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Evolutionary history and the life cycle of Evolution Technical and As discussed near the beginning of this book, the impact of on the global scientific details ecosystem is enormous. It is estimated that they are currently responsible for about 90% of the oxygen that is released into the atmosphere. Furthermore, their contribution to the physical conditions on Earth were vitally important in setting the stage for the evolution of higher organisms. The first signs of life on our planet date back to a time when it was still very young. Earth was formed about 4.5 billion years ago and it is thought that the earliest organisms had already appeared more than 3.8 billion years ago. During this period, the conditions on Earth were very different from those of today. A particular indication of the physical state of the planet was the nearly total absence of oxygen in the atmosphere, less than one part in ten billion. Life consisted of simple, unicellular organisms, the so-called prokaryotes, which most closely resemble present-day . The prokaryotes encom- pass two separate domains (or superkingdoms): the Bacteria and the Archaea. Y,    ffThe evolution of microal- Earth is formed Present day gae and macroalgae on Earth. 4 3 2 1 0 The thick lines indicate times Blue-green microalgae during which there was a rapid ■ increase in the occurrence of ■ these species. Macroalgae became prevalent about 500 ■ to 800 million years ago. ■ Green algae

About 2.5 to 1.5 billion years ago, there was a noticeable change in the Earth’s atmosphere, as the amount of oxygen in it started to increase. This was brought about by the appearance of new forms of life that could use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide into oxygen and carbohydrates, a process we know as photosynthesis. There is probably no other development in the whole of the Earth’s existence that has altered its surface and climatic condi- tions as dramatically as did photosynthesis. The oxygen-producing blue-green microalgae, which go back about 3 billion years, are considered to have been instrumental in effecting this change. Chemically speaking, oxygen is a very reactive substance. Those organ- isms that could not adapt to its presence either died, buried themselves in

234 Energy content, fats, proteins, carbohydrates, and fiber

Energy Carbo­ content Fats Proteins hydrates Fiber kJ/100 g g/100 g g/100 g g/100 g g/100 g The nutritional content Winged kelp (Alaria esculenta) 1,100 3.6 18 40 39 of seaweeds Konbu (Saccharina japonica) 1,100 1.1 7 55 3 Hijiki (Sargassum fusiforme) 1,000 0.8 10 47 17 Wakame (Undaria pinnatifida) 1,150 4.5 13 51 4 Bladder wrack ( vesiculosus) 1,200 3.6 6 55 4 Knotted wrack (Ascophyllum nodosum) 1,000 1 10 52 6 Arame (Eisenia bicyclis) 1,100 1.3 12 52 7 Dulse ( palmata) 1,100 1.7 22 45 33 Laver, ( spp.) 1,350 2 34 45 7 Carrageen () 1,050 1–3 15 60 6 Sea lettuce (Ulva spp.) 900 0.6 24 40 5 Green string lettuce (Ulva spp.) 0.5 21 50 7 Spirulina 1,250 7 65 14 6 Recommended daily intake 8,400+ kJ 65+ g 50+ g 300+ g 25+ g mg = milligram = 0.001 gram; kJ = kilojoule = 0.24 kcal Sources: Arasaki, S. & T. Arasaki. Low Calorie, High Nutrition From the Sea. Japan Publications, Inc., Tokyo, 1983, pp. 32–52. Erhart, S. & L. Cerier. Sea Celebration. Book Publishing Company, Summertown, Tennessee, 2001, pp. 154–155; www.nutritiondata. com; www.nal.usda.gov; Dawczynski, C., R. Schubert & G. Jahreis. Amino acids, fatty acids, and in edible products. Food Chemistry 103, 891–899, 2006.

243 species and the part of the organism from which it is extracted. Chain length also varies, with the shortest typically composed of 500 monosaccharide groups. The usefulness of alginates, particularly in the form of sodium alginate, Technical and rests on their water solubility. In an aqueous solution, sodium alginate is scientific details found in the ionic state as a so-called electrolyte. Alginates form gels in the presence of Ca++ (or other divalent ions such as Mg++ and Ba++), a process that occurs at much lower temperatures than is possible with pectins. Gelation with Ca++ provides for a stronger gel, whereas Mg++ leads to a weak gel, both with different rheological properties and hence different applications. The affinity for Ca++ , which is abundant in milk, also means that combinations of alginate and milk are particularly useful.

ffAlginates can form gels in water when the long polysacchar- ide chains are bound together by Ca++ ions (shown in red).

ffSome agars and carrageenans Cooling Cooling in an aqueous solution form double helices when it is cooled. These can bind to each other in a variety of ways to form Heating Heating networks (gels). Carrageenans are differentiated from each other by their ability and tendency to form different types of gels and molecular aggregates. Dissolution Gel i Gel ii

248 Bibliography

Seaweeds in cooking son N. Potter, Inc., Publ., New York, 1977. Andoh, E. Washoku. Recipes From the Japanese Madlener, J. C. The Sea Vegetable Gelatin Cook- Technical and Home Kitchen. Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, book and Field Guide. Woodbridge Press 2005. Publ. Co., Santa Barbara, CA, 1981. scientific details Arasaki, S. & T. Arasaki. Low Calorie, High McConnaughey, E. Sea Vegetables. Harvesting Nutrition Vegetables From the Sea. Japan Guide & Cookbook. Naturegraph Publishers, Publications, Inc., Tokyo, 1983. Inc., Happy Camp, California, 2002. Babel, K. Seafood Sense. Basic Health Publ., Mouritsen, O. G. . Food for the Eye, the Laguna Beach, California, 2005. Body & the Soul, Springer, New York, 2009. Blumenthal, H., P. Barbot, N. Matsushisa & Mouritsen, O. G., L. Williams, R. Bjerregaard K. Mikuni. Dashi and Umami. The Heart of & L. Duelund. Seaweeds for umami flavor in Japanese Cuisine. Eat-Japan, Cross Media the New Nordic Cuisine. Flavour 1:4, 2012. Ltd., London, 2009. Mouritsen, O. G. The emerging science of Bradford, P. & M. Bradford. Cooking with Sea gastrophysics and its application to the algal Vegetables. Healing Arts Press, Rochester, cuisine. Flavour 1:6, 2012. Vermont, 1985. Rhatigan, P. Irish Seaweed Kitchen. Booklink, Chavannes, C. D. Algues. Légumes de la mer. La Co Down, , 2009. Plage Ed., Sète, 2002. Shimbo, H. The Sushi Experience. Alfred A. Cooksley, V. G. Seaweed. Nature’s Secret to Bal- Knopf, New York, 2006. ancing Your Metabolism, Fighting Disease, and Turner, N. J. Plants of Haida Gwaii. Sonosis Revitalizing Body & Soul. Stewart, Tabori & Press, Winlaw, British Columbia, 2004. Chang, New York, 2007. Turner, N. J. Food Plants of Coastal First Dubin, M. D. & S. Ross. Seaweed, Salmon, and Peoples. UBC Press, Vancouver, 2006. Manzanita Cider: A California Indian Feast. Heyday, Berkeley, 2008. Seaweeds and algae Ellis, L. Seaweed. A Cook’s Guide. Fisher Books, Barsanti, L. & P. Gualtieri. Algae. Anatomy, LCC, Tuscon, Arizona, 1998. Biochemistry, and Biotechnology. CRC Press, Erhart, S. & L. Cerier. Sea Vegetable Cele- Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, 2006. bration. Book Publishing Company, Becker, H. Seaweed Memories. In the Jaws of the Summertown, Tennessee, 2001. Sea. Wolfhound Press, Dublin, 2002. Fryer, L. & D. Simmons. Food Power From the Braune, W. & M. D. Guiry. Seaweeds. A. R. G. Sea. The Seaweed Story. Acres USA, Austin, Gartner Verlag KG, Ruggell, Germany, 2011. Texas, 1977. Chapman, V. J. Seaweeds and Their Uses. Me- Fujii, M. The Enlightened Kitchen. Kodansha thuen & Co. Ltd., London, 1950. International, New York, 2005. Critchley, A. T., M. Ohno & D. B. Largo. World Gusman, J. Vegetables From the Sea. Everyday Seaweed Ressources. An Authoritative Refer- Cooking With Sea Greens. William Morrow, ence System. Ver. 1.0, DVD ROM, ETI Inf. HarperCollinsPublishers, New York, 2003. Services Ltd, Workingham, UK, 2006. Harbo, R. M. The Edible Seashore. Pacific Shores Crowe, A. A Field Guide to the Native Edible Cookbook & Guide. Hancock House Publ. Plants of New Zealand. Penguin Books, Ltd., Surrey, British Columbia, Canada, 1988. Auckland, 2006. Huston, F. & X. Milne. Seaweed and Eat It. Daegling, M. Monster Seaweeds. The Story of A Family Foraging and Cooking Adventure. the Giant Kelps. Dillon Press Inc., Minne- Virgin Books Ltd., London, 2008. apolis, 1986. Lewallen, E. & J. Lewallen. Sea Vegetable Davenport, J., K. Black, G. Burnell, T. Cross, S. Gourmet Cookbook and Wildcrafter’s Guide. Culloty, S. Ekaratne, B. Furness, M. Mulcahy Mendocino Sea Vegetable Co., Mendocino, & H. Thetmeyer. Aquaculture. Blackwell California, 1996. Publ. Co., Oxford, UK, 2003. Maderia, C. J. The New Seaweed Cookbook. Druehl, L. Pacific Seaweeds. A Guide to Common North Atlantic Books, Berkeley, CA, 2007. Seaweeds of the West Coast. Harbour Pub- Madlener, J. C. The Sea Vegetable Book. Clark- lishing, British Columbia, Canada, 2000.

252 haploid generation, the large blades of factor in the climate change that is thought which are harvested to produce nori. to be taking place on Earth. When dms is Courtois, Bernard French chemist (1777– released in the atmosphere, it is oxidized 1838) who, in the course of producing to create compounds that, in the form of saltpetre from seaweed ash, discovered the aerosols, can cause condensation of the element iodine. atmospheric moisture content, thereby Technical and Crawford, Michael A. British neurochemist promoting cloud formation and having an and brain researcher. effect on the weather. scientific details Cryptogamia archaic botanical classifica- dimethylsulfoniopropionate (dmsp) tion of those plants that lack stems and true organic compound containing sulphur, flowers, for example, algae, mosses, lichens, (CH3)2S+CH2CH2COO-, found in red fungi, and ferns. and green (but not brown) algae, where Cunnane, Stephen Canadian researcher it serves to maintain the proper osmotic studying human evolution. balance between the organism and the surrounding salt water. dmsp, which has dashi soup stock made from an extract of neither odor nor taste, possibly also acts as bonito fish flakeskatsuobushi ( ) and konbu. an antioxidant within the cells of the sea- Ichiban dashi and niban dashi refer to the first weeds. When decomposing by oxidation or and second extracts, respectively. bacterial action, especially in the presence of deoxyribonucleic acid (dna) polynucleo- the genus Roseobacter, dmsp in dead algae tide consisting of a chain of nucleic acids; and seaweeds gives off the foul smelling gas, basis for the genetic information encoded dimethyl sulphide (dms). Fish and shellfish in genetic material and the genome. In the that feed on seaweeds and algae accumulate genome, dna forms a double helix in which dmsp in their cells. two dna chains spiral around each other. diploid word used to describe cells that have desmosterol higher-level sterol found espe- the normal complement of chromosomes, cially in red algae; related to cholesterol in that is, a double set. animals. dms see dimethyl sulphide. dha see docosahexaenoic acid. dmsp see dimethylsulfoniopropionate. diatoms unicellular microalgae, encased in dna see deoxyribonucleic acid. a silicate shell with two valves; one of the docosahexaenoic acid (dha) superunsatur- most common types of phytoplankton ated, long-chain fatty acid with 22 carbon (plant plankton). atoms and six double bonds; member of the dietary fiber macromolecules that cannot be omega-3 family. Found in only very small broken down by the body’s enzymes. The quantities in seaweeds, but in great abun- distinction is made between fibers that are dance in microalgae, for example, Spirulina. water soluble and those that are not. Sea- domoic acid poisonous amino acid, which weeds contain both types: for example, the acts as a neurotoxin, found in some micro- polysaccharides agar, alginate, and carra- algae. It can accumulate in shellfish that feed geenan are soluble, while cellulose and xylan on microalgae and is the principal cause of are not. Dietary fiber can constitute up to shellfish poisoning. 75% of the dry components of seaweeds. Drew-Baker, Kathleen Mary British alga diffusion random movement (Brownian mo- researcher (1901–57), whose discoveries tion) of molecules or small particles. regarding the life cycle of the red alga Por- dillisk Gaelic name for dulse (Palmaria pal- phyra were the scientific foundations for the mata). large-scale cultivation of Porphyra for nori dimethyl sulphide (dms) organic compound production. containing sulphur, CH3SCH3, formed by Druehl, Louis D. Canadian seaweed re- oxidation or organic decomposition of searcher. dimethylsulfoniopropionate (dmsp) in green and red algae. dms has a character- eicosanoid hormone or signalling molecule istic pungent odor given off, for example, formed from omega-3 or omega-6 fatty by heated milk, cabbage, cooked mussels, acids, which play an important role in the and rotting seaweed. The formation of dms regulation of such functions as blood flow in the oceans is deemed to be an important and the immune defenses.

262 Chateau Seaweed 177 Columbus, Christopher 3 dashi 262 170 complex fluid 249, 261 ~~and umami 96, 178 chelation 88, 101, 261 Conchocelis 261 ~~for flavoring 138 Chernobyl 106 ~~culture 58 ~~ichiban 124 chewing gum 217 ~~rosea 24, 237, 251 ~~in Japanese soups 124–127 Chiba 28, 75, 76 ~~stage 32, 51, 238 ~~niban 124, 126 chicken 105, 222 conchospore 32, 51, 58, ~~powder 124 Index Chi Han 7 237, 261 Dass, Peter 17 Chile 6, 9, 42, 210, 212 condiment 70, 122, 123, defense mechanisms 37, 38, China 7, 8, 42, 50, 75, 89, 95, 134, 175 218, 219 118, 204, 220 Connemara 225 dehydration of seaweeds ~~cuisine 96 consommé 131 34, 120 chips 180 contraception 108, 220 sanguinea 114, 251. chirashi-zushi 163, 261 Copenhagen Pectin Factory See also sea beech Chlorella spp. 38, 94, 251, 261 210 Denmark 12, 20, 99, 210 chlorine 106 copper 6, 54, 109, 242 dental 217 chlorophyll 261 cosmetics 42, 48, 204, 208, deoxyribonucleic acid 9, ~~and seaweed colors 5, 55 210, 220 262 ~~granules 4, 22 Cottonii 211 Desmarestia viridis 37, 38, ~~in brown algae 5 Courtois, Bernard 61, 262 251. See also stringy acid ~~in green algae 5 cows 222 kelp ~~in nori 121 cow weed 221 desmosterol 60, 262 ~~in red algae 5 CP Kelco 210–211 desserts 171–175 ~~in seaweeds 4, 102, 236 Crawford, Michael A. 5, 262 dha. See docosahexaenoic ~~in Spirulina 94 cream cheese 170, 208 acid Chlorophyta 22, 250, 251, creams 220 diabetes 102 261 crispbread 167 diabetics 102, 129 chloroplast 4, 236, 261 crustaceans 200 diatoms 21, 111, 236, 262 chocolate 183 Cryptogamia 13, 113, 262 ~~in evolution 23 cholesterol 55, 60, 102, 103, cucumber 137 diet. See also nutrition 129, 235, 261 culpe 12 ~~and cancer 108 Chondrus crispus 10, 16, 40, 41, cultivation. See also aqua- ~~and genes 6 127, 173, 198, 211, 240, 251. See culture ~~and iodine 106, 110 also carrageen, Irish moss ~~of algae 213 ~~cattle 222 ~~contents 241–244 ~~of brown seaweeds 46 ~~homonid 6 chromium 54, 242 ~~of Chondrus 40–41 ~~human 5, 60 chromosome 23, 236, 261 ~~of konbu 50 ~~Icelandic 16 Cill Chiaráin 225 ~~of microalgae 214 ~~Japanese 29, 101, 112, 118 Cladodonta lyallii 106 ~~of Porphyra 24, 25, 28–32, ~~low-calorie 104 Cladosiphon okamuranus 42, 51–52, 56–58, 80 ~~Polynesian 8 135, 251. See also mozuku ~~of sea lettuce 214 ~~Scandinavian 14 clams 24, 133 ~~of seaweeds 42, 45, 50, 79 ~~Stone Age 14 Claudea elegans 138 ~~of Spinosum 208 ~~Western 102, 108 Claytonia perfoliata 136 Cunnane, Stephen 6, 262 ~~with seaweeds 112, 118, cleimín 225–226 Cutleria multifida 103 185, 218, 230 climate 62, 234 cuvie 250 dietary advice 112 coagulation 261 cyanobacteria 22, 38, 93, 251 dietary fiber 262 ~~factor 111 ~~and wellness 103 cockles 148, 151 D ~~in seaweeds 52, 54, 55, 101, cockle women 151 dabberlocks 250. See also Al- 180, 243, 247–249 colds 10, 216 aria esculenta ~~insoluble 54, 55 colloids 101, 261 dairy products 55, 204, ~~soluble 54 colon 111, 129 208, 211 diffusion 26,262

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