (Nebraska trial, table 20). 10.6 5.7 0.27 24 5 85

2. Prairie hay plus 1 pound daily cottonseed cake (Nebraska trial, table 20) 12.95 6.7 0.66 28 10 95 3. Weight 450 pounds: alfalfa, 10; barley, 2 12 6.6 1.23 68 13 195 Weight 600 pounds: alfalfa, 13; barley, 2 15 8.2 1.55 89 15.8 250

4. Weight 450 pounds: oat hay, 10, cot-

tonseed cake, 1 ; barley, 1 12 6.33 0.76 13 17 80 5. Weight 450 pounds: corn silage, 20 (dry equivalent. 5.8); alfalfa hay, 6. 11.8 6.8. 0.83 49 13 236

and made the daily gain about 1.0 ment other than for minimum protein; pound. As ration 3 shows, 10 pounds and more of the coarser feeds may be of alfalfa hay (about all a 450-pound employed. calf will eat) with 2 pounds of barley meet the requirements for total digestible Adjustment of Cattle Numbers nutrients and phosphorus, and supply to Feed Supply an excess of other nutrients. Increas- One important problem confronting ing the hay to 13 pounds by the end of cattle breeders and graziers is adequate the period meets requirements for 600 provision for seasonal and annual varia- pounds weight. Ration 5 illustrates an- tions in the feed supply. Adjustments to other excellent feed combination for win- meet the situation must differ with indi- tering. One can calculate other rations vidual ranches. The following sugges- similarly by using the data in tables 10, tions, however, have proved practical for

11, and 12 (III) . As table 11 (III) shows, wide application: 53 to 55 per cent total of digestible 1. Provide for a proper balance be- nutrients is required in the ration. Ex- tween summer and winter feed supply. cellent-quality roughage contains this This is as essential when cattle are main- amount and needs no concentrate supple- tained on a single ranch unit as when ment to meet this requirement. Average winter feed and summer feed are supplied roughages containing 48 to 50 per cent by separate units. total digestible nutrients should be fed 2. Stock the ranges moderately, so that with about 2 pounds of concentrate feeds. ample forage is available in average years Bleached hays containing no green for maximum gains, and excess forage color are deficient in carotene. One should waste through nonuse is avoided. therefore feed some green-colored forage, 3. Build up a reserve of hay and other to prevent vitamin-A deficiency. feeds in good years and in times of low Yearlings may be wintered satisfacto- prices, to meet drought and other extreme rily on the same types of feeds suggested conditions. for calves, except that larger amounts are 4. Maintain some reserve of fat on required. There is less need for supple- breeding cattle so that weight losses can

Page 17—Section IV : be withstood in emergency without inter- in shipment and are less apt to bruise fering with future production. and injure one another. On foothill and valley ranches that nor- 3. Dehorned cattle present a more at- mally carry cattle yearlong on the range tractive and uniform appearance. without hay feeding, a hay reserve of at • For all these reasons there is price dis- least % ton or preferably a ton per animal crimination against horned animals, both unit is advantageous. It is cheaper insur- as feeders and as slaughter cattle. The ance against an extreme feed shortage disadvantage of dehorning is the labor of the the the than stocking so lightly that sufficient dry operation and setback to feed remains on the ground for the emer- cattle. The younger the cattle are when dehorned, the less they are affected. In gency of delayed fall rains. Dry feed is one test, when yearling cattle were de- spoiled by rains and wasted from nonuse horned after arriving at the feed lot, 15 during average years, whereas hay under days were required for them to regain shelter can be kept for many years with- weight; thereafter the gains were normal. out significant loss of value. This policy On California foothill and valley permits as complete use of the range as ranges where fall and early winter calves is consistent with its conservation. As a are practicable, dehorning can be done result, one can secure higher returns in in January and February, when the dan- pounds of beef per acre without gambling ger from blowflies is least. This is a fur- on the drought years. In some areas silage ther advantage of early calves in these is an excellent feed to reserve for emer- sections. For younger calves having "but- gencies. tons" (small horns not attached solidly The effect of trying to increase numbers to the head) dehorning with caustic paste over the feed supply was strikingly shown has been found satisfactory. Directions at the New Mexico Experiment Station. for using the caustic paste are supplied by Under adequate adjustment of cattle to the manufacturer. Some operators cut off feed, cows averaged about 1,000 pounds the larger horns (up to about 1% inches in weight, the calf crop was about per 90 long) with a knife or with the spoon cent, and the calf weight at weaning about gouge, and lightly apply caustic to the 400 pounds. When the same of amount wound. This has a cauterizing effect and feed was consumed by 30 per cent more is intended to destroy any horn cells not cattle, the cows weighed 650 to 700 otherwise removed. Bleeding, however, pounds, the calf crop was about 40 per may wash away the caustic, and some cent, and the weight of calves 300 pounds horn growth or scurs may develop. If the or less. In the first case, it was estimated, gouge is used carefully, caustic is un- 30 per cent of the feed for calf went pro- necessary. Indeed, its use actually delays duction and 70 per cent for maintenance; healing. in the latter, 90 per cent of the total feed Another method of dehorning calves went for maintenance, and only 10 per that has been favorably demonstrated in cent was recovered in production. Monterey County is to cut the horn or button off with a large knife or dehorn- Management Practices ing shears close to and level with the head Dehorning. The advantages of de- and then to sear the wound with a hot horning are as follows iron. The irons used are concave to fit 1. Dehorned cattle require less space over the horn area and have a burning in feed lots, and eat more quietly; there edge % to % inch in diameter. There is less fighting away of timid animals are 3 sizes: the inside diameter of the from feed. small iron is about that of a dime; the 2. Dehorned cattle require less space middle iron, that of a nickle; and the

Section IV—Page 18 large iron, that of a quarter. The iron extra time for careful work is more profit- used will depend on the size of the wound. able than to set a record for the number The success of this operation depends on of cattle worked on per hour. the skill of the operator. The wound Castration. Bull calves can be cas- should be seared enough to stop any trated at any time from a few weeks to bleeding and to destroy any horned 7 months of age. Preferably, however, growth cells that might not have been re- they should be castrated before they are moved by cutting. Caustic is not employed 4 months old; if the operation is deferred with this method. until after 7 months, they will tend to For dehorning calves or yearlings with show some stagginess. As with dehorn- larger horns, various types of clippers or ing, there is less hemorrhage and setback dehorning saws are used. In either proc- with younger than with older animals. ess, a circle of skin, *4 to % inch in diam- The usual method is to cut off the lower eter, should be removed with the horn to third of the scrotum, slit the membrane insure a smooth poll. If the horn is taken covering each testicle, force out the testi- off close to the head, one can reduce cles, and sever the cord by scraping with bleeding by pulling the two arteries lying a knife. Probably a preferable method is between the skin and the bone on either to pull the scrotum down, insert a sharp, side of each horn. For this operation thin-bladed knife entirely through from sharp-nosed pliers are used. In pulling the side and about halfway up ; then with the artery, about % inch is removed, leav- one stroke slit the scrotum to the end. ing a crushed end underneath the skin. Remove the testes by pulling without re-

With a little practice and suitable pli- moving the covering membrane. This ers, this can be done in a few seconds. method takes little time, insures drainage, Livestock-supply companies offer various rapid healing, and leaves the entire cod powders and liquid applications that are intact. There is little bleeding. more or less effective for reducing bleed- The hands of the operator and the ing and repelling flies. If there is no dan- knife should be kept clean and as nearly ger of flies, and if instruments are kept sterile as possible by being dipped in a sterile by dipping, in disinfectant between disinfectant solution between operations. operations, treatment of the wound is The wound should likewise be disinfected. usually unnecessary. Chlorazene solution, weak solutions of If, because of the danger of maggots, sheep dip, Lysol, or similar preparations dehorning cannot be done when the calves are satisfactory. Danger of maggot in- are very young, it is commonly delayed festation must be considered as in de- until the following winter or spring. horning. Castration with burdizzo-type If wounds become infested with blow- instruments crushes the cords without sev- fly maggots or screwworms, the maggots ering the scrotum, avoids blood loss and can be killed with benzol, removed with maggot infestation. If carefully done, this swabs and forceps, and the wound treated method is satisfactory. In actual practice, with fly repellent. Pine tar and bone oil however, a higher percentage of cattle so are common ingredients of such prepara- treated show more stagginess than do tions. Castor oil poured into the wound those castrated with the knife. Castration is very effective in promoting healing and by the "elastrator" method at about 30 has some fly-repellent properties. days of age appears promising. Some Adequate equipment, as the chute difficulty and setback have occurred with

shown in figure 31 (IV) , or a calf-mark- larger calves. ing table, results in better work and is Vaccination. Blackleg immunization

much easier on men and animals than through vaccination is an almost uni- roping, "flanking," or "mugging." To use versal practice. Immunity should be es-

Page 19—Section IV tablished as early in life as possible. On eral, is most satisfactory. Cold-iron ranges of lower altitude, calves are com- branding, by using a caustic fluid, causes monly vaccinated when they are castrated very little pain and, when carefully ap- and are branded in the late winter or plied, makes a permanent brand in the early spring. In later-calving areas, calves skin. Since it does not change the direc- are usually vaccinated at marking time tion of hair growth as does the hot iron, and before they go to summer range. it becomes illegible when the hair grows

Although outbreaks may occur at any sea- out. Caustic branding fluid is therefore son, the greatest danger is in spring and not recommended for general range use. fall. Single doses of modern vaccines im- Whenever possible, branding, castrating, munize for life. Detailed directions are dehorning, and vaccinating should be supplied by biological companies manu- done before the calves are 4 months of facturing the vaccines. age and while they are with their mothers. In anthrax-infected areas, routine vac- Equipment. A good set of corrals and cination is necessary. Veterinary service equipment is essential for efficient han- should be employed in all anthrax out- dling and management of cattle. Every breaks. effort should be made to work cattle Branding. All brands and marks must quietly and easily, inflicting only a mini- be approved and recorded by the Live- mum amount of injury. This careful han- stock Identification Service, California dling, together with culling of wild or State Department of Agriculture, Sacra- nervous animals, results in gentle, easily mento. To avoid unnecessary damage to worked cattle. hides and to the animals, brands should Equipment should include a calf chute be as small as is consistent with ease of and marking table, squeeze chute, parting identification. Since the brand increases gates, loading chute, and scales. The port- in area with growth of the cattle, small able squeeze chutes and marking tables brands may be used if the calves are only now sold cost practically the same as a few months old. Hot-iron branding is home-built ones. Figure 31 (IV) shows a most commonly employed and, in gen- satisfactory and inexpensive type of

Some Branding Hints*

1. DO brand with a hot iron. You can't freeze on a brand with a cold iron. 2. DON'T let the iron get red hot. It may start the hair burning, and usually results in a poor brand. At proper heat the iron is about the color of ashes. 3. DON'T use a forge or a coal fire. Wood is the best fuel for heating the iron. 4. DON'T use caustic compounds. They may cause a bad sore and leave a scar rather than a brand. The result many times is unreadable. If you must use caustic, first clip the area to be branded.

5. DON'T use a small iron (horse iron) on cattle. The result is generally unreadable. 6. DON'T use a thin iron or one that is burned up. It may cut too deep or make a thin scar that the hair covers over. 7. DON'T join the letters of your brand—^E. Such an iron will never heat or burn evenly. The result is usually a blotch. 8. DON'T try to brand a wet animal. The brand may scald the animal or leave a blotch or a bad sore. Also, it's likely to be unreadable. 9. DON'T feel sorry for the animal. The iron must burn deep enough to remove the hair and outer layer of skin. The smoke you see is mostly burning hair and the burn is practically painless. 10. DON'T get in a hurry. The cow has plenty of time and she has to wear the brand the rest of her life. Furthermore, someone will have to read the brand from time to time. 11. DON'T mount your iron on a flat piece of steel. You might as well use a frying pan if you do.

If you have your iron made or if you make it yourself, have plenty of air space behind the iron (behind the burning surface). The burning edge should be about Vs inch thick.

* Compiled by the Agricultural Extension Service, Tulare County.

Section IV-Page 20 Fig. 31 (IV) . This cattle chute and squeeze is adapted from what is known as the Nevada low- cost dehorning chute. The body squeeze and neck squeeze operate as in other types of chutes. The distinguishing feature is the absence of a front exit ; the animals leave the chute through one side which is hinged and operated as a side gate.

Page 21—Section IV squeeze chute for the dehorning and mation on market demand, are the best branding of cattle. basis for deciding at what age to market Means for controlling lice, ox warble, and whether to finish the cattle or to sell flies, and other external parasites should them as feeders. receive attention. Spraying equipment is * In general, cost-of-production records replacing more expensive dipping vats for on breeding ranches show that the total most purposes, especially in the use of pounds of beef produced from a given some of the new insecticides. Information amount of feed are greatest where cattle and plans for beef-cattle equipment can are sold as yearlings. Because of the over- be obtained through the Agricultural Ex- head charge of the breeding herd, calf tension Service, University of California, cost per hundred pounds at weaning time Berkeley. is usually greater than for the same ani- Weighing Cattle. A set of scales is mal a year later. Total ranch production, a good ranch investment, not only for use in the form of two-year-old feeders, is when making sales, but also for weighing usually less than if all the surplus is sold the cattle kept on the ranch. Weighing as yearlings and a larger breeding herd the different classes at the beginning and is kept. The price of calves, compared end of the pasture season, dry season, or with yearlings and two-year-olds, and of winter period gives the stockman a defi- feeders compared with finished cattle in nite basis upon which to plan feeding relation to total tonnage of beef produced, practices, supplemental feeding, and es- must be known to determine the best tablish a selling policy. Weights can usu- means of marketing the ranch feed sup- ally be taken when cattle are brought to ply. the corrals for other purposes. Because Practical sorting of cattle before offer- of great variations in "shrinks" and ing them for sale should be a part of the "fills," apparent gains or losses over short policy whether the animals are sold at periods are not very reliable. Cattle home or elsewhere. The wider the varia- should be weighed as nearly as possible tion in quality and weight, the greater the under the same conditions each time to need for sorting. A single buyer is always obtain reliable data. Steer and heifer more attracted to well-sorted loads. If weights should always be obtained and several buyers are in the field, sorting is recorded separately because of the dif- still more advantageous. The buyer who ferences in gains usually made by the two is seeking a uniform lot of top-quality classes. To determine more accurately cattle will discount his bid if inferior ani- gains during short periods, weighing after mals are included in the offering. On the 12 hours (overnight) without feed and other hand, the buyer who is satisfied water is recommended. with plain cattle may pay the full market price for that kind, but will pay little, if Selling Policy any, premium for top quality. This same Cost records over a period of years for principle applies in sorting according to the individual ranch, coupled with infor- weight.

Section IV-Poge 22 LITERATURE CITED (1) Wallace, L. R. The growth of lambs before and after birth in relation to the level of nutrition. Jour. Agr. Sci. 38:93-401. England, 1947.

(2) HOFLAND, S. A. The connection between deficiency diseases and disturbances in the microflora of the rumen. (Section 4b.) Fourteenth Inter. Vet. Conf. Proc. London, 1949.

(3) Cardon, G. P. Information to the authors from the Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station.

(4) Guilbert, H« R., G. H. Hart, K. A. Wagnon, and H. Goss. The importance of continuous growth in beef cattle. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 688:1-35. 1944.

In order that the information in our publications may be more intelligible, it is sometimes necessary to use trade names of products and equipment rather than complicated descriptive or

chemical identifications. In so doing, it is unavoidable in some cases that similar products which are on the market under other trade names may not be cited. No endorsement of named products is intended nor is criticism implied of similar products which are not mentioned.

5m-4,'52(A339)M.H.

CALIFORNIA BEEF PRODUCTION MANUAL 2 H. R. Guilbert and G. H. Hart Section V

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA • COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Agricultural Experiment- Station and Extension Service

FATTENING CATTLE AND THE DRESSED PRODUCT Recommended Nutrient Creep-feeding of Calves Allowances General Cattle-feeding Fattening Cattle on Pasture Problems Feed-lot Rations Necessary Margin or Spread

Fattening Cattle feed costs and other factors of supply Feed-lot fattening accounted for about and demand. Proper adjustment feeds to be 15 per cent of the total beef tonnage pro- among used, cattle to be fed, and feeding prac- duced in California in 1942 (table 3, Sec. tices is of utmost importance in fattening I). The fattening process is the most cattle. Points to consider are expensive stage of production from the 1. Feed, whether raised or purchased, standpoint of feed cost per pound of gain, is the greatest item of cost and one over but is essential if one is to capitalize upon which the feeder can exercise consider- the cheaper gains made in the production able control. For best results, rations of feeder cattle. In converting feed into should possess: {a) quality in each feed, edible products, it is the most efficient for maximum digestibility; (6) balance stage, because more of the gain is then of feeds, to supply adequate protein, min- recovered in edible portion of the carcass erals, and vitamins; (c) variety, to assure and less in inedible offal. During the provision of all required nutrients and fattening process, dressing percentage palatability; and (d) economy, to permit changes from 50 to 55 per cent to 58 to profit. 60 per cent, and occasionally more. This 2. On good-quality rations, younger increase in yield, coupled with the added cattle use less feed to produce gain and fat necessary to increase tenderness and also make cheaper gains than older cat- palatability and to protect the carcass tle. properly fed, calves require from shrinkage and spoilage during When only 65 to 75 per cent, and yearlings 75 aging, facilitates merchandising and to 85 per cent as much feed to produce offers a desirable product to the con- gain as two-year-olds of the sumer. These are basic reasons for the same type grade fed in a similar manner. spread in price between feeder and and 3. meet Pacific Coast de- slaughter cattle—a spread also affected by To market mands, calves are fattened for 5 to 8 Manual 2, a revision of Circular 131, replaces months; yearlings, 3 to Extension Circular 115, Beef Production in Cali- 5 months; and fornia, by H. R. Guilbert and L. H. Rochford. two-year-olds, 2 to 4 months. The total Some tables and other data from the original gain usually required for finishing calves circular are used in the manual. Mr. Guilbert is Professor of Animal Hus- is 300 to 500 pounds; yearlings, 225 to bandry and Animal Husbandman in the Experi- 350 pounds; and two-year-olds, 125 to ment Station. 250 pounds. Mr. Hart is Professor of Veterinary Science and Veterinarian in the Experiment Station. 4. Steers make slightly more gain than

Page 1—Section V heifers. Heifers, however, fatten faster Recommended Nutrient Allowances than steers. The California market does Tables 10 and 11 (III) give recom- not demand so high a degree of finish on mended allowances for different weights the heifers; therefore, a shorter feeding of fattening calves finished as short year- heif- period is required for them. Spayed lings, for yearling cattle, and for two- ers do not gain more economically than year-olds. heifers, nor they excel in dress- open do Expected Gains. The expected gains ing percentage. shown for the different ages of fattening Well-finished heifer calves and year- 5. cattle may commonly be obtained with lings slaughtered at 750 pounds, or less, good-quality steers fed from medium- or steers of age yield as well as comparable fleshy-feeder to top-good or choice condi- little, if any, more and grade, and show tion. The indicated gains may be exceeded carcasses of heavier carcass waste. The when consumption of feed or total digesti- waste- and older heifers are usually more ble nutrients exceeds that in the tables, those of steers of similar age and ful than or when the cattle are brought up from finish. In quality and palatability, heifer thin or medium-feeder condition to a beef is equal to steer beef. slaughter grade of medium or good. On 6. Feeder cattle of high quality have the other hand, inferior cattle lacking in wider adaptability than those of poor feed capacity or cattle fed to higher de- quality. A good general rule is to give grees of finish may not make the gains most of the best feed to the best cattle. indicated. Both feed consumption and 7. Two- and three-year-old cattle and gains vary with the individuality of the good-quality early-maturing yearling cattle, with quality and palatability of heifers may fatten on pasture without feed, with weather conditions, and with concentrate supplements. Yearling steers management practice. Gains are lower will gain rapidly on good pasture, but for heifers than for steers of comparable will rarely fatten without concentrates. grade and weight.

Where it can be practiced, pasture fatten- Feed Capacity. The figures in tables ing, aided by supplements when neces- 10 and 11 (III) under "Daily feed, per sary, usually results in more economical cent of live weight" and "Daily feed per gains than feed-lot feeding. animal" closely represent the total feed

8. Creep-feeding is profitable under capacity of fattening cattle of various certain conditions. Well-bred, properly ages, weights, and degrees of fatness. For creep-fed calves attain a weight of 700 convenience, this information is given in to 800 pounds and desirable market finish terms of feed having 90 per cent dry mat- at 10 to 12 months of age. ter, an amount fairly representative of 9. Careful attention to feeding prac- most hays and concentrates. The data tices is fully as important as right selec- have been checked with large-scale feed- tion of rations and cattle. Proper sorting ing operations involving thousands of of the animals, correct preparation of cattle, and with numerous feeding trials feeds, regularity of feeding, and content- conducted by experiment stations. ment of the herd often mean the differ- Cattle fed for long periods, during ence between profit and loss. which their weights pass through practi- 10. The necessary margin, or spread, cally the whole range shown for their age between the feeder value and the selling class may, under intensive concentrate price of the animals when fat, depends feeding, reach maximum feed consump- largely on the relation among feed prices, tion before the end of the period, rather cattle prices, and the amount of feed re- than consume increasing amounts with quired to produce gain. age as indicated. Under these conditions,

Section V—Page 2 consumption often decreases toward the used concentrates. On these bases the total end of the period. digestible nutrients would be 60 to 62 The practice of marketing cattle by the per cent in a ration having 40 per cent time they reach this leveling-off stage and concentrates and 60 per cent roughage; before consumption declines should re- 62.5 to 65 per cent in one having 50 per ceive due consideration. In California this cent each of concentrates and roughage; practice is more widespread than in the 65 to 68 per cent in one having 60 per Corn Belt, where concentrates are more cent concentrates and 40 per cent rough- plentiful and longer feeding periods and age; and 67.5 to 71 per cent in one having higher finish more common. (See also 70 per cent concentrates and 30 per cent "Minimum Roughage Allowance" in this roughage. section.) Minimum Roughage Allowance. Total Digestible Nutrients. The To promote normal physiological activity total digestible nutrients (T.D.N.) , digest- of the gastrointestinal tract, one must ible protein, calcium, and phosphorus feed a certain amount of coarser rough- requirements in table 10 (III) are given age containing stemmy material or leaves in amounts per day and in table 11 (III) with rough surfaces. Finely ground on the basis of required percentages in a roughages will not suffice. Apparently mix. The latter can serve as a guide where both bulk and roughages are involved in milled and mixed rations are used; the bloat prevention. percentages of feeds in a mix are then Food intake is limited on the one hand controlled at the mixing plant, and the by the bulk-handling capacity of the in- cattle fed according to appetite. Table 23 testinal tract; on the other, by the daily (V) gives examples of both methods for digestible-nutrient storage capacity of the computing rations and shows how their animals. Comparison of fattening rations adequacy can be checked with the recom- varying in bulk indicates that those con- mended allowances. taining 70 to 75 per cent concentrates are The recommended total-digestible-nu- concentrated enough to permit maximum trient allowances are about minimum for total-digestible-nutrient intake. More con- the expected gains shown and for attain- centrated rations do not appear to result ment of desirable finish in feeding periods in greater total-digestible-nutrient intake

of average length. They are based upon (except possibly for short periods) ; when the maximum roughage utilization that they are given, total feed (bulk) capacity is compatible with feed capacity and with is not fully utilized. The recommended digestible-nutrient requirement. minimum allowance for roughage is In rations with sufficient roughage to therefore tentatively set at 0.7 to 0.8 promote normal rumen activity and other pound (air-dry basis) for each 100 digestive processes, the maximum total- pounds of live weight—the minimum digestible-nutrient content is about 75 per below which some trouble is likely to cent. Where concentrates are favorably occur is about 0.5 pound. priced, as compared with roughage, one Lack of sufficient roughage may partly may use rations with higher percentages account for the conspicuous decreases in of total digestible nutrients than the mini- total feed consumption sometimes noted mum figures shown in the table. during the latter part of the fattening Roughages usually contain 45 to 53 period. Deficiency of calcium or of vita- per cent total digestible nutrients on a min A is less probable with rations con- 90 per cent dry-matter basis, with 50 per taining the higher levels of roughage, and cent as a rough average. Similarly, 75 such rations are consistent with a sound to 80 per cent total digestible nutrients and permanent type of agriculture. can be taken as the range for commonly The principle of minimum roughage

Page 3—Section V applies not only to cattle in feed lots, molasses, and beet pulp (either wet or but also to those on very lush pasturage dry), with little or no grain or concen- containing an abundance of leafy, fine- trate protein feed, require phosphorus stemmed legumes. Voluntary consump- supplements. The calcium and phospho- tion of about 5 pounds daily of straw by rus in feed-lot rations should be checked mature animals on such pasture has been with the table of requirements. It is just observed, the amount varying seasonally as important to avoid the extra expense with condition of growth, stage of matu- and trouble of feeding minerals, when rity, and botanical composition of the they are not needed, as it is to supply herbage. The addition of dry feed not them when they are necessary. only helps to prevent bloat, but also tends Carotene. Cattle store vitamin A and to counteract excessive laxative effects, carotene in the liver and body fat during increase pasture consumption, and im- times of abundant intake from green pas- prove the thrift and gains of the animals. ture. The amount stored varies with age Protein Allowance. In the light of and duration of high intake. So long as experimental evidence, the allowances sufficient storage reserves remain, no di- in tables 10 and 11 (III) are regarded as etary source is required. Many rations the minimum consistent with palatabil- used in California feed lots contain forage ity, necessary food consumption, and with little or no green color. Grains and expected gains. They are especially rec- by-product feeds are extremely low in ommended when protein feeds are scarce carotene or are devoid of it. Carotene and expensive. Offering a variety of deficiency in feed-lot rations is therefore palatable feeds, checking the adequacy relatively common, and the symptoms are of phosphorus supply, and making the sometimes encountered. rations complete in other respects are If cattle enter the feed lot with a de- especially advisable when minimum levels pleted reserve because of prolonged graz- for fattening rations are used. When pro- ing on dry range, carotene deficiency may tein feeds are plentiful and favorably occur unless roughage of bright green priced, the protein allowances for fatten- color is used. In 1934, a striking example ing cattle may be increased 10 to 20 per of this trouble was found in a herd of cent above the recommended minimum. 560 head of yearling steers and heifers Protein feeds in excess of these amounts brought from dry range and fed on are not recommended, because they are bleached hay and straw, cottonseed meal, usually higher priced than other concen- raisin stems, and barley. After 25 days trates and are no more efficient than on this ration, gains were low, the cattle grains for fattening. If the excess protein unthrifty, their coats rough, and their included in many feed-lot rations were eyes watering. Many showed defective used to promote continuous growth of vision in twilight, and some were defi- stock cattle and high calf crops in breed- nitely night-blind. The addition of 3 ing herds, far greater returns would be pounds of bright alfalfa hay or lima-bean shown for these valuable feeds. straw remedied the condition. Within 30

Calcium and Phosphorus. The re- days gains became normal, and the cattle quirements given in tables 10 and 11 thrifty. Another group—350 head of older (III) will be met by most otherwise well- animals—brought to the feed lot earlier, balanced rations. With heavy concentrate showed similar symptoms after 120 days feeding of fattening calves and minimum on feed. They also responded to green allowance of nonlegume roughage, cal- roughage in the ration. cium supplement is required for optimum If it were not for previous storage in gain, finish, and bone development. Sim- the animal and relatively short feeding ilarly, rations consisting of alfalfa hay, periods, deficiency symptoms would be

Section V—Page 4 . :

TABLE 23 (V) Examples of Adequate Fattening Rations, Illustrating Computation on the Basis of Quantities of Nutrients per Steer Daily and on the Basis of Requirements and Nutrients Expressed as Percentages in the Ration

Total feed Total Digestible Phos- (dry or digestible Calcium, Carotene, protein, phorus, equivalent), nutrients, grams milligrams pounds pounds pounds grams

Fattening calves, weight 600 pounds

Rations in pounds: Alfalfa hay, 3; corn silage, 10; milo, 4.5; barley, 4.5; cotton-

seed meal, 1 15.9 11.3 1.39 25.4 26.8 120

Oat and vetch hay (bleached), 6;

molasses beet pulp, 4; barley, 6; cottonseed meal, 0.5 16.5 11.0 1.37 27.5 21.4 12*

Req uirements 16.0 11.0 1.30 20.0 17.0 35

Yearling steers, weight 800 pounds

Rations in pounds: Mixed milled feed (oat and vetch hay, 40 per cent; barley, 35 per cent; molasses, 25 per cent), 15 pounds 15.0 9.25 0.86 22.2 17.5 48 Wet beet pulp, 40 pounds 5.3 3.76 0.44 16.4 2.0 Wet brewers' grain, 8 pounds 2.1 1.33 0.37 2.5 4.3

22.4 14.34 1.67 41.1 23.8 48

Requirements 22.0 14.00 1.50 20.0 19.0 45

Yearling steers, weight 800 pounds, mixed milled ration

Pounds of feed per 100 pou nds of mix Oat hay 25.... 12.5 0.83 0.07 0.05 200 Alfalfa hay 10. 5.0 1.05 0.15 0.02 194 Barley 30 23.4 2.40 0.01 0.12

Molasses dried beet pulp. . . 20 14.8 1.06 0.05 0.02 Molasses 10 5.7 0.02 0.04 0.01 3.7 1.65 01 0.05 Totals in 100 pounds of mixed 65.1 7.01 0.33 0.27 394

Requirements per 100 pounds of mixed feed 65.0 6.8 0.20 0.19 205

Two-year-old steers, weight 1,000 pounds, mixed milled ration

Poundsof feed per 100 pounds of mix: 194 Alfalfa hay 10. .. . 5.04 1.08 0.150 0.020

Oat hay, moderately green . 40. . . 19.20 1.30 o.uo 0.090 320 'Barley 30 23.00 2.30 0.001 0.120 Milo 8... 6.40 0.66 0.001 0.020

Molasses 8. . 4.60 0.07 0.020 0.005 2.94 1.35 0.010 0.040 Totals in 100 pounds of mixed feed 61.18 6.76 0.292 0.295 -514

Requirements per 100 pounds of mixed feed 62.00 6.30 0.16 0.16 210

* The amount of carotene furnished by bleached hay having only a trace of green color may promote normal gains and prevent night blindness, but does not meet recommended allowance for moderate liver storage.

Page 5— Section V much more common. Data on storage and centrates; but in the feed lot, for rapid time for depletion are in Section III. Cat- finish, the ration should contain about tle on rations of cottonseed hulls and meal 62 per cent total digestible nutrients, or commonly become vitamin-A deficient in 1 to 1% pounds of concentrates per 100

90 to 120 days. In table 10 (III) , the rec- pounds live weight. ommended allowance of 6.0 milligrams 4. When a good legume hay is used as per 100 pounds of body weight is the the sole roughage, and the rest of the minimum amount that will provide for ration consists of various carbonaceous moderate liver storage and thus contrib- concentrates, no protein supplement, such ute vitamin A for human food. Optimum as cottonseed meal, is required. When feed-lot gains and freedom from clinical nonlegume roughage is used, 8 to 10 per symptoms can be assured by as little as cent in the mix (or roughly 2 to 2% 1.5 milligrams per 100 pounds of live pounds per 1,000 pounds live weight) weight. One to 3 pounds daily of good of cottonseed cake, or its equivalent, green alfalfa hay will meet requirements. should be fed.

Table 13 (III) is a rough guide for esti- 5. When cattle are fattened on green mating the carotene content of feeds from pasture, no protein supplement is re- their appearance. quired. On dry pasture containing bur General Feeding Rules. Five rules clover, 1 to 2 pounds of cottonseed cake, have proved convenient for rough esti- or its equivalent, for each 1,000 pounds mation of rations and for calculating the live weight is recommended. On dry pas- total feed required for fattening. These ture with no legumes, the amount of pro- are for general guidance only. As a check tein concentrate should be increased by on balance and adequacy, tables 10, 11, feeding 2 to 2% pounds for each 1,000 and 12 (III) should be used, along with pounds live weight. other data and discussion given under Fattening Cattle on Pasture "Nutrient Requirements and Cattle Feeds," Section III. Finishing Yearlings and Two- 1. At least three (preferably more) Year-Olds on the Range. In experi- feeds should be included in feed-lot ra- ments conducted over the past several tions. years on the San Joaquin Experimental 2. Fattening cattle will consume 2.3 to Range, good-grade long-yearling and two- 3.0 pounds of dry feed, or its equivalent, year-old beeves were finished on a range for each 100 pounds live weight. Gen- that is poor from the standpoint of fatten- erally they will take 3 pounds per hun- ing cattle. This experience emphasizes the dredweight early in the fattening period possibilities of finishing a significant pro- and decrease the amount later. Generally portion of the cattle on the better foothill in California, the average for the period and valley range so that they will compare is close to 2.7 or 2.8 pounds per hundred- favorably with feed-lot cattle. In a more weight. favorable environment, less total concen- 3. For rapid gain and finish, calves re- trate supplement would be required than quire at least 68 per cent total digestible in the experimental tests. nutrients in the ration, or 1% to 2 pounds The conditions necessary to finish long- of concentrates per 100 pounds live yearling steers to good slaughter grade weight. Yearlings require 65 per cent total are as follows: digestible nutrients in the ration, or 1% 1. Maintain the breeding herd in good to IV2 pounds of concentrates per 100 condition for maximum calf weaning pounds live weight. Two-year-old cattle weights and percentage calf crop, as out- on good-quality pasture or roughage may, lined under "Production of Feeder Cat- over a longer period, fatten without con- tle," Section IV.

Section V— Page 6 2. Breed for fall calves so that as long- or more of concentrates per 100 pounds yearlings they have had two full green- live weight may be used. The rate of gain forage seasons. and fattening is thereby increased; and 3. Supplement calves from weaning so the cattle can be made ready for an time for continuous growth. For best re- earlier market or finished before the sults in finishing, according to data in range forage deteriorates too much. Bulletin 688 (1) and subsequent tests, a 7. Cattle to be fattened in this way can gain of 1 pound or more daily should be be managed best in small fields conven- obtained during the dry and winter sea- ient for feeding, where choice feed, shade, sons after weaning. About the same and water are readily obtained. They can amount of concentrates was required be started on concentrates while green whether the cattle were given none after feed is still available, if wire-enclosed weaning, enough for % to % pound gain, feeding corrals are constructed near water or enough for 1 to 1% pounds gain. When and the animals are brought in to feed more of the total feed was used to produce once daily. Later they can be trained to continuous growth, less was required for come on call or at sight of the feed truck. finishing, and the total weight produced 8. Cattle should be in fleshy-feeder to was significantly greater. medium-slaughter condition toward the 4. When range forage becomes abun- end of the grass season in order to make dant and good enough to produce gains, good-grade beef with a 40- to 90-day full supplemental feeding may be discontin- feed. Figure 32 (V) shows the appear- ued. Cattle will continue longer to come ance of different groups at the start and on call if 3 to 4 pounds of supplement finish of the fattening period. are offered than if less is fed. Often they 9. Cattle should be started on feed grad- will cease to come in for a pound of cot- ually. Use 1 to 2 pounds per head daily tonseed cake, or other feed, before the until all are eating; then add 1 pound a grass alone will produce gains. Appar- day until 5 or 6 pounds are consumed. ently they sense whether the feed is worth Increase, thereafter, 1 pound per head the effort of a long trip to the supple- every 2 to 4 days until 1 pound per 100 mental feeding source. pounds live weight is reached. Watch the 5. One may either allow the cattle to cattle carefully, and stop the increases or graze without supplement until the feed reduce the allowance at the first sign of dries, or start full feeding toward the end scouring or going off feed. of the green-feed season. Tests thus far 10. Surplus heifers can be fattened in have shown the latter procedure to be this way as yearlings more easily than the better. When good green feed is avail- steers and require less total concentrates. able, gains comparable with those in feed Two-year-old steers are more easily fat- lots are obtained, fattening is more rapid, tened than yearlings and can be managed and less concentrates will be required for as outlined above; but as yearlings they 100 pounds of gain. will have received minimum supplements 6. One pound of concentrates for each during the dry season to promote gain 100 pounds live weight is about the maxi- and prevent loss of flesh. mum that can be given safely with once- Table 24 (V) shows data from 9 groups daily feeding. In hot weather, evening of steers and 2 groups of heifers. feeding is preferable; the heat produced All cattle groups shown in the table by this large intake of nutrients at one had been fed supplements to promote con- time is more readily eliminated during tinuous gains after weaning. As yearlings, the cooler night, and less trouble may be the two groups later marketed as two- encountered with animals going off feed. year-olds had also received supplements With twice-daily feeding, 1% pounds during the dry-feed and winter period.

Page 7—Section V Fig. 32 (V). Steers fed for continuous growth and finished on the San Joaquin Experimental

Range. Upper and lower left show two-year-old steers, group A-38, table 24 (V) , at the beginning and end of the finishing period. Upper and lower right show long-yearling steers, group A-41-3, at the start of the finishing period and before shipment to market. Both groups produced grade A or good carcasses, corresponding with the 1951 designation of U. S. Choice.

Thus, before finishing began, most of the fattened than yearlings on comparable cattle had weights and condition compa- rations, but required more feed for 100 rable with those attained by cattle that pounds gain. had not received supplements on the same The concentrate feed required for 100 range a year later. pounds gain varied for the grain-fed As the table shows, there were consid- steers from a low of 441 pounds to a high erable differences in the shipping shrink- of 725. A rough average might be 600 age of the various groups. In order that pounds, an amount comparable with feed- the selling weight might be used as the lot concentrate requirements. Range feed- final weight, and that the picture of actual ing had the advantage of a cheaper body-weight increase might be fairly ac- roughage than harvested and milled hay. curate, the full weight at the time feeding Finishing of steer groups A-41/2, began, minus the same percentage shrink A-41/3 and heifer group A-38 began

that occurred in marketing, was used as while green forage was still available. At the initial weight. The gains so computed this time their gains were more rapid, were comparable with gains figured on comparable with feed-lot records, and the basis of initial and final shrunk considerably higher than for groups weights on the range (overnight without started after the forage was nearly all feed and water) as far as available data dry. Considering that the two A-41 steer permitted comparison. groups made good and choice carcass The grain used for steer groups A-35, grades, the feed-for-gain relation was also A-38, A-36, and A-39, and heifer group favorable. A-38 was rolled barley. Groups A-40/1, Heifers are easier to fatten than steers, A-40, A-41/2, and A-41/3 received a mix- but in these tests were not carried beyond ture of rolled barley, ground grain sor- the commercial grade. ghum, and beet pulp. Steer and heifer The lifetime total of concentrates for groups A-37 were hand-fed fish meal; the two-year-olds, including supplemental the molasses was self-fed. feeding after weaning, at the yearling Two-year-old steers that had completed stage, and during the finishing period, most of their growth were more easily was 1,310 to 1,460 pounds. For the year-

Section V— Page 8 > ' '

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ling steers that graded good, trie lifetime matter—a value equivalent to ration com- total was 1,400 to 1,738 pounds. These posed of about 40 per cent concentrates amounts do not exceed the concentrates and 60 per cent hay. Generally for cattle commonly required in feed lots for finish- the pasture should contain not more than ing cattle of comparable age. The feed 50 per cent legumes. Leafy, palatable for 100 pounds gain in these trials, and grasses grown in highly fertile soil and in the ranch trials shown in table 25 ( V) grazed at the proper stage contains more can be used in figuring feed costs and than enough protein and minerals for the necessary margins. needs of the cattle. The nutritional value Fattening Cattle on Irrigated Pas- and physiological effects of good grass ture. of the major problems of Cali- One may be superior to the legumes, which are fornia is the production economical frequently responsible for bloat, purga- finishing of high-quality beef at moderate tive or laxative effects, and other difficul- weights with a minimum use of concen- ties. Legumes, however, are an economical trates. means of supplying the large quantities table shows, irrigated pastures As 3(1) of nitrogen essential to both yield and accounted for an estimated 13 per cent quality of forage. of total beef tonnage in 1942. Irrigated- 2. Building up a higher state of fertility pasture development has been rapid dur- than has generally been realized is essen- ing recent years and appears likely to tial for high yield of superior quality continue. The carrying and production pasture. Data from areas of the world capacity, coupled with the saving in labor where pasture production and manage- of harvesting feeds, makes livestock pro- ment are most advanced show that the duction practicable on relatively high- nitrogen equivalent of 600 to over 1,000 priced lands. By using irrigated pastures pounds of ammonium nitrate is required in con j unction, jone can utilize the native annually. This may be acquired through feed when it is most nutritious and abun- legumes and manuring or, in the case of dant, and can greatly extend the period grass pastures, through chemical fertiliza- of continuous growth and development of tion. Phosphorus, sulfur, and/or other livestock without resorting to concentrate elements may be required in specific supplements. Irrigated pastures serve for areas. both growing and fattening cattle. Careful adjustment of cattle numbers Proper management of pastures, as well to forage supply, along with judicious as of livestock, is essential to high produc- scheduling of irrigation and grazing, is tion of forage and of beef. Irrigated pas- essential to utilization at the proper ture is discussed in Extension Circular growth stage for optimum nutritive ef-

125 . Local up-to-date (2) information on fect. Concentration of sufficient stock on the subject can be obtained from county an area to graze it down evenly and to Agricultural Extension offices. Some im- distribute the urine uniformly requires portant considerations in cattle manage- frequent rotation. This practice affords

ment may be summarized as follows: fresh feed at frequent intervals, which is 1. The ideal pasture for fattening cat- conducive to higher consumption and tle is a thick sward of fine, leafy, palatable avoids radical change in quality due to vegetation which is neither too mature growth stage. Pasturing before the pas- nor too lush and watery. Forage of de- ture gets too high not only insures higher sirable botanical composition, managed nutritive value, but also encourages the

so that it can be utilized at the proper grasses to form a thick continuous sward. growth stage should contain 60 per cent This probably improves the microclimate or more of digestible nutrients in the dry at the ground surface and certainly will

Section V— Page 10 .

TABLE 25 (V)

Results of Ranch Fattening Trials on Dry Range Forage

Num- Average Length Average Cattle ber Average daily ration, pounds initial of daily Pounds feed for of weight, period, gain, 100 pounds' gain cattle pounds days pounds

Dry grass-filaree range Two-year-old steers. 24 Barley 3.0 650 169 1.24 Concentrates. .403 Cottonseed cake 2.0

Dry grass-filaree range Barley 3.3 Concentrates. .633 Two-year-old steers 97 Beet pulp 2.2 75 1.54 Hay 209 Cold-pressed cottonseed cake 4.3 Grain hay 3.2

Dry grass-filaree range Barley 4.1 Two-year-old heifers 444 733 60 1.32 Concentrates. .684 Dried beet pulp 2.3 Cold-pressed cottonseed cake 2.7

Dry grass-filaree range Barley 3.6 Yearling heifers. 250 Dried beet pulp 3.4 552 87 Concentrates. .523 Cottonseed cake (43 per cent protein) 1.8

make the pasture less susceptible to damage requirement was met by feeding age by trampling when wet. It's short fine coarse, dry roughage in addition, than feed that fattens the cattle! when pasture was provided without dry

3. On irrigated pasture, bloat is fre- roughage. quently a problem. Its causes are dis- 4. The fat of cattle on green pasture cussed under "Physiological Processes tends to be more yellow in color than that and Cattle Breeding" (Sec. II), and in of cattle on dry rations, because of the the paragraphs on "Minimum Roughage abundant carotene. If the carcasses are Allowance" (V). More detailed informa- otherwise desirable and are fat enough tion is given in Bulletin 662 (3). to meet grade requirements, the color of The practical control of bloat depends fat should not influence the grade. Now upon maintaining a suitable mixture of that more people realize the value of caro- grasses and legumes, as indicated above, tene as a source of vitamin A, there is less and upon meeting the minimum require- prejudice than formerly against yellow ment for coarse roughage. Even in the fat. absence of acute bloat, cattle will not do 5. The dry matter in pastures may be well when the moisture content of the feed 55 to 70 per cent digestible. The physical is too high and the fiber content too low, and chemical nature of the feed, however, as commonly occurs in the late summer and the high moisture content, usually

and fall. Cattle sometimes scour, lack fill, keep the intake of total digestible nutri- and graze indifferently on feed that ap- ents below the optimum for rapid fatten- pears excellent. On similar feed other ing. Concentrate supplements therefore cattle, having access to dry roughage, increase gain, rate of fattening, and the were well filled and apparently gaining desirability of carcasses of pasture-fed well. In tests of individual cows at this cattle. experiment station, more pasture was con- 6. Green pastures contain enough pro-

sumed daily, when the minimum rough- tein to fatten cattle of all ages. Carbo-

Page 1 1—Section V hydrate concentrates, such as grains and shades can be constructed at low cost. by-product feeds, are therefore better Tests of several kinds of shade at the adapted, and usually cheaper, as supple- Imperial Valley Field Station by Kelley ments than such protein concentrates as and Ittner (4) gave the following sig- cottonseed cake. nificant results:

7. The general rules already given for 1. The function of shade is to reduce quantity of concentrate supplement and heat burden induced by direct sun radia- method of feeding on the range (Sec. tion. No shade can appreciably influence Ill) apply to irrigated pasture. Often, air temperature. however, on such pasture, a longer feed- 2. Shades reduced radiant heat burden ing period can be planned, and less con- by 60 to 65 per cent. At 100° F it was centrates per daily. fed head The younger calculated that an unshaded animal must the cattle, the higher the proportion of lose a total of 1,344 B.T.U. more heat per concentrate feed required for rapid fat- hour than a shaded one through vapori- tening. zation of water. Over a 10-hour period 8. The moist conditions prevalent in this would require extra vaporization, irrigated pastures, and the large numbers largely through respiration, of 1.6 gal- of animals concentrated on small areas, lons of water. This increased load is with consequent frequent regrazing, favor sufficient to heat 9.2 gallons of ice water repeated infestation with internal para- to boiling! sites, particularly stomach worms. The 3. The best height for the shade is 10 symptoms may easily be confused with to 12 feet. This cuts off sun radiation and those produced by immature, watery, lax- permits good exposure to the cooler sky, ative forage with too little roughage; and yet the shadow does not move so fast that both conditions often are present at the animals have to move frequently to hot same time. If cattle have rough coats, fail ground. The difference in heat load under to gain, or lose weight and develop diar- high (12 feet) and low (6 feet) shades rhea, veterinary services should be em- was estimated at 8 to 10 B.T.U. per square ployed for definite diagnosis. Younger foot of exposed body surface. This dif- cattle are usually more affected than older ference imposed by the low shade during ones. The recommended treatment is a 10-hour period for an average animal about 15 grams of phenothiazine for may be calculated as equivalent to the calves, 25 grams for yearlings, and 40 mechanical work of lifting a 2,000-pound grams for mature cattle. On infested pas- weight about 800 feet or the heat equiva- ture, three to four treatments yearly will lent for melting 8 to 10 pounds of ice and usually control the parasites. As a rule, heating the water to boiling. the drug is administered in capsules. 4. Shades covered to a depth of 6 inches Tightly packed ^-ounce, 1-ounce, and or more with straw gave the greatest in- l^-ounce-size capsules approximately sulation against radiation. Aluminum furnish the doses recommended above. shades while new and bright reflected If the cattle are not parasitized and do well and were nearly as effective as straw. not respond to dry roughage or appro- Galvanized iron was least desirable. It priate change in grazing management, became extremely hot and re-radiated specific deficiencies or the presence of to the cattle, making them visibly less excess molybdenum or other salts should be investigated (see "Nutrient Require- comfortable. ments and Cattle Feeds," Section III). 5. For very hot conditions, such as Palo 9. For best results in hot weather, Verde and Imperial valleys, added relief shade should be provided, especially when was given by a sub-roof of burlap placed concentrates are being fed. Artificial a foot or so above the backs of the cattle

Section V— Page 12 :

which was kept wet by overhead sprin- stage should be used to clean up the re- klers. maining feed. Although considerable numbers of cat- 2. The tops from 1 to 1% acres of beets tle are being fattened on irrigated pasture yielding 15 to 20 tons per acre will sup- in California, only a little reliable infor- port 1 animal unit for about 90 days. mation is available on different pasture 3. The tops should be allowed to cure mixtures and concentrate supplements. for 7 to 10 days before being used as Table 26 (V) includes data from ranch pasture. The grazing area should be lim- trials on meadow and alfalfa pasture, and ited by fencing so that the feed is utilized, from experiment-station trials on alfalfa and the cattle should be moved to a new pasture with and without supplement. area every 10 to 14 days. Good utilization Fattening Cattle on Beet Tops. The requires keen judgment; pasturing an yield of beet tops in relation to beet ton- area 1 day too long may cost many nage, the proportion of crown and leaf, pounds of gain, and moving 1 day too the chemical composition, the digestibil- soon may cost many feed days. Such ro- ity, and other characteristics of this feed tation requires more provision of fencing have been discussed under "Nutrient Re- and water, but gives better results. Fur- quirements and Cattle Feeds" (Section thermore, preparation of the land for the ni). next year is not delayed. Although much of this valuable feed 4. Access to hay, dry stubble, or supple- resource is not recovered by pasturing mentary grain adds needed variety, in- the scattered tops in the field, this method creases gains, and improves finish. is most commonly employed. 5. Water loss of cattle on beet tops is Two-year-old steers or heifers, long- high through both feces and urine; and yearling heifers in fleshy feeder condi- water intake is correspondingly high, tion, and mature cows are the animals especially in hot weather. Adequate drink- best adapted for finishing on beet-top ing water, therefore, must be provided. pasture. Since the feeding period does 6. Cattle on beet tops are subject to not usually exceed 90 days, and the gain choke and bloat caused by hard crowns from beet tops alone varies from 1.0 to or small beets lodging in the esophagus. 1.5 pounds daily, these classes of cattle Losses may be heavy, unless the animals are the only ones that can attain satis- are carefully watched, especially toward factory slaughter condition. Beet-top pas- the end of the forenoon and evening graz- tures are also used for growing feeder ing periods. If found in time, the lodged cattle or for carrying stock cattle during crown or the beet can be removed or the fall before new range feed becomes pushed on down the esophagus with a available. well-lubricated heavy rubber hose.

Information and recommended proce- 7. In a controlled test, steers ate ap- dures may be itemized as follows proximately 60 per cent crown and 40 1. To obtain best results from beet-top per cent leaf, when allowed free choice, pasture, one should not allow the cattle whereas the percentage yield weight of to roam at will over a large field. By using crown was 40 per cent, and of leaf 60 temporary cross fences, one can limit per cent. Discarding of leaf is commonly their grazing to smaller areas at a time noted among cattle pasturing tops. These and can move them often to fresh feed. data indicate the loss of feed value that Cattle well along in the fattening stage occurs from selective grazing, trampling, should not have to graze the fields too and the like, in pasturing scattered tops. closely. After they have salvaged the best Piling tops by hand, or bunching and of the tops, a follow-up herd of stock windrowing them with harvesting ma- cattle or animals early in the fattening chinery, would materially reduce loss and

Page 13—Section V ' «

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Average Beef Period Area Yield of daily produced on feed, pastured, beets, Number and class of cattle gain, per acre, days acres tons pounds pounds

781 two-year-old. steers 830 16.6 1.43 91 451 two-year-old steers 12.0 127 two-year-old steers and heifers. 135 16.0 1.30 116 55 two-year-old steers 57 14.0 1.56 91

* Beet tops not completely utilized.

increase beef production per acre. Opti- centrate requirements for fattening. On mum utilization, however, depends upon the other hand, one can depend almost harvesting the dried tops, or making beet- entirely for digestible nutrients on the

top silage and including it with other concentrates, feeding limited roughage feeds in a well-balanced ration. Infor- largely to supply bulk. (See "Minimum mation on such methods appears under Roughage Allowance" in this section.) "Feed-lot Rations," which follows. Low-grade roughage can be and is com- Table 27 (V) presents the results of monly used in this way by large commer- several ranch trials with cattle on beet-top cial operators, who depend on buying pasture. cheaply these low-grade hays and straws. When maximum concentrates are fed, Feed-lot Rations roughage supplies only a small percentage Both farmers and commercial feeders of the total digestible nutrients ; and vari- in California have several alternatives ation of 40 to 50 per cent total digestible when planning rations for feed-lot fatten- nutrients in the roughage causes only ing. The farmer who uses cattle primarily small variation in their percentage in the to market his ranch feeds can often plan ration. For this reason extensive feeders his crop program to produce feeds that commonly say that if cattle receive will combine in a satisfactory fattening enough concentrates, any kind of rough- ration without the aid of any purchased age can serve for bulk. Since, however, supplements. roughages are depended on not only for The total tonnage of digestible nutri- bulk and total digestible nutrients but ents from alfalfa hay, grain hay, and also for much calcium, phosphorus, caro- threshed grains that is available to be tene, and protein, quality of roughage marketed through cattle in California ex- should be a primary consideration, espe- ceeds that from all other harvested feeds cially with farmer feeders. and by-products combined. These feeds, 2. ration full therefore, are the basis of most feed-lot A composed solely of a feed of barley alfalfa rations. Important points to be considered and hay can meet in using hay and grain are as follows: nutritive requirements and produce ex- 1. The higher the quality of roughage, cellent gains and finish. One must, how- the greater its digestibility, and therefore ever, watch for digestive disturbances and less concentrates are required to bring the bloat. As stated in "General Feeding ration up to the minimum total-digestible- Rules" in this section, a combination of nutrient requirements in tables 10 and 11 three or more feeds is preferable. When (III). Careful curing of roughages har- equal parts of cereal and alfalfa hay are vested at the best stage of growth for fed, the cattle go on feed faster, and there maximum yield of digestible nutrients, is less tendency for digestive upsets, going therefore, can significantly reduce con- off feed, scouring, severe coccidiosis, and

Page 15—Section V the like, than when alfalfa hay is used of adding corn silage to long alfalfa hay alone, particularly if the hay is very fine and barley for fattening steers weighing and leafy. 896 pounds at the start and fed an aver- 3. A combination of two or more grains age of 137 days. The alfalfa-barley lots is always preferable to a single grain. ate'25.5 pounds of hay and 8.89 pounds Milo alone is somewhat superior to barley of barley per head daily. Their daily gain alone. For best results, wheat should not averaged 1.72 pounds; their shrinkage to form over 50 per cent of the concentrate market, 3.6 per cent; and their carcass ration. yield, 60.2 per cent. The silage-fed lots 4. The proportion of hay to grain will consumed daily 19.3 pounds hay, 18.5 depend upon the age class and the quality pounds silage, and 8.76 pounds barley, of cattle, and upon the costs of hay and and made an average daily gain of 1.90 grain in relation to their productive feed pounds. Their shrinkage to market was values. The rations, however, should con- 4.2 per cent, and their carcass yield, 60.6 tain not less than the minimum percent- per cent. In these five trials each ton of ages of total digestible nutrients shown silage replaced 964 pounds of long alfalfa in tables 10 and 11 (III). When making hay and 115 pounds of ground barley. up rations, these tables in Section III, One California stockman, cooperating "Nutrient Requirements and Cattle with the Agricultural Extension Service, Feeds," and the general feeding rules on conducted a 106-day trial wherein 170 page 6 (V) should be consulted. head of two-year-old steers were fed daily Grain and hay rations can often be per head an average of 13.7 pounds of made more efficient and economical by corn silage, 14.6 pounds of mixed alfalfa the addition of palatable feeds other than and grain hay, and 9.3 pounds of a mix- protein concentrates. Recommendations ture of barley, molasses, and cottonseed for the use of several other feeds in re- meal. An equal number of steers com- placing a portion of the grain or hay, parable in grade and weight received 17.3 especially in feed-lot fattening, are now pounds of the hay and 11.3 pounds of presented. the concentrates per head daily, but no

Silage. The advisability of using si- silage. In this trial, 1 ton of silage re- lage in cattle fattening depends on the placed 217 pounds barley, 221 pounds character and prices of the feeds to be molasses, 72 pounds cottonseed meal, 345 replaced, the yield and cost of the silage pounds alfalfa, and 231 pounds grain per acre, and the probable returns from hay. The average yield and carcass grade other crops that might be grown instead. of the two lots were about the same. Numerous tests have shown that silage Good-quality corn silage added to a will usually improve grain-and-hay ra- ration consisting of legume hay alone will tions, particularly those lacking variety. increase the rate of gain and may show

When silage is added to a barley and al- a value per ton equal to the hay. In rations falfa ration, bloat rarely occurs. Rations composed of grain, hay, and silage, the that already possess quality, variety, and silage is fed at the rate of 1.5 to 3 pounds balance may be made more economical by per 100 pounds live weight. the use of good-quality silage to replace In California, corn and sorghums for more expensive feeds. When cattle are silage are ordinarily produced under irri- given a full feed of concentrates, corn si- gation. Yields of from 15 to 20 tons are lage, and alfalfa hay, the feed-replacement not uncommon on good land. The value value of the silage per ton may be more of the trench silo as an inexpensive and than half that of the hay as shown by the satisfactory means of storing silage has following examples: An average of five been fully demonstrated (fig. 33, V). trials at the Idaho Station gives the results Cost-of-production studies show that corn

Section V—Page 16 from a ton of this silage than from the same feed run through the cutter only. Wet Beet Pulp. Most of the wet beet pulp in California has been utilized by a few commercial feeders, located near sugar factories, who are prepared to handle large tonnages of pulp with little transportation. Recently this product has been more widely distributed among farmer feeders in the beet-growing districts relatively near the sugar factories.

Wet beet pulp is bulky and is palatable to cattle. The dry matter is composed

mainly of carbohydrates, and the fiber is highly digestible. Wet pulp is deficient

in both protein and phosphorus; but, if provision is made to offset the deficiency, and the price is right, this feed can often

Fig. 33 (V) . In this trench silo, corn yielding improve the effectiveness and economy of 60 bushels of grain and 18 tons silage per acre grain-and-hay rations. When the feed lot was stored with practically no loss from spoil- is located age. When the silage was fed to yearling steers near the source of supply, wet in a daily ration at the rate of 14.7 pounds per pulp in its various forms, fresh, siloed, head, along with 5.3 pounds grain and 8.7 or pressed, may be a cheap feed. Because pounds alfalfa hay, the cattle made a net daily gain of 2.33 pounds per head. of its high moisture content, it cannot economically be transported far. The wide variation in moisture content greatly silage represents fully as high a use of affects its value per ton. Fresh pulp, which land as alfalfa when it can be fed near may contain as little as 5 per cent dry where it is produced. matter, is obviously worth far less than The value of corn silage varies consid- siloed or pressed pulp containing 13 to erably with the amount of grain it in- 15 per cent. Cattle usually prefer well- cludes. Grain yield depends somewhat on fermented siloed pulp to the fresh prod- the strain of corn or sorghum used. Hy- uct. Even if the silo is large, loss from brid seed corn, giving high grain yield, shrinkage commonly amounts to 40 per can significantly increase silage value and cent of the dry matter, because of fer- decrease other grain required in the ra- mentation and oxidation. Possibilities of tion. Significant amounts of grain from reducing these losses, inducing a better sorghum silage pass through cattle un- type of fermentation and producing a si- digested. The possibility of reducing this lage with a more pleasant odor through loss is suggested by experiments at the the addition of molasses or, still better, Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station. barley or other grain, providing leaching combination knife-hammer mill A was by rain is prevented, has been shown by used with a regular silage cutter. Atlas Guilbert, Miller, and Goss (5). sorghum was topped at the silo ; the heads Cattle take readily to wet pulp. When finely in were ground the combination fully accustomed to it and given all they

mill and dropped on the feed table of the will eat, if little or no concentrate is used cutter. The combined ground heads and in the ration, they may consume up to 8 cut forage were blown into the silo. A to 10 pounds per 100 pounds animal feeding test showed 12 per cent more gain weight.

Page 17—Section V a

In an average of four feeding trials at Beet Tops. As shown under "Nutrient the Colorado Agricultural Experiment Requirements and Cattle Feeds," Section Station, siloed wet pulp added to a ration III, beet tops are a valuable replacement of barley, cottonseed cake, and alfalfa for part of the concentrates as well as part hay increased the gain, the selling price, of the roughage in a fattening ration. the dressing percentage, and the carcass Because of the high mineral content and grade of fattening calves. Each ton of wet laxative effect, best results are obtained pulp replaced 142 pounds barley, 2.7 when limited amounts are fed. For year- pounds cottonseed cake, and 342 pounds ling steers weighing about 700 pounds, alfalfa hay. Tests at the Utah Agricultural a good ration would be grain 8 to 10 Experiment Station have well demon- pounds, alfalfa hay 6 pounds, and beet- strated the possibilities of overcoming the top dry matter 6 pounds (equivalent to phosphorus deficiency in beet pulp by the about 9 pounds of dried tops or 20 pounds addition of a small amount of steamed of beet-top silage) . For half the grain, one bone meal. In these tests feeding of 0.1 might substitute either the same weight pound per head daily of steamed bone of dried beet pulp, or 40 to 45 pounds meal to cattle receiving a ration of wet of wet pulp. The addition of 0.1 pound beet pulp, molasses, and alfalfa hay in- daily of ground limestone (calcium car- creased the feed consumption, doubled bonate) to counteract oxalic acid and the rate of gain, and materially reduced minimize scouring has been recom- the cost of gain. Under these condi- mended by the Colorado Experiment tions the alfalfa hay supplied adequate Station. Fed in this way, beet tops have protein. produced up to 250 pounds of beef per Siloed pulp, fresh-pressed pulp, and acre, or more than double that obtained dried molasses beet pulp were compared by pasturing. in two ranch feed-lot trials near Wood- Raisins and Prunes. In years of sur- land. When both trials were averaged, plus raisin crops, large amounts are used there was no significant difference in rate in livestock feed; they are satisfactory of gain between the lots receiving dried in cattle fattening, to replace not more pulp and those securing siloed pulp. The than 40 per cent of the grain. In one ranch latter lots, however, required less dry feeding trial in Tulare County, raisins matter for 100 pounds of gain. Tests at and dried molasses beet pulp were com- the Colorado Station showed dried pulp pared in fattening rations for two lots of to have about 90 per cent of the value of 50 yearling steers each. The feeding pe- equivalent dry matter in siloed pulp— riod was 111 days. Good-quality muscat value in substantial agreement with the raisins, including very few stems, were results at Woodland. In both trials the used at the rate of 2.6 pounds daily to rate of gain was slightly less on fresh- replace an equal amount of pulp. In addi- pressed than on siloed pulp, and the dry tion, each lot of steers ate 3.4 pounds of matter of the latter appeared to be some- barley and 17.5 pounds of alfalfa hay per what more efficiently utilized. head daily. The rate of gain and the feed Dried Molasses Beet Pulp. Where required to produce gain were slightly in used to replace not more than half of the favor of the raisin-fed lot, but the differ- grains in a grain-and-hay ration or in ence in this respect was not significant. feeding concentrates on pasture, dried When an effort was made to increase the molasses beet pulp has a feeding value raisins beyond 40 per cent of the total about equal to barley. It is very palatable, concentrates, some were left in the trough. helps to get cattle on feed quickly, and Other ranch feeders report similar results. decreases digestive disturbances. Raisins available for livestock feed are

Section V-Page 18 apt to vary more in quality than a product Thus molasses may reduce the digestibil- like dried beet pulp. In years of fair price ity of straw; but this effect will be more for raisins very little, if any, of the better than offset by the greater quantity con- grades will go for livestock feed. Some sumed by the animals. The characteristics lots of raisins contain numerous stems, of molasses and recommendations for which decrease the feeding value. Wire mixing it with other feeds are further and nails are sometimes present and may discussed under "Nutrient Requirements cause serious trouble if swallowed. and Cattle Feeds," Section III. Dried prunes may be used in the same Roots and Tubers. Cull potatoes, way as raisins. They can be ground in a sugar beets, carrots, and other roots and hammer mill along with barley or other tubers can often be used efficiently with grain to make more available the nutri- other feeds in cattle fattening. High in tive value in the pits. Ten to 15 per cent moisture content, such products cannot prunes ground with 85 to 90 per cent be economically transported far. They barley go through the mill satisfactorily. give best results when fed in limited quan- Dried Orange Pulp. This product tities to add succulence and palatability has total digestible nutrients equivalent to grain-and-hay rations, especially in to barley and is fairly palatable. Feeding cattle fattening. experiences in California indicate that it In one Idaho Agricultural Experiment should be fed only in limited amounts if Station trial, potatoes and corn silage its greatest value is to be obtained. Dried were compared as supplements with al- orange pulp and other citrus pulps were falfa and barley for fattening. The steers used to replace 25 to 45 per cent of corn were fed for 159 days, and their average in fattening rations at the Texas Station. weight for the period was about 1,030 When fed in these proportions, they pro- pounds. The potatoes were used at the duced results equal to corn. rate of 16.9 pounds daily, or about 1.5 Cane and Beet Molasses. Accord- pounds per 100 pounds weight of the ing to total digestible nutrients, cane and steers. In this trial the potatoes had a beet molasses are about equal, and have feed-replacement value about equal to three fourths the feeding value of barley that of corn silage. In two trials at the

(table 12, III) . In cattle-fattening rations Colorado Station, potatoes and corn si- the greatest returns from molasses are ob- lage were compared in calf-fattening ra- tained when it is added to rations lacking tions in which the other feeds were barley, in palatability. When used in small quan- cottonseed meal, and alfalfa hay. The tities, molasses may show a feed replace- calves were fed for 194 days and aver- ment value equal to barley. In excess of aged, for the period, about 610 pounds 25 per cent of the grain ration, the value in weight. The potatoes were fed at the falls to three fourths that of barley. Mo- rate of 16.4 pounds, or about 2.7 for each lasses is commonly used in cut mixtures, 100 pounds weight of the calves. In the on wet beet pulp, and often is sprinkled Colorado trials the potatoes, fed in rela- or sprayed over long hay. Hay that has tively heavy amounts, were worth much been through a hammer mill needs an less than corn silage. admixture of molasses to reduce dust and Potatoes can be successfully ensiled, facilitate handling. Molasses stimulates but it is better to mix them with some the activity of the rumen microorgan- dry feed. In the Colorado trials, a silage isms—a fact that explains part of its bene- composed of 82 per cent cull potatoes and ficial effects. By providing readily avail- 18 per cent corn fodder was about equal able sugar for these microorganisms it to corn silage in the fattening ration of discourages their action on cellulose, and calves. somewhat reduces crude-fiber digestion. Dried potato meal can replace about

Page 19—Section V ,

50 per cent of the concentrate ration for tural Experiment Station it was fed to fattening cattle. Since it contains less than yearling steers at the rate of 13.1 pounds half as much digestible protein as barley, daily to replace a like amount of shelled protein concentrate allowance must be corn. Other feeds in the ration were cot- correspondingly increased. Conservation tonseed meal and soybean hay. The rice

and utilization of root crops are discussed proved highly palatable ; and in this trial,

under "Nutrient Requirements and Cattle where it was fed as the only grain, it was Feeds," Section III. worth 76 per cent as much as shelled corn. Brewers' and Distillers' Grains. Straw. When hay is high priced and Wet brewers' grains and distillers' grains straw is cheap and abundant, the latter contain 75 to 80 per cent moisture and may be used efficiently in fattening ra- distillery slop 93 to 96 per cent moisture. tions if fed in limited amounts. The feed- These products should be fed fresh to ing value of each kind of straw differs avoid danger of spoilage. Their economic according to stage of maturity when cut

use is therefore confined to feed-lot oper- and amount of grain or seed included. ations located near the brewery or dis- In general, grain straws are worth tillery. Ordinarily these feeds are used in about half as much as alfalfa hay. They fattening the lower grades of mature cat- are low in productive value, protein, and

tle, and maximum amounts are fed. A palatability, and are high in fiber content. 1,000-pound animal may consume 40 to In feeding value, the common California

50 pounds of wet brewers' grains contain- grain straws usually rank as follows : oat, ing about 10 to 12 pounds of dry matter; barley, and wheat. or up to 200 pounds of distillery slop, Ordinary field-bean straw is coarse and containing about the same amount. To fibrous. The feeding value does not differ meet the additional dry-matter require- greatly from that of grain straw unless a ments, one should feed dry roughage and great number of the beans are included. some grain or other carbonaceous concen- Lima-bean straw is the best kind ordi- trate. Since the dry matter of wet grains narily available in California. It is usually is 20 to over 25 per cent digestible pro- leafy and palatable. In feeding value it is tein, protein supplements are not neces- about equal to good grain hay, when fed sary. For best results and most efficient in combination with other good-quality utilization of these feeds, especially dis- roughage. tillery slop, the quantity fed should be Small amounts of pea straw and alfalfa limited. Cheapness of the slop has encour- straw are available for livestock feeding. aged maximum feeding; but, as a rule, These are usually intermediate in value gains are then considerably less than with between lima-bean and grain straw. usual feed-lot rations. For 1,000-pound For best results in fattening, straw from steers, a ration consisting of 2 to 4 pounds grains and field beans should be limited of grain, 2 to 4 pounds of molasses, 10 to 25 to 30 per cent of the total roughage. to 12 pounds of hay, and 16 to 20 gallons Lima-bean straw can satisfactorily con- (130 to 160 pounds) of slop has proved stitute half of the total roughage. satisfactory. The hay should contain Examples of adequate rations com- enough green color to assure a carotene puted from the data in table 12 (III) on content that is adequate for preventing feed composition appear in table 23 ( V) vitamin-A deficiency. For younger cattle along with the requirements shown in reduce the slop and increase the grain. tables 10 and 11 (III). The first section Rough Rice. Ground rough rice is of table 23 (V) shows rations for fatten- palatable to cattle and satisfactory for use ing calves and yearlings, together with the in combination with grain and hay ra- amounts of nutrients furnished daily. The tions. In a trial at the Missouri Agricul- second section gives sample rations for

Section V— Page 20 yearling and two-year-old steers; shows Creep-feeding is adapted to pastures the nutrients furnished; and specifies the and ranges where the herd comes regu- requirements, computed on the basis of larly to a central point for water, salt, percentages. shade, or rest. Such ranges must be acces- The results of numerous California sible by truck. The method is impractical feeding tests and of ranch feeding records on rough hilly ranges, or on any range where cattle graze over vast areas and are presented in table 28 ( V) . These may be used in computing fattening costs and infrequently gather at a central point, or necessary margins. where transportation of feed is difficult. Best results have been obtained with Creep-feeding of Calves so-called "early calves," which are started on feed before they are 3 months of age. Under certain conditions in California, calves are dropped before the green- the creep-feeding of calves continues to Such grass season. They learn to eat grain grow in use and popularity. In this prac- early, take full advantage of a heavy milk tice, young calves are allowed access to flow from the cows while the grass is extra feed while they are still nursing. good, and by the time the grass is dried The feed is placed in a self-feeder, trough, are to or rack within a small enclosure. In the ready consume comparatively large grain. fence are openings through which the amounts of Calves will learn to eat grain at to 6 weeks of age. the calves may enter but which are too small 4 When creep is constructed near the for the cows. Calves that will be fattened watering and slaughtered young are often creep-fed place, salt grounds, corral, or loafing ground of the herd, almost immediately to induce faster finish and shorten the some calves will enter it curios- feeding period after weaning. Well-bred through ity; and, after these few calves calves when properly creep-fed attain a have started to eat, nearly all the others will weight of 700 to 800 pounds and a desir- follow their able market finish at 10 to 12 months of example. age. Such calves may not gain so well in Early in the creep-feeding period, the the feed lot after weaning, as calves that ration should contain a variety of good- receive no grain during their nursing quality grains or grain substitutes. When period. When calves are creep-fed from the calf is young, the grass green, and a few weeks of age, however, the total the cow's milk abundant, protein supple- feed required to fatten them is usually ments are not necessary. After the grass is dry the milk is less than if they are not fed until after and decreased, one part weaning. Creep-feeding during the nurs- pea-sized cottonseed cake or meal may ing period produces more uniform calves. well be added to every 10 to 12 pounds Calves from heifers and inferior milking of carbonaceous feeds. If fish meal is sub- cows usually eat more from the feeder stituted for cottonseed cake or meal, about than the others do. When natural feed one third less is required to provide the conditions are unfavorable, creep-feeding necessary protein. Linseed meal or soy- indirectly helps the cows, for the calves bean meal may substitute for cottonseed then draw less heavily upon them during meal pound for pound. If the cows and the latter part of the nursing period. calves are on good-quality pasture, hay

Good breeding in cattle is desirable in is usually not provided in the creep- all feeding operations; but in creep- feeder. When grazing conditions are poor feeding for market finish, the well-bred and forage is of low quality or scarce, calf of good quality is essential. The sires good alfalfa meal or alfalfa-molasses meal should be superior purebred Hereford, will be of material benefit when added Shorthorn, or Angus bulls. The cows to the concentrate mixture in the self- should be above average range quality. feeder. High-quality long alfalfa hay may

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"3++2 es ^ 08 J^ H>>0-C o> • — 08 also be fed in a separate rack alongside General Cattle-feeding Problems the self-feeder. When silage is near at Age of Cattle. After maintenance re- hand, it be found practical and bene- may quirements are met, young cattle can use ficial the creep-feeding period, during feed for both growth and fattening, grass or dry roughage especially when whereas the mature animals' use of the consumed is of poor quality. ration above maintenance is confined to In creep-feeding calves for the first the production of fat. For this reason impatient time, stockmen are apt to grow calves fed on complete rations, possessing at the slow progress for seemingly made quality, variety, and balance, produce first months; this time, the 2 or 3 by more economical gains than yearlings, however, the results become more evident. which in turn make cheaper gains than Experience has shown that where calves two-year-olds. Since young cattle require are being finished for market, the self- more concentrates, less roughage, and feeder is usually more practical to use higher-quality feeds, the older cattle are than hand-feeding in trough.* The open- better adapted for fattening when large ings in the creep fence should be made amounts of coarse bulky roughages are for the calves to walk through. Sometimes to be utilized. Two- and three-year-old a fence is constructed to permit the calves steers, for example, are often fattened on to under, but this practice is not so crawl pasture or beet tops without concentrates, satisfactory. Rarely will any trouble from or may be fairly well finished in the feed overeating be experienced in self-feeding lot on hay alone or such rations as hay if the calves have been taught to eat grain and silage. Roughage rations alone will at 2 to 3 months of age. When feeding is not fatten calves or yearling steers. If delayed until later, difficulty from over- such rations are of good quality, yearling eating may result if self-feeders are used. steers will make satisfactory gains on When the calves are weaned and brought them, but mostly in the form of growth. into the feed lot, the same self-feeder can Well-bred yearling heifers With early- be moved into the lot. maturing tendencies sometimes fatten Weaning creep-fed calves is a simple without concentrates if the roughage or matter. The calves are advanced enough pasture is good and relatively high in in the feeding period so that they do not digestibility. miss their mothers, and if they are con- Since two-year-old cattle need less of tinued on feed without radical change in their feed for growth, the fattening period the ration, no setback is experienced. required is only about half as long as for Stockmen have been surprised to see how calves. Sometimes conditions warrant lim- these calves maintain their "milk-fat" ited feeding, and the time for each class bloom after weaning. is accordingly increased. Creep-feeding of calves on the range The younger the animals, the greater is is a means of stabilizing weaning weights the attention necessary to details of feed- in the same way that supplemental feeding. Calves are unusually susceptible to ing of breeding herds stabilizes percent- irregular feeding practices and to muddy calf crop with forage conditions age feed lots. varying from year to year. Superior type, high quality, and desir- The results of fattening several differ- able conformation are essentials in fat- ent lots of calves which were creep-fed tening calves. Plain and rough animals before weaning are summarized in table do not finish readily at this age, although 29 (V). they make good gains. Such animals had * Plans for the construction of a calf creep better be held for fattening later on. and self-feeder are available from the Agricul- tural Extension Service, University of Califor- The time for marketing calves and year- nia, Berkeley, California. lings is more flexible than that for two-

Section V— Page 24 8e S'S

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^ o s 1 OS 55 ec ft CI ft TJ 3 •a +> +j '53 c »g c o C o c3 T « -O -o IS w ^1 1 1 year-olds. If current market conditions faster than steers and therefore reach a are unfavorable, calves or yearlings may given slaughter grade sooner than steers. be held for several additional weeks or The heifers usually make smaller gains even months and continue to make effi- than steers; but when both classes are cient gains. Two-year-olds have a much marketed with the same degree of finish narrower time limit for producing eco- and before they become excessively fat, nomical gains. economy of gain is not greatly different. Sex. The average calf crop is about Ranch records were obtained by the equally divided between steers and heif- Agricultural Extension Service on 1,149 ers. Over a period of years about half the yearling heifers as compared with 587 heifers—theoretically the best ones—are steers of the same age and quality, fed retained for breeding-herd replacements. on similar rations. Each class was sold This means that about 25 per cent of the at a weight and finish suitable for Cali- annual output from breeding herds is fornia markets. The different lots of steers composed of heifers that compete directly were fed 75 to 135 days; the heifer lots with steers in the feeder- and slaughter- 72 to 118 days. The steers averaged a cattle market. Usually a substantial price daily net gain of 1.90 pounds; the heifers, spread exists between steers and heifers, 1.81 pounds. The heifers produced their both as feeders and when the animals are gains on 16 per cent less feed than the ready for slaughter. In years when cattle steers. numbers are expanding, there is a tend- In six experiments cited by Morrison ency to hold back more heifers for breed- (6) heifer calves fattened for 165 days ing; supplies of all slaughter cattle are compared with steer calves fed for 233 usually lighter, and the spread in price days gained the same, 2.24 pounds daily. between steers and heifers is less than in The feed required for 100 pounds gain periods of overproduction, when a greater was slightly less for the heifers. percentage of heifers and cows is offered 2. If slaughtered before excessively fat for market. (good or good to choice grades at 750

For years, prejudice has existed in the pounds or less in weight) , yearling heifers markets against heifers, based largely on yield comparably with steers and show the danger of their being pregnant and little, if any, more waste of carcass. Under the claim that heifers produce more waste- these conditions, cutting tests revealed no ful carcasses than steers. To overcome the appreciable difference in percentage of objection to bred heifers and to permit desirable cuts. If fattened to the choice running of market heifers with the gen- or prime grades, however, heifers are eral herd, some producers have followed less desirable in the market, their car- the practice of spaying. The criticism that casses are more wasteful, and their cost heifer carcasses are wasteful is somewhat of fattening is unnecessarily increased. reduced with the trend toward marketing 3. Two-year-old heifers produce more more of them as yearlings and calves. internal fat and carcass waste than year- Numerous tests have been conducted ling heifers and calves, and compare less at state experiment stations to determine favorably with steers of the same age than the extent of justification for discrimi- do the younger heifers. nating against feeder and slaughter heif- 4. In tests at the Nebraska and Cali- ers as compared with steers of the same fornia stations, spaying neither increased age, grade, and weight. From the results the rate and economy of gain nor im- of these experiments and from field tests proved dressing percentage. Any advan- in California, significant conclusions may tage from spaying comes through the be drawn: guarantee that heifers are not bred, or

1. Heifers, both spayed and open, fatten from convenience in allowing market

Section V—Page 26 heifers to graze with the general herd on grade 1 animals can, with sufficient finish, the range. attain prime slaughter grade and easily 5. In quality and palatability, heifer and efficiently reach the choice grade. For beef is equal to steer beef. California markets the producer is usu- Thin cows and bulls, if healthy and ally justified in feeding such cattle until not too old, will make heavy gains on they are in choice to prime slaughter con- good pasture or in the feed lot. They are dition. not, however, nearly so efficient as young As a rule the finer-boned, slimmer- growing animals or mature steers in beef bodied kinds illustrated by grade 3 and production, and require a wider margin 3- in figure 16 (II) gain less well. They between feeder and fat prices. Sometimes, produce trim, tidy carcasses, however, especially during the fall, thin range cows and are usually fed to good to choice and bulls can be purchased cheaply. Pa- slaughter grade. cific Coast markets for slaughter cows Large, coarse, rough, and heavy-boned and bulls are relatively strong and con- animals may also be classed in the top stant. Under such conditions the feeder of grade 4 and the lower end of grade 3. who knows his markets, is a good judge Such cattle may make large gains, but of these classes of cattle, and has plenty are slow in maturing; when fed at an of cheap feeds, can often purchase feeder early age, they tend to grow rather than cows and bulls to advantage. Rarely, if to fatten. As long yearlings and two-year- ever, does it pay, however, to use heavy olds, such cattle often can be used to amounts of high-priced feeds for fattening advantage in marketing large amounts of cows or bulls. When plenty of good pas- cheap roughage with moderate amounts ture is available, opportunity for profit of concentrates. The carcasses are apt to from purchasing feeder cows is increased be wasteful and unattractive. It rarely if the cows produce calves that will fatten pays to attempt to fatten them in excess as veal early enough in the season to per- of requirements for the good to choice mit the cows to fatten after the veal is grade. sold. In the purchase of cows for feeding Grade 4, or medium and common feed-

on ranches that maintain breeding herds, ers, are plain, leggy, shallow bodied, flat the danger of introducing Bang's and ribbed, light muscled, long necked, and other diseases should be seriously con- narrow headed. Often they have nervous sidered. dispositions, lack feed capacity, and make Feeder and Market Grades. The light gains. They are capable of economi- different grades of feeder cattle are illus- cally making only commercial or good- trated in figure 16 (II). Those in grade grade slaughter cattle, depending on age

1, 2, and the top of grade 3 are low-set, at marketing. thick-fleshed, deep- and wide-bodied ani- The slaughter grades referred to above mals having plenty of capacity, moderate- are the 1951 revised designations. See sized bone, short, wide heads, quiet footnote table 5 (II) for brief description. disposition, and good weight for age. Trials at the Illinois Agricultural Ex- Animals of these grades can be depended periment Station (table 30, V) show the upon to gain rapidly and economically, difference in the grain (corn) required and to finish readily as calves, yearlings, to bring to choice or to good slaughter or two-year-olds; they are also the first condition various grades of feeder cattle. to fatten on range or other pasture. They For practical purposes, the amount of

meet a wide market demand when prop- fat required of a good-grade carcass is erly finished and are the most desirable sufficient to make very desirable beef. The kinds to breed and raise, because of their excess fattening required for the higher wide adaptability. The top of grade 2 and grades improves the quality of the lean

Page 27—Section V TABLE 30 (V) [Relation between Feeder Grade and Feed Required to Reach Choice and Good Slaughter Condition

Bushels corn required Per cent of fat in carcass Initial feeder grade and final slaughter condition * First trial Second trial First trial Second trial

Choice feeder to Choice slaughter 44.4 40.2 34.1 33.2 24.7 19.8 25.2 25 8 Good feeder to Good slaughter 31.5 35.1 27.4 28.7 55.8 34.5 35.7 35.2 28.8 28 36.1 41.4 27.3 25 9

* Slaughter grade designations are those employed before January 1, 1951. only to a limited extent and is wasteful, ing the latter part of the feeding period. both because of the feed required and Gains at this stage consist more of fat because of the fat that goes into trim- and less of water, feed consumption per mings and the garbage pail. As the data unit of animal weight is lessened, and less show, the corn required to put one choice of the feed consumed can be used for feeder steer into choice slaughter condi- building body tissues. Although some fat tion would finish two choice feeder steers is necessary to give proper flavor, exces- to good slaughter condition. The lower sively fat animals are an economic loss. the grade of feeder, the more feed is re- Less-fat animals utilize the producers' quired to reach the higher grades. Many feed more efficiently; and cuts of meat lower-grade steers, even if sufficiently fat, that are only moderately fat cause less will not make the higher grades because waste to the consumer. of defects in conformation. Feeding Practices. Sorting of cattle, An experienced buyer and feeder who preparation and mixing of feeds, regu- understands the limitations of the lower larity of feeding, and contentment of ani- grades can sometimes realize more profit mals, all affect the rate and economy of from them than from the upper grades. gains in both pasture and feed lot. Frequently the margin between feeder Sorting: Many feeders pay dearly for and slaughter price is wide enough, on the practice of feeding and selling cattle this class of cattle, to permit profitable in a "run-of-the-mill" fashion. There is feeding when a greater demand for better much to be gained through proper sorting, kinds makes the margin too narrow. For especially if large numbers are involved the breeder and grower, however, the and if the weight, quality, condition, and poorer grades always represent a poor class vary considerably. Where practica- investment. ble, the sorting of light cattle from heavy, Length of Feeding Period. If cattle horned from hornless, steers from heifers, are fed to a very high degree of finish, and better quality from inferior, with the . gains become much more expensive dur- placing of the nervous, "high-headed"

The following tabulation indicates the approximate dressing percentages of slaughter cattle in relation to slaughter grades. The tabulation is based on grade designations effective prior to January, 1951, but should apply also to the corresponding 1951 grade designations.

Dressing percentages 63-60 60-57 57-54 54-50 50-35

Steers and heifers, grade Choice Good Commercial Utility Cutters and Cows, grade Good Commercial canners

Section V— Page 28 kind by themselves, will bring beneficial day. The careful and experienced feeder results. Some cattle gain poorly, not be- with small numbers of cattle can undoubt- cause of type, breeding, or quality, but edly feed more accurately and with because of disease, parasites, or injury. greater control by giving concentrates These "poor doers" should be segregated, separately from roughages. fed separately, and sold at the earliest op- Regularity of feeding: Concentrates portunity. After such sorting, the feeder must be given with great care. One seri- can better adjust the kind and amount of ous mistake may cancel a week's gain. feed to be used, according to the appetite Concentrates should be introduced into and efficiency of the cattle. Less trouble a ration slowly and cautiously, particu- will be experienced with overeating, un- larly when cattle have not been used to dereating, or going off feed. One great them. Feeder cattle that have received advantage in sorting comes at market concentrate supplements in their stocker time. All lots must not be disturbed every stage start on feed more readily and are time a sale is made. Well-sorted cattle are quieter and easier to handle. If cattle are always more attractive to the buyer. Both brought to a strange feed lot and are en- the upper and the lower grades look better tirely unaccustomed to concentrates, it is when segregated. Only to a very limited well to feed them on roughage alone for degree can good cattle be expected to two or three days before starting the con- promote the sale of poor ones. Finally, centrates. In separate feeding of concen- if the feeder does not have his cattle trates, V2 to % pound at a time may be sorted, the buyer will sort them for him, given to calves or light yearlings for the often to his disadvantage. first four or five feeds. Older and heavier Mixing of feeds: Grinding and chop- cattle may be started on % to 1 pound. ping feeds are discussed under "Nutrient Initial amounts can be a little greater if Requirements and Cattle Feeds," Section the cattle are used to concentrates. III. The desire to feed concentrates All increases in concentrated feeds and roughages mixed together is the chief should be made gradually and only as reason why many feeders prefer chopped the animals will clean up their feed read- or ground hay. Other feeders choose to ily without digestive disturbances. Trou- feed concentrates and roughages sepa- ble can often be avoided by making more rately. Both methods have their advan- frequent and smaller increases rather tages and limitations. Where the operator than fewer and greater increases. The depends upon hired help to feed large amount of increase and the time required numbers of cattle, the mixing of all feeds to bring the cattle to full feed must de- together is somewhat safer, with less dan- pend upon the stockman's judgment. Few ger that the cattle may receive too much lots react alike to a given ration. concentrate; and labor cost also is re- If cattle go "off feed"—refuse to clean duced. The advocates of feeding concen- up their ration, or have such digestive trates and roughages separately declare disturbances as scouring or bloat—the ra- that by so doing they can more nearly tion should be reduced, and more dry judge the appetite of the cattle for con- roughage and less concentrates used for centrates as compared with roughages a few days. If only a few animals have and can thus better regulate percentages difficulty, they should be segregated from in a ration. Further, they can more con- the others. If many go off feed or show veniently adjust the percentages of each digestive disturbances, something is seri- class of feed for different lots of cattle. ously wrong with the ration, the method The separation of concentrates and rough- of feeding, or both. ages also permits one to offer the two At no time during the feeding period classes of feeds at different times of the should any radical changes be made, in

Page 29—Section V Fig. 34 (V) . An economical type of feed-bunk construction for convenient feeding of silage, cut mixtures, wet beet pulp, or wet brewers' grains. In the right background is a mound built to reduce muddy feed-lot conditions. either the kind or the amount of concen- have been losing weight on poor feed trates or roughages. Many lots of cattle must be handled more carefully. The suffer severe setbacks from such proce- schedule illustrating how rations of cut dure. Changes in feed or too sudden in- mixtures can be changed gradually in creases lead to digestive disturbances and, four stages is shown at the bottom of the in cattle having latent coccidiosis, may page. bring on acute symptoms, such as scour- Contentment of animals: Fattening ing, bloody mucus in the manure, and, cattle that are comfortable and contented in severe cases, fresh blood from the rec- utilize their feed better and gain faster tum. Segregating such animals to mini- at less cost. The following suggestions are mize spread of infection and feeding them for the inexperienced cattle feeder: exclusively on dry hay is practical. 1. Limit the number of cattle to be fed to- Fattening cattle require clean, fresh gether to 75, preferably 50 or 60, head. 2. Provide at least 2 feet of space at the feed feed and should not be required to eat troughs for young cattle and about 2% to 3 feet refused dirty. anything once or Use such for mature ones. feed for stock cattle or other animals not 3. Always handle cattle quietly, with as little being fattened for market. commotion as possible. 4. In the feed lot, provide liberal bedding of When all concentrates and roughages straw when necessary for comfort. The straw are fed in a cut mixture, concentrates may will help to retain much of the fertilizer value compose a slightly greater percentage of of the liquid portion of the manure. the total feed at the start than where these 5. In the absence of sheds, windbreaks are a rains. two classes of feeds are given separately. decided protection against cold, driving Shade promotes contentment in hot weather. With cut mixtures, however, it is always 6. Mud is the bane of many an operator who safer to employ a series of different mix- feeds cattle in the rainy season: it often presents tures for bringing the cattle to full feed. a difficult problem. Mud is more detrimental

it expensive, An alternative is to limit at first, and when occurs in the latter, and more part of the fattening period. It affects gains on gradually increase the allowance of a sin- calves and yearlings sooner than on older cattle. gle mix. directly Cattle coming from rich These points are important when one is plan- pasture go on feed rapidly; those which ning the season of feeding.

Mix 1 Mix 2 Mix 3 Mix 4

Concentrates (per cent of total mix) . 20 40 50 60-70

Roughages (per cent of total mix).... . 80 60 50 40-30

Section V—Page 30 .

Fattening cattle will withstand much if they tilizer constituent. When animals are can find a reasonably dry, or at least firm, spot bedded under a shed, it is usually unneces- in which to lie down. When they are forced to sary to clean out the manure during an wade through deep mire for prolonged periods, with no good spot for rest, gains are sharply ordinary feeding period if there is always reduced and sometimes disappear. Mud-covered a liberal bedding of fresh straw. Manure cattle may be discounted by the buyer, and the leached by rain loses much of its fertilizer loss further increased. value. Some convenient feed-lot equip- In locating the feed lot, one should take ad- is in figure vantage of any sandy, gravelly soil or rocky ment shown 35 (V) knolls. On flat ground the building of mounds in the lots (figure 34, V) helps to some extent. Necessary Margin or Spread Often, especially with small numbers, cattle If feeder cattle are purchased or valued may have separate bed grounds adjoining the at $7 per hundredweight and must sell feeding corral. Such lots, when kept well bedded with straw, will be a welcome change to the when fat at $9 in order for the owner to animals for a few hours each day. On some "break even" on the feeding enterprise, farms, barns or sheds constructed for other pur- the difference of $2 is the necessary mar- poses can be converted at little expense into gin or spread. The discussion that follows feeding and bedding places during inclement shows the principal reasons for the wide weather. The cattle feeder who finds it necessary or feasible to fatten cattle each year in wet variation in the margin necessary for feed yards may well investigate the advisability cattle-fattening operations. of paving a portion of his feed lots if other In pasture fattening of cattle the cost means of combating the mud problem are not of producing 100 pounds gain is often satisfactory. The minimum space for fattening cattle is less than the sale price per hundredweight 100 to 125 square feet per animal. Twenty-five of the cattle when fat and sometimes less to feet that bedded under a 30 square can be than the value per hundredweight at the shed in addition to 75 to 100 square feet of lot beginning of the feeding period. In feed- space per head is ample. An inexpensive shed bedded with straw and a paved lot may be a lot fattening of cattle, however, the cost cheaper and more permanent solution of the of producing 100 pounds gain usually mud problem than graveling larger areas or exceeds the selling price per hundred- building mounds, especially on heavy, poorly weight, and profit must be derived from drained soils. This arrangement also protects the value of the feeder weight. feed from rain and conserves manure. enhancing Under very favorable price relations be- Production and conservation of tween cattle and feed and when good gains manure. Studies cited by Morrison (6) are made, the cost of 100 pounds gain indicate that manure production from in the feed lot may be less than the selling fattening cattle, including bedding, is price of the cattle. about % ton per month. In California In computing the cost of producing trials, extending over a 210-day period gain, one must consider numerous items. with fattening calves, about % ton of The major item is the feed. Other items bedding was used per animal. Including are labor, interest, depreciation, taxes, this bedding, about 3 tons of manure mortality risk, transportation, and mar- (as hauled) or 1.6 tons of air-dry ma- keting costs. Many cattle feeders consider nure were produced by each steer. This the value of the fertilizer produced by the amounts to 460 pounds per month. For cattle to be equal to the labor charge. In two-year-old cattle, about 700 pounds some instances fertilizer credit may offset per month would be a fair estimate. other minor costs in addition to labor. On a wet basis, these figures agree When considered separately and in- well with Morrison's data. Since more dependently, the effect of each of the than half the nitrogen excreted is in the principal factors on cost of gain and urine, use of bedding is particularly im- consequent necessary margin is as fol- portant in conserving this valuable fer- lows.

Page 31—Section V tig. 35 (V) . Upper: The feeding shed is located to permit good drainage. It provides feed storage space, shelter for animals in wet weather, and shade in hot weather. Center: The movable grain bunk is sturdy and convenient for use where concentrates and roughages are fed separately. Lower: The stanchion-type hay rack is built in sections and can be readily moved. This type of rack reduces waste of hay to a minimum.

Section V—Page 32 :

1. A greater cost or value of the feeder greatly these two factors do affect the cattle per hundredweight tends to lessen margin. To arrive at the margins shown the necessary margin because the original in the table, the following constants were cost more nearly approaches the cost of arbitrarily selected: producing gain. It was assumed that a 700-pound steer 2. A greater weight of the animals as was fed for 150 days, made an average feeders tends to reduce the necessary mar- net daily gain of 2 pounds, and attained gin because more pounds of original a net sale weight of 1,000 pounds when weight are sold at the final price. Any fat. His average weight during the feed- advantage from greater weight of older ing period was 850 pounds, and he con- animals may, however, be more than off- sumed daily 3 pounds of concentrates and set by their requirement of more feed to dry roughage per 100 pounds of average produce gain than younger or lighter weight. The assumed rate of gain and animals. feed consumption are based on numerous 3. The production of maximum gain actual records of fattening cattle under from each unit of feed can effectively aid practical feed-lot conditions. in lowering the necessary margin. The In computing costs and determining stockman's judgment and skill can influ- the different required margins shown in ence this important item more than any table 31 (V) , the charges included cost of other. the steer, cost of feed, and interest on the 4. A lower cost for feed per ton of purchase cost of the steer for 5 months digestible nutrients and a smaller over- at 6 per cent. Charges did not include head cost obviously tend to reduce the such items as death loss, equipment costs, necessary margin. taxes, and labor; nor was any credit al-

The manner in which all these factors lowed for manure. combine will finally decide the necessary Table 31 (V) brings out three signifi- margin in fattening cattle. cant points, long recognized by experi- Since prices of feeder cattle and feed enced cattle feeders are the most variable among the impor- 1. The most favorable situation in re- tant factors governing necessary margin, spect to necessary margin is when the table 31 (V) was compiled to show how feeder-cattle market is relatively high and

TABLE 31 (V) The Effect of Varying Prices of Feeder Cattle and Feed on Necessary Margin 1 (All prices shown in dollars)

Necessary margin at a given cost of feeder cattle per hundredweight Cost of feed per ton 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 12.00

10.00 0.78 0.50 0.22 -0.07 -0.35 -0.63 -0.91 -1.20 -1.48

. . 12.00 . 1.17 0.88 0.60 0.32 0.04 -0.25 -0.53 -0.81 -1.09 14.00 1.55 1.27 0.98 0.70 0.42 0.14 -0.15 -0.43 -0.71 16.00 1.93 1.65 1.37 1.08 0.80 0.52 0.24 -0.05 -0.33 18.00 :* 2.31 2.03 1.75 1.47 1.18 0.90 0.62 0.34 0.05 20.00 2.70 2.41 2.13 1.85 1.57 1.28 1.00 0.72 0.44 22.00 3.08 2.80 2.51 2.23 1.95 1.67 1.38 1.10 0.82

24.00. .. 3.46 3.18 2.90 2.61 2.33 2.05 1.77 1.48 1.20 26.00 3.84 3.56 3.28 3.00 2.71 2.43 2.15 1.87 1.58 28.00 4.23 3.94 3.66 3.36 3.10 2.81 2.53 2.25 1.97 30.00 4.61 4.33 4.04 3.76 3.48 3.20 2.91 2.63 2.35

* Necessary margins shown in the table are based on the following assumptions: A 700-pound feeder steer, fed 150 days to attain 1,000 pounds' weight after consuming feed at the rate of 3 pounds daily per 100 pounds' live weight or a total of 3,825 pounds of feed. Charges include the cost of the steer, 6 per cent interest on that cost, and the cost of the feed, but they do not include such items as labor, equipment costs, mortality, and taxes.

Page 33—Section V the prices of feeds are very low. If under will serve as reference material for the these conditions, good feeding practices operator who is planning a cattle-feeding are followed, even feed-lot operations program adapted to his own ranch or sometimes show a profit when no margin feed-lot conditions. exists between the price paid for feeder cattle and their sale price when they are The Dressed Product fat. The ultimate aim of livestock produc- 2. More margin is required when the ers should be the economical production price levels of both feeder cattle and feeds and wide distribution of the kinds and are low than when the feeder-cattle mar- qualities of meats that not only fulfill ket is high and feed market is low. Less broad consumer demand and physiologi- margin is necessary, however, when both cal needs, but also contribute to real gas- feeder cattle and feeds are low in price tronomical satisfaction. than when both are high. According to studies made in this coun- 3. The least favorable situation of all try before 1941, the annual consumption in respect to necessary margin is to have of meat per person varied from 94 pounds a low feeder-cattle market and high-priced in families with an income of less than feeds. When such a price relation pre- $500 a year to as much as 250 pounds vails, a margin of $4 per hundredweight, for families with incomes of $5,000 a or even more, may not enable the feeding year. High employment and purchasing enterprise to break even. power greatly increase demand. Thus, By careful planning to bring proper the industry must be able to adjust pro- adjustment between feeds to be used, cat- duction costs and methods with changing tle to be fed, feeding to and practices be economic conditions if meat is to main- employed, the stockman can often mate- tain a reasonably stable level in the aver- rially reduce his necessary margin and age dietary. enhance his chance for greater profit. Beef Cuts and Their Uses. Figure Such planning calls for a knowledge of 36 (V) shows the location of wholesale the adaptability, requirements, and lim- and retail cuts to be found in the beef itations of the various classes and grades carcass. The identification of each cut, its of cattle. It necessitates an understanding approximate percentage of the carcass of feeds and their values and requires weight, and its principal uses are shown good business judgment. The information in the tabulation which appears on the and recommendations in this circular following page.

Fig. 36 (V) . Wholesale and retail cuts of beef carcass. For identification of cuts see the accom- panying tabulation. (Chart prepared by United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Agri- cultural Economics, Division of Livestock, Meats, and Wool.)

Section V—Page 34 :

Wholesale Percentage Retail cuts and cuts of carcass principal uses

1. Hind shank 4.0 1 to 3, soup bones ; 4, hock. 2. Round 15.0 1 to 14, round steaks; 15, heel for pot-roasting or corning. 3. Rump 5.0 Steaks or roasts. 4. Loin end 7.0 1 to 6, sirloin steaks. 5. Short loin 13.5 1 to 3, club or Delmonico steaks; 4 to 11, Porter- house steaks. (Kidney knob, 3 per cent, included with short loin.)

6. Flank 3.5 1, flank steak; 2, stews or hamburger.

7. Rib 9.5 1 to 4, rib roasts ; 5, short ribs. 8. Trimmed chuck 17.0 1 and 2, bottom chuck pot roasts; 3 and 4, top chuck

pot roasts; 5 to 7, chuck rib roasts and pot roasts. 9. Neck 5.0 1, boneless pot roasts, stews, or hamburger. 10. Fore shank 5.5 1 to 3, soup bones; 4, shoulder clod (small pot roast). 11. Brisket 6.5 1, stews, boiling meat, or corned beef.

12. Plate 8.5 1, stews, boiling meat, corned beef; 2, short ribs.

Value of Meat in the Diet. The fac- ous parts of the beef carcass. Demands tors that influence the quality of dressed of different classes of consumers vary. In beef are important to producers in plan- buying beef the consumer considers pro- ning their production programs. portion of meat to bone, relation of lean Meat is the nucleus of well-balanced to fat, distribution of fat and lean, color meals. Its value and place in the human and texture of fat, lean, and bone. To the diet may be summarized as follows average consumer tenderness is the first 1. Meats are rich in proteins having consideration in satisfaction of eating, high biological and supplementary value and normal variations in flavor rank sec- for cereal and other vegetable proteins. ond. If flavor happens to be disagreeable The average serving provides more pro- through spoilage or other causes, flavor tein than any other article in the diet. then is paramount. Breeding, feeding, 2. The average serving of meat ranks age, sex, methods of slaughtering, curing high among other foods as a source of and ripening, and manner of cooking all energy. influence the desirability of the product.

3. Meats head the list of foods in Tenderness. The degree of tenderness amount of phosphorus, iron, and copper, of beef depends on the amount of con- but are low in calcium. Liver contains nective tissue. Tenderness decreases with substances other than copper and iron age and presumably with exercise. In that are valuable for relieving anemia. calves the muscle-fiber bundles are small, 4. Lean meat contains liberal amounts giving fine texture, whereas in mature of the vitamin-B complex. Fresh lean meat animals they are larger and the surround- contains enough vitamin C to prevent ing connective tissue becomes thicker, scurvy. Liver is a rich source of vitamin producing coarser "grain." Deposition of A and supplies all known vitamins. fat in and between these connective tissues

5.- Meat is 95 to 98 per cent digestible. disperses them and increases tenderness. It contains nitrogenous extractives that Continuous growth and development stimulate appetite and digestion, contrib- contribute to tenderness. The animal so ute to the flavor of meat, and hence in- grown not only is younger when marketed crease the pleasure of eating. but perhaps develops less connective tis-

Beef is more variable than pork or lamb sue than cattle which are subjected to because of the greater difference in age alternate gains and losses. Quin (7) in and condition of the animals. There is South Africa reported that as animals be- also more difference in tenderness of vari- come thin and emaciated through semi-

Page 35—Section V starvation during drought periods, the rus, calcium, and nitrogen, especially in fat, including that interspersed through the fat. The tissues became more perme- the muscles (marbling) , disappears. Next, able. More juice could be pressed out. the animal is forced to start feeding on These conditions of increased permeabil- its own flesh to protect and nourish the ity and higher moisture losses were asso- more vital systems. As this muscle atro- ciated with earlier spoilage and hence phy or wastage progresses, the amount limited the aging period. of connective tissue increases through the Flavor. Beef flavor is affected by age, remaining muscle and thereby causes sex, finish, aging or curing, cooking, and toughness. During subsequent periods of seasoning. Intensity of flavor increases feed abundance the animal may fatten, with age from veal to mature beef. Flavor but largely outside the muscle ; the inter- is affected by fat, particularly that internal structure of the muscle shows a net- spersed with the lean (marbling). The work of fibrotic scar tissue of the previous flavor of the lean is due in large measure dry or winter season. It then appears to the meat extractives (the water-soluble marbled with connective tissue instead of materials that are found in broth) . Feeds fat. This condition reduces palatability, usually play only a very minor role in digestibility, and therefore food value. beef flavor except as they govern degree In Quin's opinion, prevention of these of fatness. Juiciness is important in flavor. periods of excessive weight losses and Well-finished beef will remain juicy and muscle wastage would help solve the hence better flavored than poorly finished tough-meat problem. beef. To attain the same degree of tender- The amount of "watering off" both in ness, older animals must be fattened more cooking and in the butcher's tray depends than younger ones. There are two types not only on finish, but also on the amount of connective tissue—yellow and white. of glycogen in the muscles at time of When cooked with moist heat, white con- slaughter. During the changes in the mus- nective tissue changes to gelatin, and thus cle ending in rigor mortis, glycogen is increases in tenderness. Supporting mus- converted to lactic acid, lowering the pH. cles, such as the back and loin, are more Low glycogen content caused by fatigue tender than the muscles of locomotion. and lack of feed before slaughter results The retailer separates the cuts on this in higher pH (less acid), a more closed general basis. The more tender cuts are structure of the meat, and less tendency used for steaks, chops, and roasts that to "weep." This, within limits, may be are cooked with dry heat. The less tender desirable for the tender cuts, but is un- cuts are made tender by moist heat, such favorable toward tenderizing during ag- as boiling or pot-roasting. Enzyme action ing. Moreover, higher acidity inhibits that occurs in the tissues while aging in bacteria and molds and increases resist- the cooler increases tenderness and im- ance to spoilage. proves flavor. The extent to which beef Color of the Lean. The color of lean can be aged depends largely on the degree beef is due primarily to muscle hemo- of fatness; fat protects the surface of the globin (iron-containing red coloring mat- carcass from molds and from bacterial ter), but the brightness is modified by action. the amount and distribution of fat in In studies at the Kansas Station, beef the lean. Muscle hemoglobin increases produced on phosphorus-deficient pasture with age and presumably with exercise. or feed-lot rations proved inferior in Whereas veal is very light, the meat from keeping quality, shrinkage, and palatabil- bulls and from aged cows is dark. The ity. The low-phosphorus rations caused amount of muscle hemoglobin bears no changes in relative amounts of phospho- relation to the hemoglobin in the blood.

Section V— Page 36 ,

Although exercise perhaps affects the contains practically no glycogen, and has color of the lean, it apparently is a minor a high rate of oxygen uptake, which keeps factor under practical conditions. At the the muscle hemoglobin reduced to the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, dark venous form. The environmental or exercise equivalent to traveling more than individual variations responsible are still 7 miles daily during fattening failed to imperfectly understood. The condition change the color of lean beef materially. may be produced by insulin injections Although grass-fed cattle are commonly that deplete carbohydrate reserves and thought to kill darker than feed-lot cattle, cause shock. It appears to be promoted experiments at the Virginia Station re- by starvation for 3 days, such as fre- vealed no difference when grass-fed and quently occurs in shipment, particularly feed-lot cattle had equal finish. Similarly if followed by extreme fatigue, induced no practical difference was found by the by sudden exposure to low temperature Kansas Station, although delicate anal- and shivering. It appears to be more com- yses revealed slightly more muscle hemo- mon in nervous animals and in those globin in pasture-fed cattle. having little exercise during fattening.

The freshly cut surface of beef is dark, Such animals may be more subject to similar to venous blood. Upon exposure shock under starvation and drastic en- to air it brightens to resemble arterial vironmental changes. Although the trou- blood. This brightening is rapid for 30 ble occurs in California, it appears to be minutes and continues for as much as less important there than on the midwest-

3 hours. After this time it may darken ern markets. again permanently, owing to decomposi- Color of the Fat. Yellow color of beef tion of the hemoglobin. fat is caused by deposition of carotene, In some carcasses the cut surface of the precursor of vitamin A. Carotene can- the "eye of beef" or other muscles fails not be formed in the animal body; it must to brighten and may be almost black. This be obtained from plant sources. It is pres- condition is known in the trade as "dark" ent in all green plant tissue and in yellow or "black cutters." It may occur even in roots. young, well-bred, and well-finished ani- The amount of carotene in the fat of mals. It is commonly said to be caused cattle depends on: (a) the carotene con- by overheating, excitement, and exercise tent of the feed, (b) hereditary variation before slaughtering, or by improper that limits its storage, and (c) storage as bleeding. The condition is not predictable affected by the age of the animal. Green before slaughter. Because of its appear- pasture is rich in carotene and hence ance, sales are induced by sacrifice in tends to produce the most color in beef grade and price. Chicago packers have fat. Even the best-cured hays have lost estimated their combined yearly loss at a high percentage of this constituent ; thus one million dollars. Considerable investi- they have less tendency to produce yellow gational work has been done on the prob- fat. Grains, oil meals, and other concen- lem by experiment stations and by a trates are all low in carotene. committee of the National Livestock and The meat trade frequently associates Meat Board. The findings are reviewed yellow color with "cake"-fed cattle. Cot- in Kansas Agricultural Experiment Sta- tonseed cake contains no carotene, how- tion Technical Bulletin 58 (8). ever, and a ration of cottonseed cake and The conclusion has been reached that hulls produces white fat. Cake-fed cattle dark-cutting beef is caused by deficiency often are "warmed up" on grass or fed of glycogen (animal starch) in the tissue for a short time on dry forage, and they at the time of slaughter. The dark beef commonly retain the yellow color accu- is low in lactic acid and sugar (glucose) mulated during the green-feed season.

Page 37—Section V The calf at birth contains no carotene, marbling and fine texture of lean is hered- regardless of the mother's feed. Storage itary. Fattening increases yield, tender- increases with age, so that under the same ness, flavor, and to a slight extent the feed conditions yearlings have less fat proportion of hindquarter to forequarter. color than two-year-olds, and they in turn Adequate finish protects the carcass in less than mature cattle. On the same feeds, the cooler and permits aging. It increases Jersey and Guernsey cattle store more juiciness and decreases moisture loss in carotene in their fat tissues and secrete cooking. Excessive fat does not improve more in their milk than Holstein or beef flavor; it is uneconomical to produce and breeds. The latter change more of the largely goes into garbage. carotene to colorless vitamin A. Individ- Some of the results of cooperative in- ual variations with respect to fat color vestigations between experiment stations occur within breeds. and the National Livestock and Meat Old cows and grass-fed cattle which Board on quality and palatability of beef often are not well finished are most likely are summarized as follows: to have yellow fat. Hence, this color was No important differences were found thought to indicate poor quality, and in quality or palatability of meat from there has been prejudice against it, al- different beef breeds. The chief differ- though it is the same color that is highly ences between meat from cattle of im- prized in cream and butter. The carcasses proved and unimproved breeding, fed of young well-finished cattle may be yel- similarly, were found to be in weight for low if the animals have had feeds high age, in yield, and in appearance of the in carotene. On the other hand, dairy carcasses. Heifer and steer beef were cattle fed exclusively on feeds lacking in found equal in palatability. carotene have white fat. Color is therefore Various practical balanced rations not a reliable index of quality. Yellow fat, comparing, for example, corn with wheat, though often coincidental with lower cottonseed meal with linseed meal, and grades, is not necessarily associated with hay with silage, have not, in general, soft fat or any other condition affecting much affected the palatability of the re- desirability. In view of these facts, color sultant meat. Beef from three-year-old should be minimized in beef grading. steers fed 8 pounds of grain daily on good Discrimination against yellowness may pasture was fatter and more attractive but be unfortunate for both consumers and only slightly more palatable than the beef producers. Often the latter can economi- from steers fed on good pasture alone. cally produce high-quality beef in other Apparently the color, tenderness, and de- respects by utilizing pasture and forages sirability of lean depend more upon other that are cured to retain highest nutritive factors than upon the amount and char- value. Although the prejudice has been acter of the grass or grasses that the ani- difficult to overcome, it is now gradually mal has eaten. disappearing. Heifer beef proved definitely more ten-

Fattening. Fattening occurs in three der than beef from cows five years old or over, although there were no marked overlapping phases : first, around the kid- neys and internal organs; second, over differences between them in flavor or juic- the surface of the muscles; third, in the iness. On the other hand, roasts from lean tissues. Cattle poorly bred for beef fattened two-year-old and yearling steers, cannot readily or economically be brought though more palatable in general than to the final stage. They tend to become roasts from fattened calves, showed no wasteful in internal and external fat with- significant differences in tenderness. Dis-

out distributing it evenly over the body tribution of fat through the lean was more and through the lean. The tendency for satisfactory in beef from yearling and

Section V-Page 38 two-year-old cattle than in beef from stricken pasture produced meat contain- calves finished as short yearlings. Age of ing a most undesirable flavor and odor the animal had little influence on the per- according to the results secured in one centage of the various cuts of beef among trial. fattened calves, yearlings, and two-year- Producers can control or influence the olds. quality and desirability of the beef by Richness of juice appeared to improve the following methods: somewhat with increasing finish, although 1. Breeding and selecting for thick-muscled, early-maturing cattle, which fatten readily and a highly desirable richness of Jjuice does . . r . , distribute the fat evenly, not require excessive finish. 2. Feeding to promote continuous growth. Creep-feeding previous to weaning in- 3. Fattening at an early age or to a degree creased the fatness, dressing percentage, adequate for particular classes, grades, and ages ° f storage quality, and attractiveness of the ™vLrnmg at the proper time and careful resultant beet. handling of cattle to prevent injuries and Steers that had lost weight on drought- bruises in shipment to market.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Guilbert, H. R., G. H. Hart, K. A. Wagnon, and H. Goss. The importance of continuous growth in beef cattle. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 688:1-35. 1944.

(2) Jones, Burle J., and J. B. Brown. Irrigated pastures in California. California Agr. Ext. Cir. 125:1-47. Revised, 1949. (3) Cole, H. H., S. W. Mead, and Max Kleiber. Bloat in cattle. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 662:1-22. 1942. (4) Kelley, C. F., and N. R. Ittner. Artificial shades for livestock in hot climates. Agr. Engin. 29:239-42. 1948. Also unpublished data by same authors. (5) Guilbert, H. R., R. F. Miller, and H. Goss. Feeding value of sugar beet by-products. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 702:1-24. 1947. (6) Morrison, F. B. Feeds and feeding. 1050 p. 20th ed. The Morrison Publishing Company, Ithaca, N.Y. 1936. (7) Quin,J.I. Physiological aspects of animal nutrition, locomotion, and body heat. Part I, Problem of animal nutrition in South Africa. Farming in So. Africa 13:95-98. Mar., 1938. Part II, Influence of locomotion on grazing animals. Farming in So. Africa 13:149-51. Apr., 1938. Part III, Body heat and its control. Farming in So. Africa 13:195-97. May, 1938.

(8) Loy, H. W., J. L. Hall, et al. Quality of beef. Kansas Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bui. 58:1-86. 1944.

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