Masaryk University

Faculty of Education

Department of English Language and Literature

Dublin through All Senses:

The Poetics of the City in James Joyce's Dubliners

Final Work

Mgr. Petra Mašátová

Supervisor: Mgr. Zuzana Klímová, Ph.D.

Brno 2016

1

Declaration: I hereby declare that I have worked on this final work independently, using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography.

Petra Mašátová

2

Acknowledgements: I would like to thank my supervisor, Mgr. Zuzana Klímová, Ph.D., for her constructive advice and helpfulness throughout my work on this thesis.

3 Table of Contents

1. Introduction ...... 5

1.1 James Joyce's Dubliners ...... 5

1.2 The Poetics of the City ...... 6

1.3 Dublin through All Senses ...... 7

2. Colours of Dublin ...... 9

3. Sounds of Dublin ...... 16

4. Smells of Dublin ...... 26

5. Tastes of Dublin ...... 31

6. Touches of Dublin...... 40

7. Conclusion ...... 47

Bibliography ...... 48

4 1. Introduction

"I want to give a picture of Dublin so complete that if the city

one day suddenly disappeared from the earth it could be

reconstructed out of my book." (Joyce qtd. in O'Grady)

1.1 James Joyce's Dubliners

In the short story collection Dubliners, published in 1914 by Grant Richards, James

Joyce brought the capital city of Ireland onto the world's literary scene.1 In a letter to Grant

Richards Joyce wrote: "My intention was to write a chapter of the moral history of my country and I chose Dublin for the scene because that city seemed to me the centre of paralysis" (qtd. in Brown, Introduction xxxi). Joyce's portrait of Dublin as a paralysed city in the early twentieth century is not very flattering. It is a place inhabited by clerks, shop assistants, scribes, cashiers, maids or salesmen, but also by slackers and alcoholics, trapped in their small lives of lower middle class. They live banal, routine lives lacking love, enjoyment, money or any prospects. Also their melancholic desire for escape remains unfulfilled as they are unable to challenge their frustration and change their destiny. Their paralysed existence has its parallel in the paralysed city. Author's pessimistic depicting of the city life and lost existence of its inhabitants is regarded as a sign of modernism (Grey). Not only in content, but also in style Dubliners bear features of modernist writing. First of all, a genre of a short story itself is used to be seen as a typical modernist form (Wilson 87) and free indirect speech as well. This narrative technique, frequently used by Joyce, allows the author, or more precisely, a narrator to speak from the point of view of a character using his or her language to reveal his or her psychological reality and at the same time to maintain a critical distance

(Wilson 159). Joseph Frank argues that in works of modernist writers, e. g. Thomas Searns

1 The collection consists of fifteen short stories arranged in the order of childhood, adolescence, maturity and public life (Brown, Introduction xxxi). In the first three stories there are boy's narrators conveying the city of their childhood, these are followed by four stories of young and four of adult experience and last four texts introduce the city from different ascpects of public life, dealing with national, political or religious issues.

5 Elliot, Ezra Pound, Marcel Proust or James Joyce, the category of space in a narrative prevails over the category of time that seems like paused (Derdowska 38). Evoking space from a perspective of other senses than only of the dominant sense of sight is also characteristic of modernism (Fjellestad 641). Emily Brady points out that "James Joyce creates rich images of urban places like Dublin through sensory descriptions in his various novels" (Brady 187) and states his Ulysses as a particular example. This work has the ambition to show that this statement of James Joyce's novels could be applied to his short stories as well.

1.2 The Poetics of the City

The literary analysis of the poetics of the city in James Joyce's Dubliners representing the body of this thesis is inspired particulary by conceptions of Alice Jedličková and Daniela

Hodrová, Czech prominent literary theorists dealing with the category of literary space. In her typology of narrative constructions of space, Jedličková distinguishes among three main types of space developing in a narrative structure. Firstly, there is a type of "space introduced as it is", which is established through a description in a text and specified by an account of details. Secondly, there is a type of "space as it is experienced" by a narrator or a character.

This type of space is created through narration. And thirdly, there is a type of "space as it is evoked" mainly through its sensory qualities.2 The third type can be combined with the second type, i. e. space is evoked through experience of a participating figure (Jedličková 16-

19). Actually, this typology concerns pure types, and thus in practice all three types can overlap each other. My intention is to focus on space of Joyce's Dubliners how is evoked through individual sensory qualities and how it contributes to the atmosphere of melancholy and paralysis hanging over the stories as suggested in the previous part. As mentioned above, it involves also to pursue characters experiencing space. This is what I understand as the

2 Although Jedličková introduces another three types of space, she herself considers them to be rather marginal, and therefore there is no need to expose them here.

6 poetics of the city, to put it simply, how the city is evoked in the text, what its mood is and how it is related to the characters.

Jarosłav Malicki holds that people and places make up a city (Malicki 114) and it is impossible to separate one from another. This idea is followed also by Daniela Hodrová who perceives a literary piece as a net of various elements and their relations. Everything is connected with everything, and therefore an analysis of space necessarily involves an analysis of time, characters, style etc. (Místa s tajemstvím 5). Examining especially urban space, Hodrová introduces three ways how a city is present in literature: firstly, as an object, usually in guidebooks or books about cities, secondly as an environment, i. e. a setting of a story, and thirdly as a subject when it is impossible to distinguish a figure from a city.

According to Hodrová, the third case occurs especially in the situations of proximity between a city and a figure in connection to a character's state of disillusion when a narrator's point of view merges with a character's one (Místa s tajemstvím 94-96). If the book has a title

Dubliners and its characters are in fact defined by the city they live in, one might expect a close connection between the city and its inhabitants. This connection will be also a subject matter of this work.

In my thesis I also used a term "narrative space" expressing an environment in which characters move and live (Ryanová), and furthemore, I work with a concept of "chronotope", which was introduced by Michail Michajlovič Bachtin, unifying temporal and spatial categories of a story (Derdowska 39).

1.3 Dublin through All Senses

Man grasps space around him through his senses, transforming it, according to

Immanuel Kant, from the world in itself to the world for us (194-210). As I have already suggested in the preceding subchapter, this fact is reflected by many literary theorists dealing with the category of narrative space. E. g. Daniela Hodrová states that "a human body with its

7 senses is significantly involved in experiencing a city" (Citlivé město 340, trans. P.M.) and that "a city represents a multidimensional and kinetic text - we can watch a city as a picture

(view from up above), but more often as a film, ... we can read a city as a literary text, listen to it as to a musical composition, smell it or touch it" (Citlivé město 40, trans. P.M.). From this point of view, the narrative space of Dublin in Joyce's short stories provides a lot of sensual experience. During a night walk in its streets one can see the dim colours of lamplights, hear the quiet notes of the mournful music through the lighted squares of windows, the yell of the boys selling the evening editions on the corner, noises of the pubs inviting passers-by to taste a half of malt whiskey or a bottle of ginger beer with a plate of hot peas, and then go further from the centre, feel the chill drizzle on one's cheeks and smell the odours arising from the gardens behind the houses when walking through the dark silent muddy lanes. One can experience the city so lively as if one was physically present in the city of Dubliners. Therefore this thesis focuses on a sensual grasp of the narrative city space. The following five chapters - Colours, Sounds, Smells, Tastes and Touches of Dublin - respond to five ways of human perception - visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory and haptic one. As such they are concerned with the involvement of a particular senses3 in evoking the space of

Dublin, in creating the melancholic mood of the stories and in expressing the paralysis of their protagonists.

3 I am fully aware of the fact that a human perception is a complex activity. Particular senses cannot be separated as they work together and their interconnection is reflected for several times in this chapter. However, for our purpose of literary analysis, it will be more clear to describe them in isolation.

8 2. Colours of Dublin

Colour symbolism in the literary piece itself would take up the single thesis.

However, the aim of this chapter is not to decipher hidden meanings of all the colours used in the text, but rather notice what colours predominate in the narrative space of Dublin, in what consequences they occur (repeatedly), what atmosphere they create and how they reflect the link between the city and the inhabitants. The following analysis is based on a claim of Irish writer Colm Tóibín who, in his article comparing Dubliners and Ulysses, states that

"Dubliners shows a city filled with the colours and shades of autumn and winter" (Tóibín), and on a statement of Columbia University professor Wallace Gray who, in his introduction to James Joyce's stories, remarked that "brown is the most frequently used colour in Joyce's

Dubliners" (Gray).

The chronotope of autumn or winter Dublin indeed prevails in the stories. Six stories out of fifteen obviously take place in the autumn ("A Little Cloud", "Clay", "A Painful Case",

"Ivy Day in the Committee Room") or in the winter ("Counterparts", "The Dead"). Other two stories, "Araby" and "Grace", refer to those seasons. In "Araby", there are several references to "the short days of winter" (21)4 or "the pitilessly raw air" (25). In "Grace", for example,

Mr. Kernan shakes with cold in a car and a carman waiting in front of a door tries to warm himself by moving his legs and hands (152-154). One can therefore expect the shades of yellow and brown, which represent typical colours of autumn trees, the mud and rotting leaves, and white colour of winter, or more precisely a grey one as winter in a city is rather grey than white. Snow lying in the streets is dirty, if there is some. The sky is grey with heavy clouds. And if there is not a rare case of the sun shining in the winter, the daylight has also the colour of grey. It is noteworthy that these two seasons are usually connected with

4 All quotations from Dubliners used in this thesis are from the edition listed in the bibliography: Joyce, James. Dubliners. London: Penguin, 1992. Print.

9 certain melancholy. Days are short, there is few light, darkness comes soon, flowers fade, leaves fall, a year ends. These seasons definitely symbolize the end and decay and thus contribute to the melancholic air of the stories.

Speaking about the chronotope, it is necessary to point out the fact that thirteen stories out of fifteen take place in the evening or at night. Dark streets of the city are illuminated with street lamps and gaslights, dark rooms with the glow of the fire from a hearth or of a pale light of candles. The setting of a dusk and upcoming night significantly evokes the atmosphere of melancholy and often corresponds with feelings of the characters. In "Araby", for example, the narrative of a boy in love, who promised to bring a present to his beloved from the bazaar, is accompanied by the images of dark and light, which merge with his feelings: "It was a dark rainy evening and there was no sound in the house. ... Some distant lamp or lighted window gleamed below me. I was thankful that I could see so little. All my senses seemed to desire to veil themselves and, feeling that I was about to slip from them, I pressed the palms of my hands together until they tremmbled, murmuring: O love! O love! many times (23)." This passage provides in fact the example of complex sensory experience. The visual effect of the dark evening with a feeble light and the sound effect of rain enhance boy's melancholic desire of unfulfilled love which finds its expression in his murmuring and trembling of his palms.

Dark shades, omnipresent in the text, represent a significant element in creating a melancholic mood of the narrative.

The yellow colour might be perceived similarly. Although it is generally considered a bright colour evoking positive associations, its use in characterizing the people of Dublin and the elements of its space is rather negative and helps to create the atmosphere of decay.

Even in the stories which take place in the spring or in the summer, one can find yellow in that context. In "An Encounter", for example, yellow is a colour of the teeth of the old, perverse man, who two young boys met in a bright June day. The colour there also arouses

10 a feeling of aversion to the man. Similarly, in "Ivy Day in the Commitee Room", yellow is used for a description of the appearance of "a poor clergyman" in "a shabby frock-coat" whose face resembles "damp yellow cheese" (122), which raises disgust too. There are old books in "Araby" "the pages of which were curled and damp" and "its leaves were yellow"

(21). In the story of "Eveline", the eponymous main figure is looking at the yellowing photograph of the priest hung on the wall, significantly, "above the broken harmonium" (30).

The priest, her father's classmate, left the country many years ago and his picture is now covered in dust. The yellowing photograph stays a part of a household that is being kept in the same state of conservation for years, which is signalized also by the broken harmonium, the evidence that things remain as they are. No one has the energy to repair them. There are

"yellow streaks of eggs with morsels of bacon-fat" (58) remaining on plates after breakfast in

"The Boarding House" which might be seen as a reminder of just passed event or as a symbol of decline of the boarding house in the eyes of Mr Doran, one of its residents, whose perceiving is negatively affected by his aversion to marrying Polly, a daughter of the house's owner. And last but not least, in "The Dead", a dull yellow colour of light "suggests the end of the party and anticipates the end of the story" (Salvagno 25). From the account stated above, it is clear that yellow is used to describe old people and things, to express ending or past events and to evoke the gloomy atmosphere of the text.

Following Gray's initial statement, the other colour that is significantly involved in constructing the narrative space of Dublin is brown, frequently used for painting Dublin's streets, houses, inhabitants and things of everyday use. Brown colour, occuring in the most stories of the collection, thus represents an important visual effect of the space. At the beginning of the stories "Araby" and "Eveline", there are references to brown houses of the streets. In this connection, Terence Brown speaks about "the ubiquitous brown bricks of the buildings" (Introduction xxxvii). Obviously, the brown brick houses constitute an integral

11 part of the city landscape at the turn of the 19th and 20th century. But the face of the city is transforming slowly and those houses soon become the past. The transformation of the city is also reflected by colours as the narrator in the story of "Eveline" suggests depicting how

"a man from Belfast bought the field and built houses in it - not like their little brown houses but [new red] houses..." (29). Brown colour, as well as yellow, can be therefore seen as a sign of the old times. The fact that such kind of a house represents a setting of the story whose character deals with the past seems as a good example of the interconnection between space and the characters. The principal figure of Eveline tackles the conflict between her past and future life. Sitting at the window and watching the street, she considers staying at home with her father and younger siblings or starting a new life alone with Frank, a sailor she loves, in

Buenos Aires. Passed events appear in front of her, the memories from her childhood, the death of her mother, the first meeting with Frank. And although she finally decides for the future with Frank, in a crucial moment, she is not able to move forward towards the future. In fact, she is not able to move anyway. Standing at a docks, "full of soldiers with brown baggages" (33), and watching leaving Frank, Eveline stays paralysed, and thus, she probably will continue in her past life in the brown brick house, a symbol of the past. Terrence

Brown's comments on Joyce's posthumously-published novel, Stephen Hero, show that the writer related the images of Dublin's brown houses directly to the state of Irish paralysis

(Notes 251). Inspite of the fact that Joyce's statement is addressed to his other book, in view of his intention, quoted in the Introduction of this work, it is possible to apply the statement also to Dubliners. A similar example of the relation between a colour effect of the environment and figure's characteristics could be found in "A Painful Case". In this story, the appearance of a main character is metaphorically expressed by brown colour of city streets and it is symbolic that even this character lost his chance for the future. Mr Duffy, whose

"face, which carried the entire tale of his years, was of the brown tint of Dublin's streets"

12 (104), lived rather hypocritical life until he found out about a tragic death of Mrs Sinico from the newspapers the colour of which was, by the way, a pale, yellowish-brown. Although it is a detail, the negative associations of brown are evident. However, Mrs Sinico was perhaps the only woman who had ever loved Mr Duffy but he once rejected her. "Now that she was gone he understood how lonely her life must have been, sitting night after night alone in that room. His life would be lonely too until he, too, died, ceased to exist, became a memory - if anyone remembered him" (113). The brown colour of Mr Duffy's face, as well as of the

Dublin's streets, reflects the decay of both his life and the city. The motif of brown in the analysed stories refers to the similarity between the city and its inhabitans, to their life without prospects. In the entire collection then "brown and yellow are Joyce's colours for paralysis and decay" (Salvagno 25).

Besides "the autumn colours" of yellow and brown, there is a grey colour playing an important role in the poetics of the city. As discussed earlier, the typical chronotope of the stories is Dublin at dusk. Therefore the city is frequently depicted in the colours of oncoming night with its shades of the tawny gold of a sunset, ever-changing violet of the sky and mainly the grey of the falling evening. The short story of "Two Gallants", for example, begins with a description of "the grey warm evening of August" (43) when "the large faint moon circled with a double halo" is on the sky with "the passing of the grey web of twilight across its face" (46). Grey colour there and in the whole text, in fact, often occurs in the context of an ending day, and thus its connection with an end is clear. Nonetheless, it symbolizes not only the end of a day, but also the end of a life or the end of hopes like in

"After the Race" where the grey light of dawn ends the rest and comfort which night provided to a foolish young man Jimmy who lost his money in the game of cards. The grey colour prevails in the despcription of old Aunt Julia from the story of "The Dead": "Her hair, drawn low over the tops of her ears, was grey; and grey also, with darker shadows, was her large

13 flaccid face" (179). In this case, grey characterizes Aunt Julia's old age and anticipates her death "that would happen very soon" (224) as Gabriel Conroy, her nephew, imagines. "She ... would soon be a shade ... Soon, perhaps, he would be sitting in that same drawing-room, dressed in black, ... and Aunt Kate would be sitting beside him, crying and blowing her nose and telling him how Julia had died" (224). Gabriel's sensitive imagination created pictures of dead Aunt Julia, of dead lover of his wife and even of "his own identity ... fading out into a grey impalpable word" (225). The world of all the dead, their passed existence, thoughts and feelings is depicted in the grey colour. In this way, grey contributes to the sombre mood in which the story ends.

On the basis of the previous analysis it can be said that "the colours and shades of autumn and winter" indeed prevail in the depiction of Joyce's Dublin but not in the context of falling leaves or falling snow as one might expect. Brown, yellow and grey, characterizing

Dublin's streets, houses and people, rather express their paralysed existence and life with the only prospect of death, and often draw a parallel between the city and its characters. Thus, their perception is significantly involved in creating the sombre atmosphere of the book.

According to all what was said above, one might perhaps think that there are no bright or jolly colours in the space of Dublin. In fact, there are some. And it is neccesary to say that almost without exception they occur in the context of Dublin's nightlife - in the environment of pubs and other public places. Going back to the initial part of "Two Gallants", one can almost "see" "the streets ... swarmed with a gaily coloured crowd. Like illumined pearls the lamps shone from the summits of their tall poles upon the living texture below which, changing shape and hue unceasingly, sent up into the warm grey evening air an unchanging unceasing murmur" (43). Words like "coloured crowd", "illumined pearls", "shone",

"changing hue" or "unceasing murmur" used in the very lively description obviously evoke a rush night in the city streets glowing with coloured lights. Those lights are mentioned also

14 in "Araby" in the connection with a sort of a public-house. In the hall where a bazaar was set,

"the words Café Chantant were writen in coloured lamps..." (27). Other similar example can be found in "A Little Cloud" when a main figure of Little Tommy Chandler enters a bar.

"The light and noise of the bar held him at the doorway for a few moments. He looked about him, but his sight was confused by the shining of many red and green wineglasses" (69).

A notable remark of the "confused sight" could be a key how to interpret those scenes painted in bright colours and, as one can notice, loud noises. All these shining lights and deafening sounds allow the characters to forget their everyday life for a couple of moments. They remain dazzled amid "the glare and rattle of the public-house" (86) that covers up the real view of their poor existence. This psychological effect evoked by the environment is more developed in the following chapter in which the topic of nightlife in the context of the noises of Dublin is discussed in detail.

15 3. Sounds of Dublin

Sound effects, that will be dealt with in this subchapter, are fully involved in evoking the enviroment and the space of the text. Whether it is noise, music, murmur or silence5, they always play an important role in perception of the narrative and in creating its meaning.

Noises in Dubliners help to construct the urban landscape and the atmosphere of its nightlife.

Sounds, as well as colours, resonate with feelings of the characters and have the power to awake their memories, which in certain cases represent a key moment for developing the narrative. It will also be shown that sounds contribute to the melancholic mood of the stories.

As mentioned above, there are many sounds referring to the urban space of the text.

Traffic noise, a typical feature of a modern city, in fact one of its symbols (Salvagno 91), is present in Joyce's portrait of Dublin both implicitly and explicitly. In "An Encounter", for example, there is a scene in which boys who decided to spend a day out instead of school are coming to the port on a river. This scene fully evokes auditory perception, although it is described with minimum of sound effects:

We spent a long time walking about noisy streets flanked by high stone walls,

watching the working of cranes and engines and often being shouted at for our

immobility by the drivers of groaning carts. It was noon when we reached the

quays ... We pleased ourselves with the spectacle of Dublin commerce – the barges

signalled from far away by their curls of woolly smoke, the brown fishing fleet

beyond Ringsend, the big white sailing-vessel which was being discharged on the

opposite quay (14-15).

One can obviously identify only three sound words in the extract: "noisy", "groaning" and

"shouted". However, Joyce's description of a rush in the harbour evokes many others, e. g. a roar of the working cranes, a hum of the engines, a rattle of carts' wheels on the paving and

5 As it is imposssible to achieve absolute silence, silence in the meaning of minimal sound below the hearing threshold is considered in this work to be a sound effect which has the meaning.

16 a clip-clop of horses which pull the carts, a whistle of steamboats or loud voices of sailors and dockers who unload a ship. All the depiction engenders the picture of Dublin as a busy port city. As the opposite to the implicit rendition of sound effects in "An Encounter", traffic noise is described directly in "After the Race". The reason is that partly the short story touches a theme of a motor race, to which its title refers, and therefore one could expect sounds like "the noise of the car" or "the snorting motor", but mostly that the author portrays streets "busy with unusual traffic, loud with the horns of motorists and the gongs of impatient tram-drivers" (38). Traffic noise, on the one hand produced by carts and steamboats, but on the other hand by cars, or racing cars actually, help readers set the narrative space of Dublin to the temporal frame of the early twentieth century, to the age of modernism that established the aesthetics of an urban landscape (Derdowska 9).

An integral part of the urban enviroment, especially the environment of a capital city, is its nightlife. It has been already pointed out that oncoming night is the typical setting in

Dubliners, which influences an approach to sensational perception that significantly takes part in evoking the narrative space (Změlík 168). Dublin at night is rich in noises in the streets as well as in the pubs (Salvagno 79). The following extract from "After the Race" constitutes an example of a rush night. In fact, the whole short story could be considered as the example of such a night as it depicts the entertainment of five young men from dusk till dawn.

That night the city wore the mask of a capital. The five young men strolled along

Stephen's Green in a faint cloud of aromatic smoke. They talked loudly and gaily and

their cloaks dangled from their shoulders. ... A torrent of talk followed. Farley was

an American. No one knew very well what the talk was about. Villona and

Riviere were the noisiest, but all the men were excited. They got up on a car,

17 squeezing themselves together amid much laughter. They drove by the crowd,

blended now into soft colours, to a music of merry bells (39-40).

Darkness, that reduces visual perception, makes sound effects more intensive. This can have a psychological meaning. It is possible to perceive all the loud and enthusiastic talk (not knowing what about), noises, laughter and excitement as a way how to muffle a feeling of emptiness, feeling of people who live useless lives and who are not strong enough to change it. At least this is the case of the main protagonist of the story, twenty-six-year-old Jimmy, who wastes his time and his father's money at a college with similar companions. In the conclusion of "After the Race", these companions decide to play cards. "Play ran very high and paper began to pass. ... What excitement! Jimmy was excited too; he would lose, of course. How much had he written away? ... He knew that he would regret in the morning but at present he was glad of the rest, glad of the dark stupor that would cover up his folly" (41).

The break of dawn that comes at the very next moment denudes such acting as silly and vain.

Similarly, loud noises give the deafening effect to the environment of Dublin's pubs and bars, the interiors of nightlife, that are "full of men and loud with the noise of tongues and glasses"

(90). People visit them to escape from banality of their lives, or on the contrary, they reveal banality of their lives right there. The first claim applies to a scribe Farrington from

"Counterparts" who is disgusted with his work that he sees as "the indignity of his life" (86).

Sitting in the office, "he realised how hopeless was the task of finishing his copy of the contract before half past five. The dark damp night was coming and he longed to spend it in the bars, drinking with his friends amid the glare of gas and the clatter of glasses ..., his mind wandered away to the glare and rattle of the public-house" (85-86). The second claim relates to a clerk Tommy Chandler who face-to-face with his old, well-travelled friend Gallaher perceives his life as an ordinary one. Both companions met each other in the pub Corless's where "surrounded by lights and noise" Tommy "felt acutely contrast between his own life

18 and his friend's, and it seemed to him unjust" (75). In both aforementioned cases, the noises of public-houses play an important role in psychological effect of the space, whether they blunt characters' perceptions of their situation or make it sharper.

Chiara Salvagno points out that "from the very first story, we come to know that in a city such as Dublin there is not only noise and sounds but also silence, and sometimes characters almost murmur or cannot speak as paralyzed" (78). It may seem paradoxical, but the sounds of silence correspond with nocturnal scene of Dublin as well as the noises of its nightlife. However, the function of silence is different. If noises are to deafen characters, moments of contemplation come with the silence. In quiet moments, the figures of Dubliners usually stay alone with their memories, thoughts and images. Quiet in the short stories is closely connected with the motives of death and the dead and with the feelings of loneliness, no matter if one is married or has a family. Going back to the very first story, "The Sisters", the atmosphere of the oppressive silence is created around the dead body of Father Flynn who

"had died of paralysis" (3). Readers can perceive this atmosphere via the character of a young boy who is also a narrator of the story and who in the quiet and "the dark of his room imagined that [he] saw again the heavy grey face of the paralytic" (3). When visiting Father

Flynn's house to say his farewell to the dead lying in a coffin, the boy in a company of priest's sisters feels that "a silence took possession of the little room and, under cover of it, [he] approached the table and tasted [his] sherry and then returned quietly to [his] chair in the corner. Eliza seemed to have fallen into a deep revery. [They] waited respectfully for her to break the silence..." (9). As if the paralysis, that caused priest's death and that is addressed several times within the story, was also the effect of the silence which fell on the room with the dead Father Flynn. The boy cannot pray as a muttering of one of Flynn's sisters disturbs him, he refuses to take a cracker not to crunch eating it. No one speaks and when one of the sisters finally breaks the silence, she grinds to a halt again "as if to listen. [The boy] too

19 listened; but there was no sound in the house: and [he] knew that the old priest was lying still in his coffin as [they] had seen him, solemn and truculent in death an idle chalice on his breast" (10). This "paralysing silence" is expressed also at a grammatical level of the text.

Eliza's interrupted talking with many omissions is indicated by ellipsis points which are repeated for eight times in her direct speech (Brown, Introduction xxx). This kind of silence could be found in other stories of the collection such as "A Little Cloud" where a quiet space allows Tommy to develop melancholic thoughts about his unfulfilled ambitions, or "Ivy Day in the Comittee Room" in which silence constitutes a response of the election agitators to

Mr Hynes' recitation of a nationalistic poem (Salvagno 80-82). As Terrence Brown points out, it could be found also at the end of "A Painful Case" where after his girlfriend's death Mr

Duffy halts under a tree silent and lonely (Introduction xxxvii) or in the very last story, "The

Dead", which refers to a motif of death yet with its title. In the conclusion, Gabriel Conroy and his wife Greta arrive at a hotel in deep night both immersed in their own thoughts. Quiet space there highlights other sounds, therefore "in the silence Gabriel could hear the falling of the molten wax into the tray and the thumping of his own heart against his ribs" (217). After his wife confides to him that she was in love with a boy in her youth and the boy died at the age of seventeen, Gabriel, lying in a quiet hotel room, is thinking about all the dead and their intangible world. The specific topos of silence resonating with memories and images of the dead is intensified by darkness and snow "falling faintly through the universe and faintly falling, like the descent of their last end, upon all the living and the dead" 6 (225). The foregrounding examples show that the silence fulfilling the space of Dublin is not peaceful and does not give any comfort. Quite the reverse, it is connected with anxious thoughts or melancholic memories and it often paralysis the acting of the characters.

6 Speaking about sound effects, the final sentence of "The Dead" and of the whole collection at the same time represents the example of onomatopoia. Beginning with the words "His soul swooned slowly" and continuing with "falling faintly ... and faintly falling" (225) the sentence obviously creates a melodic effect (Gray).

20 The sounds of music present in the streets of the city as well as in its concert rooms and salons are pointing to another aspect of auditory perception of the narrative space. There are street harpists plucking at the wires, teachers and students of music playing the piano not only in ancient concert halls, but also in private drawing-rooms, and there are singers of all voices - sopranos, contraltos, tenors or baritons singing plaintive melodies of the old Irish songs which, among the other things, situate the narrative in the Irish area.7 All of this constitutes the panorama of the musical life obviously playing a significant part in the public and private life of Dublin at the beginning of the twentieth century. Many musical allusions and detailed descriptions of musical compositions or their performing given by the narrator in the third person witness the author's deep knowledge of music (Weaver et al.). It is possible to find those passages mainly in the short stories of "A Mother", which deals with a subject matter of arranging concerts, and "The Dead", depicting the Misses Morkan's annual dance and "giving a broad view of Dublin's musical life" (Salvagno 83). "The Dublin of 'The Dead' has echoes of Barcelona or Calcutta or Edinburg in the early years of the 20th century, places where musical life could be conducted with the peculiar intensity, and songs and singers handed a strange power" (Tóibín).

It is symptomatic that music is rather melancholic than jolly. In "Two Gallants", for example, two companions, Corley and Lenehan, walk along Dublin's streets when overhearing a harpist playing "in the bass the melody of Silent, O Moyle, ... The notes of the air throbbed deep and full. The two young men walked up the street without speaking, the mournful music following them" (48). Like silence, music can hit characters and leave them paralysed or preoccupied with their own thoughts, but also with their memories as music has the ability to recall events passed long ago. This way, a known melody hits the figure of

7 Similarly, a harp, which is played by a street musician in the story of "Two Gallants", is considered a symbol of Ireland (Tóibín).

21 young Eveline from the eponymous short story, sitting by the window and considering her escape from home with her fellow Frank.

Down far in the avenue she could hear the street organ playing. She knew the air.

Strange that it should come that very night to remind her of the promise to her mother,

her promise to keep the home together as long as she could. She remembered the last

night of her mother's illness; she was again in the close dark room at the other side of

the hall and outside she heard a melancholy air of Italy. ... As she mused the pitiful

vision of her mother's life laid its spell on the very quick of her being - that life of

commonplace sacrifices closing in final craziness. ... She stood up in a sudden

impuls of terror. Escape! She must escape! Frank would save her (32-33).

The melancholic melody of the street organ reminds Eveline of her mother's death that ended her hard life. This memory raises a strong emotional reaction which makes Eveline decide to escape. However, she is finally not able to realize her decision when just staring helplessly at leaving Frank. The same effect of music could be found in "The Dead". There is a scene in which Gabriel and Greta are to leave Misses Morkan's ball. It is late and most of the visitors have just left.

[Gabriel] was in a dark part of the hall gazing up the staircase. A woman was

standing near the top of the first flight, in a shadow also. ... It was his wife. She was

leaning on the banisters, listening to something. Gabriel was surprised at her stillness

and strained his ear to listen also. ... The song seemed to be in the old Irish tonality

and the singer seemed uncertain both of his words and of his voice. The voice, made

plaintive by distance and by the singer's hoarseness, faintly illuminated the cadence of

the air with words expressing grief... (210-211).

The paralysing effect of the plain Irish ballad, The Lass of Aughrim, on Gabriel's wife is evident. Sound as a making-meaning factor develops the story further. During their way from

22 Morkan's to a hotel, Gretta seems abstracted to Gabriel. When he asks her about her strange behaviour, she bursts out crying and tells him about Michael Furey who used to sing the song and who died young because of her. The song has a power to recall the past and to rise a riot of emotions. Gabriel, who absolutely did not expect anything like this, feels ashamed a bit for interpreting his wife's behaviour wrongly as the same desire that he felt. As described in the part devoted to the sound of silence, the principal figure of the story then falls into a melancholic mood thinking of Michael Furey and all the people who sooner or later change into shades. Both previous examples suggest that the sound of music has a similar paralysing effect as the silence and that is similarly associated with the motif of death (Salvagno 79).

To make the account of sound effects functions in Dubliners complete, it is necessary to discuss how the auditory perception of the environment is involved in the figures' characteristics. It has been pointed out that space and figures are closely connected. This connection is actualised also via sounds in the narrative. Thoughts and emotions of the characters are reflected in perceiving the sounds. It is obvious already from the first line of the story of "Counterparts" when "the bell rang furiously and, ... a furious voice called out in a piercing North of Ireland accent: –Send Farrington here!" and then "the shrill voice cried:

–Come in!" (82). The air of anger and furiousness, that seems relatively unexpectedly in such a place as the office, is evoked by the furious bell ringing and shouting from the very beginning, and in this way, it heralds the atmosphere of the whole story, spreading around the main character of Farrington who himself is extremely angry and violent, "savage and thirsty and revengeful, annoyed with himself and with everyone else" (88). Farrington's angry nature is also characterized by the sounds of the narrative space, e.g. "his head was full of the noises of tramgongs and swishing trolleys" (89) which express his joyful excitement when walking with proud satisfaction from the pawn-office towards the night spent in the bars with six shillings for just pawned watch. He has money and can get drunk. Only loud noise of the bars

23 and pubs could actually silence the noise of anger in Farrington's head perhaps for a while.

Going back to the story of "Eveline", or more precisely to its final part when Eveline is supposed to leave with Frank, one can find another relevant example of sounds corresponding with the figure's state of mind. Eveline, standing at the station and watching the ship besides the quay wall, "felt her cheek pale and cold and, out of a maze of distress, she prayed to God to direct her, to show her what was her duty. The boat blew a long mournful whistle into the mist. ... A bell clanged upon her heart" (33-34). Although Eveline decided to escape, she does not know what to do now. Her anxiety is expressed with the mournful whistle of the ship, the bell resonates with her panic. Similarly, in the conclusion of

"A Painful Case", the sounds of nocturnal Dublin reflect the main character's distress.

Standing at the top of the Magazine Hill above the city and watching a train below him, Mr

Duffy thinks of the dead Mrs Sinico, who seemed to love him and who he refused four years ago. He has just found out that she was knocked down by a train, drunk probably, as she drank too much recently. "The laborious drone of the engine reiterating the syllabes of her name" expresses his disquiet and a pang of guilt. After "the rythm of the engine pounding in his ears" died away, "he could hear nothing: the night was perfectly silent. He listened again: perfectly silent. He felt that he was alone" (113-114). The sound of the leaving train reminds

Mrs Sinico leaving Mr Duffy's life (even though she actually left his life four years ago when they separated). It is very symbolical as it was a train that ended Mrs Sinico's existence.

When the train left, "he could not feel her near him nor her voice touch his ear" (114). The coming silence responds to Mr Duffy's coming solitude.

It is not always easy to recognize whether there are the sounds of the environment which resonate in personal state of mind or whether inner states of people affect the perception of the present sounds. But perhaps there is no need to make an issue of it as the characters and the city are interlinked and cannot be separated. Daniela Hodrová speaks

24 literally about a special link between personal and urban consciousness: "An inhabitant reflects a city inside, but at the same time his state of mind affects the city's state of mind, its aura, that the inhabitant reabsorbs again" (Citlivé město 359, trans. P.M.).

It is evident from this chapter that the city of Dublin speaks many sounds. Most of them, e. g. music that is considered a leitmotif in Joyce's works (Weaver et al.), would deserve much more attention than I could give them in the limited space of this thesis.

Nonetheless, the objective was to explain how sound effects contribute to the conception of the space and how they evoke psychic states of the characters, which again points out the interconnection between the city and its inhabitants. Their sombre thoughts, feelings and memories resonate in the sounds of the environment and vice versa, thus creating the melancholic atmosphere of the narrative.

25 4. Smells of Dublin

Smells belong to a place as well as colours and sounds and yet in comparison to predominating visual and auditory experiences, the olfactory perception seems far less represented in the text of Dubliners. However, a small number of olfactory stimuli does not mean that they are less intensive. On the contrary, the odours which mark Dublin's environment in the short stories significantly evoke the air of stagnation and paralysis of the city and thus they create the specific catatonic climate of the narrative space. In this climate, the inhabitants of Dublin live their everyday lives and breathe the air of the city to which substance they contribute. Is it then the climate influencing the people or do the people influence the climate? Trying to find an answer to this question, one has to come to the same conclusion about the link between the city and its inhabitants as described in the end of the previous chapter - it is impossible to say. The line between the place and the people disappears. A city is no more an object, it is not separated from a person, it does not exist out of a person, "it is his part, a certain inner subject of a subject, another dimension of consciousness. A place becomes something what man bears as a shell, what de facto does not exist without him" (Hodrová, Místa s tajemstvím 97, trans. P.M.).

The olfactory experiences in the narrative space evoke rather negative associations.

The air inside rooms, halls or offices is stuffy, the outside odours then emphasise Dublin's provincional character. For instance, in "Araby", there is a description of "the dark dripping gardens where odours arose from the ashpits" and "the dark odorous stables" (22), which does not remind an urban landscape at all. It seems more as if one smells the odours of a rural area. A similar idea is developed by Colm Tóibín who holds that "Joyce's Dublin is a village filled with dreamers and chancers", which illustrates that the smallness of the city corresponds with the smallness of its inhabitants' lives. Terrence Brown speaks about "the portrait of a dismal, enervated provincial world that Joyce draws in Dubliners"

26 (Introduction xv). And James Joyce himself writes to the London publisher Grant Richards8

"that the odour of ashpits and old weeds and offal hangs round [his] stories" (qtd. in

Introduction xv).

Turning to the smells of the interiors, they introduce Dublin as a static place where things do not change, with the exception of getting old. "In every building we enter, we have the feeling of being pressed in a musty and dusty atmosphere" (Salvagno 73). Going back to the story of "Araby", the boy's narrator depicts at the beginning that the "air, musty from having been long enclosed, hung in all the rooms, and the waste room behind the kitchen was littered with old useless papers" (21). Here, the explicit expression of "musty air" is accompanied by the implicit description of the smelly waste room. The musty smell of the rooms in the house and also of the surrounding gardens create the environment, in which the boy is growing up and which shapes his life. Other examples of the corresponding smell is possible to find in the stories "Sisters", "Eveline" or "A Painful Case". In the first mentioned story, the room with dead priest, Father Flynn, is filled with "a heavy odour" (6) from the flowers. In "A Painful Case", Mr Duffy's desk smells of "cedarwood pencils or of a bottle of gum or of an over-ripe apple which might have been left there and forgotten" (104). In the first case, the odour is undoubtly connected with death. In the second case, the remark about the overripe apple refers to decay, the apple decay, of course, but mainly the decay of Mr

Duffy's life who himself in the conclusion of the story resembles that overripe apple, left and forgotten. The "musty and dusty atmosphere" is set from the very beginning also in the story of "Evelina". Its first paragraph introduces the main character how "her head was leaned against the window curtains and in her nostrils was the odour of dusty cretonne" (29). The dusty smell is repeatedly evoked throughout the story by other references to dust and by a few details of the environment. Already mentioned yellowing photograph on the wall and

8 Already mentioned Grant Richards was the first publisher who, after eight years of negotiation, eventually published Dubliners in 1914 (The James Joyce Centre).

27 the broken harmonium under it belong to those details but there are also other "familiar objects which [Eveline] had dusted once a week for so many years wondering where on earth all the dust came from" (30). All the objects stay on their places in the room without any change as well as the principal figure whose "time was running out but she continued to sit by the window, leaning her head against the window curtain, inhaling the odour of dusty cretonne" (32). Eveline's room reminds in many respects Mr Duffy's desk. Things remaining in the same state for years reflect the monotonous lives of both characters. Not one of them is strong enough to change it. Chiara Salvagno suggests that "a possible answer to the question

'where does all the dust come from?' would be that it comes from generations of the

Dubliners who have lived as Eveline is living and died as Eveline will die, without ever having really lived at all" (75). This is very oppressive idea, nonetheless, a feeling of oppression is also a significant effect of the stuffy odours fulfilling the narrative space and the minds of its passive inhabitants. It is noteworthy that in all examples discussed in this section, the olfactory experiences have their meaningful parallel in the visual or auditory perception as illustrated previously.

Not only unpleasant odours, but also pleasant smells have their parallel in the visual and auditory experiences, or more precisely, in the colours and sounds of Dublin's nightlife.

The coloured effects are to dazzle characters, the noises of the bars are to deafen them and likewise the aroma is to cloud senses. In some cases, smells are connected with the sounds and colours of the nightlife directly like in "After the Race", when five young companions walk through the streets of nocturnal Dublin "in a faint cloud of aromatic smoke" (39) or in

"A Little Cloud", when in the pub, Little Tommy felt that "Gallaher's strong cigar had confused his mind" (75). In other cases, smells occur in a different context but with the same purpose of clouding senses. For instance, in "The Boarding House", the character of Bob

Doran remembers how he was charmed by Polly, the daughter of the landlady, and how her

28 "blood glowed warmly behind her perfumed skin. From her hands and wrist too as she lit and stesdied her candle a faint perfume rose. ... He remembered well her eyes, the touch of her hand and his delirium... But delirium passes" (62). Polly's fragrance made him confused and now Mr Doran feels deceived. He will have to suffer the consequences and marry Polly. His hopes of getting better position and having better life are decaying.

As Emily Brady points out, "sniffing and savoring constitute not only a fundamental route to sensory awareness of our environment, but they also contribute to defining the quality and character of people, places and events" (177). In the previous subchapter, the example of the scribe Farrington from the story of "Counterparts" showed us how the furious noises of the environment mirror the principal figure's hot temperament. In the same way, strong, distinctive smells help to define his nature and his perceiving events as indignities he has to suffer. E. g. "A moist pungent odour of perfumes [which] saluted his nose" in the office signalizes Miss Delacour's coming, and thus foreshadows Farrington's problems as he cannot manage to finish the letters for her on time. Other smells associate his drinking habit.

For instance, when he left the office and went straight to the pub "his nose already sniffed the curling fumes of punch" (89), and then on the way home, after spending all his money, "he longed to be back again in the hot reeking public-house" (93). It is also worth mentioning that a nickname of one of Farrington's companions is "Nosey Flynn", another mark of the olfactory perception in this story.

With regard to the analysis given in this subchapter, it is now easier to understand author's other comment on Dubliners from his letters addressed to Grant Richards. James

Joyce writes about the "special odour of corruption, which ... floats over [his] stories" (qtd. in

Gray). Indeed, the odour of corruption in the sense of decay is the prevailing smell of the narrative space of Dublin. There is the decay of the dead body of Father Flynn, the hopes decay of Mr Duffy and Mr Dorran, who lives in Mrs Mooney decaying boarding house, or

29 the moral decay of Farrington. Thus, the stories can be viewed as the stories of decay, that is reflected in the olfactory details of the environment.

30 5. Tastes of Dublin

Gustatory perception plays a significant role in human everyday experience.

Generally, tastes, together with smells, help people to orientate themselves in their environment, to understand it and also to value it. They even contribute to identifying a particular culture (Brady 187-188). The narrative space of Joyce's short stories is rich in tastes. Descriptions of eating and drinking, more or less detailed, play their parts in almost each story of the collection. In spite of a large amount of different gustatory experiences being offered in the text, it is possible to follow certain regularity in their use and to find repetitive elements contributing to the poetics of the narrative. Firstly, food is rather simple or even meagre, with the exceptions of two stories, "After the Race" and "The Dead".

Secondly, drinking alcohol, especially stout9 and whisky, is usual activity of many characters.

And thirdly, gustatory perception is, quite naturally, connected with characters' experience.

Tastes, as well as other senses, evoke a mood, feelings or images of Dubliners, and vice versa, figures' opinions and particular states are reflected in gustatory qualities. These are also involved in creating the atmosphere of the environmnet.

Offering the highest concentration of tastes (and smells) in the text, the scene of a spectacular feast in the last story of "The Dead" represents literally a gustatory performance. The description of a plentiful Christmas board, covering a whole page, evokes a number of gustatory fantasies. On a table, for example, there lay "a great ham, stripped of its outer skin and peppered over with crust crumbs, a neat paper frill round its shin and beside this was a round of spiced beef ..., a dish of custard topped with grated nutmeg... [or] a fruit- stand which upheld a pyramid of oranges and American apples..." (197). Some literary theorists dealing with Dubliners claim that the story shows Irish hospitality and as such

9 Stout is a dark beer popular in Great Britain or Ireland. Its most widespread variation is dry or Irish stout, exemplified by Guiness ("Stout").

31 provides the only positive view of Dublin in the whole collection 10 (Gray; Perry). The splendid dinner can be interpreted as a symbol of the hospitality and its depiction then can be perceived as a peak of the story when all the guests of the Misses Morkan's ball gather around the Christmas table. It is also worth mentioning that the picture of the feast is full not only of tastes and smells, but also of colours and sounds. For instance, there were "two little minsters of jelly, red and yellow; a shallow dish full of blocks of blancmange and red jam, a large green leaf-shaped dish with a stalk-shaped handle, on which lay bunches of purple raisins ... There was a great deal of confusion and laughter and noise, the noise of orders and counterorders, of knives and forks, of corks and glass-stoppers" (197-198). A positive mood in the room resonates with a state of the main character, Gabriel Conroy, who feels good as he "liked nothing better than to find himself at the head of a well-laden table" (197). The board in front of him, promising various delicious tastes, put Gabriel in an amiable mood.

After dinner, he gives a speech in which he appreciates Irish hospitality and encourages his listeners to develop its tradition. He also warns them not to live in memories of the good old days, past events or people, but on the contrary, to fully exist in the present among living friends and loves for whom should everyone live and work. However, this scene ends the positive tone of the story. A sharp cut marked on a graphic level by a wide gap between two paragraphs, divides the sensory rich picture of the dinner at the Morkan's from the following events. The previous air of hospitality makes the contrast even sharper. The final scene of the story, depicting what happened between Gabriel and his wife Gretta in a hotel, has already been described from different points of view in the preceding chapters, and therefore

I confine the next analysis to the single points highlighting the stark contrast in the narrative.

Instead of all those colours and light at the Morkan's, there is a dark hotel room. Instead of the noise, laughter and singing, there is a silence. Instead of the warm climate around the

10 This claim is, among other things, related to the fact that "The Dead" were written with a several-year distance from the other stories. During that time, James Joyce allegedly re-evaluated his stories regarding them as too harsh and wanted to give a warmer picture of Irish generosity that he missed in Italian exile (Gray; Perry).

32 dinner table, there is a chill in the air of the room. Instead of existing affections emphasized in Gabriel's speech, there are Gretta's sad memories of the first love. Instead of delicious tastes of the Christmas meals, the bitter aftertaste remains standing for Gabriel's awareness of a complete misunderstanding between him and his wife. And instead of living people, there are the dead whose intangible world fills the space of the room in Gabriel's melancholic visions. From this perspective the jolly and hospitable atmosphere at the well-laid table has the effect of intensifying a melancholic mood of the following events.

Similarly, in "After the Race", the formal dinner served at Jimmy's house for his friends is evaluated by using words like "an occasion", "excellent" or "exquisite" (38-39).

Jimmy wants to impress his friends by the dinner, playing at being a gentleman of a high society, but in the end, he reveals himself as a frivolous young man. Furthemore, at card game, he looked rather foolish when he "frequently mistook his cards and the other men had to calculate his I. O. U.'s for him" (41). Also here, the narrator's depiction of the dinner is to highlight the folly of Jimmy's behaviour in the conclusion of the story (Brown, Introduction xxxvii).

Terrence Brown draws attention to another significant contrast related to the story of

"The Dead". In this case, it is a contrast between the largesse of its Christmas board and the austerity of other food occasions in the earlier texts of the collection. Brown also adds, that

"eating and drinking ... certainly lack the creative conviviality that the meal as symbolic action represents in more ample societes than that of Dubliners" (Introduction, xxxvii). In many stories, food is very plain, sometimes indeed poor and rather disgusting and its gustatory quality reflects the quality of the environment. For example, in "An Encounter", two boys are on their way towards the real adventure instead of school walking along

Dublin's streets nearby the city port. They put together a shilling and a sixpence, and thus they can afford to buy a little refreshment. It is already noon and they are hungry. "The day

33 had grown sultry, and in the windows of the grocer's shops musty biscuits lay bleaching.

[They] bought some biscuits and chocolate which [they] ate sedulously as [they] wandered through the squalid streets where the families of the fishermen live" (16). Unpleasant tastes evoked by "bleaching musty biscuits" are reflected in the uninviting "squalid streets" boys walk through. Gustatory perception corresponds to figures' perception of the environment, which is also noticeable in the very next paragraph of the story. It is getting late and both tired boys feel they should return home. Narrator's description of food scraps resembles boys' stale thoughts. Actually, the whole following sentence resonates with the end of their adventure: "The sun went in behind some clouds and left us to our jaded thoughts and the crumbs of our provisions" (16). From the extract stated above, it is also obvious that the boys eat the food quite hungrily although it does not look temptingly at all. It is possible that the romantic adventure gives the "musty biscuits" an exotic taste, or more likely, boys are not used to better tastes as they live in a permanent lack of money (Mullin). Gustatory experiences thus refer to the poor social environment of the characters.

The truth is that greedy eating is nothing unusual among the characters of Dubliners, actually, it is probably as usual as being lack of money. In the story "Two Gallants", a young man Lenehan represents both aforementioned facts, which naturally go hand in hand. Waiting for his friend Corley who is supposed to get some money from a girl he goes with, Lenehan is hungry as he had only couple of biscuits for his breakfast. He therefore seems very grateful for the simple evening meal he orders in a poor-looking shop called Refreshment Bar, apparently visited mainly by working class.

The girl brought him a plate of hot grocer's peas, seasoned with pepper and vinegar,

a fork and his ginger beer. He ate his food greedily and found it so good that he made

a note of the shop mentally. When he had eaten all the peas he sipped his ginger beer

and sat for some time thinking of Corley's adventure. ... This vision made him feel

34 keenly in his own poverty of purse and spirit. He was tired of knocking about, of

pulling the devil by the tail, of shifts and intrigues. He would be thirty-one in

November. Would he never have a home of his own? He thought how pleasant it

would be to have a warm fire to sit by and a good dinner to sit down to. He had

walked the streets long enough with friends and with girls. He knew what those

friends were worth: he knew the girls too. Experience had embittered his heart against

the world. But all hope had not left him. He felt better after having eaten than he had

felt before, less weary of his life, less vanquished in spirit. He might yet be able to

settle down in some snug corner and live happily if he could only come across some

good simple-minded girl with a little of the ready (51-52).

In his Notes to Dubliners, Terrence Brown points out the fact that three halfpence which

Lenehan spent for his meal in the Refreshment Bar represent an extremely small sum even in the early twentieth century, which means, among other things, that "Lenehan's repast must be one of the most dismal in all of literature" (264). A poor taste of Lenehan's food indicates a poor place he is found in. Both those "qualities" are then indicators of a poor life the main character lives. Money shortage is present not only implicitly in the description of the shop and food as the symbols of a low social status, but also explicitly by the words "poverty of purse" characterizing the principal figure. However poor the taste of his meal is, it makes

Lenehan feel good and engenders pleasant visions of his potentional future life expressed by positive phrases like "warm fire", "good dinner", "live happily", "good simple-minded girl" or "a little of the ready". Nonetheless, it is obvious that his hopes are false. His own words confirm it. The last clause of Lenehan's free indirect speech, "if he could only come across...," shows that he relies on a fortune, not on his own abilities. He imagines his future but he himself is not willing to act actively to get it. He represents a passive character waiting for luck to smile on him, and therefore he probably will wait for the rest of his poor life.

35 As for passive characters, Lenehan is no exception among Joyce's Dubliners. It has already been illustrated that the figures of Eveline or Mr Duffy are such passive inhabitants of narrative space of Dublin. The story "Ivy Day in the Comittee Room" is full of similar protagonists. Paradoxically, the men in this text are introduced as canvassers and as such they should personify activity. Actually, their main activity is sitting in the committee room

(because the weather outside is unpleasant) and holding banal dialogues, which is accompanied by drinking. At first, they mainly criticize Mr Tierny, a candidate for Municipal elections, for whom they should agitate, as he promised to send them some bottles of stout and they still miss them. Finally, after the bottles appear on the scene and "after having drunk

... [they] drew in a long breath of satisfaction" (126) and begin to revise their statements about Mr Tierny, yet "he's not so bad after all. He's as good as his word, anyhow" (126). And they also begin to praise their own work, yet they "did a good day's work to-day" (126). In this story, the drinks have the same effect as Lenehan's meal had in the preceding case. It helps characters to feel comfortable and to contemplate. After tasting the stouts, the atmosphere in the committe room seems far more relaxed and positive, which is evident from figures' propitiatory comments. Further drinking then gives their conversation more melancholic note and leads it towards the topic of the great past of Ireland that significantly ends with a nostalgic ode to Charles Steward Parnell, an Irish nationalist leader. It seems natural that passivity is connected with drinking that represents a passive way of entertaiment. This connection is then a breeding ground for evoking memories of the past and melancholic states.

Also the figure of Mr Kernan from the story "Grace" has definitely a passive approach to life. It is not because he is depicted mainly lying in bed as he has injured himself while falling down the stairs blind drunk. It is because he chooses a passive way of solving problems with drinking. Instead of changing his life and drinking habits, he decides to visit

36 a church to confess his sins (hence the title of the story - Mr Kernan expects God bless him).

Actually, his friends, the same sort of men, persuade him into confession wanting to "make a new man of him" (154). Their pseudo-erudite discussion about religious issues, taking place in Mr Kernan's bedroom, is interspersed with narrator's observations of their drinking. The men drink stout, until Mr Fogarty comes bringing "a half-pint of special whiskey. ... Glasses were rinsed and five small measures of whisky were poured out. This new influence enlived the convesation. ... Mr M'Coy tasted his whisky contentedly and shook his head with a double intention, ... Mr Fogarty ... then drank gravely [and] Mr Cunningham ... also drank from his glass" (166-167). When they pour themselves another one, "the light music of whisky falling into glasses made an agreeable interlude" (168). This extract illustrates how tastes are reflected in characters' expressions and how they develop the narrative. The gustatory quality of whisky evokes a contended mood in the room, encourages the discussion, adds particular intensity and serious tone to it or pauses it, which allows characters to perceive how sound and taste mix together in a poetic effect called synesthesia.11 The taste of whisky as well as stout is also a significant indicator of the narrative space as it sets the stories in Ireland.

Whisky is served and consumed not only in "Grace", but also in "A Little Cloud" or

"The Dead". In other stories, like "The Sisters" and "A Painful Case", it is at least present implicitly in descriptions of a distillery as an integral part of Dublin's landscape. Salvagno considers the distillery one of the symbols of the stories (Salvagno ii). Belonging to the above-mentioned first group of the stories, the text of "Counterparts" provides literally a parade of combinations of drinking whisky. During his journey through city public houses, the most of which are still in business in current Dublin (Toibín), the main protagonist

Farrington drinks an amount of different varieties of whisky in different measures. He and his

11 Synesthesia in literature means a blending of different sense qualities, in this particular case, one can hear the taste of whisky ("Synesthesia").

37 companions stand themselves "a half-one", "tailors of malt" and "five small hot whiskies" in

Davy Byrne's, then "a small Irish and Apollinaris" and another rounds of "hot" in Scotch

House. Finally, they order "small hot specials" in Mulligan's (89-91). 12 The detailed description of various types of whisky evokes various gustatory experiences and contributes to the authentic picture of Dublin's pubs and bars environment. In addition to dazzling colours and defeaning sounds, thus also whisky, belonging to the city nightlife, can blunt the senses. Farrington is frustrated of his routine job of a legal copyist in which he feels humiliated (Mullin). However, he is obviously not able to change the situation and solves his frustration with drinking. Therefore he represents another passive character in Dubliners. The topos of the pub with its colours, noises and the taste of whisky as well dominates also the narrative space in "A Little Cloud". Although drinking of both old friends is not so intensive as in the preceding case and represents rather a circumstance of their meeting than its purpose, its involvement in creating the meaning is not insignificant. The taste of whisky helps to distinguish what is Irish from what is foreign, or more precisely English, as witnessed by Gallaher's words welcoming Little Tommy in Corless's: "Hallo, Tommy, old hero, here you are! What is it to be? What will you have? I'm taking whisky: better stuff than we can get across the water" (69). The way of drinking then suggests Gallaher's and Tommy's nature and shows the difference between both figures which is essential in depiction of their encounter. While streetwise journalist Gallaher drinks neat whisky because mineral water just

"spoils the flavour" (69), sensitive and delicate clerk Tommy, who drinks "very little as a rule, ... allowed his whisky to be very much diluted" (70). Gustatory perception of whiskey also reflects figures' opinions and feelings, which is evident from the conclusion of this scene when Ignatius Gallaher describing the taste of his whisky expresses in fact his view of

12 According to Brown's Notes, a half-one means a half size of whisky, a tailor expresses a measure too and malt whisky represents unblended one. While hot whisky is a pure one, a small Irish and Apollinaris means that whisky is mixed with a German mineral water. Also so-called specials stand for mixed whisky, in this case with water and sugar (276-277).

38 Tommy's marriage, or the institution of marriage generally: "He imitated with his mouth the act of tasting and made a wry face. – Must get a bit stale, I should think, he said" (77). To be exhaustive, it is necessary to add that their encounter left Tommy in melancholic mood.

Sitting at home and holding a baby in his arms he examins his life in comparison to

Gallaher's. "Was it too late for him to try to live bravely like Gallaher? Could he go to

London? There was a furniture still to be paid for. If he could only write a book and get it published, that might open the way for him. ... Could he ... express the melancholy of his soul in verse?" (79). As Lenehan from "Two Gallants", also Tommy imagines how he could change his life. And as Lenehan's, also Tommy's free indirect speech is full of "if", "might" and "could", which does not witness the commitment to really act. When baby begins to cry, hopeless growing in Tommy leads into the final recognition that "he couldn't do anything ...

[and that] he was a prisoner for life" (79). The main figure is ovewhelmed by a feeling of helplessness. Seeing himself as a victim of circumstances, he is not able to change his destiny.

Tastes tend to be both the neglected sense in our lives and the neglected subject in literature (Brady 177). The aim of this chapter was to prove that in Joyce's short stories the sense of taste represents the important factor in understanding the characters and the environment. In Dubliners, gustatory qualities point out the difference between the poverty of working class and the relative wealth of middle class and also illustrate different natures of individuals. Appetitive occasions often put characters in a contemplative and melancholic mood and evoke the situations revealing their passive existence. Many detailed descriptions of food and drink, connecting the narrative with the Irish culture, contribute to the authentic atmosphere of the narrative space.

39 6. Touches of Dublin

The picture of the narrative urban space would not be complete without tactile perception providing direct physical experience of the environment. Emily Brady believes that the sense of touch creates a special relationship of reciprocity between people and environment since whatever one touches is by some means touching him back. This relationship is in fact present also in the experience of taste. Tastes involve touches as food or drink touches our mouths (Brady 189). From this point of view, the topic of haptic perception was already included in the preceding section. This chapter concerns mainly the experience of touching with feet when characters walk through the city13, then touching with hands that plays a significant, or even a key role in some stories, and last but not least "the sensations of the skin" (Diaconu 14) referring to the weather conditions and thus implying the melancholic climate of the stories. As in the previous parts, one can perceive that haptic sensations are closely interconnected with characters' sombre mood and with the motives of death and decay.

Walking through a city represents a typical topos of urban texts (Derdowska 143).

When walking, characters become immediate participants of city space (Hodrová, Citlivé město 179). Joining together particular sensations, walking is considered a key activity for perceiving a city, for experiencing and understanding it (Derdowska 149). According to

Ken-Ichi Sasaki, unlike the visual perception predominating in experiencing a city by its visitors, "tactility is the main factor for perceiving a city by its inhabitants" (qtd. in

Derdowska 156, trans. P.M.). James Joyce's figures are often in motion in the streets of their city. Brown points out "how much time the characters spend on their feet ... so that

13 One might object that walking is not only a tactile, but rather a kinaesthetic experience of space. Mădălina Diaconu literally speaks about "the tactile-kinaesthetic perspective" of walking. However, she also adds that "everyday experience has taught us that the hand that rests on a surface does not feel anything more after a while because of the adaptation of the receptors. Therefore, physical movements are the condition of the tactile feelings" (Diaconu 24). Being the necessary condition for perceiving touch sensations, the subject matter of walking certainly belongs in this chapter.

40 peregrination becomes almost a principle of composition" (Introduction xvii) in Dubliners.

Walking as a meaningful element in the narrative is indeed involved in many stories, e. g.

"After the Race", "A Little Cloud", "Counterparts", "Clay" or "A Painful Case", nonetheless, to be precise, only two stories, "An Encounter" and "Two Gallants", are constructed as the walks around the city. As such they offer many opportunities for tactile perception of the environment. For example, when the main character of "An Encounter" is waiting for his friends to go towards their adventure, he realizes a touch of the stone he is sitting on: "I sat up on the copying of the bridge ... The granite stone of the bridge was beginning to be warm and

I began to pat it with my hands in time to an air in my head. I was very happy" (13). The pleasant sensation of the warm granite stone as well as patting in the rythm of the melody, which sounds in his head, corresponds to boy's excitement of upcoming events. Equally, one might notice the link between the touch and the sound in character's awareness of the space.

The story of "Two Gallants" provides quite similar tactile experience of the environment, however with totally different mood. Waiting for his friend Corley, the main protagonist

Lenehan, kills time walking in the city streets.

His gaiety seemed to forsake him and, as he came by the railings of the Duke's Lawn,

he allowed his hand to run along them. The air which the harpist had played began to

control his movements. His softly padded feet played the melody while his fingers

swept a scale of variations idly along the railings after each group of notes. He walked

listlessly round Stephen's Green and then down Grafton Street. Though his eyes took

note of many elements of the crowd through which he passed they did so morosely. ...

The problem of how he could pass the hours till he met Corley again troubled him

a little. He could think of no way of passing them but to keep on walking. He turned

to the left when he came to the corner of Ruthlad Square and felt more at ease in the

dark quiet street, the sombre look of which suited his mood (50).

41 Also in this extract, auditory and haptic perception are joined in character's experience, and moreover, they are enriched by the third, visual dimension of the environment. As previously suggested, walking here functions as an unifying element of particular senses. Individual perceptive events (the railings, the crowd or the streets) are connected by walking as links in a chain (Diaconu 23). All senses reflect the melancholic mood of the principal figure. "The morose look" of his eyes, "the sombre look of the dark quiet street", "the mournful music" of the Irish song Silent, O Moyle,14 expressed by the movements of Lenehan's fingers touching the railings and feet touching the pavement, or his listless walk. It is also evident from the extract that the narrator, or more precisely the author, has a deep knowledge of Dublin's environment. His description of Lenehan's walk providing concrete, real names of the streets and squares, and further in the story of the buildings and pubs as well, is detailed and accurate which makes the text really authentic. This depiction of the city, as well as the fact that the narrator introduces space dynamicaly from the moving perspective of the walking figure (Ryanová), evokes the sensation of being physically inside the story walking with the character through the streets of Dublin.

This dynamic style, in which the narrator conveys the urban space offering exact information about city locations, is no exception in Dubliners. On the contrary, it is possible to find it in the most of the stories. In "A Little Cloud", there is a passage combining the moving perspective of the principal figure, walking to the pub where he is supposed to meet his old friend, with narrator's description of the style of figure's walk that expresses how the character feels and what he is thinking about, which then influences how he perceives things around him. To put it simply, the way Little Tommy Chandler walks mirrors his state of mind reflected in the environment throughout his route.

14 The mood and the effect of this song was described in the chapter "Sounds of Dublin" on page 22.

42 Little Chandler quickened his pace. For the first time in his life he felt himself

superior to the people he passed. For the first time his soul revolted against the dull

inelegance of Capel Street. There was no doubt about it: if you wanted to succeed you

had to go away. You could do nothing in Dublin. As he crossed Grattan Bridge he

looked down the river towards the lower quays and pitied the poor stunted houses.

They seemed to him a band of tramps, huddled together along the river banks, their

old coats covered with dust and soot, stupefied by the panorama of sunset and waiting

for the first chill of night to bid them arise, shake themselves and begone. He

wondered whether he could write a poem to express his idea. ... He was not sure what

idea he wished to express but the thought that a poetic moment had touched him took

life within him like an infant hope. He stepped onward bravely. Every step brought

him nearer to London, farther from his own sober inartistic life. A light began to

tremble on the horizon of his mind (68).

In this passage, the free indirect speech of the character is interspersed with narrator's comments on Little Chandler's route and on his walk witnessing his excitement of the upcoming encounter with Ignatius Gallaher, a man of the London Press. Thinking about

Gallaher's greatness Little Chandler suddenly feels great too, or even "superior" to other people, which corresponds to the way he walks and looks at the Capel Street and the houses along the river. His opinion on Dublin, that a man has to leave if he is to be great, also affects the way Little Chandler perceives his environment. The thought that he could leave Dublin and assert himself as a poet in London marks his walk with a commitment. Terrence Brown states that the protagonist's feeling of London proximity has both figurative and actual meaning as south and east direction of his walk, which is possible to reconstruct from narrator's remarks, is actually the right way to London, although in a very short distance, of course. Brown also claims that "East is the direction associated with escape from Dublin's

43 oppresive life in many of the stories in the book" (Notes 270). The idea of escape fulfills

Chandler's heart with hope. However, as illustrated in the previous chapter, this hope proves false at the end since Tommy continues in living his unsatisfied life. The conclusion of the story reveals one more thing - the true meaning of Tommy Chandler's nickname. The word

"Little" expresses not only his "neat modest figure" (66), but mainly the smallness of his personality. From an overall perspective, the above-mentioned passage bears all features of

Joyce's sensory rich description he uses to portray the space in Dubliners. The typical dusk setting evokes the visual perception of the colours of the sunset and anticipates the haptic sensation of chill of night. There is a dusty and sooty smell in the air. There are old houses starting to fall into decay. This fact resonates with character's opinion of the city decay. The tactile-kinaesthetic activity of walking here serves as the condition for perceiving all those stimuli which are linked by figure's walk in the complex sensory experience of the environment. Following characters' route through the city a reader might experience the narrative space with many sensory details and also the analogy, again and again established by the author, between the urban landscape and the psychology of the characters (Salvagno

94).

The motif of decay, as well as the motif of death, is also associated with the touch of a hand that represents a significant haptic effect particulary in the texts of "Clay" and

"A Painful Case". The central image of the first mentioned story is directly connected with the sense of touch. The story is set in the Hallow Eve and its first part depicts a jolly excitement of the main character Maria who is supposed to spend the evening with her friend

Joe and his family. Working and living in a Dublin's laundry Maria lives an ordinary life of a lonely woman. Therefore, she is looking forward to the evening which means an extraordinary event in her everyday routine. Besides, Lizzie Fleming predicted that Maria surely get the ring in the evening games. In the second part of the story, a narrator portrays

44 the merry atmosphere at Joe's house and amusement of hallow eve games, blindfolded participants of which select from several saucers on a table the one they touch. The content of the selected saucer should suggest what will happen soon. In the crucial moment of the game, and of the story as well, blindfolded Maria touches "a soft wet substance with her fingers and was surprised that nobody spoke or took off her bandage. There was a pause for a few seconds; and then a great deal of scuffling and at last Mrs Donnelly said something very cross to one of the next-door girls and told her to throw it out at once: that was no play"

(101). Without naming what Maria choses the narrator provides a description of her haptic perception followed by the sound experience of the oppressive silence that the character perceives clearly as she has covered her eyes. The title of the story suddenly makes sense.

Instead of a ring which means a husband and a family she is longing for, Maria choses clay indicating death and decay (Tóibín). This event casts a dark shadow on continuing evening.

Inspite of the fact that "soon they were all quite merry again" (101), the oppressive atmosphere hangs over the story until its end.

In "A Painful Case", the touch of Mrs Sinico's hand was the impulse that results in Mr

Duffy's decision not to see her anymore. (Actually, his fear, hypocritically concealed behind the empty phrases about impossibility of love between man and woman, was the true cause why he interrupted their contact.) It is therefore significant that it is the touch of Mrs Sinico's hand what Mr Duffy thinks he feels after he finds out about her death. "The shock which had first attacked his stomach was now attacking his nerves. He put on his overcoat and hat quickly and went out. The cold air met him on the treshold; it crept into the sleeves of his coat" (112). Distraught Mr Duffy leaves his house and walks through the places where he used to walk with Mrs Sinico. "At moments he seemed to feel her voice touch his ear, her hand touch his" (113). Imaginery touches reminding the dead Mrs Sinico decay Mr Duffy's moral nature as he feels guilty of her death. As well as in the previous example, haptic

45 sensations in this text are related to the motives of death and decay and evoke the oppressive atmosphere of Mr Duffy's solitude in which the story ends.

The preceding paragraph anticipates the last topic of this chapter that will be now briefly discussed - "the sensations of the skin". As I have already stated the stories of

Dubliners take place predominantly in the autumn and winter months. The inclement weather thus contributes to the gloomy air of the narrative and corresponds to the melancholic mood of its protagonists. Tactile experience is often mingled with the individual's physical and psychical state (Diaconu 27) as in the mentioned preceding paragraph where it is impossible to distinguish whether it is the shock or the sensation of the november air what makes the main character feel cold. The conclusion of "The Dead" raises similar question: Was it "the air of the room [what] chilled his shoulders" or Gabriel's oppressive thought that "one by one they were all becoming shades" (224)? Another example could be found in "Counterparts" when Farrington "felt his great body again aching for the comfort of the public-house. The fog had begun to chill him..." (88). Also here it is not clear whether it is Farrington's desire for a drink or the fog what raises his sensation of coldness.15 In "Araby" then the air of a winter day mirrors boy's bad humour: "The air was pitilessly raw and already my heart misgave me" (25).

The narrative space is significantly evoked by haptic perception which manifests itself primarily as walking, that is considered a key activity in Dubliners (Salvagno 100).

Some figures find their expression in the style of walk on their routes around the city. "The sensations of skin" also resonate with figures' momentary mood which is rather gloomy.

Touches of a hand referring to death and decay contribute to the gloomy atmosphere of the narrative as well. The sense of touch provides physical experience of the space and with the other senses creates the unique sensory experience of Dublin in Joyce's stories.

15 As for the fog, it is considered the typical urban weather (Brady 187).

46 7. Conclusion

The aim of this thesis was to analyse how the visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory and haptic qualities of the environment contribute altogether to the atmosphere of melancholy and paralysis hanging over the stories of James Joyce's Dubliners. Melancholic mood of the narrative is created by the yellow, brown and grey colour depicting the environment in "the shades of autumn and winter", the seasons traditionally connected with melancholy, and by plaintive melodies of Irish songs which have the power to awake melancholic memories of passed people and events. The basic setting of the city at dusk also refers to the melancholic climate of the book as well as the motif of decay - of hopes, of love, of life - evoked by tactile experiences of the characters. Paralysis is established by the sound effect of oppressive silence and by perception of musty and dusty smell fulfilling the air of the stories. Also drinking of the characters expressing their passive approach to life contributes to the portrait of the city where "you could do nothing". The analogy between the city and its ihabitants, revealing and reflecting again and again during the analysis, makes Dublin (according to

Hodrová's theory) the subject of the story, the main character involving all other figures of

Dubliners since, as it was proved, melancholy and paralysis, firmly bound up with the city of

Dublin, are also bound up with the lives of its inhabitants. The analysis also illustrates how the temporal category, the style of narration and figures' characteristic take part in evoking space of the narrative that trully resembles a net where everything is connected with everything.

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