The vegetation of the Coastal Region of Suriname. Results of the scientific expedition to Suriname 1948—49 botanical series No. 1

by

J.C. Lindeman (Utrecht)

CONTENTS

GENERAL PART

CHAPTER I. Introduction. 1 ......

Literature 2

Methods 5 ......

Terminology 7 ......

Vernacular 9 names ......

Value of vernacular names 12

The soil. 14 ......

The climate 18

CHAPTER II. AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS 21

General remarks 21

Difficulties with herbaceous vegetation; illumination effects. 22

results 25 Interpretation ......

and 25 Mangrove swamps ......

Savannas 26 ......

Forests 27

SPECIAL PART

CHAPTER III. DESCRIPTION OF THE LANDSCAPE IN

THE INVESTIGATED AREAS 28

I. Wia- Transect from Moengo tapoe to the ‘Wiawiabank’ or

wia flat 28

The saline coastal belt 29 .

articulatus and Machaerium Typha-Cyperus swamp

lunatum scrub 31 ......

Third to sixth with Cereus wood ridge , . 31 . .

Leersia hexandra and 32 swamps Erythrina glauca groves .

Second series of ridges and 33 Cyperus giganteus swamps . The old ridges beyond km 9.5 34 II

The 35 swaying swamps ......

The oldest and the savannas 37 ridges .....

II. Coronie 38

of the road 38 Brackish North . . . . area .

and fresh-water South of the road 39 Ridge complex swamp Third and fourth line 40

Totness 40

III. Nickerie 41

belt and brackish North of the Nickerie Mangrove swamps

River 41

Fresh-water area South of the Nickerie River 44 ...

IV. Tibiti 45

CHAPTER IV. MANGROVE AND STRAND 46 . ...

I. belts the lower the rivers 46 Mangrove along part of . . along rivers outside Suriname 48 Mangrove . . . .

and other 49 Epiphytes accompanying species ...

II. Coastal 50 mangrove ......

Regressing coast 50

Accrescent 50 coast ......

Accompanying species ...... 53

Mixed forest 54 mangrove ......

Strand 54 mangrove ......

III. Hibiscus tiliaceus scrub 55 ......

Strand scrub in the Caribbean 56 ......

units 57 Sociological ......

IV. Herbaceous strand communities 58 . . . . .

CHAPTER V. THE HERBACEOUS SWAMPS 59 ...

I. Eleocharis mutata 60 community ......

T II. Brackish ypha angusti folia-Cyperus articulatus swamps 61 Distribution outside Suriname 63 ......

HI. Leersia hexandra 64 swamps ......

IV. 64 Cyperus giganteus-Typha-Scleria swamps ...

Distribution outside Suriname 66 ......

V. Rhynchospora corymbosa type 69

Distribution outside Suriname 69 ......

VI. . 70 Lagenocarpus guianensis-other Cyperaceae type . Distribution outside Suriname . . . . . 71 .

CHAPTER VI. SWAMP FOREST 72

I. Mixed wood 72 swamp ...... II. Erythrina glauca wood .74 swamp ... HI. Machaerium lunatum scrub ...... 75

Palm .76 swamp ...... III

CHAPTER VII. MARSH FOREST 76

Habitat 76

Floristic 78 composition ......

I. 79 Triplaris surinamensis-Bonafousia tetrastachya type .

//. 79 Symphonia globulifera type ...... that both 80 Features are common to . types . . - 111. Hura forest 80 crepitans ......

Dominance of 81 palms ......

IV. association 82 Mauritia-Chrysobalanus .....

CHAPTER SEASONAL FOREST VIII. EVERGREEN . . 83

I. Cereus wood 86 ridge ...... II. Intermediate ridge forest 87 ......

Parinari III. ridge forest ...... 87 IV. Typical seasonal forest 88 evergreen . . . . .

V. Forest the shell near Coronie 88 of ridges ....

CHAPTER IX. SAVANNA FOREST AND SAVANNA . . 89

I. Savanna 89 forest ...... II. Wallaba forest 90 ......

CHAPTER X. SUCCESSION 91

Successions on clay soil 92 ......

Halosere starting on growing mud flat along the coast . 92

Sere in brackish water. .■ 94 starting . . . .

in fresh water 94 Hydroseres ......

Succession on 95 sand, psammosere ......

CHAPTER AUTECOLOGICAL REMARKS XL ... 96

Annotated list of 99 species ...... Selected list of vernacular names . .117 . . .

Additions tables I and II to . . . .120 . . .

Additions the records of table I to . swamp . . 120

Additions to the forest records of table II . . 123 .

BIBLIOGRAPHY 130

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND TABLES

Panorama of the Great Frontispiece. Swaying swamp

I. Climate of Paramaribo and Coronie Fig. . . . . 19

Fig. III. Recent abrasion of the coast near Nickerie 51 . . .

IV. distribution of the trees in some forests 84 Fig. Height-class . . Table IV. Salt tolerance of the and more important swamp

moisture-loving . . . . . 98 species . . Table V. Biological of the 99 spectra swamp types .... 32 photographs by the author IV

Separate in the back flap:

Sketch of and soil from of the Fig. II. vegetation profile parts transect

Wiawia and of the second line Coronie. flat-Moengo tapoe near Table I. Swamp records. Table II. Forest records.

Table III. Analyses of soil samples.

Map I. The coastal region and vegetation sketch of the transect Moengo tapoe-Wiawia flat.

II. sketch of the Nickerie the Tibiti and Map Vegetation region, savanna

the Coronie area. of The scale Great of divine Swaying sun swamp beats conception or seen the with from wind infinite the revels North,

—that variation in the storms of design distance and rain and some sweep detail; islands. over” there

a “Here

it dreary is (JENMAN) a waste, garden

on in which magnitude the GENERAL PART

CHAPTER I

Introduction.

The data on which this study is based, were gathered during a scientific which lasted expedition from September 1948 to May 1949.

The author had accepted an invitation to join Prof. J. LANJOUW who this entrusted with the botanical of the on expedition was part investigat- ions. They worked in close contact with the other staff members, the

Dr D. C. and P. H. and the zoologists GEIJSKES CREUTZBERG, geo-mor- phologists Prof. J. P. BAKKER and Dr A. BEOUWER. Especially the with the latter be of for cooperation group proved to prime importance the study of the vegetation. For more general Information with regard the aims and of this the reader referred to scope expedition is to the preliminary report (26). the During expedition various landscapes were visited and several

The contribution describes the main vegetation types investigated. present the coastal of vegetation types occurring in region Suriname and discusses their development and their relations to each other and to the soil. The

of the herbaceous will vegetation swamps be discussed in more detail and

as far as with that of similar outside Suriname. compared possible swamps The coastal it region as is understood here comprises the whole area formed the sea in recent times. by geologically According to our present knowledge it is roughly delimited by a line, running from Albina in the

East over Moengo, Republiek ± 35 km South of Paramaribo, along the River Oreala the Wayombo to a point near on Corantine River. As our all the map I shows, it comprises not only alluvia that YZERMNA designates but also of his continental as fluviomarine a considerable part ones

As far the in the of the coastal (BAKKER 25). as ridges younger part region this could be checked with the which are concerned, map unpublished map Dr ZONNEVELD of the C.B.L. had drawn of these ridges and which he kindly placed at my disposal.

The whole which covers some consists of alluvial area, 18,000 square km, clays and sands. The majority of the clay soils is permanently inundated and is covered The sand which by extensive swamp vegetations. is locally mixed with the but or replaced by shells, was deposited by sea, locally 2

disturbed by the action of the wind and raised in the form of ridges, in

Suriname called "ritsen”. These either in ridges appear singly or groups,

and reach a considerable the coast may length. Along present locally

strandbars, ridges in statu nascendi, are found with a bare beach in the

tidal zone and above the high-tide mark covered by strand vegetation. The from the covered forest. The ridges that are farther removed sea are by number of in the where the oldest ridges is highest eastern part ones

rise to a height of 10 m above sea level. Westwards their number

decreases while the depth of the coastal flats increases (map I). In the

district Nickerie the ridges are reduced to small isolated patches that

in the of the disappear immensity swamps. all the of shells The eastern ridges are completely sandy, deposits restricted the where in the being to western part, they occur e.g. sur- of Paramaribo and further westwards Coronie. Near loundings up to Groningen and along the road between the mouth of the Coppename River

and Coronie we find examples of shell beds, which are several meters

thick and consist exclusively of layers of shells and shell fragments.

A of the however, consists of sand with but large part ridges, a slight

admixture of shells.

The time in the coastal amounted three months we spent region to 29th divided over three trips to different parts of the area. On September

1948 belt of about we entered the coastal in the eastern part Suriname km north of 6 Moengo tapoe.

35 It required two months to complete the distance of not quite km, this from the the second half of December which separated place ocean. In

we reached a place halfway between Coronie and the mouth of the Cop-

River and had ten to the distance pename days investigate vegetation some

North and South of the Coronie road.

After the of the had been the author program expedition completed,

had the opportunity to visit the northwestern tip of the coastal region

in the district Nickerie.

Literature.

Additional information obtained from was papers by Lanjouw (35) and data derived from the labels of the and Geijskes (30, 31) some were older collections that are preserved in the Utrecht herbarium. The literature

contains but little information with to the in the regard swamp vegetation

neighbouring countries, as most travellers, not only in South America but

else in the to have confined their attention to everywhere tropics, appear

the higher parts of the interior and to have avoided the swampy places.

However with the increased interest for studies in recent ecological years there in this aversion of the which in seems to come a change swamps,

my opinion was entirely unjustified. The in itself swamp vegetation presents not only many interesting

problems, but a sound knowledge of the coastal area is indispensable when 3

the of one wishes to understand the geomorphology and development

of the whole. is of the vegetation country as a Its study moreover direct economic the soil of the and be and in importance as swamps ridges may the fact is being transformed into arable land, and as virgin vegetation valuable indications with the of the soil may give regard to properties and its possible use. Lastly I should like to bring forward a subjective said be those of the argument. Many swamps are to monotonous; N.

American coastal plain are even called “dreary marshes”. The Suriname coastal belt the shows deal of At first view on contrary a good diversity. the alternation between tree-less and forested and one already notices parts,

reveals that often dominant with a closer inspection very one interchanges another and that the In one accompanying species vary locally. my eyes the offers much fine of which the region scenery, photographs may give some Idea, even though they do not show us anything of the often

fine colour scheme. very

As the literature wil be taken into account in the various chapters

I can confine myself here to a short review. Some general information can be found in Verdoorn’s Plants and Plant science in Latin America

with (123). Notes regard to the distribution and habitat of species were gathered from floras and enumerations. After the Flora of Suriname (37), the Manual of the S.E. Flora by Small (111), proved to be the most valuable source.

The of the N. American coastal studied swamps plain were thoroughly by Penfound and Hathaway in S.E. Louisiana(103) and by Wells in

N. Carolina but these outside the and their (127), swamps are tropics vegetation is totally different from that found in the Suriname ones.

Florida the other hand is and shows its and S. on tropical in mangrove beach resemblance vegetation a strong to the rest of tropical America; this

can be gathered from the description of the Florida Keys given by

Millspaugh in 1907 (97) and from recent studies of Davis (66, 68). The well-known feature of Florida. Everglades are a typical Egler(73) very recently published an important article on the changes which must have

taken in the and still in the S.E. place past are taking place at present saline He the that the everglades. developes view Everglades are a semi- natural that maintained itself landscape during a long period owing to

the fact that its further development was opposed by climatic disasters like hurricanes and hurricane floods and the by periodical burning prac- tised by aborigines, but that it is now doomed to disappear as a result of

the interference of white man.

the Caribbean islands the studied in the In vegetation was long ago

Danish Antilles by BjzSrgesen and Paulsen (54, 55) and by Raunkiaer

(104) and more recently in Porto Rico by Gleason and Cook 1926(77),

in Cuba by Victorin and Leon 1942 and 1944(124), in Guadeloupe

Stehle 1935 and Martinique by 1937 (116, 117). Beard published a comparative study of the vegetation of the Lesser Antilles 1948 (50), while Chapman described the and beach in mangrove vegetation Jamaica 4

1944 (59) and Gooding that of the dunes of Barbados 1947(78). A of the of Trinidad and description vegetation types Tobago given by Marshall and Beard that of them 1934(93) 1946(48) proves many

similar to those of Guiana. The tree-less are very swamps unfortunately received but little attention.

the the For S. American continent I must mention papers published

Huber Amazone round 1900 by on the delta and the isle of Marajo

(83, 84) and by Ule(120, 121). Dansereau investigated in 1947 the

sandy coast and the lagoons near Rio de Janeiro (63, 65).

A first arrive division of the found in attempt to at a vegetation Coudreau French Guiana was made by in 1833 (60) and a better division

was given by Benoist in 1924 (53). Suriname the of and and For papers Lanjouw (35) on savannas swamps have been cited. The of by Geijskes (30, 31) on swamps already report

Eysvoogel the Nickerie district deals with soil a.o. (28) on mainly types and but little attention the pays to vegetation. Gonggrijp and Burger (34) applied Beard’s division in formations the to Suriname and discussed the occurence and properties of a number of common tree species.

Anderson (45) described the forests in the north-western district of British Guiana. They comprise several examples of what Beard calls

marsh and forest. wrote note the foreshore swamp Martyn (96) a on and the after the vegetation near Georgetown way it changed building

Case of a seawall and groins. (58) discussed the value of the natural

vegetation of strandbars as protection of the coast.

In 1888 in article Jenman (87) published a newspaper an interesting which vivid of the coastal but also gives not only a picture region expres- sed his the of arable soil of sediments views on development an out

the i.e. the colonisation of the latter and deposited by ocean, by plants the subsequent changes in the vegetation. In the following I will show well his with ideas. how views agree our present in his of the Guiana Myers (98, 100) papers on the savannas plateau and the llanos makes remarks the and on Venezuelan some on swamps of waterbodies found the on the marshy borders in savannas.

short of Kenoyer (88) gave a description a hydrosere in Gatun Lake, of which show with Suriname Panama, some stages some resemblance

communities. Standley the of swamp (112-115) sums up principal species

and strand in Costa Rica and mangrove, swamp vegetation Panama, British Honduras.

The vegetation in Lake Zotz in the mountain region of Peten, described

it by Lundell(91), deserves our attention as shows a strong resemblance the coastal of with that of some swamps in region Suriname.

Valuable information in the Old World was found on swamps tropics

Hope Migahid and Eggeling which in papers by (136), (139) (133), deal with Africa’s extensive and in Chipp papyrus swamps a paper by (129) beach and the Gold Coast. on mangrove, lagoon vegetation on 5

Schimper (107) made a study of the Indo-Malayan littoral flora and compared it as far as possible with the flora of the littoral zone in other tropical countries.

Methods.

Certainty with regard to the identity of the observed species must base for of The which form the every study vegetation. way in our identifications were carried out therefore deserves our special attention.

Although Prof. Lanjouw had visited Suriname before, and had revised

I her- some of the families and although myself too had studied in the barium of the Suriname of the latter part plants, our knowledge was field. in most cases insufficient to enable us to name the plants in the

A of this of be obtained really sufficient knowledge kind can course only after a long acquaintance with plants in the field. An other drawback was that we had hardly time during our sejourn for a careful identifi- cation by the aid of books. For this reason we were obliged to collect in each all the that Where the sample plot species were present. vegetation difficulties. consisted of herbs and/or shrubs only this procedure offered no

To avoid the necessity of collecting common species again and again, we have introduced in several instances for easily recognizable species fancy

based characteristic features of kind names, on or on a similarity some or familiar worked an other with plants. This method quite satisfactorily, but could be in of restricted size. In applied only areas a every doubtful found after case and also when a species was some time had elapsed, in a collected In order enable check new area, samples were to us to our identification.

the forest it collect from In was not possible to samples every species, but here we had much help from natives who were well acquainted with the flora and who could give us the vernacular names of a comparatively large number of trees. Here we were forced to a compromise between the time the of each and the of the spent on analysis plot reliability

collected data. This did of the we by first surveying a part transect cut

through the forest. Then we collected first of all flowering or fruiting

species and took from each tree shoots for the herbarium and wood the latter taken from the trunk. Then samples; were sample plots were

chosen and The and diameter of treelet analysed. height every tree or either under of the over 2 m high was registered vernacular names tree

or under the number given to the samples that we had taken from it. The scientific this names in paper are as far as possible those used in the

Flora of Suriname. that dealt with in the Flora Species are not yet are cited under In up-to-date names. chapter XI most species mentioned in this listed with the author indication and the found paper are synonyms

in the literature (In the text the species are always referred to under the

names In this list). Remarks on the importance, distribution and ecology of the that in field species and those vernacular names were used our

also that of little for notes are given. Species were importance our purpose 6

the with author included the are given in text indication, they are not in

list. An alphabetical list of the more important vernacular names is added.

It is intended to publish separately an enumeration of all the species will also collected during the expedition. This contain critical remarks on

the species.

In the description of the vegetation sometimes paced quadrats were

In analysed, at other times species were noted in passing. herbaceous and the scales of for total estimate swamps savannas Braun-Blanquet

(abundance and cover combined) and for gregariousness were used.

In the forests the degree of cover could not be estimated, and we

I confined ourselves therefore to abundance and in that case have applied

the indications used in literature: generally Anglo-American va-wcry

Where alone was abundant, /-frequent. presence recorded,

the sign X is used; the sign + means scarce. We have made no difference

between occasional and rare.

The records made in this in the tables found in way are put together the back flap. The figures for species found outside the sample plots

in are placed parentheses. of To obtain some idea of the frequency of the species and the of the in the forest used homogeneity vegetation we quadrats 10 m square

and usually 4 of them in the same sample plot. Our forest employee Hel-

made of all transects in the stone, moreover, a strip survey our way

usually applied in the explorations that are carried out by the Forest

In 5 of Service. a strip of m width on each side the path or line the Surinam the bole and the diameter breast name, height (either at height above the of all that or buttresses) were registered trees were over 20 cm

in diameter. Furthermore short made the every 100 m a note was on

occurrence of rejuvenation and on the undergrowth.

The of the from those of the descriptions communities, apart forest,

were made according to the methods elaborated by the school of Braun

these methods in the Blanquet. Although were developed temperate zone of Europe, they were found applicable in tropical areas too. In Central for and Africa, example, they are at present widely used, many associations

and higher units have already been described. Recently Leonard (137)

has list of the found the In published a communities in Belgian Congo.

the forest we could register the trees only in plots, that were much smaller

than the minimum area. The method is universally applicable, but the size of the sample areas used by the investigators varies largely. Standardization therefore desirable facilitate is very to comparison. I regard the deter-

mination of the minimum area as practically of little importance for the of forest communities. will much it study It require very time, as neces-

sitates the of that its investigation large areas. Meyer Drees (8) suggests

size might be estimated by going In a spiral round the initial sample plot

until further noted first I the no new species are on view. deny applica-

bility of this method for the South American rain forest. It is possible to add in this number of the but without way a trees to list, scrutinizing 7

each will be certain that not several are overlooked. tree, we never species the towards Our records Intend to be the first step on way recognition and registration of the communities occurring in Suriname. In the following several of the In chapters types vegetation are distinguished. general, that would be establish and however, I thought it premature to name

this the number of records is too small, associations. For purpose our coastal of much restricted. and our knowledge of the region Guiana too the I disagree with Meyer Drees (8, 9) that it is the historical and also

with the delimitation of associations as soon as the right way to begin small has been and then these vegetation of a area studied, to compare them associations with those found in other areas in order to combine

into delimit needed than list of higher units. To an association more is a the partaking species. Every vegetation is the expression of the interaction of and and in the It is plants environment, at present past. absolutely

to take all these factors into and for this reason I see necessary account, the Intuition, which is always referred to as an essential quality of the true plant sociologist, as the result of a more or less unconscious synthesis with these of which there be of our experience factors, must a store at

the back of our mind. The larger this store is, the more efficient will be field. the synthesis of the data met with in a special

In should base associations the data obtained in my opinion one not on of similar a single area restricted size and without comparison with communities in neighbouring areas. Where, as in Suriname, this is not should the available facts yet possible, we state as clear as possible, but be cautious not to make host of which in the future a new names may be ballast. To avoid the accumulation of this ballast prove to mere is the the of more urgent in light the proposals made by some sociologists to establish priority rules in plant-sociological nomenclature.

Terminology.

A number of terms will be defined here as they are used either in a

slightly deviating or in a restricted sense. Following Beard (47, 48) make difference between forest and and between and I a wood, swamp marsh.

20 Forest, a vegetation usually more than m high, the trees showing a

more or less distinct stratification in 2—4 layers.

10—15 Wood, a m high vegetation without distinct stratification of

the trees. The term “scrub wood” is used for woods in which the trees for

a large part have become shrubby.

Swamp, an area which is inundated either permanently or at least the of the but the latter with during greater part year in case a permanently

soaked soil. The vegetation consists of herbs, shrubs and (or) trees. Marsh conditions in which is flooded the occur an area in rainy season but dries in the The marsh Is used in the up dry season. term only com- marsh forest. of herbs and shrubs bination A vegetation consisting may 8

under marsh but in of its it is grow conditions, account physiognomy regarded as savanna and indicated by that name.

Savanna is used for that become in the season and plains very dry dry

are covered by a vegetation consisting of herbs, shrubs and a few often stunted This of trees. is another wording the savanna concept developed who the definition: “Savannahs by Lanjouw(35), gave following are plains in the West Indian Islands and Northern South America covered

with more or less xeromorph herbs and small shrubs and with few trees or larger shrubs”. Lanjouw still adds an h at the end of the word although

he remarks that he does not know why this h is added in modern English,

the word savanna being derived from the Caraib word sabana. More recently we see that this h is omitted. I have stressed the seasonal dryness of the savanna as the Indian word sabana has a much wider sense.

It is used for all plains, either wet or dry, which are not covered by forest;

sometimes forest is included. The savanna too wet sabanas, our swamps, be fresh saline. may or

The forests on dry ground are divided into two types:

Evergreen seasonal forest is a form of the tropical rain forest in the

It is forest with three stories of wide, general sense. a high trees, a highly discontinuous of and stratum emergent trees reaching 30 m more, an almost continuous and continuous lower The canopy layer a story. term

is introduced by Beard to distinguish it from the equatorial rain forest

which in climate without well-marked and which grows a a dry season

should contain four stories of trees. In this forest most tall trees have

straight branchless stems over 20 m high. These give the forest the

famous cathedral which miss in the seasonal forest. aspect we evergreen the soils that Savanna forest is woody vegetation on are exposed to desiccation the form is forest with severe in dry season. In its optimal it a

continuous of a canopy layer at 10—18 m consisting a remarkably large

few A lower number of thin trees overtopped by a bigger ones. story is indistinct. have small leaves. it very Most trees leathery In physiognomy

close forest. comes to Beard’s dry evergreen the of herbs and shrubs The term subgrowth is used to indicate layer of up to a height 2.5 m.

The of and is in Cl/1; it was salinity swamp ground water given mg

determined by titration with silver nitrate. As a general scale for the been expression of the degree of salinity the classes of Redeke have been modified from ultra- in adopted, but the name of the last class has

hyper-halinous to avoid the use of one Latin root in the midst of a series

of Greek ones.

fresh less than Cl/1 water 100 mg

100 — 1000 oligohalinous „ „

mesohalinous 1000 —10,000 „ „

polyhalinous 10,000 —17,000 „ „

more than hyperhalinous 17,000 „ „ 9

water with Olsen the term euhalinous For sea (± 17,000 mg Cl/1) (11)

be used. may

The acidity, pH, of soils and waters was determined in the field with

a Heilige tile; the whole numbers can be read, but decimals must be estimated with this method.

Vernacular names.

In the older collections of the Utrecht herbarium already a large number of mentioned specimens were present of which the labels ver- nacular These have been names. specimens mainly brought together by

the former Forest Service in Suriname, “Het Boschwezen”, currently cited

B.W.. This Service did excellent work the 1904 as during years —1925, when it stood under the direction of the forester J. W. Gonggrijp, but

was unfortunately abolished as a result of the advancing world crisis.

We also owe a large number of names to Prof. G. Stahel, who collected second world herbarium material and wood of during the war samples

380 Suriname trees.

A new Forest Service, “’s Lands Bosbeheer”, abridged B.B.S., was

instituted in and started its work in the under the 1946 following year

forester Ir I. A. de Hulster. From the it tried leading very beginning native with serviceable of the forest to attract employees a knowledge As result of the of this Forest Service trees. a generous cooperation we were

accompanied on all our trips with the exception of the short one to the able creole forest Coronie, by very employee Max Helstone, to

I whom we owe nearly all our Surinam tree names. Under Surinam names understand those that used the creoles and that indicated are mainly by are

in the Flora of Suriname with (N.E.) or (S.D.), abbreviations for Negro-

english and Surinam-dutch. I prefer the name Surinam to Negro-english be the of the it as it can not regarded as language negroes alone, nor is for derived from The is mixture the greater part English. language a of words of Dutch, English, French, Portuguese and African origin. It

of the creole but it is spoken as mother tongue by only a part population,

is used everywhere in Suriname as a means of communication between

the various of the groups very heterogeneous population. tribes which The bush negroes on the other hand are divided into several

are descended from different African peoples. The members of these tribes

have refound each other notwithstanding the time spent in slavery. Each

tribe has succeeded in of its ancestral of life and preserving part way and thus its which differs rule in tongue speaks own dialect, as a many from the Helstone told that these respects common Surinam language. me

differences sometimes that find it are so considerable even a creole may

difficult to understand these people. He had experienced it several times

himself.

In plant names I have not separated Surinam names from Surinam-

dutch names because the last ones are always mere translations of the 10

first and in fact clear division is If of no possible. a name consists more

than one which is the of them have the Dutch form word, rule, one may and the other one the Surinam form. It also happens that the Dutch and Surinam form used the are alternatively by same person. Moreover, the of the best only names known trees have been remodelled into a Dutch

and these form, it are species that are known to the Indians under the Surinam well under the name as as names they bear in their own language.

For example the three forms witti hoedoe, witte hoedoe and wit hout

are used alternatively and besides foengoe (Sur.) which in Dutch Is vonk- both and hout, blaka foengoe zwarte foengoe are used for a related species. of the Part Surinam names are formed from some distinctive character, another derived from Indian If fitted the part are names. they in phonetic pattern they are sometimes borrowed without change but most of them

are more less transformed. The of third of the is or origin a part names

not yet known. Some words be said here about the may spelling of the vernacular

All cited in this work made names. names are phonetic transcriptions as close of the words heard as possible as we them from our assistants. This

is often so difficult that in field notes I have written times my many the in different have aimed same name ways. Here I at uniformity in

the of the A spelling names. really justified spelling, however, can not be established without a thorough study of the different languages. The Surinam has official therefore language not yet an orthography;

many differences occur In the spelling of the words, but in general the

same sound values are attached to the letters as in Dutch. In accordance

the Surinam written in the Dutch with few names are way a exceptions. The word for small forming a part of several names is usually written whereas pikien it is pronounced pikjien or even pitjien. The word for Indian is written but Besides normal ingi or iengi, pronounced ienji. I and r intermediate for which in of an consonant occurs every instance one the

two characters I and be will write the for r must chosen, e.g. one name

Eschweilera at one time barklak and at another barkrak. In this case I

have chosen the first notation. The character is not the Dutch but the g g,

voiced of the in the combination where guttural stop English get, except ng

it indicates the nasalisation of the n.

the For Indian names which are not restricted in their use to Suriname,

I have followed a more generally understandable transcription as there does exist international of other words not an system phonetic signs. In

the names should be pronounced in what the English call ‘the continental

The main differences with Dutch Dutch way’. usage are: u for oe, the vowel in in for Dutch Where English foot, y English yes j. necessary a

voiceless is indicated ë. Softened marked k' is e by stops are by *, e.g. Dutch kj, t' Dutch tj. of derived from Indian Examples Surinam names ones (Caraib or Arawak): pakoelie Sur. is pakuli Car. 11

dakama Sur. is dakama Araw. kopie Sur. from kopi-i Car.

zwarte koenami Sur. for kunami Car. and

for witte koenami Sur. kunamirang Car. (the sufflx-rtf«g means resembling)

taproepa Sur. from tapurupo Car.

laksirie via alakasirie Sur. from alakusèerĭ Araw.

A fact which has been never properly stressed is the great diversity in the that used the bush Each tribe occurring tree names are by negroes.

but of the Surinam and these often in uses a part ordinary names a dialect and has for other its and different variant, many species own completely

names. The fact that the same name is sometimes used by two tribes for

unrelated is Some tribes have completely species very confusing. a specific

for the collections made Florschutz in name nearly every plant as by 1950—51 showed. When travelling along the Saramacca River he had from whom he vernacular some Matoearis as boatsmen, obtained several

of which be the card Index Utrecht. names, none appeared to present in at

When he looked over the dried specimens before packing them in the cases,

he experienced how certain the boatsmen were of their knowledge, for

his without hesitation for each the to surprise they repeated plant names,

had it In the field. As had bush with they given to we no negroes us, we

obtained only Incidentally a few of the names that are in use with them.

Indian obtained from several because the names we persons composition

of our underwent considerable between the However gang change trips. of the Caraib most names we owe to Hendrik Tempico, our foreman,

who unfortunately could assist the botanists but occasionnally, and to his brother who the 3d and 4th The Egbert, accompanied us during trip. Arawak from much the first Clemens Albina gave us information during

half of the first but he fell ill and lost valuable hand trip, so we a very

for which we could find no suitable substitute.

To illustrate a common development we will describe here how we

came to enlist Clemens a member of our special crew. For the first trip

four Arawaks were enlisted, and when we asked them who had the

best knowledge of plants, three of them pointed without hesitation to the fourth and said: “He Is much older than he knows we are, most.”

his older should be for better of the Why being a guarantee a knowledge flora of the The children was explained to me by one younger men. in

the all until six then villages play day they are years old; they go to

school and after have left school about the of twelve only they at age they learn the ancestral start to knowledge. As they soon are obliged to earn a

living for themselves, they have no time to assimilate the whole stock of

of their At the moment most of the Arawaks knowledge parents. younger know the and those that only more common trees plants are in one way

Clemens or another of use to them. on the other hand appeared to know

the names of a large number of trees and shrubs and also of some herbs, he confessed that his father knew much though like so many others, a larger number of them. In the Arawak tribe this decline proceeds fairly 12

rapidly, they have lost several old handicrafts and are already losing their other tribes however the trend found. own language. In same is

Value of vernacular names.

The of the vernacular several reliability names depends on things.

Once we had selected our assistants on the recommendation of their com-

for panions we had to take the reliability of their identifications granted. had told them unless felt We in advance not to give us a name they certain about it, and not to be ashamed when they did not know a tree. We knew that a native does not like to disappoint his employer and that

he is therefore inclined to invent a name if he does not know the right

one. After checking the names obtained by us with those in the card index Utrecht feel that but deceived at we sure we were rarely by our assistants.

A second difficulty was the inclination of our assistants to give us at

first simple names more or less comparable to the generic names of the

taxonomist. Further questioning sometimes revealed that they also knew

but in instances this not and then it a differential name, many was so

was left to us to discover whether the name applied to one or to more

than one species. As we see that the “Flora” gives, especially for the Caraib and Arawak that tongues, many compound names, we must assume a large

number of the “specific” names have been lost in the transmission to a

younger generation.

Sometimes our men could see a difference between allied species, but

In they lacked names for them. a few instances we invented names to

help ourselves; for instance with sopohoedoe, the Surinam name for

two species of Caryocar, one with a smooth cortex the other with a rough named after these characters. one, we

In instances it ascertain in the field However many was impossible to than and whether a name was applied to one or to more one species, as did allow the collection of material from could time not every tree we

We but hope for the best. tried to collect in each region we visited at of that under least one specimen every tree was pointed out to us one

name and several specimens when the name sounded ambiguous. have used and these In our records we Surinam names mostly are

also in general use with the Forest Service. In British Guiana on the

the Forest Arawak but Richards contrary Department mainly uses names

(14) mentions in his latest book that he experienced there the same dif-

ficulties as we did in Suriname. Our identifications show that of the

± 250 Surinam names listed by us 40—45% have been used for one

species, and 30—35% for 2 or 3 species which were either closely related resembled each other in habit in character. or or some prominent Examples

boskatoen = Bombax and are: globosum nervosum.

marmeldoosje = Duroia eriopila and Amajoua guianensis, both Rubiaceae

with the same habit.

swampgujave = Aulomyrcia pyrifolia, a Myrtacea and the Euphorbiacea 13

Amanoa guyanensis, both low trees often with several trunks and with dark leaves of small coriaceous, green a size.

sopohoedoe = Caryocar glabrum and microcarpum, but in some cases

Pithecellobium jupunba, a Mimosacea also containing saponins. The of the several rest names, 20—30%, cover species sometimes

to and other times belonging one genus or family at to taxonomically different very groups.

Examples are: swietiboontje = Inga sp. div. (This rule should not be

not is called alba is reversed; every Inga swietiboontje, e.g. Inga called prokonie) Coccoloba but also — Con- bradiliefie sp. div., a Polygonaceous genus, ceveiba guyanensis and Aparisthmium cordatum, two Euphorbiaceae with broad leaves.

~ several Lauraceous from the Ocotea and pisie species, mainly genera Nectandra.

Another point deserves to be mentioned here. When checking the obtained the vernacular names obtained by us with our card index we

the Forest impression that some of names used by the present Service

are applied nowadays to other species than formerly. Ir I. A. de Hulster,

the chief told that he shared this but present forester, us opinion, a definite the be after number answer to question can only given a larger of specimens have been collected and after careful field observations by

The kassavehout be Two B.B.S. experts. name can given as an example. of with this but specimens Didymopanax morotoni are provided name, on the labels of older collections the name kassavehout or kasabahoedoe

used for different than for Alchornea was quite trees, e.g. more once triplinervia and for Alchorneopsis trimera.

When the frequence of our three classes is determined in belt transects for that find In the trees are over 20 cm in diameter, we similar figures. forest situated bauxite hill North of km on a Moengo tapoe (between

0.6 and 1.6) 125 trees were noted and of these 43% appeared to have a name which is applied to one species only, 28% to 2 or 3 species, whereas of the 29% name gave no clue to the identity of the trees or no name was added at all. In the marsh forest between the hills from km 1.9 to

the results the of trees and and 2.9 are names 132 listed, resp. 49, 30 21% in the 3 classes.

Where one species dominates, we find, of course, a shift to the first class. In the forest on the oldest ridges between km 14.2 and 15.2, for

the number of noted and the in the example, 141 trees were percentages three classes proved to be 64, 23.5 and 12.5, but here 50% of all the noted trees were foengoe, Parinari campestris. Thus for the other half

47 25. the percentages are 28, and

In a few cases where the vernacular name leaves a choice, it is possible to identify the species with reasonable certainty if between the alternatives differences in the adaptation to edaphic or climatic conditions or to both exist. Tafelhout or tafraboom is applied to several species of Cordia, but 14

Cordia tetrandra is confined to the coastal region and prefers moderately to humid habitats whereas the other in the interior very species grow and/or prefer a dry soil.

The kokriki is but name applied to Ormosia, in savannas and savanna woods on at least sand Ormosia costulata periodically very dry is common whereas the other species prefer welldrained forest soils.

Sometimes a discrimination is shown in the vernacular names where botanically no difference is found, matakki and hooglandmatakki prove both to be Symphonia globulifera, an euryoecious species, which in future

to contain number of varieties may prove a or ecotypes.

At last a small number of vernacular names are at present nomina nuda either the material collected under such as a name could not be identified there or as were no herbarium specimens after all.

The soil.

The of the soil survey was carried out by the geomorphological section. As of the line a mean on every 100 m transect a set of soil samples was

taken means of soil and The which the by a auger profile pits. depth to

borings were made as and varied, time terrain permitted, from 1 to 8 m, the of depth the profile pits from 0.7—2.5 m. Where rapid changes occurred the samples were taken closer together;

on uniform stretches taken further they were apart. Remarks on the soil

are based on the field notes made by Prof. Bakker and Dr Brouwer

and for taken in the series of samples swamps on a granular analyses and the determinations of on their amount of several ions. The analyses that made for this were especially study, were carried out In the Laboratory

for Ousterbeek. Dr Agricultural Pedology at Lately H. J. Muller was

so kind to determine and of number of pH chloride content a samples Prof. (in Barker’s new laboratory).

Some remarks on the soils found in the and the general swamps on

ridges are given here. They are based on the soil profiles and on analyses.

In table III (at the back side of table II in the back flap) the analyses of of the collected part samples by our expedition are brought together with

those of illustrative samples taken by Eysvoogel c.s. In the Nickerie

district. The latter divided the authors five and are by in groups are presented here under the headings used by them. table all of the soil. In III figures represent percentages oven-dry

In most samples the humus content is estimated by an elementary but in those with humus the latter calculated analysis, a high content was from the ignition loss. The latter values are marked by a*.

Silt and clay are combined in the table under the heading suspensable material. For the limit of the is the most samples upper particles con-

ventional of 20 Where the is marked with the one ju. figure a °, samples in subfractions and the limit of the were analysed upper suspensable

material in this case was taken to be In the fraction of 16 fi. general 15

smaller than about of the total clay particles 2 //, comprises 2/3 —3/4 clay + silt fraction.

Phosphoric acid has been determined by extraction with 2% citric acid, has been used the as this concentration generally at Experiment Station in Paramaribo.

The pH was determined electrometrically both in water and in KCl- where the of the soil solution. For comparison, possible, pH swamp or water has been added; this was estimated in the field with a Hellige tile.

The description of a number of profiles is to be found in the additional tables and and the main notes to I II (p. 120), the relation of types to vegetation and topography is shown in fig. II.

the found under the in the coastal number From clays swamps region a of analyses have been made which show that they are with a few

with 88 of exceptions very heavy ones or more per cent suspensable material. The humus of the is of the content upper layer usually 2—5%,

about 1 sand 1 while deeper layers —2%. Fine is present in —10%, small number of than found. occasionally a grains coarser 200 ju. are

For Eysvoogel the Nickerie district c.s. (28) have distinguished two which profile types throughout show the same grain-size frequency, but

differ in pH and in the colour of the horizon found at a depth of

30 to 60 cm.

In I the of 15 has of downwards type top-layer cm a pH 4.8—5.5;

in the pH decreases slightly; and the zone between 30 and 60 cm there

red well in the Below 60 appear as as yellow spots blue-grey clay. cm

the red decrease in number and the rises 5.0—7.2. spots pH again to

the is —6.6 in the and increases In type II pH 5.3 top-layer gradually

downwards to reach between 60 and 80 cm a value of 6.9 —8.3. Here

red absent brown-yellow to yellow-brown spots are present, spots are in the profile. rich humus and In both types the top-layer is greyish black, in in sharp

the below. The soil is covered contrast to grey clay clay usually by a layer of of thickness. pegasse varying

The made do show these two swamp borings by our expedition not

As rule there is marked in the humus profile types. a no jump content; there be accumulation it generally decreases downwards, but may an at horizon. All contain some deeper analysed samples an appreciable amount considered the latter of organic matter, whereas Eysvoogel c.s. except

in the top-layer so low that it was not determined.

Yellow be in the but red were spots may present deeper layers, spots viz. in the fifth in Wiawia line. found in one boring only, swamp the another made in the absent addition In boring same swamp they were (see record to 16, p. 121).

In the southern of the Great under the part Swaying swamp grey kaolin with red found. The kaolin surface swamp clay sandy spots was dips

northwards and was soon out of reach of our boring outfit.

The shows wide of variation. A distinct correlation pH a range positive 16

exists with the salinity of the soil; on the other hand the pH is also

influenced by the vegetation and for this reason the first correlation is sometimes obscured.

Some plants tend to acidify their surroundings and can lower the pH

if the soil solution is brackish. In the 7th in considerably, even swamp

the Wiawia transect in one sample a pH of 3.3 was found (sample 1190) of the but at a distance of 50 m the pH was 5.3. When the distribution

Eysvoogel with two profile types given by c.s. is compared my vegetation correlation between the first and mixed wood is map, a type swamp

suggested. However, to obtain a good insight in the origin and the practical significance of the local differences In the clay soils detailed investigations of the soil profile, the vegetation and the habitat conditions will be

necessary. that their first soil will need of Eysvoogel c.s. point out type a gift

lime before being brought into cultivation to raise the pH. The potash

of both is the 0.009—0.023 but the S-value, content types same %, average

the of the basic ions in 100 i.e. sum exchangeable milliaequivalents per g is in the first somewhat lower than it is in the second soil, type (25) and the latter shows correlation with the one (27), in it a pH.

Our figures show that the potash content is also correlated with the

salinity; towards the coast it increases several times.

The levees of the rivers are separated by Eysvoogel c.s. as a special

account of their situation above the level of the soils type on swamp and of the concomitant difference in their water household. The texture of the levees is but than that of the because rarely lighter swamp clays, Suriname but little and fine sediment most rivers in transport very only the and deposit the latter when the tidal wave is at its highest point and

current all over almost reduced to zero. The only rivers which have a

the Corantine and the which higher transport capacity are Marowijne,

are both rich In islands. The Marowijne, moreover, has sand flats near

the mouth along the banks, and its water Is blue instead of dark brown

as in the other rivers.

to Eysvoogel c.s. on the levees the is According top-layer usually grey- brown and at certain often red and a depth spots iron-manganese

concretions are found. They are apparently the result of fluctuations in the level. ground-water The pH is intermediate between that of the two of types swamp profiles. The profiles of the ridges show considerable differences in connection

with the the elevation and the of the age, composition ridges. the shell the In ridges profile shows no other zonation than that of the different layers of shells and shell fragments which downwards be cemented hard breccia may together into a (Geijsk.es 32). In the half of the coastal where these shell western young region, pure the of the The elevation ridges occur, majority ridges is sandy. is relatively

small; the highest one North of Paramaribo rises 1.60 m above the sur-

0.20 rounding clay; the lowest one only m. The elevation of the ridge 17

complex along our lines near Coronie varies from 0—1 m above mean sea level while the bottom 0.50—1 below this and the few swamp is m level, ridges near Nickerie are still lower. Most of these ridges consist of fine sand with a varying admixture of shell fragments, 4 or more % of silt, usually a fair amount of mica flakes and a few coarse particles (0—3%).

The of 15—20 and top-layer cm is yellow-brown contains several percent humus. In the depressions the humus and silt content is higher than on the

Then follows to sand often with red and higher parts. yellow grey spots iron concretions in the horizon. Below the sand often becomes gley 1 —2 m blue-green.

At least in the Coronie ridges the top-soil is decalcinated by rain water

of the ask to a depth 40—80 cm, deepest on highest parts. One might whether the absence of lime could be not partly primary. Geijskes reports that the pure sand on top of the highest parts of the Charlesburg ridge of Paramaribo is similar in the sand North very granular composition to of the small dunes found on the wide beach at the mouth of the Matap- canal. The of the pica samples higher parts of the Coronie ridges are not therefore that differences yet analysed; we can only mention no in the

sands were observed in the field and that for this reason it is improbably

that wind action has of for the formation of these been any importance low Wind-blown the other ridges. sand, on hand, needs not to be almost

free of but is much decalcinated than with lime, sooner layers coarse

shell The show that in the lower the fragments. analysed samples parts the grain-size frequency is same throughout the whole profile. The most

sizes those from 75—150 common grain are varying ju. The of the of three small Nickerie reveal analyses samples ridges near

amount of sand. This in the for- a high coarse may point to a difference mation of these with other ridges regard to the and larger ones. In the ridge South of the Clara polder most of the sand grains measure 105— the of the Nieuw 300 /u; samples ridgelet opposite Nickerie are coarser, but the subfractions were not determined. The last-named ridge is a

deposit of coarse sand (mainly 150—600 /<) and shell fragments (25%) of the on top clay bank found at the abrasion coast in front of the sea

of silt almost dyke Nickerie. Here a fraction is absent.

In the of the coastal have eastern part region we encountered a series of

much Most of these 2 4 higher ridges. rise to (or 5) m above the sur- rounding clay surface. The sand in the top-soil is fine, but it becomes

coarser in the in the the generally deeper layers. Especially higher parts sand is and In the older it forms almost white very pure, ridges an

A-horizon. Where the sand is less also ABC pure, an profile develops, but here the A-layer is grey-yellow or brownish. In the second ridge of iron could be but already a migration observed, a distinct iron pan

was not found before the 8th ridge.

The higher parts of the ridges must have been formed by wind action

and this will account for the of their sand. pureness The soil of these samples ridges are not yet analysed; the composition

2 18

of sand from accidental taken a pure ridge an sample on the plantation

the is the that Katwijk along Commewijne River only one can be given. Along the border of the ridges and in the depressions between them of sand and everywhere a mixture clay is found. Eysvoogel c.s. bring these their soil but show considerable zones to type V, they variation. In sand and one place clay layers alternate; in another sandy clays or clayey

sands occur.

The top-soil usually contains much humus. Some analyses of these

soils are given in the table.

The climate.

The data for this paragraph are taken from Braak (27) who summarized all available close the observations up to 1933. Suriname lies very to

equator, between 2 and 6° N. Long, and has consequently a genuine climate. tropical The temperature is high (annual mean 26.1° C) with an annual variation of nearly 2° (a maximum is reached in the period from

September to end October and a minimum in the months January and The is In Paramaribo the it February). mean daily range 9.2° C; near coast 6.4° is smaller, e.g.: in Coronie C, the maxima being lower and the minima Landinwards the minima decrease increase higher. slightly resulting in an

the the maxima remain the The in daily range; same. mean monthly of variations temperature, rainfall, sunshine and relative humidity of the

air observed in Paramaribo and Coronie are shown in figure I. The wind

is the but the force diminishes when fairly strong along coast rapidly and the in the interior calm. proceeding landinwards, nights are very whole from The trade winds blow with great steadiness during the year

directions between ENE and E or occasionally from slightly beyond that There indications of of land and breezes, range. are only slight a system sea but in the afternoon the direction of the wind vector shifts northward and become may NE.

The mean wind force in Beaufort scale is 2.9 in Coronie, 1.4 in Para-

maribo and 1.1 in Kabelstation, 115 km from the coast. Suriname lies

entirely outside the region of the West Indian cyclones and hard winds Wind force recorded of the or storms are rare. 5 was in only 0.5%

and and times for observations. observations, 6, 7 8 resp. 2, 0 0.4 10,000

The rainfall is distinctly seasonal, but only in a narrow belt along the the sinks driest month October below coast monthly mean in the 40 mm.

The of the of greater part Suriname belongs, according to classification

Koppen, to the region with a tropical rainforest climate (Af) characterized

at least 60 rain in the driest month. For most stations the by mm average annual amount of rain lies between 2000 and 2400 mm. In the coastal belt it is and least climate around 1800 mm at near Coronie the approaches the limit of Koppen’s climate savanna (Aw), marked by 30 mm rain in the driest month with an annual mean of 1750 mm or 40 mm in the driest month with 1500 From Galibi few data mm a year. only are available, 19

Fig. I Climate of Paramaribo(full lines) and Coronie (broken lines)

but these make it that it also has climate. very probable a savanna The be divided into year can 4 seasons, a long wet season usually begin- ning in April and lasting to August with a maximum rainfall in May The latter or June. comes the later, the further we proceed from the eastern of northern South America to the This main part western part. is followed the main from December. wet season by dry season August to

October as in the the driest but is is, said, average month, there only a slight difference with September. A secondary maximum in the rainfall in December occurs, as a rule, or January, and this is followed by a in These short and secondary minimum, usually February. wet dry seasons, 20

are far less constant than the and for however, long wet dry seasons, they

shift in time and much in may considerably they vary intensity. In abnormal of the be absent years one two may or they may even change this places; in case there results a much prolonged drought period with

of fires. Such with great danger devastating a very year was 1899 a short the rain period in early summer and a prolonged dry period from

to the end of the with rainfall August year only 240 mm against a mean

of 657 mm in the same The 1900 started with period. year a very rainy

period, lasting through the short dry and long wet season and ending in

The 1926 June. notoriously dry year received but 53.4 mm rain during

the first three months and these followed October and a very dry November and a December with a distinct but subnormal maximum of

142 mm. In the period from October 1925 to the end of April 1926 there

fell but % of the normal amount of rain.

A rainless is unknown; in Paramaribo in but long period 75 years 5

months were recorded with less than 10 mm rain and 18 with less than

25 and in the driest mm, months September and October there are still

in the mean 9 with more than 1 mm rain. On the other hand days very

showers too in the there with heavy are rare; mean occur 5 days per year

than 50 190 with 1 more mm rain against more than mm and in the months the rainfall in these below wettest mean days remains 15 mm. the During wet months April to July the total amount of rain sank in

75 but 7 times below 800 whereas years mm (mean 1075 mm) in the same

period the monthly amount of rain during the dry months August to November in did sink under and the total 4 years not 100 mm amount rose twice to more than 600 mm (mean 435 mm). Where in the following the and chapters term wet, or rainy, season dry season are used, the long

wet and dry seasons are meant.

As might be expected a negative correlation exists between the rainfall and the time of sunshine. In Paramaribo the cloudiness is high from and distributed January to May, it is evenly over the whole day. December the From June to mornings are bright, but the afternoons

have less sunshine. In these months most of the rain falls in the afternoon.

In the drier coastal belt there is more sunshine than in the interior. In

Coronie from July to November it is usually bright all day long, but

afternoons sunnier from December to February the are markedly than the

mornings. From February to April there are in the coastal belt much less clouds than in the interior.

The relative humidity of the air is generally high and the monthly do much. Paramaribo from in averages not vary For they range 76%

October to 86% in June. The humidity is highest in the night and- the

at 8 87 and lowest in the early morning (monthly averages a.m. —93%) afternoon The (monthly averages at 2 p.m. 62—78%). mean monthly minima from range 51 —62%. the the fluctuation is the In Coronie near ocean less; at 8 a.m. humidity

is here slightly lower than in Paramaribo, but the mean monthly minimum 21

sinks below The somewhat lower at 2 p.m. never 71%. monthly mean is from May to July; somewhat higher from August to November, the annual mean is 81% i.e. the same as in Paramaribo.

Before and during our expedition there happened to be several abnor- malities in the rainfall. The 1946 whole rather but the year as a was wet, long dry season was followed by a short wet season with little rain and an intense drought In the prolonged short dry season. In February,

March and total rainfall of 77 the April a only mm was registered, October and November the other average being 595 mm. 1947, on hand, were wet and In 1948 the short dry season remained in abeyance making this wet The but the year a very one. long dry season was normal, and The following short rainy season was abnormally long wet. post-

of the short in 1949 circumstance for ponement dry season was a lucky work I had for this weather my as reason very good during my trip This the rains the end of to Nickerie. year heavy came through at May after just my departure.

CHAPTER II

AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS

General remarks.

Field research in Suriname with the for still meets a tropical region

but circumstance that the whole northern of the rare very fortunate half has been from verticals scale of country photographed the air in on a

and of the coastal also scale Thanks 1 : 40,000 part region on 1 : 20,000. to the kind cooperation of the C.B.L. Centraal Bureau Luchtkaartering,

Bureau could or C.B.A.S. Central for Aerial Surveys in Paramaribo we make of the both field and use photographs 1 ; 40,000 during our trips

later during the evaluation of the collected data. Moreover since our visited return to Holland there came available photos 1 : 20,000 of the controlled form areas in the coastal region and mosaics in the of photo-

the scales 1 and 1 with numbered maps on : 40,000 : 100,000 provided a

network of of km. squares 2 X 2 cultivated Suriname is a very thinly populated country. Except three

areas in the coastal region, viz. around Paramaribo, Coronie and Nickerie, covered almost luxurious less natural it is completely by a more or plant

confined brackish growth. Bare areas are extremely rare; they are to some

the small number of bodies of lagoons near coast, a open water inland, and rock surfaces some steep in the interior.

Therefore the aerial photographs provide in first instance data on the

vegetation and the topography. the creeks and lakes Open water, rivers, larger are clearly discernable, and settlements with their in which so are sharp, angular contours, at

the scale 1 ; 40,000 dwellings too are visible. 22

The the be divided 3 vegetation on photos can into main types: almost which have a. Herbaceous growth appearing as even areas can any colour shade from white dark mosaic of several shades to gray. Usually a can be discerned pointing to local differences in the vegetation. b. which have distinct and show Forest complexes a speckled texture in stereoscopic view an uneven surface owing to differences in the tree

The individual of the trees in the height. crowns larger upper story can be recognized and in the high forest their diameter is large enough to be measured. The absolute height of the trees can only be identified, where

been field of the in that a clearing has made, e.g. a indigenes (grondje); of with case it is possible to measure the height the surrounding trees a natural like the fall of tall stereometer. By causes, a tree, only rarely an opening is formed large enough to make the forest bottom visible, and this

does not last for the is filled with long gap always rapidly secondary growth.

Those in which of shrubs and c. landscapes groups trees are scattered

in a plain covered with herbs. Stereoscopically these bushes and tree from their groups emerge beautifully surroundings, in a natural landscape often the form of domes. this very in In case it is always possible to

how far these rise above their but the measure groups surroundings, photos show whether the soil beneath them vaulted. The do not is plane or pictures

reveal relief of the soil only if the differences in elevation are at least of the same order as the height of the vegetation cover.

This is what be concluded from aerial without can photographs any of the terrain itself. This is here other knowledge put so plainly as any interpretation without reconnaissance in the field is necessarily bound and with well known such on generalisations analogies areas. Sometimes

comparisons lie close at hand, but they should always be handled with

have In the field. care, as we repeatedly experienced tell from whether For instance it is impossible to the photograph a

herbaceous in vegetation grows water or on dry ground.

Difficulties with herbaceous vegetation; illumination effects.

In said that in general treatises on photo Interpretation it usually is the shows darker. This hold wetter places plant cover generally may

for low fields in and cultivated grass as they occur temperate regions areas, but in Suriname this is certainly not so.

stretches of Geijskes (30) points to the fact that certain swamp vege-

tation look in the and that these are near Lelydorp photos very light the of the This is just those that are found in deepest part swamp. one

instance, but nearly all possible combinations occur. Therefore it was an

whether in from open question we would meet our transect Moengo tapoe of the creek The last-named North Wane a vast swamp or a savanna.

be the but it be remarked that guess appeared to correct one, must during

is inundated for considerable the long rainy season this savanna probably a 23

time. Furtheron in this line near km 15 strips of forest separated by zones of marked the of Such low vegetation presence ridges. ridges occur every- the coastal and covered with forest and where in region are, as a rule, with herbaceous separated by swamps mainly vegetation.

In the area far inland, however, the situation appeared to be totally lower covered with different. The zones between the ridges were here dense marsh forest. The low which had the of growth suggested presence

fact the of the swamps was in savanna growing on highest parts ridges, whereas the forest which into the marsh on slopes grew high merged forest in the depressions. the third of from the In type landscape we meet, independently herbaceous with the difficulties for the vegetation, same tree groups.

In the clay savanna North of the Wane creek the forest domes appeared and had much better to occur in places where the soil was sandier a

structure than in the savanna but where the surface showed almost no

the relief. On the other hand we experienced with mixed feelings that belt between km and extensive to 4 which 17 20 was an up m deep swamp for the covered with was larger part by a floating peat layer overgrown

herbs. The scattered forest islands in it were real sand islands covered

by high forest, the dome form being due to ecological differences and not

to the elevation of the soil, the centre being only about 1 m above the

level. At in I have dome- swamp last, swamps near Nickerie come across

which in water than shaped Erythrina groves grew considerably deeper the herbs. surrounding swamp

All these facts stress once more the necessity of field reconnaissances

for a reliable interpretation of the photos. The aerial photographs provide

efficient when wish choose suitable for field a very help we to areas work, for where the one can see at once largest variation in vegetation types is

found and where the latter are most clearly contrasted. After such an

has been the of the area surveyed interpretation investigated strips may be extended by the aid of the photos to the adjoining area at least as

far as the vegetation belts show no interruption. In case of discontinuity, should be unknown factors however, one cautious, as may begin to play

a part.

The illumination is an important factor in the interpretation of the

Its effect photos. is most pronounced on the smooth plane formed by

which like mirror. In calm deep open water, acts a general, open water shows black the on photo, but when the reflected sunlight enters the

camera lens the water will show dead white. A section of a river can

both in successive of result of display aspects two photographs a run as a difference in the observation The of however a angle. image open water

is so distinct that the but it phenomenon never causes difficulties, may do so in photos of the vegetation.

Plant leaves disperse the light by reflection and absorb a larger or smaller amount depending on the nature of their surface. This results in a shade of in the the of the leaves gray photo. Usually position varies so 24

strongly that the reflected light has an almost constant intensity through

wide in the of view. On the the differences in the ranges angle contrary

amount of reflected in various directions becomes light very appreciable when the leaves show definite orientation. this the a In case same vege- tation different colour in various of type may produce tones parts a photo the have different or same plot may a appearance on two photos of a

stereo pair.

that in the of Geijskes (30) reports photographs swamps near Lelydorp those with of Eleocharis and areas a cover Rhynchospora are very light coloured whereas those with and mokomoko show darker grass, Jussieua a said in discussion that this of gray. Dr Simons a is a question shadow,

the larger the number of leaves on the plants the more shadow and there-

fore the darker the tone in the In the amount of photo. my opinion shadow is of secondary importance, the reflection by the leaves being the

primary factor. Geijskes remarks that in the field the light impression reversed that in the but the observation is in the was to photos, angle two

cases also quite different.

Eleocharis and Rhynchospora have smooth, shining, nearly vertical

in culms and leaves, which reflect most of the incident light definite but the and with leaves in all directions directions, grasses Jussieua, pointing the reflect small of the incident disperse light, i.e. they only a part light

in a definite direction. For this reason the impression of the observer

changes with his point of view in the field as well as from the air. Mokomoko has leaves which arise under rather shining a constant angle

from the stem and this causes preferent directions for the reflected light.

This be observed river where phenomenon can easily along banks, pure belts of mokomoko are common. on a the very Sailing sunny day along and then of mokomoko flash winding stream now patches in our eyes

when we cross the line of maximum reflection.

with vertical leaves which In swamps many species are provided nearly

variation in colour tone and added to this there is the may cause common

local dominance of various These factors make species. many swamps

look like mosaic of with a gray tones, which can be interpreted only and uncertainties. great difficulty many

from Nickerie have observed similar In photos swamp areas near I differences been identified tone in koffiemama groves (Erythrina) that had such the field. Other did show the as in swamp woods, however, not

As phenomenon. also slight differences in texture in the photo image of

the identification of stands and mixed groves were found, Erythrina woods considerable swamp was possible over a area.

bare sand form reflector in On savannas nearly patches a very good

direction almost white in the Herbs absorb every producing spots pictures. much of the and After this light give a gray tone. writing chapter I laid hands the book of the of aerial upon Spurr(19) on use photography

in He treats this matter in similar and to the forestry. a way comes same conclusions. 25

Interpretation results.

We shall conclude here with the results of the comparisons of the

photographs and field data. well-marked bushes and Starting from a point separate tree groups

are readily recognized on the photo by their position and form. Conspicuous

also be and in forests trees be identified trees can traced, emergent may by

exact measurements of their location.

In herbaceous vegetation on the photo discernable limits must usually be located in the field by measurements or correlation to distinct marks, the field do the as several small changes observed in not appear on photo-

graphs, whereas often limits in the picture are not easily observable on the

ground where we can view but a small area at a time.

much distinct the scale 1 than Many features are more on : 20,000 on

scale 1 in and the : 40,000. Maurisie palms (Mauritia flexuosa) savannas be discerned in the last scale but the indivi- along swamps can photos on the first scale. duals are distinct only in photos on

The two of Acrostichum ferns about 4 m In diameter close to groups

Wiawia in the at the border of our tract 3d swamp were on 1 ; 40,000 could be and other visibility, but on 1 : 20,000 they easily identified, some could be detected further from the line. in the groups away Only photos found on the larger scale the understory of pina palms (Euterpe oleracea) in the forest the old Berendslust swamp on plantation (Suriname River) the visible the in the could be recognized; palms were in gaps upper story by the light colour produced by their shining leaves.

and Mangrove swamps.

The belts the and the estuaries of the rivers mangrove along coast can

not be strand be its misinterpreted. Open mangrove can recognized by bordered white which marks the bare light colour; it is usually by a strip beach. the in and behind the belt diffuse cloudiness In lagoons mangrove a the of points to presence submerged aquatic plants, viz. Ruppia maritima. Shallow show and the black of lagoons a gray tone not one deep water.

Floating aquatics reflect a large amount of light in upward direction

and therefore as white bodies of water. they appear margins along open

In the lagoons the floating plants are mainly waterlilies and Limnobium

and their indicates that the water is stoloniferum; presence oligohalinous;

Ruppia, on the other hand, tells us nothing with regard to the salinity. The coastal have outlines but the shows much swamps simple vegetation

diversity and the differences can not be interpreted without field work.

some remarks can be made. of 1st and 2nd Only general Swamps my behind the belt and contain scattered type occur mangrove may groups

of Avicennia In all or Laguncularia. swamps investigated by us of scrub the brantimakka scrub only one type was met, (Machaerium

which be its uniform lunatum), can recognized by very fine-grained 26

and its dull and viewed its flat texture gray tone, stereoscopically by

with trees above it. The woods be canopy only rare rising swamp can separated in Erythrina stands (koffiemama) and woods of other species, mixed. that usually Heinsdijk (44) reports it is usually possible to recognize

stands of Triplaris, mierenhout, and of Pterocarpus, waterbébé, where

are but I have not to confirm this. they nearly pure enough experience

At least in photos on the scale 1 ; 40,000 this will be difficult.

Brantimakka is an indicator for a more or less saline habitat. It is

associated with of but the latter frequently groves koffiemama, species avoids The herbaceous polyha)inous water. surrounding vegetation may 2nd 3d belong to my or type (see chapter V). Other woods stand but like swamp can only oligohalinous water koffie-

also fresh The whole mama they occur in water. swamps as a belong to

4th and 5th my type. found the of fresh Maurisie palms are only at margin completely swamps of the 4th 6th and look like balls above to type light floating distinctly

the The 6th be discerned from undergrowth. swamp type can probably the other its outlines and the of types by more irregular by presence islands with forest. The existence of this the other hand high type on

makes it difficult to the from the for more separate swamps savannas, the latter often maurisie the in too very palms are found. However in

of shrubs savanna, groups are usually present.

Savannas.

White sand savannas are easily recognized when the sand is locally seen white-dotted This and through the open vegetation giving it a appearance. the these low watersheds, centrifugal drainage pattern, savannas being

characteristic effect. the shallow wood produce a very Along gullies dense scrub the and in these gradually decreasing to penetrates savanna

strips of wood the maurisie palms are concentrated. Sand savannas entirely but show similar covered with scrub are not so easily recognizable, they

features.

have the of Clay savannas a more gray tone by presence a grass cover. of orchard with stunted small They are sometimes the type many Curatella the of which be Difficulties trees by presence they can recognized.

in the older of the coastal where are met parts region marshes, swamps,

savannas and all possible transitions are represented in a usually very

inundated be intricate mosaic. Real swamps in depressions can recognized by their irregular but distinct boundaries. The surrounding forest ends of of which abruptly on the border the swamp, parts may penetrate channels the forest of along former drainage into in the shape gray fingers. field observations will be allow somewhat For the rest necessary to a

detailed interpretation of a landscape like the area crossed by our

expedition North of the Wane creek. 27

Forests.

The main forest be of the types can recognized by a part physiognomical field the of the the form characters used in work, structure upper stratum,

the the variation in of the visible of the crowns in canopy layer, height

Marsh forest has broken with consider- trees. an irregularly canopy layer diameter and often able variation in crown tree height. In gaps palms can

In of the be recognized by their light colour. the rain forest the crowns the largest trees rise like domes over canopy layer. forest shows rather of small with Savanna a regular canopy crowns

few The sometimes lower than in a emergent trees. trees are distinctly the surrounding rain forest. further information the reader be referred For may to Heinsditk’s

in Zonneveld He states that forests dominated the pages a.o. (44). by following species can be recognized.

and Hura crepitans, possentrie, on swampy spots on along ridges.

Mora river in the Western of Suriname. excelsa, mora, on banks part

in the of must “Foengoe (Licania sp.) neighbourhood swampy areas”, be the Foengoe-facies (Parinari campestris) of the ridge forests.

Eperua falcata, wallaba, on sand.

Mora in in Suriname. gonggrypii, moraboekia, hilly country western

Goupia glabra, kopie, only in small areas.

Dimorphandra conjugata, dakama, savanna forest, misleadingly cited the forest. under heading swamp

Where dominate in the in the scale palms canopy layer photos on the In be maurisie 1 : 20,000, species can many cases identified, namely (Mauritia flexuosa), maripa (Maximiliana maripa), pina (Euterpe oleracea), kiskismakka (Bactris spp.).

In Venezuela inventarisation was made of the oil palms (105), as the latter be of value. This carried of aerial may economic was out, by means photographs on the scale 1 : 9,000. After sufficient data had been obtained the by detailed field work it proved possible to identify on photos many least where dominant and estimate the seed species at they were to pro- duction of the stands.

difficult The In mixed forest it is very to identify any species. investi- of be mentioned here illustration. gations Paymans(12) may as an He of examined several forest types in Celebes (Indonesia) on plots 9 hectare and found that individuals of in the could be only 2 species upper story

identified with certainty and one other with a fair probability, although available aerial much scale than those the photographs were on a larger of viz. Suriname, 1 : 10,000. SPECIAL PART

CHAPTER III

DESCRIPTION OF THE LANDSCAPE IN THE

INVESTIGATED AREAS

I. Transect the bank’ from Moengo tapoe to ‘Wiawia or Wiawia flat.

With the should be and following description compared map I fig. II

which will be found in the back flap, and the photos 4—22. Figure II

gives a diagrammatical sketch of some illustrative sections of the transect

to show the reader in one look the relation between soil, relative elevation and of aspect the vegetation. This sketch is as realistic as the factual data allowed. To the it different emphasize differences, was necessary to use scales. To visible differences such flat produce elevation in a country, the vertical scale had to be much larger than the horizontal one (10 times

In enlargement was chosen). the vegetation however strata of Vz m had be well between high to pictured as as strata 20 and 35 m and

this have made the to cover range I a gliding scale, first meter being

exagerated 4 times and the following ones represented by gradually until of decreasing lengths at a height 40 m no further increase is added and this maximum is twice the horizontal This allowable length. was as the 40 m is maximum height which is reached by a small number of

tree individuals only.

This line and in first the which was cut investigated two parts; section extended from Moengo tapoe, a bush-negro settlement along the Weyne- road half between and Albina, northwards the “Grote way Moengo up to what be translated Zwiebelzwamp”, may by “Great Swaying swamp”, distance of about 20 km. The “Grote a name Zwiebelzwamp” was spon-

taneously created by someone and readily accepted by the whole staff for its alliteration. The latter the that plastic points to floating peat layer covered of this km wide and and heaved under most 3,5 swamp swayed one’s feet when he tried to walk on it.

The second started fishermen section in a camp situated on a narrow

sand bar behind the vast Wiawia mud flat and extended for ± 14 km

in a south-southwestern direction, ending at the northern side of the Great

Swaying swamp. 29

The first km from the creek 5 Moengo tapoe to Wane belong to the region of the bauxite hills, which near Moengo are in exploitation. These

hills do not the coastal covered with belong to region proper. They are beautiful which is cut down in several the bush forest, spots by negroes in order to obtain room for their shifting agriculture. The valleys between the hills have a marshy forest which is rich in palms. All the of the lies rest transect on marine alluvia, which were deposited in several Their of of the phases. development is an object study geomor- phologists.

For the sake of clearness we will begin the description of the regions visited side and from there by us at the sea proceed landinward, and not

in the in which the carried sequence investigations actually were out.

The saline coastal belt.

The “Wiawia bank” is soft mud low tide about kilo- a vast, flat, at a

meter wide, but so low-lying that at each high tide it is completely submerged for several hours.

It is dorado for a birds, several species of herons and numerous waders; of them part are migratory. The most spectacular bird is the flaming red ibis which lives there in flocks.

After a nice sailing trip from Galibi (Marowijne River) in small Indian called landed sailing boats, “piakka’s” we on the coast at a point where this formed and low offshore bar of white was by a narrow sand on which

the fishermen situated. This bar is formed of sand derived camp was from series of former a offshore bars, the youngest ridges, which East of the strike the line under camp present coast a narrow angle and have partly been broken down the Westward the sand bar which by sea. at high tide is overflown forms regularly a bare beach some 12 m wide with

occasional of Avicennia shrubs. With marked it groups a jump passes

into a covered Near the barrier is found part by vegetation. camp a crest

which is about two feet and which is eroded the high slightly being by sea at tides. spring The top is protected by a vegetation mat mainly consisting of the grass Stenotaphrum secundatum. Furthermore the vegetation consists of and Canavalia Ipomoea pes-caprae maritima, species found on all tropical beaches.

Around the few shrublets furtheron camp only a are seen, an open

scrub is met formed of nitida Avicennia or parwa, and Laguncularia

racemosa or akira, and a few other shrubs.

Behind the offshore bar lies shallow into which it a very lagoon gradually the border delimited band of the slopes. Along a sharply grass Sporobolus is found and few lower of virginicus only a cm patches Sesuvium portu- lacastrum and Iresine vermicularis, two succulent halophytes, are seen.

The depth of the lagoon amounted in November, i.e. at the end of the

to 5—15 We observed the in which it fed dry season, cm. way was

tide with sea water in over the lower of the during spring coming parts 30

sand bar and the forest the through mangrove beyond it. In intervening is and the salt periods strong evaporation taking place, concentration rises

to twice the value found in the but this value is harmful sea, not yet

to the halophytes.

Behind the indicated that the camp many tree stumps not long ago covered with which had been down the fishermen lagoon was parwa, cut by

as fuel in order to “barbacot”, i.e. smoke over a low wood fire, the fish

they had caught. Now the stiff clay soil was bare save here and there a

small of Sesuvium clump or of Iresine. To the West these two halophytes formed somewhat with large patches alternating on higher spots Sporo- shrubs threw bolus virginicus. Here many healthy parwa a light shadow, but the end of the sand bar where the scrub into near open passed a

closed Avicennia wood the herbs disappeared almost completely. In the forest numbers of crabs and the parwa we saw great in open swamp too still The southern border of this first is they were frequent. swamp a

tiny ridge of only a few meters wide and scarcely emerging from the nevertheless it in the it bore water; was very conspicuous landscape as

a row of tall Avicennias with an undergrowth consisting of shrubs of Hibiscus tiliaceus, maho.

The second swamp is as salt as the first one; it begins with the rem-

nants of a parwa forest which has been cut out and burnt and was replaced

of the herbs in the first with the addition of by patches same as swamp Eleocharis here is knee but towards the mutata. The water up to deep South the clay soil rises slowly and there the typical bluish-green, tri-

culms of Eleocharis dominance. A wide quetrous mutata gain complete

of the where little time before fire had it zone swamp a a swept over covered with the culms of this This and was entirely slant young species.

the following zone are visible on the aerial photographs which reveal their but clue that be used for momentary extent, give no can a general the interpretation as aspect is not always the same; the photos 1 :40,000

show other colour tones for the zones than the photos 1 :20,000.

This delimited zone was sharply against a 20 m wide, fresh-green

belt of mixed with few of grass consisting Sporobolus a poor specimens articulatus and and like lawn Cyperus Acnida cuspidata looking a girdling the foot of the wood the second and it on ridge giving a park-like aspect. The slope of the ridge bears salt-tolerant shrubs, especially Rosenbergio-

dendron formosum with its large and fragrant white flowers and Hibiscus

tiliaceus and with twiners which also out into the was hung densely crept

grass. of about above the level The top the ridge 2 m surrounding swamp

covered wood which is in At the South side is by an open poor species. forms sand has been washed down from the ridge over the clay which

the bottom. The foot of the bears a 3 scrub belt of swamp ridge m high

Dalbergia ecastophyllum and the zone which has a superficial sand layer

shows a remarkable form of Brachypteris ovata, which normally is a but here the form of woody twiner appeared in a 1.5—2 m high shrub, 31

about old and from bases that had survived probably 3 years sprouting after fire had the area. a swamp swept

articulatus and Machaerium lunatum scrub. Typha-Cyperus swamp

number of When we have passed this scrub we enter the first of a mesohalinous The 3d in series showed at the time of swamps. swamp our surface with dense our visit hardly any water. It was overgrown a mass of Typha angustifolia and Cyperns articulatus which dominated patch- These and twiners. and wise. plants were accompanied by grasses Here there the fern and a group of enormous Acrostichum aureum was seen, against the border of the second ridge some strange-looking woods caught the to consist of nucleus of Avicennia trees and eye. They appeared a formed a horseshoe-shaped zone by brantimakka, Machaerium lunatum,

of the with. The branches one most dreadful plants to meet very patent

criss-cross and the whole shrub is armed from the are entangled very base to the nerves of the leaves with recurved up strong, prickles ready transfix that touch it. to every object might Through a small tunnel foot cut in the brantimakka wall we were able to penetrate on hand and

in such In the centre the soil covered with numerous one grove. was

pneumatophores of the Avicennia trees which emerged from a 15 cm

chick but loose of and the wet very layer roots peat, resting on clay. The here saline than in the ground water was distinctly more open

swamp, 15,400 mg Cl/1 against 8800.

In the 4th belt of Machaerium scrub had to be swamp a 4 m high tunnelled. The this scrub old passage was extra disagreeable as was so

that under it a knee-deep layer of vegetable mud had been accumulated. This mud had the consistency, colour and odour of fresh cow dung and

appeared to be a characteristic product of the brantimakka scrub. The

and cut-off branches the foot but rather roots in it gave a tricky hold, and no one reached the other side unscratched. South of this belt the

soil and drier. It was higher proved to be inhabited by Montrichardia, Echinochloa and few Jussieua leptocarpa, polystachya a accompanying

species. The southernmost 50 m was formerly covered with Machaerium, but here the brantimakka scrub had recently been burnt down. Between

the coaled remnants a pioneer vegetation consisting of Jussieua leptocarpa, Cissus parkeri and Mikania micrantha had established itself.

Third to sixth ridge with Cereus wood.

The vegetation on the 3d and following ridges becomes gradually richer

in species, although some coastal species disappear. The most remarkable columniform whose reach here species is a Cereus, a cactus stems a height and diameter of and the base. far of 10 m a 20 cm are woody at As the latter as the 6th ridge it was frequent, but beyond it was missing. individuals farther from the The tree grow taller the they are away coast; 32

the 3d and 5th form wood 8 —10 on ridge they an open m high as they

do the second but the wide 4th form forest on one, on 200 m ridge they a which lokus 18—20 contains trees (Hymenaea courbaril) m high. The

5th ridge is too small to bear a forest although it shows some well-developed The small 3d and 5th wide trees. ridge are fringed by a 4—5 m strip which forms transition between the and the a swamp vegetation subgrowth of the forest the of the Notable on centre ridge. species are Panicum tall Solanum and Heliconia mertensii, a grass, stramonifolium, psittacorum; the last named in species growing groups. The 4th like the and ridge is 6th following ones provided with a fringe few wide of about a meters consisting exclusively 3 m high mokomoko,

Montrichardia Aracea with arborescens. a very conspicuous heavy erect

stems. This occurs also in of in species nearly every type swamp except the salt but in the Its dimensions and here ones swamp are smaller it either grows widely scattered or here and there somewhat more close together.

Leersia and hexandra swamps Erythrina glauca groves.

The 5th to 8th to in which the curious swamps belong one type grass

Leersia hexandra dominates. Its lower internodes are slightly inflated and the aid of the latter the formed by lush-green carpet by the upper floats the the ones on water. At time of our visit, i.e. in November, but little and the chlorotic lower of the culms had water was left, parts sunk down and all in the direction under the were lying same carpet.

had of about 60 which They a length cm means that in the rainy season

the mat can be lifted to a of two feet. On last green height my trip I have observed this in where actually a swamp near Nickerie, the water had a of 1 Beard mentions for Trinidad the of depth m. (48) presence formed unidentified floating mats by an Leersia in pools where the water

rises to a of 2 He does not whether the periodically height m. say grass

was rooted in the mud at the bottom, but judging from what I have seen in Suriname, I suppose that it will have been.

But few other are between the In the 5th plants growing grass. swamp which is still brackish some small of (4100 mg Cl/1) clumps papaja gras, and these tall Cyperus giganteus (or comosus) appear Cyperaceae become and in the more more prominent following swamps. As a rarity we met here of the This a large patch cosmopolitan Phragmites communis. euryoe- cious species is rare in Suriname and restricted to brackish habitats. This

means that the in the fresh-water is too probably competition swamps severe for it.

In all of this found of and in swamps type we groups brantimakka,

the 5th and 6th ones also burnt remnants of this scrub whereas the 6th

8th characterised the of of to are by presence groups Erythrina glauca or koffiemama, which is widely used in coffee plantations as a shade tree.

In the the of these grass swamp dome-shaped groups trees present a 33

beautiful when covered with the sight, especially they are bright orange flowers and dark mokomoko. The of the 6th and fringed by green water

7th contained 1000—2000 and that of the 8th swamp mg Cl/1 was

100—200 The last-named only slightly oligohalinous with mg Cl/1. swamp already showed large patches of Cyperus giganteus, especially in its sou- thern and it forms therefore transition to the fresh-water part, a swamps

found between km 5.5 and 9.5.

Second series of and ridges Cyperus giganteus swamps.

The 8th from fo- swamp is separated its neighbours by the extensive rests of the 7th and 8th ridge. These ridges are not like the first 6 single sandbars but they consist of several sandbars formed in so close succession that left between them. These bear only slight depressions are depressions a marsh forest. They are visible on the aerial photographs as distinct streaks running through the forest.

In the 8th ridge two of the depressions are wider and deeper than the other and form of The km contains ones, narrow strips swamp. one at 5.2 the the 8th and in addition shrubs of same species as swamp Chrysobalanus icaco; the other one at km 5.7 has a dense vegetation of Cyperus giganteus like the between km and which just large swamps 6.5 9.5 interchange

with sand bars. In of these again single most parts swamps Cyperus gigan-

teus in a more or less closed stand. Near the border of the grows swamps it is and in the where the densest, nearly pure up tot 4 m high; centre water is the individuals about further mixed deeper are 2 m high, apart, with mokomoko and with of the fern some an undergrowth Dryopteris gongylodes, which is sometimes accompanied by Blechnum indicum. A few

twiners wind through the tall herbage.

Starting with the 7th ridge the margins and the depressions remain all the round less soaked and marsh forest year more or are occupied by with Triplaris surinamensis (mierenhout), Virola surinamensis (baboen),

Euterpe oleracea (pina), Cecropia peltata (bospapaja), Genipa americana.

Simaba multiflora. Caryocar microcarpum and Aulomyrcia pyrifolia as and important trees a palm, Bactris sp., in the understory. Typical for the lower is km first parts Bonafousia tetrastachya. Near 6.5 the maurisie

Mauritia which further the South become palms, flexuosa appear, to dominant the of the but along margin swamp, penetrate as single specimens the These with their leaves in swamp proper. palms large palmate are

characteristic feature. In instances a very many they grow up to mag- nificent trees which are even recognizable on the aerial photographs.

They are generally accompanied by numerous individuals of the shrub

Chrysobalanus icaco.

the aerial of this in of this On photographs region some swamps type

curious feature noted. the uniform of the herbaceous a very was In gray of formed kind of check growth clumps woody plants a pattern. In our

such between km 9.2 and and found transect we met a spot 9.5, we

33 34

that the formed of low dams and which pattern was by rows islets, rose

above the level and covered with shrubs 30—50 cm present swamp were and small trees. The latter belonged to the same species as were found

in the marsh forest. About the origin of these nicely arranged elevations

we are still completely in the dark. several and the In the marsh-forest belt in places gullies are present

formation of these be of similar that of the gullies may a nature as

check pattern.

The old ridges beyond km 9.5.

9.5 At km we reach a new extensive ridge-complex which shows differences relief than the earlier Landinwards greater in ones. we see

from the data provided by the levelling of our transect a general though

slow rise of the surface but there is also increase in the relative very an of the above the height ridges surrounding swamps (see fig. II). The bottom of the first four lies circa above the swamps 40—50 cm

that of 70—80 mean sea level, the following four circa cm. The youngest

ridges reach elevations of 2 m, the 4th and 6th of 3 m, and the 7th and

8th ridge-complex rise locally to 4 or 5 m. The Cyperus giganteus

all have bottom level of circa The small between swamps a 1.70 m. ridges them and the first half kir of the South of these ridge-complex swamps

rise to 4.20 m and in one place only to 4.70 m, but beyond km 10 the

ridge-complex rises markedly and forms plateaus between 7 and 8 m

the of 8.85 km 12.7. West high maximum m being reached near of km of into the and 11 a tip a swamp penetrates ridge-complex comes to

within 100 off transect. It is covered with stand of m our a nearly pure

Rhynchospora vs. gigantea, a large Cyperacea with sharply toothed leaves, but this swamp was not more closely investigated. Smaller depressions in the ridge-complex are filled with marsh forest.

The bear of 6 forest dry parts up to a height m a which comes in its close the lowland forests outside the coastal composition very to region,

but shows in the marked dominance of Parinari canopy a foengoe, cam-

The that rise above 6 pestris. plateaus m are occupied by a new vegetation forest wood which consists of small number type, savanna or savanna a

of tall trees and a large number of slender, medium-sized ones and shows

but little undergrowth. As soon as a ridge is formed, leaching of the sand

by rainwater sets in and for this reason we note an increasing podsolisation

of the soil, when we cross the ridges from North to South. In the higher

of the old this has been at work for time parts ridges process a long and much than in the lower in the more intensely parts. If clay profile is almost A-horizon of white sand completely lacking an purely occurs,

which on account of its situation far above the ground water level

desiccates the these white the very strongly in dry season. On sands savanna

forest has It Is in its different from the developed. composition very com-

mon ridge forest (see chapter IX). 35

The swaying swamps.

At km 13 enter the last and remarkable we a swamp belonging to most

type that occurs in this region. This is the already mentioned “zwiebel- the zwamp”. At end of November the water level stood here at 3.70m above

sea level, i.e. above the level of the considerably Cyperus giganteus swamps. As is shown the aerial these form clearly by photographs swamps a coherent The system. ridge crossed between km 13.4 and 13.7 is inter-

several and the islands rupted at places 2 some 700 m South of this

relicts of another It is whether ridge are apparently one. not yet certain

this holds true also for the islands in the southern of this part swamp.

to Bakker this must have obtained its According (26) area present aspect after invasion of the an sea through the forelying ridge-complex. This would have when happened at a time the coast line lay somewhere near km 10. The have invading sea must destroyed parts of the existing ridges and tidal currents must have eroded the bottom and strong swamp worn

out channels in it. This would that these deep explain swamps nowadays reach of several in a depth meters; one place even a gully was measured

5.50 m deep.

Where these than find swamps are more 1 m deep we a peat layer the and that the floating on surface, we note latter becomes stronger and

thicker when the depth of the increases. In the between swamp swamp km 13 and 13.4 and in the northern half of the great swaying swamp the is thick and well peat layer strong, 1.5—2 m passable. The dominant here is plant Lagenocarpus guianensis, a 1.5—2 m tall Cyperacea with

sharp-edged leaves, accompanied by mokomoko, Eleocharis interstincta and and Rhynchospora triflora, a meagre inconspicuous species, not

from A maurisie previously reported Guiana. few palms are scattered over

the and 50 South of the last swamp, m ridge a strip is covered with small shrubs of Chrysobalanus icaco. Especially between km 13.2 and 13.3 but elsewhere also small bodies of open water are found with submersed

and odorata This Mayaca longipes Nymphaea floating in it. little water-

lily known from the southern U.S. and Cuba flowers with spotless white flowers which are open only in the morning hours and contrast beauti-

with the dark brown water and the the fully bright green leaves. Along of these margins pools we find Drosera capillaris and sometimes Lycopo-

dium meridionale. Our visits too short to find in which were out way these formed. found pools were In some places they are rather close

and this to the that the together points possibility peat layer may at one

time have been torn to and that these later pieces, pieces on may once

more have in similar grown together a way as ice-floes, leaving gaps between them. In these the bottom of the could be pools swamp fathomed, but this was not possible everywhere. To our surprise the pools between km 13.2 and 13.3 with continuous the were only knee-deep, a peat layer at bottom. This still here peat layer was so strong that the pools could be crossed without difficulty. For the origin of these pools another expla-

nation will have to be found. 36

It struck that correlation exist between the and the me a might gaps

scattered maurisie When palms. such trees are uprooted by one of the rare their take with disk of which that storms, rootsystem might it a peat in

case would out and in the air. that due dry decay We may expect in time the will without but found trees disappear leaving a trace, we as yet no actual facts this to support hypothesis.

The walls of the pools are always vertical. Some of the plants growing the border here and there the along penetrate into pools. They belong

to Eleocharis and mainly interstincta, Rhynchospora triflora Fuirena um-

bellata. the of the formation is However, conquest pools by new peat apparently slow.

In the southern half of the crossed great swaying swamp our traject

two of the more or less roundish islands. Between these two islands the

about 2 while the swamp was m deep, peat layer was only 40—50 cm thick and loose. This made it difficult very very to move over it and

at several it was to sticks the in order spots necessary lay on peat to that sank it. efforts prevent we through However, our were richly rewarded because detected here real we a floating savanna, complete with the small had heard even shrubs, a thing we never off. The species that for the are typical on the are all vegetation strong peat the same rather and rather far The present although poorly developed apart. true

savanna species, like Hypolythrum pulchrum, Burmannia bicolor Mart.,

Polygala appressa Benth., Xyris spp., Abolboda americana (Aubl.) Lanj.,

Panicum cyanescens Nees, Catasetum spp., Lycopodium spp., and Utricu-

laria must have into this from the spp. penetrated area savannas further South.

A 100 m North of the southernmost island at km 18, measured from

the bottom of the rises rather Moengo tapoe, swamp rapidly to half a

meter below the surface and here the ends The floating peat abruptly.

plants are rooting now in the heavy clay which forms the bottom of the and form dominated swamp they an open community by another coarse tuberculata. sedge viz. Becquerelia Its associates are Rhynchospora cyperoi- des and the that for the This extends species are typical peat. community the southern border of the but to swamp, an isolated patch was found

in the form of a small bog in a depression in the savanna at km 12.1.

South of the last island in the between the floating open water plants

some fine Utricularias were found and also the closely related Biovularia

olivacea, one of the smallest Phanerogams. It has solitary white flowers,

2 and few threadlike mm across, a vegetative parts. South of these the the oldest interesting swamps on way to ridges we reach scrub which a vegetation is intermediate between savanna scrub and the marsh forest the borders. along swamp The soil under the scrub

shows well developed kawfoetoes, i.e. the bad hogwallow structure which

is the result of alternate inundation and desiccation and soil erosion on

The Surinam heavy clay. name kawfoetoe, meaning cow’s foot, is derived from its resemblance with mud trampled by cattle. 37

The oldest ridges and the savannas.

oldest 7.50 The series of ridges has maximum elevations of 6.75 to m. the between them marsh Here too depressions are occupied by forest, and the and lower forest dominated Parinari slopes parts by by cam- This North of the pestris, foengoe. is just as on the ridge complex swaying but the central here further and swamps, plateaus are degraded no longer

covered by savanna forest but by a savanna. The latter consists partly of dense scrub of herbaceous with scattered bushes. a partly a vegetation The soil has ABC with A of white sand and an profile an stratum poor,

to iron of an up 50 cm thick, continuous, impenetrable pan at a depth This this the 70—90 cm. iron pan is sligthly convex allowing in way

rainwater drain the sides of the under the to away to ridge where, forest,

the becomes less resistent and less continuous and in the end pan gradually the soil of the the hard disappears. As savannas is separated by pan

from the groundwater it severely desiccates in the dry season and this

seasonal water deficit is apparently the limiting factor to tree growth.

Only a few maurisie palms thrive here. As other authors already have

be able the iron with their suggested they seem to to traverse pan roots.

South of the from km 14.2 km 6 with flat ridges to we meet a very

savanna landscape showing both in the field and from the air all the flats. The features of an old coastal area consisting of shallows and mud of the mud flats has of above the surface an elevation 3.5—4.5 m present

mean sea level, some of the shallow depressions one of 2 m. From North

to South the savanna soil generally changes from fine light-coloured sandy

with bad structure in which can clay to heavy clay a very plantroots

cracks and fissures. In the of penetrate only along type vegetation we foundbut differences between sand and and from slight clay savanna, seen all these have the the air savannas same aspect. Many species are in- from these the dependent two soil-profile types. Apparently structure of

the is that the water is low and the root- clays so bad, capacity very

of the small. The in the last volume plants very floating savanna swamp in All these habitats have low and grows oligotrophic water. a pH a in the deficiency available nutrients, though exact figures are not yet

available. The plant cover varies from a dense thicket, necessitating

much make with cutting to passage possible, to an open plain widely

shrubs and of the with some scattered very incomplete coverage ground

small and and numerous other herbs and grasses, many larger sedges subshrubs.

soil the Wherever drainage and structure of the are better, savanna less well forest. This close vegetation gives way to more or developed

correlation, combined with apparently complete absence of savanna fires, this (the Indians in the neighbourhood knew nothing of savanna fires in for area) and of abrupt changes from one community to another plead a

high degree of naturalness of these coastal savannas. of forest The savanna is not only intersected by belts and patches but 38

also creeks. km the of by some One we crossed at 12.9, was dry at time our visit, but the soil which was rich in humus was damp and the bed filled with trees, mostly Symphonia globulifera, matakki, with knee-shaped of low pneumatophores. Outside the bed we find zones bush on kaw-

is foetoe or hogwallow soil which inundated only in the long rainy season.

A creek from East West is the km larger flowing to Djai creek; at 8.7 it was still half a meter deep, but at other places it had run dry. The southern bank and is steep rises directly to a well-developed forest, but on the northern bank we find a 100 m wide foreland with many-stemmed shrub-like and trees, mainly Aulomyrcia pyrifolia Amanoa guyanensis.

Southward the savanna is bordered by a forest belt extending along the Wane Creek, which has forelands with a rich mixed marsh forest, and

South of this creek we enter the area of the bauxite hills mentioned at the of beginning our report.

II. Coronie.

Halfway on the road between the mouth of the Coppename River and the settlement i.e. km found that had been Coronie, near 21, we a camp used during the building of this road. As it had been repaired for us, we could at once into. A small of the is found Inset of move map area as and shows base map II, fig. II at the a sketch of two sections of our second transect. Two before the Amson had years surveyor van cut, measured and leveled several lines in this area. Two of these lines from km 20.8 and 21.6 southward and were opened once more, as it appeared that most of the hectometer marks were still intact and readable, we could use the figures reported by van Amson.

Brackish area North of the road.

From km 21.6 a new line, 3.5 km long, was cut northward to the sea. it ended low cliff which the Here abruptly on a is constantly beaten by waves and which therefore gradually draws back. The cliff consists of stiff and bears dense forest which stands little clay a mangrove just a above the normal high tide mark and is destroyed at the same rate at which the cliff recedes (photo 23). The abraded material is the in the form of soft deposited by sea a very mud flat at the foot of the cliff. The regression of the coastline is irregular so that little are formed, which are in the aerial bays very conspicuous The is here forest with few photographs. mangrove a parwa a Laguncularia small shrubs and some specimens of the fern Acrostichum. These plants are unable to withstand the inroads of the The shallow sea. very rootsystem is easily undermined and by their own weight the trees tumble forwards in the sea and perish. the the land down into Away from sea slopes very gradually an and there the forest first into dense oligohalinous swamp parwa passes a 39

from the and then Laguncularia thicket near km 2.1 (measured road), variable Stretches dominated alternate into a swamp vegetation. by Typha with of Andira Ficus and Annona groups shrubby trees, mainly inermis, sp glabra, and with dense stands of the fern Blechnum indicum (photo 24).

The last Avicennias km where the water were seen near 1.7, swamp

to contain Cl/1. Westwards the becomes proved 360 mg swamp vegetation and herbaceous whereas eastward the shrub and more more tree groups behind the belt coalesce form forest. mangrove to a swamp whose from the This swamp, water depth varies 5 —40 cm, reaches up to shell ridge over which the road is built, and which down to a depth of several formed somewhat more than 2 m consists of layers alternately of entire and of broken shells, and is underlain by sand.

and fresh-water South of the road. Ridge complex swamp

Across the road the rises around above ridge our camp to 1 m mean

and then in 2nd line into small wood with sea level, drops our a swamp much koffiemama, Erythrina glauca. This wood borders a 70 m wide and

± 90 cm deep swamplet which bears a strangling vegetation consisting of

Ipomoea parkeri, Polygonum acuminatum and Panicum mertensii. These rooted thick of Under plants are in a some 40 cm floating layer peat. the weight of a man the mat was submerged, but it held and it allowed therefore a fairly easy passage. follows Then a marsh wood interspersed with bushes consisting almost entirely of Flibiscus tiliaceus, maho, and merging into mixed forest where the ground rises a little. We are here on a slightly undulating ridge com- plex running from km 0.2 to 1.7 and rising only 0—80 cm above mean level. This have sunken with the sea complex must respect to present

for the lower and sea level, now parts are permanently waterlogged covered with marsh forest the soil but upper strata everywhere are decalcinated down about and this be the result of to 40—80 cm can only lower. leaching by rainwater in a period when the groundwater table was shell but At a greater depth the sand contains fragments not in great quantities. Between km 1.63 and 1.7 a shell concentration is found at the surface and this find Ceiha at place we many big kankantries, pentandra.

The sand is rich in muscovite and the soil water is more or less brackish:

The marsh forest is dominated either 200—6800 mg Cl/1. locally by pina palms, Euterpe oleracea, by a widely branched and buttressed Ficus species

Hura Between km 0.6 and 1.0 the last or by crepitans, possentrie. one forms the stands of and on wettest places closed big trees up to 30 m high

80 cm in diameter.

The forest the resembles in the forests met on dry parts aspect ridge we but number of that in the Wiawia transect, it contains a species are not found for and there, example Couroupita guianensis, a canopy tree, of calcium Trichilia trinitensis, a small tree. Whether the higher amount their that and muscovite is responsible for presence or not, is a question 40

be decided have data with other can not yet as we no regard to shell-ridge complexes. km the ends and belt of At 1.7 ridge its vegetation passes via a narrow marsh forest and broad belt of forest with Tabebuia pina a swamp or

zwamp panta, Pterocarpus officinalis or waterbébé, Ficus sp. and the fern into fern and Blech- Dryopteris gongylodes a swamp (mainly Dryopteris with and of the num) over 50 cm water a strong peat layer 50 cm on

of the subsoil in Suriname called this scattered clay pegasse. In swamp grow shrubs and under which treelets, maurisie soon plays an important part

furtheron accompanied by Chrysobalanus icaco. The water is completely

50—70 and dark brown from the of humic acids. fresh, mg Cl/1, presence km and the line and that Between 2.6 2.7 a narrow ridge crosses beyond

stretches the a swamp uninterrupted up to Wayombo River as van Amson,

who it in the of his The aerial conquered course surveys, reported. photo- graphs confirm this, but show that the vegetation varies considerably.

The first we visited, bears the same of as the part type vegetation swamp the North of but southward extensive forests to it, swamp appear on the photos.

A from km 20.8 the parellel line, our first, starting on road, shows the the small South of the shell same general picture, swamp ridge being

reduced here to a wide ditch. The sandy ridge complex is here slightly

drier and in the depressions possentrie, Hura crepitans, is absent. This line further than well into the South of was not cut swamp this ridge

complex that ends at km 1.7.

Third and fourth line.

A little more westwards the sandy ridge complex is split in two and at

road km 300 South of the fresh-water 18.9, a good m road, a swamp

here 600 wide and similar begins, already m covered by a floating mat

as is found in the small in the first described line. The swamp reason

we wished to make a short line at this in why point, was the presence the of which the the aerial swamp a dome-shaped grove caught eye on for its As mentioned in photographs unique appearance. chapter II field reconnaissance showed that it was a pure stand of Rhizophora mangle, which here distance from its normal but grew at a large habitat, apparently

well 1.20 fresh thriving quite in m deep water.

North of the road small shell bars have been deposited, separated by of thickets of but narrow strips swamp bearing brantimakka showing

no other essential differences with the North of km swamp vegetation 21.6.

Totness.

last The day we paid a short visit to the settlement Coronie. From

Totness the fresh-water canal leads southward through the ridges which here with into where are mainly planted coconuts, a vast swamp, Cyperus articulatus, Typha angustifolia and Rhynchospora corymbosa locally do- 41

in has been described who studied this area minate as by Lanjouw (33), with 1933. At the point where the canal crosses the road it is provided

in connection with the and serves a lock; the northern part is open sea

harbour. East of this of the the has been reclaimed as part canal swamp and is now in use as a rice polder. the The coastline here is formed by a narrow shell bar deposited on clay and covered with scrub of Avicennia and an open consisting Laguncularia with patches of Sesuvium. From the bar the clay slopes rather steeply shown to the muddy foreshore. Here too the coast is in regression, as is but the erosion did lead by the remnants of shrubs on the foreshore, not

to the formation of a cliff. and further Near the mouth of the canal we find much Sporobolus

Iresine, Sesuvium, Batis, Fimbristylis spathacea and Capraria biflora.

III. Nickerie.

I obtained an impression of this NW-corner of Suriname during a

number of short trips made in several directions. I had the good luck to

at moment when in the that were selected to be come just a swamps

in the future lines had been cleared. impoldered near many exploration The lines traced with bold dots The investigated by me are on map II. collected of them made historical data along two are already facts, as

at the time of writing the Nanni polder situated along the Corantine

River between the Clara polder and the Nanni creek has been made

East Groot Henar ready, and of Paradise the works on the polder are advancing rapidly. The trial polder South of Paradise, which I have

seen before it was laid dry and also two weeks later after it had been

is for in under the drained, already some years production new name of Prins Bernhard polder.

North of the I of Nickerie River visited as guest some Hindustani fishermen the creek and the the the swamps along Huntley BIgie pan,

westernmost of series of behind the where a open lagoons mangrove belt, the fishermen have their built above the camps on piles water.

The longest trip was along the Nickerie River to Gupido, an Indian

short distance the Maratakka River from where village, a up a one year

old line could be used over one of the rare ridges of considerable extent

In that have been formed in this area. the forest this line was easily visible

but where It merged into a swamp thicket it disappeared altogether.

belt and brackish North of the Nickerie River. Mangrove swamps

If we follow now the vegetational changes from North to South, we

find along the coast the usual broad belt of parwa forest which narrows and bends inwards along the'banks of the Nickerie River. West of the

mouth a triangular mud flat called Blufpunt protrudes seawards. It is

covered with a thicket of Laguncularia and Avicennia shrubs backed by an

with herbs. The latter extends the that open strip halophytic along dyke 42

the of protects polders. West Blufpunt the coast line in front of the dyke

is regressing under the attacks of the sea and from aerial photographs we see Ill, that in ten the sea has here to (fig. p. 51) years gained up

500 m on the land.

A little further West mixed forest with tall a magnificent mangrove fronts the stands trees ocean. It on a 1—1.5 m high cliff, and here too the coast is receding (photos 25, 26).

the coastline North of the Fortunately not everywhere goes back; silt is and It scrub lagoons being deposited over a mangrove presses seaward. Near creek the new Kanja (the middle one of three creeks the with the this scrub km connecting Bigie pan sea) zone is 1 deep.

It consists of young more or less shrubby Avicennias mixed with much and seaward Laguncularia decreasing in height from 6—7 m to about 3 m. Still younger plants have established themselves in front of the closed scrub small elevations on in the mud which are separated by a network of shallow gullies. At this place the coast is apparently still advancing. In the oldest the soil has been silted the part up to above normal high tide mark but the border of the full-grown parwa forest at the back is

from the the land into markedly higher. Away sea slopes very gradually the where the creeks old lagoon. Just break through the high clay bar we

find in the forest flats with of parwa open clay only some specimens

Sporoholus virginicus and Sesuvium. According to the fishermen these places

were shallow be the formerly open pools. High salinity may reason why the has been of vegetation suppressed. Along the margin the old land a

narrow band of shells has been Near the creek deposited. Kanja it was

5 but the this only m wide, vegetation on strip was different from the

one. Under the shrubs noted several surrounding mangrove we grasses, and the creole fishermen who had a camp here, on the highest point of the creek had told that this bank, even planted some potatoes. They us miniature ridge runs slightly winding, and furtheron also widening, as far as the mouth of the Nickerie River. This is confirmed by the aerial which photographs, on it can be traced as a light line because the shrubs and herbs on the shell bar do not form a closed cover. Where it reaches

the it forms bare beach. Where the soil has present coastline, a sunk well

under the water table of the the forest lagoon parwa gradually opens up. First there small and where the about appear openings water was 50 cm

at the time of visit in the forest Is into deep my May, disrupted groups of surrounded dense of which from trees by a carpet pneumatophores, rise bottom of about the to a height 10 cm over the water surface. Between

these find of Avicennia and of the Pas- roots we seedlings clumps grass

palum vaginatum and some specimens of Iresine vermicularis. Here and

there of Acrostichum Is a group aureum seen (photo 27).

South of this the offers 60—90 water-park open lagoon fine, cm deep

fishing waters. Clusters of Ruppia maritima form its only vegetation. At the southern side beautiful strikes the scattered a scenery eye. Here trees and of Avicennia in the midst of varied mosaic groups appear once more a 43

of herbs. Richly flowering Nymphaea ampla forms together with floating

of and duck weed the base of the On this base clumps algae pattern. fresh are spread disks and rings of Limnobium stoloniferum, green on if the is the outside, old and brown in the centre, where, water 50—55 cm deep, this species is replaced by Paspalum vaginatum or Eleocharis mutata. with The patches formed by these two species are not always fringed

Limnobium and most of them are crowned by a central bouquet of

Jussieua decurrens, Torulinium ferax or Acnida cuspidata (photos 28, 29).

Where the depth decreases to 40—45 cm the patches approach each other and form stand of Eleocharis In a fol- may a nearly pure mutata. In the succession of make their lowing stage groups Typha angustifolia

and southward becomes dominant and remains appearance Typha so over unknown Under and the several climbers an distance. in parwas common

flower. Finely coloured birds are busying around and enliven the scene and the small birds which house in colonies in the against sky akkas, prey feed the numberless snails parwa trees are circling. They on water living between the Nymphaea. Along the Huntley creek which Is everywhere the mouth with find except near fringed parwa trees we vast swamp of and with savannas consisting Eleocharis mutata Cyperus articulatus scattered These in the groups op parwa (photo 30). swamp savannas are shallow of wet season submerged in a layer water but in the dry season

the soil is merely boggy. Close to the mouth of the creek the vegetation into in the changes a belt of swamp forest, similar to that sea line near

Coronie, along the Nickerie River. Mangrove is confined here to a narrow strip along the bank.

In the middle of the band of low forest could be swamp savannas a

which must of the and small in this seen grow on one scarce ridges area. Lack of time this but farmer has shown prohibited to penetrate to ridge a

me the remainder of a similar ridge opposite Nieuw Nickerie some 400 m North of the enclosed forest stiff river by parwa growing on saline clay.

It had a soil consisting of light-coloured, fine sand, was only slightly higher than the clay around and possessed brackish ground water (6000 the low mixed wood with mg Cl/1); vegetation was many lianas very off the forest and related that the sharply set against parwa to on second ridge in the Wiawia line.

the chief of the fishermen told of Bone, me something about the history the The have been lagoons. Bigie pan must once a vast Typha swamp before the which creeks by it is now connected with the sea, came into existence. After the In the of the forest gaps relatively high clays parwa formed the creeks and invaded the were the sea deepened Typha swamp it into Then and converting an open lagoon. silting at the foreshore began lost much of influence the The salt the sea its on lagoon. water was

substituted fresh and the gradually by water, so present oligohalinous

From the South the forward with state arose. vegetation presses a speed which in the of the fishermen who their in the eyes earn living open water is highly alarming. Between the waterlilies they can still fish, but where 44

Paspalum and Eleocharis have established themselves this is out of question

Bone said, that the zone where I investigated the succession mosaic, was

five before water. On the southern where years open side, now many

of 10 before few groups parwas were present, years only a scattered individuals could be found.

The level sinks the water considerably in dry season, but only in the

excessively long and intense drought of 1946—47 the water fell so far

that of the bottom became and that all the large parts lagoon exposed fish died. that larger In year many parwa seeds germinated on moist

under water seems In earlier the places; germination impossible. years fishermen had their fishing waters due North of Nieuw Nickerie and closer

at hand, but in 1930 they must have worked there for the last time because

then all had The aerial nearly open water disappeared. photographs show dense and uniform herb similar that of the now a carpet to visited the swamp savannas we along Huntley creek.

Fresh-water area South of the Nickerie River.

From the Nickerie River an Immense fresh-water extends south- swamp wards. Around Nieuw Nickerie and Waterloo of this have parts swamp been and are being impoldered. The vegetation is a mosaic with Typha

and either alone in angustifolia, Cyperus giganteus swamp ferns, or local and woods of combination, as dominants, groves or Erythrina glauca, koffiemama, or consisting mainly of Pterocarpus officinalis or waterbébé, and here Tabebuia swamppanta, aquatilis (photo 31, 32).

The of this varies from 30 1.20 and The depth swamp cm to m more.

soil is covered with less Under fern stands have clay more or pegasse. I

measured 60 of this but of the up to cm peat, a superintendent Service of Public Works told that in other lines 2 me prospection up to m peat

was found. Since the dam in the Nanni creek has been built which was

done in order to lead the water into the “van Wouw” canal, the water level

in these has been stabilized level. Before that swamps at a relatively high

time fell the water considerably in the dry season. I was told that the

vegetation had not changed after the stabilization, but that Cyperus gigan- did reach its former size. This is well in accordance teus no longer very what the where with we saw in Wiawia transect the tallest papajagras that in the grows on places are marshy only dry season.

In the few small found in the Those western part a ridges are polders.

of the Clara have in natural the South polder I seen a fairly state, only

interference cattle that in the situated being were pastured swamp East

of the ridge and that came to these ridges to rest in the shade of the

of the Wouw-canal close the trees. One piece a ridge along van to Nanni

creek was so low that the surface was 5 —20 cm under water. The wood

it showed mixture of and with dense on a swamp ridge species a very subgrowth.

the Nickerie River bend to the Where, going up stream, we see S.E., 45

the banks mixed forest the mangrove along gradually gives way to on levees. This forest on soil has in with clayey many species common The inundation tides and other young ridges. periodical at spring high floods does not the of A little of hamper growth these trees. West post Utrecht the mouth of the Maratakka River of lines at parts prospection could be used. The levees backwards towards slope slowly swamp. On the northern bank the forest into scrubwood changes gradually a swamp with climbers and which difficult many large herbs, Is very to penetrate, so that we had no opportunity to reach the dry forest beyond. On the southern bank the levee forest into wood. At the passes swamp same time it which allows of tall opens up, patches Cyperaceae to appear. The latter each other the treelets approach more closely, as swamp begin to and coalesce. In the herbaceous of the disappear, finally swamp most treelets dead the result of fire which had were as a swept across it some before in the years dry season.

The Indian village Cupido at the Maratakka River is situated on a ridge. On the western side of the river beyond an old loop that had been cut this continues and off, ridge slightly undulating showing many marshy between the the marsh forest strips dry parts. In Euterpe oleracea, the reaches several pina palm, in places complete dominance, while Carapa well procera, krappa, too was very represented; it yielded in May a rich harvest of fruits. the ripe In village women were busy to make oil out of

the seeds. A large conspicuous feature of the dry forest was formed by several of gigantic nests leaf-cutting ants, Atta cephalotes. These nests are built in the soil and the excavated sand is deposited in numerous bare

which are to 0.5 and in diameter. cones, up m high 2 m North of the dense marsh ridge we met a very scrub-wood with much

Hibiscus tiliaceus, but this wood crossed. Furtheron was not a swamp

must follow.

IV. Tibiti.

The Tibiti savanna was Investigated during our third trip. It is just outside the coastal region and will therefore not be discussed here in

detail, but some records from this area will be used for comparison.

A brief sketch is inserted here and small is added II. very a map to map The Indian Tibiti sabana is situated the village on a high part on

southern bank of the Tibiti 300 River in a circ. m wide forest strip. Our made the camp was at western edge of the village where behind the high bank the soil forms a depression with Mora forest. The latter formed

the continuation of the on the low bank below vegetation our camp. Behind this forest lies strip an oval artificial savanna of 3 by 2 km which

is burnt in the The lower has every year dry season. part a good soil

of with a content of humus in the consisting sandy clays varying top-

and a content of sand. This of layer high coarse part the savanna

reaches an elevation of about 5.50 m above the mean sea level. South- 46

wards the surface soil rises to 12 m, and the becomes sandy and more and more leached. The fire savanna is surrounded by forest and in

the South by savanna wood interrupted along the 1st line by patches of herb open and scrub savanna. Eastward from the savanna a line

was cut across the valley of the Koemboe creek. It passed alternatingly

wood and forest and ended in white-sand through savanna an open km about altitude. Small savanna at 5.8 lying at 12 m creeks have cut

deep into the sand. The bottom of these valleys is occupied by marsh forest

on mud and rich in whereas the deep peaty wet, grey clay humus, along lower of the Koemboe creek belts of forest part swamp are found.

From the the Nassau mountains 150 km the trip to some up Marowijne

River only a few observations of the forest on the badly drained river

terrace at the foot of the mountain and one record of the forest on the

slope will be used.

CHAPTER IV

MANGROVE AND STRAND

I. the lower the Mangrove belts along part of rivers.

the whole coast of Suriname belt of is found Along a mangrove varying in width from km the mouths of the 0.5 to 4 or, rarely, more. At large

rivers the bends land inwards and follows the river banks for mangrove

shorter distance. travels Dr made a longer or During many Geijskes in observations on the changes along the riverbanks in the tidal zone and could extend these intend some places we during our expedition. As we

discuss this in I will confine here to matter a separate paper, myself to

some general remarks. In the coastal and savanna region the larger rivers

have little fall to the first in the hill and tidal very up rapids country, far inland while the movements are perceptible current pendulates over a

considerable distance. At Tibiti sabana, for instance, 80 km from the mouth of the the difference between flood and Coppename River mean ebb was of the order of 1 m (1.20 m at spring tide) and at each tide

the flowed for about hours. water upstream 4

The salt content in the estuaries varies considerably. In the rainy down the the be but in season to a point near mouth, water may fresh,

the long dry season the salt limit shifts over a considerable distance land inwards. this for the In excessively dry years may cause difficulties

in this for when there is of this plantations region a shortage water, can be remedied only by letting in the brackish watei from the river.

As a rule the vegetation along the riverbanks shows the following the mouth action becomes of little pattern. At as soon as wave importance the of the tidal mangro, Rhizophora mangle, occupies greater part steep 10—15 zone along the bank and forms a dense m high strip of wood in 47

front of the forest which and behind the levee. parwa grows on Locally the belt be of mangro may interrupted by groves akira, Laguncularia race- which in these reaches and mosa, places apparently never tree habit, very

— where the soon water is not more than polyhalinous — also by brantimakka scrub. Land inwards the forest decreases parwa in depth with salt decreasing influence, and at the same time akira decreases in number and Where soon disappears. as a rule the water is either fresh or oligo-

Montrichardia makes its in halinous, mokomoko, arborescens, appearance the front line and forms stands in -from soon dense, up to 4 m high a zone about level downwards neap-tide to a depth of at least 2 m below it.

Beyond the limit where parwa forest is replaced by mixed levee forest does parwa not disappear altogether but there occur scattered trees in the low belt, in the the river where marginal same way as mangro higher up it is its In this both beyond optimum. way mangrove species occur well the salt limit beyond in completely fresh water. This we know from the data collected the Service of Public which by Works, during many years has determined the salt of that content water samples, were and still are taken daily at high and low tide in several localities.

The occurrence of Rhizophora and Avicennia in permanently fresh makes water it fairly certain — though no soil samples from such localities

were — that both thrive well without analysed mangrove species can salt, fact times but a discussed many never fully proved.

Davis has and Avicennia in the in (66) grown Rhizophora laboratory saltless but after the soil, some years plants succumbed. This, however,

have been due unnatural conditions. the may to Davis reports occurrence of isolated stands at the inland borders of fresh-water Rhizophora swamps.

The salt content of the water was here in 3 successive and years 55, 39 44 Cl/1. In his conclusions he is cautious. “The soil solution mg very

usually is more saline and fluctuates less than the surface water.” "Only few saltmarsh and that a mangrove plants are halophytes definitely depend Most of the facultative wide upon high salinity. mangroves are to a range of salinity. A brackish condition (1 —2% NaCl)] is most favourable for

the optimum growth of mangroves.” Huber (84) observed Rhizophora ill

Amazone the estuary in fresh water, but in these localities he recognized

a different form with later many-flowered racemes, var. racemosa. In a he have found this other publication (85) reports to variety in rivers in

Brazil the in salt water well. Hitchcock that near coast as (81) supposes under the fresh in the rivers salt undercurrent should water a penetrate far but as as halophytes occur, Mr Ferguson, a hydraulic engineer, in tidal told that the mouth of working areas, me near a river fresh and

salt water are effectively mixed by turbulence and that therefore the of undercurrent far from the mouth presence a salt is highly improbable. hand the On one Suriname rivers are unusually deep, 10 —25 m, stratification in the but the favouring water on other hand they are all barred the mouth mud flats which leave of at by a passage only a

few meters depth where fresh and salt water will be mixed. How the 48

situation in reality is we do not know. In the Nickerie River at Post

Utrecht only, both superficial and deep water samples have been taken,

these showed small differences and contained less than pairs very always

100 Further down the river the surface showed mg Cl/1(40 a). samples variation in salt in the a very irregular content long dry season. At Henar

where the water is fresh most of the time maximum of Cl/1 a 9100 mg found. the fact that and well was From Avicennia Rhizophora grow near

Utrecht and that no residual salt was found in the soil of the surrounding

conclude that both facultative area, we may species are halophytes. the before but the Along rivers parwa disappears in general mangro, difference is At where the Maratakka into not great. post Utrecht, comes Nickerie the fresh but the River, water is always both species are still

the Maratakka River however the last 5 km frequent. Up parwa was seen and the last km from the mouth about km from the mangro 10 or 60 sea.

Brantimakka distance further but the Maratakka goes some inland, along

it does not reach the Indian village Cupido. In the Tibiti River the brantimakka fringes along the river bank ended a fair distance down- Tibiti but isolated stream of the village sabana, one patch was encountered

several hours with above the the mouth of creek. a speedboat village at a

Where and become Bombax mangro parwa rare, aquaticum, watercacao, the forest comes into prominence in margin, and locally Pterocarpus with officinalis, waterbébé, a tree huge buttresses, sometimes appears. In the Western half of Suriname Mora excelsa completely dominates the

fresh-water tidal forest over considerable distances; its stands reach from

the water edge sometimes to several hundred meters from the river bank.

As is valuable timber tree it is that these Mora a important nearly pure

forests can be traced on aerial photographs.

Mangrove along rivers outside Suriname.

Partly in contradiction with this picture of the Suriname riverbanks is

the statement of Benoist (53) that in French Guiana Rhizophora and first but Avicennia and farther Laguncularia disappear Conocarpus go

inland. The last species was not observed in Suriname. For the banks the he characteristic besides Bombax beyond mangrove area quotes as tree

Macrolobium which is also Suriname aquaticum bifolium, present along Machaerium Muellera another rivers. Next to he mentions as thorny shrub, but the species is not indicated.

for the district of British extensive Anderson (45) reports N.W. Guiana belts all outside the brackish mangro along rivers, distinctly zone, some-

times mixed with Carapa guianensis or Pterocarpus officinalis and usually backed of edulis and Manicaria by a palm swamp Euterpe saccifera.

the Bombax and Macrolobium F. Higher up rivers aquaticum vaupa J.

Gmel. dominate in the forest Machaerium sometimes in margin; grows

but is rather rare in this district, whereas it is in the front, very common rest of British Guiana. Mora forest follows still further from the mouth. 49

Huber where in the Amazone (83) states that, estuary Rhizophora decreases, usually a palm forest occupies the levees with Mauritia flexuosa

dominant and much Manicaria and locally Euterpe, Bactris spp. Beyond this palm forest zone follows the mixed varzea forest with Bombax aquaticum prominent in the margin again.

In British Honduras (113, 115, 123) Bombax aquaticum and Pterocarpus officinalis are common along rivers, and near the mouth of the Temash dominates does the river Manicaria as it in many places in Orinoco- delta (105).

Epiphytes and other accompanying species.

Some authors abundance of in report epiphytes mangrove along rivers, but observed in Suriname we have only occasionally an epiphyte or a

Loranthacea in the trees. Only one Loranthacea Struthanthus dichotrian- thus Eichl. collected the has been collected was on mangro; same species several times before the lower rivers in the but the along mangrove area, host has been indicated but once e.g. on parwa.

for British Guiana that in the belts at Kar- Beebe (51) reports mangro miles above the mouth of the tabo, 42 Essequibo, epiphytes are numerous, on the roots mosses and lichens and on the branches Bromeliaceae, Orchi-

lianas too Under and between the trees the daceae; are frequent. grow

tenella Kunth and Utricularias. silt-catching Xyris many inconspicuous Stehle(116, 117) mentions Tillandsia polystachya L. under the species in the of and for he adds the growing mangrove Guadeloupe, Martinique orchid Ionopsis utricularioides Lindb. Schimper (107) observed in Brazil

Tillandsia spp. and Aechmea gamosepala Wittm.. For the Lesser Antilles but (Verdoorn 123) Clusia rosea Jacq. is mentioned only as a species, it is

shrub there like Clusia in Suriname. problably a semi-epiphytic purpurea

The latter was collected in parwa forest at the mouth of the Suriname river

Stahel the label: abundant and by (with addition on the on parwa trees) by Focke along the Matappica creek.

In brackish and salt water the peculiar, arched and dichotomously branched of covered with proproots Rhizophora are epiphytic algae,

mostly Rhodophyta. Near the mouth of the Corantine River I collected a

Bostrychium sp. Huber (83) reports from the island Marajo in the Amazone delta Catenaria, Polysiphonia and Rhizoclonium, and Schimper

(107) mentions from Gamboa, a small island off the S. Brazilian coast Catenella and radicans. These offer impudica Bostrychia roots may a field for promising an algologist. adds that between the Eleocharis Huber mangro roots caribaea, a

Psilocarya sp. and Crenea maritima were growing. The first-named species

is also mentioned Stehle for the of and the by mangrove Guadeloupe as plant is small and inconspicuous but widely distributed it should be looked

in Crenea maritima for the Rhizophora belts elsewhere. too has a wide distribution and has been collected several times in the mangrove area in Suriname.

4 50

Coastal II. mangrove.

Regressing coast.

the the Along coast mangrove consists mainly of parwa. Under the influence of winds, waves and sea currents the coast line is constantly

changing. In most places abrasion takes and the forest place mangrove is Where this the gradually destroyed. is case, the coast has, seen from the

first described air, an irregular, scalloped aspect, by Geijskes (31). In the

field we described from the sealine find, as near Coronie, a mature parwa forest on compact clay, ending abruptly with a low cliff on a soft mud- flat with the remnants of Case that these uprooted trees. (58) supposes remnants act like hammers under the action and the wave so speed up erosion but have we found no proof for this idea. Usually the sea is so calm that the of wood stick in the mud and pieces are not carried about

the waves. At occasional by stormtides a lot of debris is thrown over the cliff into the forest where parwa it does not damage the standing trees

and is immobilised once more.

still know little We very with regard to the rate of coastal regression.

Geijskes out that the inland border of (31) points the mangrove is in and he that it indications general straight supposes can give for the former

if that the belt coastline, we accept mangrove originally had a uniform of the maximum depth some 4 km, now found. For several reasons I do attach much value not to this supposition. First Geijskes himself mentions

that he saw in several places dead trees along the inland border. These had trees died as a result of fires in the and such fires swamp savannas the of forest. Then may effectively straighten margin a on the aerial

the limit is not and it photomaps mangrove so regular as Geijskes says,

proves to be distinctly correlated to the local topography. In the neigh- bourhood of scattered open lagoons parwa groves are abundant, even far

from the coast.

From the West of Suriname have point we some figures, as the old

settlement Nickerie situated about 1.5 km due North of the present tip of the bank of the Nickerie Blufpunt on right river had to be abandoned

in 1869. Where the sea West of borders dyke Blufpunt now directly on

the an aerial taken in 1939 shows sea, photograph a coastline about 500 m

further to the North Ferguson his the low- (fig. III). (29) gives on map

water line in 1926 The of (measured by Kremer). tip Blufpunt was then

1 km NNW. of the in 1948 and the coast line tip ran from that point westwards about km in front of the 1 present sea dyke.

Accrescent coast.

On the other hand an accrescent coast is found between Nickerie and

the Saramacca Coronie, at point and near the mouth of theMatappica creek. In front of the belt North of mature mangrove Bigie pan (Nickerie map II)

a zone of scrub at first but mangrove starts, very narrow gradually

broadening to 1 km and extending eastward over a distance of about 51

Then ends which abraded the 27 km. it in a cape is now again at eastern side the show. This has time as scallops zone developed in a very recent and is least the end still Here at at western growing. parwa seedlings grow

flat. In later the sedimentation scattered on the mud a stage as proceeds, form with dense thicket. In the they together Laguncularia a same way seaward the where made observat- parwa presses near Matappica Geijskes coastal local. The aerial make ions, but here growth is very photographs it probable that all over the Saramacca point North of the mouth of the

River the is most for here the shrub is Saramacca process active, zone wide and the in is over 2 km increase height very gradual. No interruption between the shrub and the is seen zone mature parwa forest; they merge into each other and the whole belt reaches here of about mangrove a depth

km. A coast also observed 6 growing mangrove was by Geijskes (31) from the the bank of the Corantine North of air at West estuary Spring- lands and the local of Anderson(45) reports occurrence young parwa

the coast of British Guiana. Martyn tells that the coast groves along (96) of British Guiana is constantly changing; now here then there abrasion another the takes place and in period coast accresces again as a result of the of the ever shifting course sea currents.

Fig. III. Recent abrasion of the coast near Nickerie

silt and the Where is deposited Avicennia Laguncularia occupy new land and consolidate where is it. In some places silting very rapid Spartina brasiliensis is the pioneer. It occupies first the higher islets between the 52

small tidal gullies, but later on the clumps unite to an almost continuous

grass carpet.

As soon the flat has been built above normal tide flood as up high a

mark be in which seeds of and akira concentrated. can deposited parwa are These seeds and then scrub germinate very rapidly a mangrove develops, and in its shade is doomed to In this stretch Spartina disappear. way a covered with and scattered had in Spartina mangrove seedlings developed into scrub. A of this succession 3 years a 5 —6 m high very good example

studied Mart™ Here initiated the was by near Georgetown. it was by

construction of a seawall with groins causing rapid silting on the foreshore.

In Suriname we have seen Spartina together with some Cyperaceae the where had been along river banks in brackish tidal zone mangrove

destroyed. The same phenomenon is reported by Dansereau (63) from S. Brazil. He tells how after destruction of the Rhizophora belt Avicennia of its and how Avicennia in its may occupy part site, turn may partly

be replaced by Laguncularia, which is normally confined to the highest belt. The of the denuded where tidal inundations last mangrove rest zones

to long to allow the establishment of parwa or akira, is generally taken

in by Spartina. It is remarkable that in Brazil Laguncularia not only shows for soils but also that a preference sandy it is restricted to the uppermost

of the tidal In Suriname and elsewhere it is indifferent part zone. very

as to soil and time of inundation.

Whereas formations the of all mangrove occur abundantly along coasts

tropical and subtropical America and have been described in many

localities, it is remarkable that apparently nowhere outside Guiana is encountered All authors Avicennia as a pioneer. report Rhizophora as

In whether it is salt and its a pioneer quiet water, no matter or brackish,

absence such coasts. Mature however under as on exposed mangrove can,

altered conditions, stand a considerable wave action. Huber (83) saw

the tallest trees at the land between on Marajo mangro tongues bays undermined the where they were gradually by sea.

In the Asiatic other involved but there too mangrove species are

Rhizophora is the common pioneer in estuaries and Avicennia and other

in the second rank. On Avicennia is the genera come open coasts, however,

pioneer, as has been described by Watson (151) for the Malay Peninsula. He

states that Avicennia intermedia prefers comparatively firm clay whereas

A. and Sonneratia and Troll alba grow on softer blacker mud. (148) of the seaward reports a pioneer zone Avicennia marina Vierh. along

front of the river deltas at the East coast of Sumatra. Along the river arms

is the that Grass has found the Rhizophora pioneer. He quotes same of the where situation in the delta Rufiyi River in East Africa, the same

involved. the in Africa which is species are For mangrove West very

similar to the American and contains the mangrove same species (other

I about varieties?) found nothing Avicennia nitida as a pioneer (129-131).

Avicennia According to van Steenis (147) in Malesia can act under certain

in calm but sand. conditions as a pioneer water not on 53

The fact that Avicennia can establish itself the as a pioneer along open coast of Suriname be correlated the may to climatic conditions which little produce wave action and few storms. Floating Rhizophora seedlings were not seen along the coast while they were frequent in the estuaries. Hence the absence of be due mangro may partly to scarcity of diaspores, but the latter be absent few shrubs can not entirely as a mangro were met on the Wiawia beach.

Accompanying species.

In the scrub well in forest is pioneer as as mature parwa undergrowth absent. A few of virtually poor specimens Batis, Sesuvium, Iresine, Sporo- bolus Acrostichum be found inside the or may forest, but other species

in can grow only the margins where enough light is available. There two vines Rhabdadenia are very common: biflora and Brachypteris ovata; both have been several other authors for in reported by mangrove areas other countries. At the end of the sealine Coronie of the near on top cliff a few specimens of Paspalum vaginatum and Muellera moniliformis next to Iresine and Sesuvium found in the forest and some were parwa the landward side several with on swamp species occur together Avicennia and Laguncularia in a transition zone, but these species do not belong to the Avicennia community.

Machaerium lunatum and Hibiscus tiliaceus have wide distri- a very bution in brackish areas and thus associates of the in the are mangrove widest but distinct sense, they belong to communities both also occurring outside the mangrove area.

In the brantimakka belts along rivers sometimes some mokomoko is

For the brantimakka scrub in The role of present. swamps see p. 75. Hibiscus tiliaceus which prefers sandy soil will be discussed later in this chapter.

From other countries many species are quoted in the literature as associates of the but authors the mangrove, as by most transition zones are it is difficult to conclude which mentioned included, species, not yet

the Pavonia by me, may belong to mangrove sensu stricto. scabra reported

from Porto Rico and Panama in the habitat Guadeloupe, may grow same as the related Pavonia racemosa which in Suriname has been found several times river banks in the About other like along mangrove area. species

Parkinsonia aculeata L. from reported Martinique and Picrodendron macro-

Britton from I at all. carpum (Rich.) Cuba, can say nothing Silveira the view that the Old World (110) opposes mangrove is much

richer than the American and he records of brackish mangrove 35 species and salt water which would occur frequently in the latter. Apparently he has wide of and his a very conception mangrove sometimes fantasy must have

him tricks. As illustration for the rich played an mangrove in Suriname

he cites for from Pulle’s Enumeration example (36) Conomorpha mag- noliifolia and multipunctata (A. DC.) Mlq. apparently because he has found that in Brazil Myrsinaceae occur in the mangrove. Pulle however 54

localities habitat indications and know that the has given no nor we now

in first species is characteristic for savanna forest and the second occurs the interior The defence of his view therefore is only. very weak; a detailed from localities comparison can only be made if descriptions many

are available.

forest. Mixed mangrove

A mixed forest is found the between high, mangrove at corner Blufpunt and the mouth of the River. Tall of and Corantine trees mangro parwa up

25 to m high and 1 m diameter and smaller trees of Laguncularia were This forest resembles the association of seen. mature mangrove Davis (66)

which the West coast of Florida Both forests lie above grows on on peat.

normal high tide and undergo frequent variations in salinity as sea and

rivers bring in salt and fresh water alternately. In the forest Davis saw also found associated In the forest some trees normally not to mangroves.

Nickerie I have not other tree but I well have near seen species may very overlooked them visit. The number of during my very superficial proproots

on Rhizophora was conspicuously low. The same fact was found by

Davis in the dense forest with little tidal fluctuation. mangrove very mixed forest the of Schimper (107) investigated a mangrove on coast 27° Gamboa, an islet at S.L. in the state Santa Catharina (Brazil).

and formed flat with dome Rhizophora Laguncularia a canopy shaped

Avicennia crowns emerging from it. On the branches he observed Tilland-

sia spp. and Aechmea gamosepala.

Strand mangrove.

this have with the of Up to point we only met types mangrove

In Suriname other is vegetation occurring on clay. only one type present, the strand sand and shells. For and Florida mangrove on Jamaica and Chapman (59) Davis (66, 67) report two more types, one mangrove and coral reefs. formation is known on peat one on Peat by mangrove not

from the Guiana coast and not to be expected either as the authors point that is formed where the contains circum- out peat only water no silt, a

S. America In stance not to be found along the North coast of where a broad the is the coral zone seawater notoriously muddy. For same reason

which in clear absent. reefs, can develop only very water, are

Where low sand shell bar is formed the a or along coast, we meet an shrub of and with other open vegetation Avicennia Laguncularia some

shrubs and a more or less dense undergrowth of herbaceous strand plants.

A of this strand in is the good example mangrove an early stage

vegetation on the sand bar at the Wiawia flat. A few shrubs of Hibiscus

tiliaceus, Muellera moniliformis, Dalbergia ecastophyllum, Caesalpinia bonduc and Cordia macrostachya were present and the dense herb layer

was dominated by Ipomoea pes-caprae and Canavalia maritima, while

Stenotaphrum secundatum, Ipomoea cf. stolonifera, Sesuvium portula-

castrum and Sporobolus virginicus formed scattered clumps. On the beach 55

few shrubs and of shrubs found. On a mangro some groups parwa were the to the first Sesuvium dominance and here slope swamp gained many of and clumps Fimbristylis spathacea occasional ones of Mariscus ligularis appeared.

Where the sand became formed under the wet Sporobolus mangrove scrub a dense 50—60 cm in which from occasional high mat, apart an Sesuvium other herbs and this facies poor plant no were found, passed without from sand On change to clay. the latter it ended abruptly at the line the of the became where, at moment our visit, water deeper than 3 cm. On the first noted of tall with ridge we a row parwa trees an understory of and shrubs and parwa Hibiscus a mat of Sporobolus with some Sesuvium. North of Galibi of the river bank parts sandy were occupied by an 8 —10 m high parwa wood which contained some Laguncularia shrubs but herbs. The bank showed no here a 50 cm high abrasion cliff.

This was formed by the clay of the subsoil but above it the sand gradually

to of It showed that tides the rose a height 1.5 m. signs at very high flows the bar into the back. water over swamp at its

the shallow shell On deposit along the coast North of Totness (Coronie)

Sesuvium the herb found in the scrub. On the was only open mangrove shell the fishermen the Creek narrow ridge near camp at Kanja (Nickerie) we collected Ipomoea tuba, Cenchrus echinatus, Mariscus ligularis and Digitaria horizontalis Willd.

III. Hibiscus tiliaceus scrub.

Where a sand bar rises well above spring-tide level parwa and akira are replaced by scrub, usually dominated by Hibiscus tiliaceus. On the Wiawia flat East of the head of the first this from the ridge contained, apart abundant Hisbiscus, Cordia macrostachya, Dalbergia ecastophyllum,

Caesalpinia bonduc, a few small trees of Terminalia catappa and Spondias the the mombin. Cereus, same species as we found on young ridges, was also represented by some specimens. Sporobolus formed large patches on

Crinums the sand and there were also some (1350) that at the time of

our visit were flowering. As climbers Allamanda cathartica and Alternan- thera ficoidea must be mentioned. A similar vegetation consisting of

Hibiscus tiliaceus mixed with that characteristic for the species are young ridges was observed along the river bank near Galibi and on the low

the forest of table II ridge-remnant in parwa North Nieuw Nickerie (see record 38 and 39). On the northern slope of the 2nd ridge in the Wiawia

line Hibiscus and Rosenbergiodendron formosum, a species frequently associated with it, are both abundant and they are almost all draped with The lower of the southern of the 2nd the vines. part slope ridge, on covered scrub. other hand, is by a Dalbergia ecastophyllum A nearly pure

stand of Hibiscus found in the between the small was marshy zone swamp and the ridge forest in the second Coronie line near km 0.2, and some shrubs the border the Dalbergia were seen at of swamp. Olyra latifolia, 56

and of Renealmia formed Helosis cayennensis some poor specimens sp.

the scarce undergrowth.

Hibiscus it tolerates the Though prefers sand, clayey soils, e.g. on levee of the Corantine between Clara polder and Nanni creek where, and it the accompanied by some Triplaris Phyllanthus acidus, occupied bank behind the belt. The inland site where I have mangro most seen km and the Hibiscus, was the marsh wood between 10 10.65 in Cupido

line (Nickerie, table II record 51). Here It formed a dense scrub 4—5 m

in stand of with of high a very open Triplaris an understory consisting

Heliconia sp., some Bonafousia tetrastachya and Helosis.

Dansereau describes how de behind the three (63) near Rio Janeiro belts is found that is reached and that mangrove a zone by spring tides,

is occupied by a Hibiscus scrub sometimes mixed with and usually followed

by Acrostichum. On sand Iresine portulacoides Moq. (taking there the

place of I. vermicularis), Sesuvium and Sporobolus virginicus are pioneers,

on silt Salicornia gaudichaudiana Moq. and a large Cyperacea.

Schimper (107) found in the state Santa Catharina on high, consolidated silt behind the Hibiscus and Acrostichum with mangrove together some Schinus and and the Annona glabra a along San Francisco , sp. Myrsinacea, between the and non-saline bank forest mixture of River true mangrove a

Annona Laguncularia and Hibiscus with glabra and a Myrsinacea.

In the Old World tropics Hibiscus tiliaceus is often reported from similar

sites as are other pantropical coastal species.

Strand scrub in the Caribbean.

the Caribbean Hibiscus tiliaceus in strand In is not a prominent species

vegetation. Marshall(93) records it for Trinidad as associate of Coccoloba

In the Nariva it is found the base of where uvifera. swamp at “Sandhill”, the herbaceous forest. swamp merges into

On most sandy coasts in the Caribbean a distinct succession series is

found. maritima The Atlantic Ipomoea pes-caprae-Canavalia community oc- the then dominated Coccoloba cupies frontline; comes a zone by uvifera,

is and this followed by a more or less xerophytic scrub. Where conditions this littoral woodland. are favourable, in turn gives way to a

The first community is the only one found in Suriname. It occurs here

in form of strand Hibiscus scrub. Coccoloba poor as precursor mangrove or uvifera is completely absent, the three collections made in Paramaribo

being from cultivated specimens and the most characteristic species of the

dune scrub, Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland, Hippomane mancinella L.,

Lantana involucrata L. and strand plants like Chamaesyce (Euphorbia) Scaevola buxifolia (Lam.) Small, plumieri (L.) Vahl, Tournefortia gna- also phalodes R. Br., etc. are entirely lacking.

The principial reason why they are absent here and as far as I know

the whole Guiana be the lack of but other along coast, may diaspores,

factors also have influence. The climate in the Caribbean is in may general

much drier than in Guiana. The beaches in the Caribbean are, as a rule, 57

rich in coral whereas the sands in and sand, Suriname are poor lime,

shell found be small. although occasionally deposits are they may too

At present the sand supply is nowhere large enough to allow the formation of offshore bars. In the when the built high past present ridges were up,

the situation must have been different. Therefore in Guiana the strand

and dune shrubs find the habitat and may not at present they require, whether have done in the do know. they not so past we not

Another absent lack of habitat is Cono- species probably by a proper in the Caribbean soil behind the carpus erecta, common on higher sandy belts stricto. There in the land rises mangrove sensu many places gradually

out of the sea and on sandy soil the Avicennia forest above the normal

high-tide line Is replaced by a Conocarpus vegetation. Between the two of there is often transition dominated types vegetation a zone by Lagun- cularia. In Suriname the and mangrove never fringes dry sandy areas

Conocarpus is virtually absent. The species was once collected about 100 and for the second time in years ago 1943.

Sociological units.

remarks be made here the the Some may on names given to communities by various authors.

the American association Stehle(116, 117) regards mangrove as a single

dominated and Avicennia whereas most by Rhizophora , ecologists recognize

In the latter distinct belts each with Its conditions of and own life, accept these share the last should as separate communities. I opinion and raise

Stehle’s association to the rank of alliance with Laguncularia as first characteristic after which it can be named Laguncularion. Dansereau(63) calls the belt in the mangro deepest water Rhizophoretum manglei, and

the parwa forest, at the back of it Avicennietum tomentosae. Moldenke,

the of the Avicennia monographer genus, regards tomentosa merely as a

form of A. nitida, an opinion to which I can fully subscribe, for I have

seen in Suriname a complete series of transitional forms growing in the

same locality. Therefore the association should be renamed Avicennietum

nitidae; it is identical with the Avicennia consocies of Davis (67) and Chapman (59).

Davis divides the stands in (66) mangro a pioneer Rhizophora family

in salt consocies between deep water, a mature Rhizophora growing mean

low water and level and lodes in brackish neap-tide a Rhizophora swamp

or fresh water. Chapman (59) mentions only the latter two units.

Dansereau’s Laguncularietum racemosae growing on sandy soil in the of the tides encountered in Suriname. be zone highest was not It can not

compared with the Laguncularia scrub found in the Rhizophora belts river this has different habitat along banks, as a quite and must probably be considered the establishment of a pioneer stage preceding mangro. On the other hand it appears to be identical with the Laguncularia consocies of

Davis and Chapman found in S. Florida and Jamaica between the Avicennia and belts. The mixed Conocarpus mangrove represents probably 58

fourth with a association, comparable Davis’ mature mangrove forest associes. The Hibiscetum tiliacei of Dansereau is related to the commu-

nities with abundant Hibiscus tiliaceus in but the latter Suriname, are

richer in and show wider combined with species a ecological range con-

siderable variation For I in composition. the moment think it best to take all these stands together, and for this Suriname form of the Hibiscetum

tiliacei I am inclined to regard Rosenbergiodendron formosum and Cordia

macrostachya as characteristic species. In the Caribbean this association

is replaced by two communities growing on different sites. The first,

the Conocarpus associes of Chapman and Davis is found behind the and the the mangrove, second, strand scrub formed by Coccoloba uvifera and other shrubs, the Coccoloba uvifera formation of a.o. Stehle(116) and Raunkiaer (104) succeeds the Ipomoea-Canavalia community. Mar- his shall (93), in paper on Trinidad and Tobago, calls it beach forest, and

states that Coccoloba uvifera is the most prominent species and Hibiscus

tiliaceus the next in order of prevalence. This forms a good connection between the communities of Guiana and the islands.

IV. Herbaceous strand communities.

The strand communities are usually joined in one unit, characterized

in the first and Canavalia maritima. place by Ipomoea pes-caprae Raunkiaer of (104) and Stehle(116, 117) call it formation Ipomoea pes- Chapman caprae and Canavalia maritima, Davis (66, 67) strand associes.

it Sesuvium- (59) describes for Jamaica as Sporobolus- Ipomoea-associes, whereas Dansereau (63) who studied it in the vicinity of Rio de Janeiro of small which splits it up in a series very associations, are comparable to the sociations of the Scandinavian sociologists and have probably only

local value.

I prefer for the strand vegetation one wide association. Ipomoea pes-

and Canavalia maritima beaches both In the caprae are prominent along New and Old World, and characteristic strand plants in the tropics and

subtropics are Caesalpinia bonduc, Dodonaea viscosa, Remirea maritima,

Ipomoea stolonifera and tuba, Suriana maritima L. (absent in Suriname), whereas the widely distributed halophytes Sesuvium portulacastrum,

Sporobolus virginicus, Paspalum vaginatum, Fimbristylis spathacea are not

restricted to sand coasts.

Mariscus ligularis, Iresine vermicularis and Stenotaphrum secundatum outside least also the of Africa. occur America at along West coast tropical

The strand of America contains besides these vegetation tropical very like widely distributed elements a fair number of American species

Satis Alternanthera Tephrosia cinerea var. littoralis, maritima, ficoidea. Therefore it is in Capraria biflora, Heliotropium curassavicum. my opinion called best regarded as a single association, which might be Ipomoeeto-

Canavalietum americanum to distinguish it from the Old World strand

Richards association. The latter has according to (14) Spinifex spp., 59

Thuarea involuta R. Br. and Zoysia matrella Merrill as common differ- ential species.

In Suriname the association is rare. We met it on the Wiawia sand bar around the fishermen where the strand had been cut camp mangrove

down. It has therefore to be regarded as secondary, and would without interference into strand by man develop again mangrove.

I owe a description of the beach at the mouth of the Matappica creek

friend who short visit this in to my P. A. Florschutz, paid a to area 1951.

West Sand is deposited only in a triangle of the mouth. The coastline is

about 1.5 offshore bar and mud front formed here by an m high a flat in of the latter which remains below the high-tide line. The seaward slope found less of the bar is bare; on top he mainly Sesuvium, Ipomoea pes- of Alternanthera The caprae and scattered plants ficoidea. landward covered with and Canavalia maritima and slope is Ipomoea pes-caprae occasionally shrublets of Caesalpinia bonduc and Dodonaea viscosa. Behind the sand bar he found flat that an open very gradually sloped

into salt which in is followed forest with a swamp, turn by parwa some

Cereus. The flat consists of mixed sand and and is with clay grown and Sporobolus virginicus some Rhynchosia minima, Sesuvium (parasited

by Cuscuta umbellata), Tephrosia cinerea var. littoralis, Vigna luteola and

On flat the wind has blown small falcate Batis maritima. this up some

dunes.

Though the sand is apparently actively shifting under the influence

of the wind, a beach must have existed at this place for more than a

of the observed Florschutz also collected century, as most species by were here in the middle of the 19th Wullschlaegel and century by Focke.

From the strand at Braamspunt East of the mouth of the Suriname River have the collection made but this we only in 1913 by Soeprato, is enough

to show that the richest strand vegetation of Suriname is probably found

at this place. The same species as on the Matappica strand have been

found there and in addition Ipomoea nil Roth, I. tuba, Crotalaria retusa

L. and Muellera moniliformis have been collected.

CHAPTER V

THE HERBACEOUS SWAMPS

the of the visited it will be clear that the From descriptions areas swamp of coastal vegetation shows much diversity, and that the various parts the considerable differences well. Also region present, besides similarities, as and the different which often in one same swamp groupings occur are

but far could under sharply delimitated, grow, as as we ascertain, precisely little known of the of the the same ecological conditions. Very is stability communities and from countries swamp good descriptions neighbouring

are still completely lacking. 60

As stated earlier I consider it to draw set of premature up a plant

The I sociological units. main vegetation types, as now recognize them, discussed here in the in the of the are same sequence as description lines,

i.e. from the coast landinwards. This must roughly be in accordance with the in time, but full discussion of the successional relations sequence a between the different communities will be postponed to a following

chapter.

Records of the be found in table for investigated swamps can I,

important species the numbers in the table are added in brackets.

I. Eleocharis mutata community.

several behind the belt have In places mangrove we met nearly pure

fields of Eleocharis be a mutata. They may regarded as representing

distinct association for the simple reason that outside these fields the

species occurs with decreased vitality only; it is therefore an absolutely exclusive but scattered constant and moreover nearly species. As associates, and in small numbers only, we found Acnida cuspidata, Cyperus articulatus and in the the Creek also sterile Mikania swamps along Huntley micrantha,

Nymphaea ampla and Ceratopteris deltoidea. This association, which we call Eleocharetum shows wide in its demands may mutatae, a amplitude

as to salt content and acidity of the habitat because Eleocharis itself can live that from fresh least salt in water varies completely to at twice as

as the sea. It forms always a pioneer vegetation; in a salt habitat it can in mud that falls grow water up to 30 cm deep or on periodically dry.

In of 50—60 oligohalinous and fresh water it occurs to a depth cm, but

here it Is soon superseded by larger herbs.

fresh-water South of the Nickerie here and In swamps, e.g. River,

there of Eleocharis I that patches mutata are met. suppose they grow on that have lost their and that their spots accidentally ordinary vegetation, is presence temporary only.

The associates mentioned above occur only in brackish water, they

do not stand high salt concentrations and the habitats in fresh-water

not be reached their This does not swamps can probably by diaspores. the of but it nevertheless there. apply to spores Ceratopteris, was not met

Hardly anything could be found on the occurrence of the Eleocharetum

outside A. C. Smith mutatae as pioneer association Suriname. (123) mentions the in Guiana of stretches of Eleocharis in and presence geniculata

behind the In salt milieu. confusion with Eleocharis mangrove Here a

mutata must have taken place, for E. geniculata does not occur in the

coastal it be and region; seems to absolutely salt-avoiding grows preferably

How along river banks outside the tidal zone. this confusion could occur both differ in has I can not see, as species widely appearance; E mutata

triquetrous, bluish-green culms and E. geniculata terete, fresh-green ones;

it resembles E. interstincta, another fresh-water species. known from the coastal of America the E. mutata is strip S. up to 61

also from Central America and the West Indian islands. temperate zone, it is in these but the literature does Probably a pioneer regions too, not

tell anything with regard to this point.

Svenson enumerates one find far from the coast in the Cerros de

Tobaty in Paraguay.

Stehle (117) mentions from Martinique an association of Dryopteris and Eleocharis in acid These gongylodes mutata swamps. two species are

found in for in never together Suriname, Dryopteris grows only completely

fresh water.

We too have observed that E. mutata turns its habitat strongly acid.

It colours the water dark brown by the production of humic acids, and in the second in the Wiawia where the swamp line, periodically entering

sea water has a pH of about 8, we measured in a patch of E. mutata in

the below This indicates that besides 30 cm deep stagnant water a pH 4. humic acids also mineral acids strong are produced (Olsen 11).

II. Brackish Typha angusti folia-Cyperus articulatus swamps.

In this and articulatus the swamp type Typha [7] Cyperus [6] are sometimes dominants, one alone, sometimes both, alternating or mixed,

while but few accompanying species are present.

We of this in the 3d in the Wiawia met vegetations type swamp line, where in the the dry season only small, some cm deep pools were left; in of the the mesohalinous stood few greater part swamp ground water a cm

Here below the surface of the wet clay. Typha and Cyperus dominated

patchwise; Typha showed perhaps a slight preference for the lower places,

but the difference was insignificant. Paspalidium geminatum formed nearly

everywhere an easily overlooked, but in number of culms notable, sub- where the stands dense growth. Only Typha were very they possessed

little stands of articulatus subgrowth. In more open Typha Cyperus was well. present as The associates (Torulinium ferax, Acnida cuspidata, Jus- Mikania scattered whereas sieua leptocarpa, micrantha) grew Brachypteris

ovata was locally abundant. and there the noted of Here in 2—2.5 m high growth we a patch

of Acrostichum Eleocharis mutata or a group aureum.

On the soil we found remnants of Salvinia auriculata which in the

rainy season covers the water surface at those places where the other

plants do not stand too close.

South of the stands delimitated from Bigie pan Typha are very sharply those of Eleocharis mutata and Paspalum vaginatum. Under the Typha

cover both species can just maintain themselves and only for a time. Acnida Torulinium and decurrens also be cuspidata, ferax Jussieua may but present they are always rare.

the creek the southern Along Huntley in swamp savannas Cyperus articulatus Eleocharis is still in fair dominates; mutata present numbers, but the culms thin and further than the Eleocharetum. are apart in Sterile 62

Mikania deltoidea and Sesbania mtcrantha, Ceratopteris exasperata grow scattered. this therefore both variants of the In area community are present

in oligohalinous habitat, and here we see a marked difference; Typha in the habitat of the grows water up to 45 cm deep, whereas Cyperus

stands was at the time of our visit, i.e. in May before the heavy rains set

In the scattered of in, merely soggy. groups parwa trees we saw some Solanum stramonifolium and the vines Funastrum clausum, Cissus sicyoi- des, Mikania micrantha and Paullinia pinnata.

North of the Coronie road between our and Coronie vast camp swamps are found with Typha and Cyperus articulatus as dominants. They must belong to the type described above but could not be investigated. The

data from West Coronie visited in 1933 a swamp near by Lanjouw are inserted in table I, where they fit in well.

In the line from the between the and our Coronie camp to sea parwa akira behind the closed found of groves mangrove we patches Typha

with numerous clumps of Acrostichum aureum and also some other

ferns, Blechnum indicum and Nephrolepis biserrata, which tolerate a little salt. Many climbers decorate the vegetation here with their flowers. Closer the road dominated Blechnum in of to we met patches by indicum; some

absent while these Typha is even completely and, Brachypteris ovata soon

in. disappears, other associates come The water depth was in December

20—30 Because of the cm, locally somewhat more. presence of Blechnum and Nephrolepis and a fairly high number of associates this vegetation

forms transition to the 4th table a swamp type (compare I). Between the Avicennia forest and the first ridge opposite Braamspunt

Stahel and found vast where Fuirena umbel- Geijskes a Typha swamp collected. lata was the only associate they

Nickerie behind the the river I Opposite Nieuw parwa zone along visited which in and a swamp savanna was May soggy polyhalinous

in the the salt content decreased to (14,300 mg Cl/1). Later rainy season learned the kind of the Service of 4200 mg Cl/1, as I by cooperation

Public Works, which during several months determined the salt content of taken behalf of It covered with a water samples on my study. was

sward consisting of 30—40 cm high Sporobolus virginicus interspersed with clones of thin Cyperus articulatus and Eleocharis mutata and clumps of Cyperus polystachyos and Fimbristylis ferruginea. told that the The owner of a coconut plantation nearby me presence of Cyperus articulatus and C. polystachyos indicates a decrease in the salt and that when the these content, salinity decreases, species strongly expand.

This is well in accordance with other observations. articulatus very Cyperus

saw in the of the Wiawia in the second appears, as we description line, with few and becomes dominant in the third swamp a meagre plants,

the sea-water canal of Totness a few were swamp. Along poor specimens the other side of the road ditch robust seen, whereas on along a healthy

clumps were noted.

C. Cyperus polystachyos is much less common than articulatus in 63

Suriname but find dike Nickerie swamps, except a recent on the sea near of which I can say nothing, this species has been collected in Suriname

only on slightly brackish or completely saltless places.

Whether the of this is determined deviating composition swamp savanna the is but it is that all other by soil, not known, noteworthy swamps have soil with sand whereas investigated by us a heavy clay hardly any

the soil of this one contains 25—30% fine sand (see table III). Moreover, from and Sporobolus, Cyperus polystachyos Fimbristylis ferruginea we

know that thrive as well sand This makes it they on pure as on clay.

probably that it is not a mere coincidence.

In the Wiawia line the borders of the 3d and 4th ridge which become

inundated in the season bear that in the rainy mainly species occur swamps and element as associates, moreover, as a differential Heliconia psitta- which forms As these belts resemble the second corum, large groups. closely mentioned here. swamp type, they are

the Coronie road the also Along at swamp borders this Heliconia is

frequently met, but there, owing to the intervention of man who clears

the no distinct zonation is found. Here of roadsides, we saw also groups Canna which be another characteristic of glauca may species these trans-

ition zones.

Distribution outside Suriname.

from this found in all and Many species swamp type are tropical and suptropical regions, Typha angustifolia is even cosmopolitan. There- fore similar be outside but the vegetations may expected Suriname,

literature furnishes scattered and indications. only vague

Coudreau tells that salt with carex” (60) swamps “roseaux, joncs et

occur everywhere between Marowijne and Amazone in and behind the found stiff mangrove. They are on clay inundated a few feet during most

of the He uses the of French that less year. names plants more or resemble

the American and we therefore conclude that these species, may swamps

are of second probably our type.

In S. Brasil to Danserf.au according (63) Typha grows together with articulatus Scirpus spp. Cyperus is mentioned by Graham (78 a) as dominant in the coastal of British swamps Guiana. In the West Indies brackish show swamps new combinations. On Porto Rico in the Cano

Tiburones between the brackish and the fresh distincly mangrove Typha-

Cladium Gleason and Cook mention the of field swamp (77) presence a

of Acrostichum aureum with of Cladium groups Typha angustifolia, mariscus and Phragmites communis.

On Guadeloupe (116) Fimbristylis ferruginea together with Cyperus brackish elegans covers slightly swamps. Apparently the last species takes there the of place Cyperus articulatus. On Martinique (117) it occupies together with Cyperus esculentus L., the borders of lagoons. Fimbristylis

ferruginea forms there together with Paspalum distichum slightly brackish, meadows. soggy 64

hexandra III. Leersia swamps.

A number of dominated Leersia hexandra swamps by [l4] are set apart here because in of dominance forms as a special type case Leersia a floating meadow described Where is mixed with tall herbs as on p. 32. it it cannot display its floating capacities well. the 6th and 7th of the line this In sth, swamp Wiawia type is beautifully

Next Leersia developed as a dense, green carpet. to locally Sacciolepis

striata As [l3] plays an important role. associates we found the same in the second the Acnida and species as type except halophilous Brachy- the mesohalinous pteris, although water was here. Species that become in the make their but ferns common following type, entry, lack completely. communis in loose in the sth Phragmites we met a group swamp.

The occurred in fresh-water and same type oligohalinous swamps near Nickerie. of the Clara South polder in the top of triangle West of the

Wouw canal found in in ± 20 undisturbed van we May cm water, an dense and it ditch there used grass mat, next to separated by a was a plot for cattle. The of the flora as pasture ground composition on this grazed

and badly trampled ground was largely the same as in the undisturbed

but the total amounted to ± 40% instead of and in plot, coverage 100%, holes had found hold. trample aquatics a temporary Westward, where

the cattle came only exceptionally, followed again a well developed

meadow.

In this Echinodorus swamp some interesting species were collected, viz.

grandiflorus and Sphenoclea zeylanica which are both new for Suriname. last The one is probably introduced and dispersed by cattle. Pluchea odorata was only collected near Nickerie; it reaches there apparently the

eastern border of its area which extends over Venezuela, C. America and

the West Indies.

Behind Paradise Leersia encountered (Nickerie) a vegetation was as fallow pioneer community on a rice field.

the mentioned Leersia mats Trinidad of Except already on no report this found. vegetation type was

IV. Cyperus giganteus-Typha-Scleria swamps.

this In type are brought together various communities covering together

vast of with fresh brackish water. The areas swamp or very slightly plants constitute of tall and of medium-sized herbs. usually a stratum one

In the of often upper stratum 2 up to 4 m high Cyperus giganteus [16] the second either alter- dominates, in place comes Typha angustifolia [7]

nating with Cyperus in a mosaic or mixed with it. Locally important

species are Scleria eggersiana [48] and Thalia geniculata [41], Montrichar- arborescens be with dia [20] must mentioned as a species high presence but usually low abundance. from dense The lower stratum varies very to virtually absent, in the

former the is less in the latter It is case upper stratum more or open, 65

so dense that a deep shadow reigns between the culms. These variations are probably connected with different phases in the development. The substratum consists of ferns, mainly Blechnum indicum [l7] and and Leersia hexandra is the Dryopteris gongylodes [lß], grasses. [l4] then follow Luziola commonest grass, Sacciolepis striata [l3], spruceana and do but [46] Hymenanche amplexicaulis [47], Cyperaceae occur, as a rule in such where the stratum is spots only upper interrupted; Cyperus articulatus is found here loose in groups mixed with the other associates of this community. Furthermore number of a twining species are met as associates, and where enough room and light are left on the water surface small aquatics like Azolla, Salvinia, Nymphoides, etc. occur. These floating species are best of probably regarded as fragments a distinct community, which belongs to the but into the open water, penetrates occasionally swamp communities. In quiet open water this community is well developed and the of the diaspores component species are easily dispersed throughout the Wherever these find and swamps. diaspores some space light they start

to develop.

acuminatum deserves Polygonum [42] mentioning as a species that is in small frequently present numbers. The locally important role of this

will be discussed in X. Other be found in species chapter species may table I.

In some shrubs and small in the the first places trees appear swamp as of the into but signs development swamp forest, so long as they give but little shadow their effect the of the herbs on growth is very slight. The as a whole covers the from via community range oligohalinous eutrophic to oligotrophic habitats and future research will probably reveal the of several presence variants that are correlated with the nutritive

and other factors of the habitat. I that Scleria capacity suppose e.g. egger- Thalia siana, geniculata, Mikania micrantha and Typha indicate a more or less habitat. For those variants that mosaic in eutrophic grow together as a the same this of falls habitat, explanation, course, away. The correlation between the of height Cyperus giganteus and the depth of the water has been already discussed on p. 33. In the Wiawia line Cyperus giganteus becomes only very locally dominant In the Bth where the swamp, water is not quite fresh (100 —200 Cl/1). In the between 6.5 mg swamps km and 9.5 it is the principal dominant; found it in stands and we very pure robust on such places where at the

time of our visit in November the soil less than was merely soggy or 20 cm under water. In the of these the deeper parts swamps Cyperus

stratum lower and rather with fair was open a amount of mokomoko and abundant ferns in the substratum.

South of the Nickerie River I met Cyperus giganteus in several places

as sole dominant, but here it alternated with fern stands and plots with

Typha or with and mixed, and also with Typha Cyperus large swamp woods.

65 66

Ferns turn their environment strongly acid, and are apparently the most of Close fern stands effective producers pegasse. are always found on a

which of This fact peat layer points to a long period development. was in the of British Guiana and will already recognized by Jenman swamps be discussed the where ferns take in chapter on succession. Therefore, part

in mosaic this be caused differences in the of a may by original depth

in the water or in difference the level of the underlying clay soil. Another for local dominance will be the cause vigorous vegetative propagation by

stolons or rhizomes of the important species.

Eastward near the Maratakka River in the transition from marsh forest

and of the itself to open swamp in the first part swamp Scleria eggersiana and form dense S. microcarpa play an important part. They pure patches

km 0.8 there with in a mixed vegetation. Beyond comes a plot Cyperus

giganteus and Typha mixed; the stand remains rather loose because the vegetation is fairly often destroyed by fire. the of this for behind Lanjouw (35) reports occurrence type swamps

Coronie, and mentions a variant where Typha is dominant together with

articulatus and Leersia. the of Leersia and its occur- Cyperus By presence fresh differs from second Another rence in water it my type. swamp

Leersia described by Lanjouw as dominated by Cyperus articulatus and

Crinum I with some and Jussieua leptocarpa as associates, prefer to place

here too. This variant we have observed also in 1948 during a flying

visit along the fresh-water canal of Coronie, where it alternates with

Typha plots.

Distribution outside Suriname.

All of this have like those of the important species swamp type preceding

one a wide distribution, and a number of communities have been described which indicate the itself also distributed. that type is widely Not a single

date found of the in British French was proving the presence type or where its would be in the first but Guiana, presence expected place,

Beard mentions in Trinidad, (48) nearly pure Cyperus giganteus swamps where alluvial which becomes in the they grow on clay, soggy dry season but is well inundated for the rest of the are therefore year. They very similar of the the Wiawia line. to parts swamp in

From Venezuela and the Guiana plateau Myers (98, 100) describes

the sativa Sac- vegetations of lagoons in savanna with Thalia, Oryza ?, Chase and Montrichardia rather and in ciolepis vilfoides in deep water,

somewhat shallower stretches of articulatus and parts Cyperus Eleocharis

which show resemblances with the coastal geniculata, swamps. the of Bolivia small In savanna region eastern Herzog (80) met swamps with Cyperus giganteus, Fuirena robusta, Thalia, Polygonum acuminatum,

a number of associates a.o. Azolla, Salvinia, Aeschynomene fluminensis

Veil., Pacourina edulis, Jussieua sp., Hydrolea spinosa and the treelet Tecoma leucoxylon (= ? Tabebuia insignis). He adds that this vegetation resembles that of the the Rio closely swamps bordering Upper Paraquay. 67

Dansereau mentions from (63) Cyperus giganteus swamps S. E. Brazil, alluvial have been especially on rich, quaternary, clay. Large tracts reclaimed and converted into valuable arable through drainage are now very

land. On the island in the Huber found Marajo Amazone estuary (83) with swamps Cyperus giganteus, Thalia, Typha and Leersia. For a partly

inundated terrain near Dunas he records Cyperus giganteus, Thalia, Nep-

tunia plena, Hymenanche amplexicaulis, Paspalum repens, Oryza sativa, Utricularia foliosa, Nymphoides humboldtianum, Neptunia prostrata, Eichhornia well natanst, some Nymphaea rudgeana, etc. agreeing with the

Suriname type.

In C. America also we find closely related communities. For the shores

of the Gatun lake in Panama Standley(ll2) records Cyperus giganteus,

Cladium mariscus, Sagittaria, Pluchea, Polygonum punctatum, Hibiscus Pontederia cordata and while sororius, Jussieua spp., Kenoyer (88) the describes succession along the shore at the sheltered side of Barro

Colorado island in the lake. From this series the Cyperus giganteus stage well with 4th table and the agrees very my type (see I), preceding Typha with stage Acrostichum, Sagittaria lancifolia, Hibiscus sororius and Crinum erubescens close it. British comes to In Honduras and Costa Rica (113, 114) Typha, and Thalia also and Cyperus giganteus play an important part the according to species list given by Ochoterena (102) even the Typha

in S. have still swamps Mexico a number of species in common with the Suriname wit Blechnum swamps, to Thalia, Phragmites, indicum, Acro-

stichum, Neptunia plena, Hydrocotyle umbellata and most aquatics. Very

remarkable is the vegetation in the shallow, less than 1 km wide Lake Zotz far from the sea at an elevation of several hundred meters in the moun-

tainous Peten district of N. Guatemala (91). Here a floating peat mass about fifth of the lake and bears covers one a vegetation of Typha, Scleria ferns, which fits well in 4th table eggersiana, etc., very my type (see I). the shallow between In zone peat and shore Nymphaea ampla dominates

and etc. in scattered Typha, grow groups. Along the shore Polygonum

acuminatum is an important species and in the periodically inundated there of zone are clumps Rhynchospora corymbosa, Scleria eggersiana and

Heliconia the 16 3 km wide spp. as well. In by Lake Peten the same

Nymphaea community occurs with usually an Eleocharis interstincta belt

as protective wave-breaker. Along the southern shore stretches of Cladium

are found.

On the West Indian islands all nearly important species occur, except but there Cyperus giganteus, they have a place in other communities. all Stehle(ll7) combines communities on the various islands occupying the same ecological place on alluvial clay soils into one association on the that characteristic ground they agree in and preferent species, but he

does not which On of the say ones. account reported species it is evident,

that his Fuirena umbellata-Rhynchospora aurea community on Martinique and his Mariscus-Fuirena community on Guadeloupe are closely related table and it is that the brackish of British Honduras (see I) possible swamps 68

in which according to Standley and Record (115) Fuirena and Mariscus

be related with them. How the other hand spp. are common, may on

Stehlé wants to defend that the of Porto Rico Typha-Mariscus swamp

described by Gleason and Cook (77) belongs to the same association, I

cannot see. Except Cladium mariscus and Rhynchospora stellata the only

species it has in common with Stehle’s communities are Eleocharis

interstincta, Hydrocotyle verticillata and Bramia monnieri and all these

three The Haiti are wide-spread swamp species. publication on mentioned

Stehl£ I could not hands on. The of Porto Rico is in by lay swamp my

opinion far more closely related to the vegetation of the Everglades in

Florida and the in the N. American coastal described swamps plain by Davis (68) and Peneound and Hathaway (103).

connection with the attention also In Cyperus giganteus swamps may

be drawn to the in Africa, which show in their Cyperus papyrus swamps

structure and development striking parallels to the former.

studied the “Sudd” the Nile in Migahid(139) swamps along Upper absolute which Cyperus papyrus is over large areas the only and dominant

with as associates some climbers, viz. Ipomoea aquatica Forsk, Cissus ibuensis Hook, f., Luffa cylindrica L. and Vigna nilotica Hook. f.. The

habitat the Bahr el varies lake No along Jebel considerably, near papyrus stands which still but in a swamp is in a very dry season 60 cm deep,

where the water level rises ± 25 cm in the rainy season. 100 km South

20 300 km South the soil had of the lake the swamp was only cm deep,

risen to 41 cm over the lowest river level but the soil was still saturated

with water and became inundated during the rainy season. Further South the banks and the river and the rose more more over papyrus fringes

became and last The best narrow at they disappeared completely. papyrus found the middle of the where the loses growth is in part area swamp

its surface water for a short period in the dry season by drainage towards under inundation does the river. Just like Cyperus giganteus permanent it reach and drier the die not its optimum development on spots plants

A with the exception of the rhizomes and rest untill the rainy season.

C. 50—70 difference is that papyrus forms distinct clumps cm in diameter and about foot which rise the formation of a apart gradually by succes- The old rhizomes and culms sive layers of rhizomes. decay to a peat layer

rather sharply set off against the underlying clay.

its fast other like By growth papyrus suppresses swamp species and australis Schum. Thonn. and the Vossia Phragmites Typha et grass localities. borders cuspidata Griff, which occur in similar Only along the

where not a chance. In water than papyrus can grow they get deeper in the soil but here the rhizomes form 80 cm papyrus can not root can a

I do know from floating mat, an ability not Cyperus giganteus. different the of the in Very is vegetation Namanve swamp Uganda North side of (133), which stretches like a tongue landinwards at the

Here also dominant 1.5—3 Victoria lake. Cyperus papyrus is on a m which is soaked but covered but it is strong peat layer not by water, 69

accompanied by numerous other species. Frequent to abundant are the Miscanthidium violaceum and chionanche grasses Robijns Panicum Mez and the ferns Dryopteris striata C. Chr. and D. thelypteris A. Gray.

In relation to the the of the fol- Cyperus giganteus swamps presence be mentioned: Fuirena lowing species may pubescens Kunth, F. umbellata, Typha latifolia L., Polygonum serrulatum Lag., Cyperus haspan, Leersia

hexandra, Cissus adenocaulis Steud. ex. A. Rich., Mikania scandens Willd., Scleria sp.

V. Rhynchospora corymbosa type.

Rhynchospora corymbosa [56] though occurring sometimes in scattered in the is the characteristic of this clumps preceding type species community, which old with thick is probably restricted to oligotrophic swamps a

We this the South of the pegasse layer. met type in extensive swamp area the Coronie road Ferns formed here ridge complex along near our camp.

bulk of the formed 1.5 dense sub- the vegetation; they a m high jungle

merged about 0.5 m in dark brown acid water and overtopped by 2 m tall Rhynchospora and Montrichardia. Scattered shrubs of Chrysobalanus, Palicourea and Tabebuia, Pterocarpus, crocea young maurisie palms

indicated the transition wood. the ferns Blech- to swamp Beyond common indicum and found also num [17] Dryopteris gongylodes [18] we here

Nephrolepis biserrata [19] and Pityrogramme calomelanos. Interesting is the of the thin and flaccid Eleocharis occurrence very inconspicuous, which for the flora. plicarhachis [57] appeared to be new Suriname variant of this with instead of ferns is described A community grasses

from the the southern of the fresh- by Lanjouw (35) swamp along part

water canal of Coronie., Next to Rhynchospora the dominants are there

Leersia hexandra [14] and Panicum grande [53] which are responsible for the formation of flexible bear a floating mat just strong enough to the of but him for weight a man, not allowing to stay long on one spot. the fern this is and here has stumble In swamp mat missing one to over

the and the of submerged roots mass peat. do know this from the We not yet type eastern part of Suriname

it will be there. In the although probably present Cyperus giganteus found and in the swamps some Rhynchospora corymbosa was swaying the related km the line swamps closely R. gigantea. At 11.6 Wiawia within of the of passed 100 m tip a swamp which was nearly exclusively covered with The Rhynchospora vs. gigantea. species is not quite certain collected in this but from four in as no specimens were swamp, places

the line km 10 material of this beyond species was gathered whereas

R. corymbosa was found only between km 3 and 8. Thus a slight ecological

difference to exist between the but this seems two species, to prove detailed research will be necessary.

Distribution outside Suriname.

In British Guiana in the Pomeroon basin Schomburgk(108) found 70

covered with formed tall and swamps a floating mat by grasses Cyperaceae which could be passed only on the risk of sinking through the mat.

Furtheron he met with dominance of Blechnum and swamps Dryopteris and of In the of the conclude groups Cyperaceae. light following we may that these the estimates swamps belong to Rhynchospora type. Myers (98)

that at least 95% of what he calls in Guiana and the swamp savannas

Orinoco delta are with a coarse brown This grown Rhynchospora. may be for the of but it does hold true western part Guiana, certainly not

for Suriname. Myers himself that in East British Guiana most says swamps

are drained and grazed and in the adjacent district Nickerie Typha with swamps Erythrina Islands occur.

This are the data to this The remarks of only applying swamp type. C. Smith based the of but the A. (123) are apparently on paper Myers latter’s description was not correctly interpreted. Of the 7 species mentioned for the creek banks by Myers swamp vegetation along Smith selected has four and promoted these with little justification to important

swamp plants. Sacciolepis striata can be abundant on small plots but occupies just like Hymenanche in general a subordinate place in the

swamps. Of have said before that Eleocharis geniculata I it prefers current

in the but water; swamps resembling E. interstincta occurs frequently under found only special conditions it is in large quantities (see chapter X).

At last which far I Panicum elephantipes is a species so as know occurs only along river banks.

The community of ferns and Cyperaceae described by Eggeling (133)

from the Namanve in Central Africa shows distinct swamp (Uganda) a with this This succeeds affinity type. community a Nymphaea community, and either in in belt grows undeep water or deeper water as a floating

the scattered of preceding Cyperus papyrus swamp. Except groups up

to 3.5 m! high Rhynchospora corymbosa the principal species are Dryop- teris striata C. Chr., Pycreus mundtii Nees, Fimbristylis subaphyllus Boeck., Cyperus haspan, Leersia hexandra, Fuirena pubescens Kunth, F. umbellata and Polygonum aff. serrulatum Lag.

VI. Lagenocarpus guianensis-other Cyperaceae type.

As the last of herbaceous I will mention here the type swamp vegetation of the about between “zwiebelzwampen” or swaying swamps half way

and the Wiawia flat. where the Moengo tapoe In most places peat layer be proved to strong, Lagenocarpus guianensis [69], a very coarse sedge formed in defined the aspect. It very dense, pure, 2 m high patches a

Montri- lower and less dense vegetation of the same species together with

chardia [20], Eleocharis interstincta [43], Rhynchospora triflora [68] (new

for Suriname), R. cyperoides [65] and R. gigantea [66]. Near the northern border of the of shrubs had great swamp a zone Chrysobalanus developed and from the borders invaded the with closed front maurisie palms swamp a 71

and scattered the between km and in precursors. In swamp 13.1 13.4 the Wiawia line Rhynchospora gigantea is fairly frequent and reaches a

of 2 The other above mentioned height nearly m. Cyperaceae are present small numbers all the but around in the in over swamps, gaps peat layer

best and form they grow clumps. the southern of the where found and In part great swamp no peat was where the water was during our visit only 10—50 cm deep, a variant found with dominant of the community was Becquerelia tuberculata [70] and Lagenocarpus with the other Cyperaceae far behind. The same variant also in small which had in in was met a peat bog developed a depression the savanna 5 km to the South.

In the of the South of the second island where the part swamp peat was still thin, loose and nearly unpassable, most of the species of the but and the Lagenocarpus community were present small, numerous between made the like savanna species (see p. 36) in vegetation look a savanna. Remarkable was the abundance of Lycopodium meridionale [71] of the surface of and and forming a stratum its own over water peat in the probably playing an important part strengthening floating peat layer and weaving it together. have this other of but We not seen vegetation type in parts Suriname, our Indian foreman Hendrik Tempico told us that it also occurs in the

of the Lower River and this finds region Coppename statement support in the aerial photographs. For the area North of the Wayombo between and Nickerie River the show intricate Coppename photographs an pattern with forested islands which shows resemblances but also differences with the The feature Is the great swaying swamp. most remarkable interchanging of black shades in identical of the mosaic very light to nearly parts on Therefore of this subsequent prints. an Investigation area seems very promising.

Distribution outside Suriname.

From French Coudreau Guiana (60) reports perilous “savanes trem- blantes” where sinks the loose of these a man easily in peaty mass meters

These this and in British deep swamps. swamps may belong to type, Guiana it also be from the of may expected descriptions swamps given by Schomburgk (108) and Jenman(87). They are covered with large Cyperaceae, speckled with pools covered by waterlilies and other aquatics and belts which the scattered fringed by pure of maurisie palms also gird forested islands.

Trinidad On in the Aripo savannas (48) Lagenocarpus guianensis dominates solid which of the in a vegetation on clay during most year

It is wet. shows affinities with both the clay savannas and the swaying of Suriname. Boeck. and swamps eastern Rhynchospora longibracteata

Bulbostylis junciformis Kunth are subdominant, a distinctive character not met in Suriname where both are subordinate species in savannas.

On the other hand Paspalum pulchellum Kunth, Drosera capillaris, Utricu- 72

laria spp., terrestrial orchids and Chrysobalanus occur also in the floating savanna in the where Ilex martiniana takes the great swaying swamp, of Ilex arimensis Britt.. place (Toes.) Bactris savannarum Britt, reported by

Beard endemic in these is similar and as savannas very certainly closely related to the Bactris of the in the line. species savannas Moengo tapoe last the into marsh At Aripo savannas merge palm predominantly

of Mauritia and this is similar consisting Chrysobalanus; very to many in the swamp fringes Wiawia-Moengo tapoe transect (see chapter VII).

CHAPTER VI

SWAMP FOREST

The records of these and the following forests can be found in table II, for important species the number used in the table has been added In brackets. and least soils several In swamps on at periodically waterlogged

of Beard divides In types woody vegetation are encountered which (48) and marsh forests of the of the former swamp- on account time inundation, all the round the latter of the This distinction year only a part year. be useful also when make division based the appears to very we a on

floristic composition and it is much easier for use in the field. Therefore

will with of the i.e. the forests we start a description swamp forests, on soils that rule inundated but which are as a permanently may in excessively

become dry years superficially dry.

I. Mixed swamp wood.

first sometimes behind the coastal As type we meet directly mangrove belt rather low wood. the from a mixed, open, swamp In transect our the crossed the salients of wood Coronie camp to sea we a large swamp

which eastward extends the from the more over whole swamp mangrove

to the road. here Annona Andira up Important species are glabra [4], inermis [16], Ficus spp. [6], and furthermore Tabebuia [3], Triplaris

surinamensis [1], Ilex guianensis and Chrysobalanus icaco [5], with a sub-

growth of Acrostichum [144], Blechnum [143], some Nephrolepis biser-

rata, Heliconia psittacorum [163], and the climbers that are common to

is the of Andira inermis most swamps (table II). Important presence as known from other it this species is not to me any swamp wood, although

is widely distributed in marsh and other forests. Geijskes (30) reports for

the low wood found behind the North of Paramaribo swamp mangrove and Annona the dominant mixed opposite Braamspunt glabra as tree;

with it was Chrysobalanus. of North of the Coronie road in the neighbourhood Groningen I saw early in September richly flowering Triplaris, mierenhout, in apparently

stands. from distance in the herbaceous pure They were recognizable a long

swamp. The mixed is also found the short lines North and South type along 73

of the Coronie road at km 19.2 and behind the levee forest of the Nickerie

River West of the mouth of the Maratakka. Here the density decreases

gradually the further we leave the river behind us, while the subgrowth of herbs becomes dominant. From the levees individuals of several swamp marsh and tidal-forest for distance into the trees penetrate some swamp

wood Cordia Ceiba Coc- e.g. tetrandra, pentandra, Spondias mombin, coloba latifolia, Bactris, Cecropia peltata, Inga ingoides, Phyllanthus acidus.

In the between Corantine and Maratakka also and small swamps large woods of these consist of swamp occur. Many mainly Pterocarpus offici- nalis [2] and Tabebuia aquatilis [3].

Gonggrijp and Burger (34) deal only with the variant dominated by and the remarkable of this Pterocarpus, waterbébé, point out appearance forest where the snake-like trees possess high winding buttresses, give deep

shade and make the impression of trees in fairy-land. According to the authors this kind of forest often found behind the is directly mangrove

Anderson belt to which should be added; along the lower river courses. habitats for for the (45) mentions similar British Guiana, and Brazil too

of in river bank is presence Pterocarpus mangrove reported.

Geijskes (30) mentions Pterocarpus, Triplaris, Tabebuia insignis var. and for woods. The last-named monophylla Inga vera swamp species

does not occur in Suriname, but on the Caribbean islands; the species he

had in mind is the closely related Inga ingoides which was found by us too. Beard describes tall and forest from (48) a nearly pure Pterocarpus

Trinidad and Pterocarpus forests are known also from Porto Rico and

the Lesser Antilles.

In British Honduras Pterocarpus officinalis forms together with Bactris minor forests in the tidal Stehle Jacq. swamp zone (113). According to of the forest of (117) the analogon on Martinique Pterocarpus Guadeloupe

is an Annona glabra-Dalbergia ecastophyllum association dominated by

Annona and in coastal with acid growing lagoons stagnant, fresh, water.

are the vines Paullinia volubilis Companions pinnata, Hippocratea , and Brachypteris ovata, Cissus sicyoides some epiphytes. Dalbergia

apparently takes there the same place as Chrysobalanus opposite Braams- In Suriname found the of punt. Dalbergia was only along margins ridges, the not in swamps.

In also the Annona woods of this connection we may mention glabra

Florida which in former covered the S. days large areas on swampy

shores of lake Okeechobee. Davis (68) mentions as subgrowth of these

woods Cyperus haspan, Thalia, Sagittaria, Dryopteris gongylodes, Blech-

num indicum and Osmunda regalis L.. He cites Chrysobalanus and Rapanea

Aubl. under the associates in woods of guyanensis swamp consisting

northern tree species.

How far woods of this in a south-eastern direction swamp type range

I cannot tell. All tree species mentioned above occur in Amazonia, but their coastal have found with regard to occurence in swamps I nothing. 74

II. Erythrina glauca swamp wood.

As second of wood I here the uniform type swamp present very koffie-

mama wood with Erythrina glauca as absolute dominant and only a few

lianas and herbs in small numbers and an occasional treelet as associates.

the Blechnum We met in groves Dryopteris gongylodes, indicum, Desmon-

cus horridus, Heliconia psittacorum, Mikania micrantha and congesta; Lanjouw (35) mentions also Panicum grande, Entada polystachya, Cordia and the retrandra, Sesbania exasperata Aeschynomene sensitiva, last two Beukering probably in the border. Ir. van orally informed me -that

in the Nickerie paloeloe, Heliconia sp., entered as companion mainly in border zone.

Around the of tall mokomoko is groves usually a narrow ring seen.

This Is in the and scattered in the as species present swamp groves single finds the border of the for unknown individuals, but at groves reasons

habitat form dense stands. In this connection the fact an optimal to may be stressed that wherever is it in Montrichardia gregarious grows fringes banks borders. backed by forest, a.o. along river and ridge The of these woods be due striking uniformity may to special properties of Erythrina which prohibit the germination or the development of other the shadow trees in Its immediate surrounding. One factor might be deep the of the another the trend form tree casts most year, one to groups either from seed or by vegetative propagation.

If a mature tree falls down it does not succomb as a rule but forms

over the whole length of the trunk secondary stems. Whether root saplings

can be produced I could not ascertain. Besides this point the Influence of for remarkable that the tree on the habitat should be investigated, it is the in than the herbaceous tree grows deeper water surrounding vegetation.

This both In the small in the 5th was experienced koffiemama groups up

8th in the Wiawia line and in the often several hundred to swamp woods,

meters In diameter, South of the Nickerie River. We find on the soil beneath the thin of whereas in the groves but a cover humus surrounding

thick is This the actual difference swamp a pegasse layer present. explains but the involved the the in water depth not processes in development to

in different S. the present status. However a completely area, Louisiana,

has been described Penfound and Hathaway same phenomenon by (103) for the transition of into Taxodium here Typha swamp forest; obviously formed a succession takes place during which the earlier peat layer is

rapidly destroyed. This happens as soon as Taxodium trees invade the the of the woods similar Typha swamps. In case Erythrina a development

for I think it that the should seems probable unacceptable pegasse layer

have been formed after the local establishment of Erythrina as this

would that these have had their from the imply groves present extent of the start peat growth.

certain What chemical and physical changes can be brought about by and how these lead the of offers trees changes can to decomposition peat an

interesting subject for future research. 75

Gonggrijp and Burger (34) place the Erythrina stands under fresh seasonal but have for water swamp forest, as we seen they are typical

found in the habitat the permanent swamps. They are same as swamp behind woods of the first type, though as far as we know never directly the coastal the other hand tolerate mesohalinous mangrove. On they water

brackish than that found in woods (5th swamp 4100 mg Cl/1), more of the first type.

Sometimes both close in the in types are met together same swamp as the area South of the Nickerie River, but the complexes are always strictly separated.

Geijskes (30) stresses the curious fact that koffiemama seems to be absent in the central of Suriname wild it is used here part as a tree although

shade in the coffee In the everywhere as tree plantations. eastern part of the coastal it is in and and region frequent meso- oligohalinous swamps in fresh whereas the forms rare water, in western part it large complexes but fresh North of the road mainly not exclusively in swamps. Coronie between and Coronie woods could be discerned far our camp Erythrina into the brackish and North of the Nickerie of Typha swamp River East

Paradise extensive woods learned local in formation are present, as I by and could afterwards the Standley verify on aerial photographs. (112, records the of extensive woods 113) presence Erythrina glauca in swamps

in the Lancetilla valley (British Honduras) and in Panama. From else- where they have not been described but as the species is indigenous to all America stands in other coastal tropical we may expect areas.

occurs on wet in the interior but not in stands. Erythrina spots too, pure Suriname the collected the Koetari and In species was along Lucie River, and it has also been reported from Amazonia and Herzog (80) even met

Bolivia forest the A it in E. in marsh in savanna region. distinct disjunction

seems to exist between the coastal area of the species and its distribution in the interior.

III. Machaerium lunatum scrub.

The of the horrible brantimakka third type woody swamp vegetation is scrub described in its form i.e. when it is on p. 31 typical a virtually

stand. In the 4th few small pure swamp in the Wiawia transect a very

Ficus trees and Annona above the flat scrub and one glabra rose canopy Salvinia floated the the North some plants on water. In swamp strips of km 19 Coronie the shrubs made difficult near our camp passage already and had produced a layer of the characteristic organic mud, but they did

not form and between them several yet a closed canopy swamp species still were frequent.

Besides this scrub inhabits also brackish swamps vast stretches along river banks in the tidal where the is fresh. zone, water polyhaline to On

the bank side the shrubs 3—4 are m high, in the outward edge they slope down the the lowest branches extend far the to water; over stream and

become even submerged at high tide. 76

Palm swamp.

and Burger like of Beard’s Gonggrijp (34) to see an equivalent palm in the in Suriname. This should be swamp maka-palm swamps a palm

forest of Bactris Desmoncus with low minax Miq. and spp. subgrowth. this form have consists of In we not met it. Beard’s palm swamp (48) tall from scrub very palms up to 30 m high over an understory varying to

18m but Bactris high forest, poor in species. spp. on the contrary are short- stemmed the of first of marsh palms usually in understory my type

but sometimes form less stands. forest, apparently tending to more or pure the stands therefore local of the marsh I regard maka-palm as a variant

forest and different from the of certainly quite palm swamp Beard. oleracea Beard’s Roystonea consociation near the sea is lacking in Suri-

his second consociation the he records also for the name; Mauritia swamp

Orinoco delta and the Guianas. the of of It covers margins swamps my

4th, 5th and 6th type. Successionally it is the initial stage of marsh forest.

In its composition it is so closely related to Beard’s palm marsh that I

it the association bring to same (see p. 82).

CHAPTER VII

MARSH FOREST

Habitat.

hand The scarcity and incompleteness of the data now available on one

and the transitions in the coastal on many gradual met especially region

the make it difficult to in the forests other, very distinguish general types

growing on not permanently submerged ground. Not only are the floristic with the data necessarily too limited but also too little is known regard to

habitat have taken in the various areas in as we only snapshot surveys different The which those seasons. periodical changes, among especially level could be estimated of the ground-water are very important, only

indirectly or guessed at.

The soil profile gives us an aid in this matter. Where the water rises

well the surface the and In normal does not over in rainy season years the litter fall so far below It to allow the superficial layers to dry out, and black brown rich in humus decays rapidly, a top layer develops which

gradually becomes less rich in humus downwards changing into a horizon with bad that with brown or red iron stains. In depressions drainage

become filled with water in the rainy season we meet this profile under marsh forest. If the soil soaked and remains stays submerged during a black structureless large part of the year, a nearly peat accumulates, as is found along the borders of older ridges. This marginal forest is richer woods and treated here under marsh in species than the true swamp is forest, but in fact it Is intermediate. 77

Along rivers and creeks over vast distances low forelands are found

that are flooded seasonally. In Brazil these are called varzea whereas the

wooded behind levees found the centre permanent swamps high usually in of wide meanders are designated as igapo. For the water household the forest with the marsh forests but enriched varzea joins up they are seasonally with sediments brought down by the river. Furthermore the

vegetation is more or less differentiated because at the forest margin light is down the surface intensity high to water enabling many species to

thrive here luxurious; moreover there is always some change in the soil,

the levees being more or less elevated and containing less fine particles

than the sediments farther from the stream. Some to away species seem

be exclusive to the river-bank forest margins. The most conspicuous species is the middle of rivers in Bombax aquaticum very common along course far know Guiana and Amazonia, but as as I never seen within a forest.

At last the tidal forests along the lower river courses are left. They

submitted intricate series of of the are to a very changes water table, from and classification. This differing place to place challenging every

holds especially for the vegetation of the levees that are subject to the direct influences of the tides. The milieu of the forests behind the swamp levees much stable because the of the tidal is more only top waves passes

the levees. The soil remains submerged, and although the water level

fluctuates, this variation is of little importance for the aeration of the subterranean of the parts plants.

The levees the other hand at least several hours on emerge a day

enabling the establishment of a number of species which cannot resist a

On prolonged submergence. the levees no pronounced layer of humus is

because the litter is washed the floods. The tidal formed, probably away by forests in fresh fresh Where the is grow or nearly water. water distinctly saline of the the levees during a good part year, are occupied by mangrove

forests. A second point of importance is the extent to which the top soil dries the the bulk of the of the out in drought season as root system

rule be found in the two feet of the soil. trees seems as a to upper

Beard (48) describes a badly draining soil or a soil provided with an

impermeable layer at slight depth which causes a rapid water-logging and

inundation in the rainy season as typical conditions for the development

of marsh forest. In the dry season however after the stock of water has

been used excessive desiccation in. The of the up, an sets intensity drought, of is Suriname where the less course, important. In dry season is pronoun-

ced than In Trinidad, this situation occurs locally but there no marsh

forest is developed, but a savanna vegetation. In the true marsh forests

which in Suriname develop over impermeable subsoil the watercapacity soil of the top which is rich in humus, and the layer under it together form sufficient in normal the loss the a reserve to cover years during

dry season.

well illustrated Wane This is in the clay savanna area North of the

Creek in the In the the Moengo tapoe transect. savanna impermeable 78

subsoil found ± 40 below the but where is only cm surface, a slight

in the subsoil is and the 80—100 depression present covering ground is cm thick marsh forest is developed. flat coastal the In the region water level in the rivers does not fluctuate much in the of the Therefore here very course year. we meet no terraces that flooded time of the and several above are at one year parching meters

the river at another time. Such terraces occur in the middle course of the

rivers.

On the contrary all over the coastal region the rivers are subject to tidal influence which supplies the forest along the bank permanently with

water.

To get a good idea of the various habitats and of the corresponding forest river banks all the of of types on along course a river a series regular observations and number of will be on many points during a years neces- authors have the sary. Some pointed to changes in the riverbank vegetation all its but these have occurring along course, changes never properly been studied. Some remarks the the lower of the on changes along parts rivers made in the the are chapter on mangrove.

Floristic composition.

If the floristic marsh forests we pass on now to data, we see that in the

in which also inhabit the general those species swamp forests play an Besides these that in rain forest important part. many species are common

come in, viz. those that tolerate periodical flooding, and we see from

table II that a distinct connection exists between the composition of a certain marsh forest and the neighbouring dry forest. Within rather wide limits the of be for presence diaspores seems to more important the occur-

rence of a species than the habitat. Many trees produce heavy seeds and

know little about the of seed this although we way dispersion, supposition

does not seem improbable.

A third of marsh but also group species seems to prefer forest, occurs forest where the soil however from the in is never submerged. Judging elevation which was found by levelling the lines, the species of this restricted those of the forest where group are to parts a permanent good

water supply is guaranteed.

A where complication is usually met with in transition zones, not only the but also the soil the water supply structure changes. Along margin of the the sand less like into ridges we see ridge merge more or a wedge

the of the and erosion formation clay swamp or peat may complicate the situation. creeks which have eroded bed in Along many a deep a period

when the level several lower than it is sea was meters at present, we now

of mud that sometimes several meters and meet terraces peaty are deep, which fill of the old may a large part valley.

On account of the now available data I have distinguished two main

marsh the from various areas however types of forest, representatives wide of table showing a range variability (compare II). 79

I. Triplaris surinamensis-Bonafousia tetrastachya type.

This is characterized the and abundance of type by high presence Triplaris surinamensis, mierenhout [1], and by the fact that this species often the is accompanied in the subgrowth especially on wetter places by the shrub Bonafousia tetrastachya [142]. Differential species with the second from the mentioned Cordia respect to type are, apart two ones, tetrandra [9], Ficus sp. [6], Cecropia vs. peltata [10], Spondias mombin [12], Ceiba pentandra [13], Annona glabra [4], Coccoloba latifolia [11], Hymenaea courbaril [38].

This in the of the coastal In the type we met younger parts region.

Wiawia transect along the margins and in depressions of the ridges between km 2.9 and in the Coronie and 10, shell-ridge area near our camp on levees and fragments of low ridge around Nickerie. Huber’s record (83) of tidal forest along rivers on Marajo in the Amazone delta accords well with it (table II rec. 51).

II. Symphonia globulifera type.

The second is characterized matakki, type by Symphonia globulifera, which in these wet habitats is always provided with numerous knee-shaped pneumatophores which protrude 30—100 cm over the soil surface and which sometimes Differential with highly hampered our passage. species the first besides Rheedia regard to type are, Symphonia [3o], kappleri

[34], Catostemma sp. (barmanni) [3s], Licania macrophylla [3l], Copaifera guianensis [36], Eschweilera longipes [32]. This observed outside the of the coastal type was only younger parts region and there it occurred in various forms. In the Wiawia line we found the of the older km and it along margin ridges beyond 10, as strips the older in the of this Still separating ridges Moengo tapoe part transect. and the belt further South in this transect in along creeks in savanna it

also was present. the Tibiti the creek and the Near savanna it filled valleys along Tibiti and other rivers observed it where the bank was low. we on many places of Even in the Nassau mountains we met it on the plateau at a height creek. 530 m in a shallow depression along a conditions creeks close habitat. The along come to a swamp Heinsdijk

that forest with and (44) states swamp Symphonia, Tabebuia, Pterocarpus the Virola is the most common and wide-spread type, especially along rivers in the middle This forest should be second marsh-forest course. my

I have visited but forest of this the rivers type. one type along larger at the former plantation Berendslust (Suriname River), which was inundated in after Whether it 50—60 cm April 1949 a very wet period.

real and marsh forest I but the was a swamp forest not a can not tell, abundance of that the inundation is pina palms suggests not permanent Therefore leave (see following paragraph). I must open the question whether the is also real Symphonia community adapted to swamp con- 80

ditlons untill series of observations made in all and or not, a seasons in

is available. many places

Features that both are common to types.

A number of be found in both In the fairly large species may types. first place Virola surinamensis, baboen [18], and Euterpe oleracea, pina show The last-named shows within marsh [17], a high presence. species one

forest marked in which be complex a very variability abundance proved to

correlated to the elevation. At it reaches absolute closely many places

dominance in a definite zone in the forest forming as much as 90% of the all trees. This trend is promoted by the peculiarity of this palm to form favourable clusters several The in spots consisting of stems. species

is distinctly moisture-loving and disappears where the soil rises more

than a few meters over the marsh-forest level but does on the other hand

not into The dominance of is penetrate permanent swamps. Euterpe

apparently bound to a narrowly circumscribed periodicity in the fluc-

tuation of the in which both the of the inundation ground water, length and the lowest period normally ground-water level probably are important.

When this periodical changes of the water level will be investigated in

of the best indicators for the detail, Euterpe may appear as one water household in marsh forests.

Other hygrophilous species are Pterocarpus officinalis [2], Genipa americana [22], Simaba multiflora [23], Mauritia flexuosa [20], Caryocar

microcarpum [21], Diospyros guianensis [27], Tabebuia insignis-group '[3],

Maximiliana maripa [29], Carapa procera [28]. Of those which this of forest from the species penetrate into type dry forests several be restricted of the and for appear not to to one types several other the number of finds is small ones too to pronounce upon.

The of marsh In aspect the forest varies considerably. its best developed it is forest with tall of state a trees overtopping a canopy stratum 8—15 but in instances the tall and m high trees, many trees are absent. Lianas

epiphytes are scarce. Subgrowth is only locally important where one or form form buttresses stilt two species groups. Many trees or roots. The second the of scrub wood creeks type may take habit a along on peaty

mud with most trees divided at the base in several inclined stems as seen

the Creek and the in the line. along Djai Wane Creek Moengo tapoe

In this case Aulomyrcia pyrifolia [24] and Amanoa guianensis [25] are dominant and like shrub grow trees.

III. Hura crepitans forest.

the which encountered Economically important is possentrie forest, we in small in the line behind Coronie is only one plot our camp. It a high

forest with Hura of possentrie, crepitans [121] forming an upper story

25—35 m tall trees with a stem diameter reaching over 1 m. The

is and consists in the visited of Hura and understory very open plot young 81

Euterpe oleracea, Triplaris, Pterocarpus officinalis, Virola surinamensis and Tabebuia. A subgrowth of herbs, etc. is nearly completely absent.

Of Montrichardia and Bonafousia tetrastachya but a few individuals were found. On account of the floristic composition this forest belongs to first distinct variant. also demand my type though as a very It seems to a habitat. We found it on low of drowned particular a marshy part shell ridge with slightly brackish groundwater. According to Geijskes (30) this is the habitat. that it typical Heinsdijk (44) says usually occurs along and sometimes extends also into the in ridge margins swamp. Especially

to the timber value of Hura it is that these forests regard important pure be aerial the Wiawia few can recognized on photographs. In line only a stunted individuals of Hura were met. Hura forests occur as far as I know in the middle and of the coastal only western part region.

It but is a noteworthy, as yet unexplained, fact that the distribution of this in Suriname is restricted whereas in other species apparently very countries it wide and in various forest grows over a area types not only lowlands in the but also to a considerable height on mountain slopes.

The forest with a probably only periodically wet but not really

flooded clay soil and with but little humus can not be reckoned to the marsh forest but of the resemblance flora must, on account of its to that of the rain forest, be considered a wet variant of the latter and will therefore be discussed in the next chapter.

and Burger call the marsh forest seasonal forest Gonggrijp (34) swamp and discuss with Hura variants Carapa, or Virola as dominants. They are of the opinion that forests with Erythrina, Symphonia or Triplaris belong here. of the first An example variant is the tidal marsh forest in the line near

Cupido along the Maratakka River, of the third the forest at Berendslust

where Virola the the (Suriname River) was principal species in open upper

story, though the number of individuals was not high and pina in the second determined the The story aspect. Erythrina type is as we have distinct for the last-named forest the seen a swamp wood; supposition

holds stands woods. The fifth only partly as many Triplaris are swamp second marsh forest one belongs to my type.

Dominance of palms.

Beard (48) records as marsh forest for Trinidad: the Calophyllum lucidum faciation of the Manicaria-Jessenia-Euterpe association, a new name for Marshall’s Calophyllum-Palmae association (93) which was found in British Guiana the “truli where the represented by swamp”; same palms dominant are but Calophyllum is absent. Truli is the indigenous name for

Manicaria for the of Suriname saccifera, a palm reported western part the lower of the rivers. low banks along part On river in Suriname on

many places palms (Mauritia, Euterpe, Maximiliana maripa) are dominant and these stands be with Beard’s but had may equivalent association, we

no opportunity to investigate them. On the other hand the alternation

81 82

the banks of dominated and others where along river spots by palms take the first the that the dicotyledonous trees places gave me impression

palm stands are only a facies of the tidal marsh forest along the lower of the parts rivers.

Extensive Manicaria stands are also reported from the Orinoco delta.

Anderson (45) describes how in British Guiana Euterpe edulis and

Manicaria saccifera often are dominant on the levees behind a Rhizophora belt. Locally Bactris palms are prominent along the rivers.

According to Huber (83) Mauritia flexuosa is locally dominant in the

tidal forest along the rivers on the isle Marajo, and in the Amazone delta Mauritia stands often and often mixed with adds are pure Euterpe. He

Mauritia that deeper into the forest becomes scarce through lack of light, taken several other and its place is by palms Oenocarpus spp., etc.; 100 m

from the river bank only rarely a Mauritia is found. Prominent Dicotyle-

dons are Virola surinamensis, often growing together with Mauritia,

Carapa guianensis. Hevea brasiliensis, Spondias mombin, Plumeria sucuuba and many Papilionaceae.

Other palms that are often observed in abundance on the levees, are

Bactris maraja Mart, and other species and Manicaria saccifera.

Beard recognized in Trinidad two other marsh formations; palm marsh

and both in the wet and dried out in savanna, waterlogged completely

the dry season. As the periodical complete dryness is the essential factor

inundation the I will for the savannas and in rainy season is not obligate,

mention them in chapter IX in connection with the savanna forest.

IV. Mauritia-Chrysobalanus association.

Beard (48) calls the palm marsh a Mauritia-Chrysobalanus association between which occurs under drainage conditions intermediate in severity

marsh forest and savanna. This is true where the association occurs in

in the channels which depressions savannas, especially along drainage

generally contain water only during the rainy season. The Mauritia [20]

stands in and the borders of the fresh-water however along swamps are also characterized by Chrysobalanus [5] and must be reckoned to the

same association. The accompanying species show much variation according

to the habitat and the neighbouring vegetation, and allow thus a sub- The differentiated division. wet subassociation, Beard’s palm swamp, is by Virola surinamensis, Genipa americana, Pterocarpus officinalis,

Montrichardia arborescens. Triplaris surinamensis. Bonafousia tetrastachya. The last-named where the bordered two species enter only swamps are marsh forests of the first Further landinwards the subassociation by type.

into marsh forest of the second In the Wiawia transect merges type. belts found associated with both marsh in maurisie were types of forest,

the South of the near Coronie met initial swamp ridge complex we an with of herbs. phase dense subgrowth swamp the North of and the Great In clay-savanna area Moengo tapoe near 83

Swaying Swamp the conditions come apparently closest to the palm marsh found in Trinidad in the area of the Aripo savanna. The soil here is inundated and and of bad periodically desiccated, clayey a very structure. Besides the characteristics Aulomyrcia pyrifolia, Tabebuia vs. and Clusia less insignis nemorosa are more or important.

In sand savannas the inundation is probably of short duration, but the desiccation is not so severe as on the higher parts of the savanna. The this habitat enriched several and vegetation in is by savanna plants goes in the direction of the savanna scrub, but no details are available.

One point must be mentioned here. Beard (48) refers all the Mauritias Trinidad the which of to species M. setigera Gris, et Wendl., was originally

described as endemic in that island, and he states that his Mauritia palm

is also found in the Orinoco delta and the Guianas. The swamp common Mauritia of Guiana and Brazil, however, is currently named M. flexuosa.

Mauritia setigera has recently been reported outside Trinidad, but as both in the have species are very similar field, they apparently nearly never been Therefore observations will be distinguished. many trustworthy the what the distribution of both necessary to answer question species is, and whether there exist ecological differences between them.

CHAPTER VIII

EVERGREEN SEASONAL FOREST

Two kinds of dry forests with striking physiognomical and floristic differences will be observed the the first is the rain by traveller; type forest which the population distinguishes in lowland and upland forest

on account of the topography, the second one is the savanna forest.

Let first attention the lowland and forests. us pay to upland They

to Beard’s seasonal forest with three stories of belong evergreen trees, discontinuous of and a highly stratum emergent trees reaching 30 m more,

almost continuous at —27 an canopy layer 15—27 m (Beard (48) gives 12

and Burger 14 —30 and lower m, Gonggrijp (34) m) a continuous story and have at 3—12 m (Beard 3—9 m, G. B. 3—10 m). My own figures been taken from The our 100 square meter sample plots. understory rises

everywhere to 12 m. Trees with an estimated height of 13 or 14 m are

whereas trees of 15 and met with. Also rare, m upwards are frequently

when we take into account the inexactness of the estimations and make a

correction for it the depression in the height curve between 12 and 15 m

remains evident, whereas other irregularities disappear (see figure IV).

Shrubs and herbs are of no importance, but lianas and epiphytes are

frequent. Palms are scarce to frequent.

This type of forest we meet everywhere on the ridges where the soil

is well drained i.e. where it is never flooded in the wet season nor cut off 84

from the the of Where ground water by presence a continuous iron pan. on the old high ridges the sand has been leached so intensively that a hard continuous iron has been the forest has been pan formed, ridge forest. replaced by savanna

In Fig. IV. Height-class distribution of the trees in some forests. the first example the

treelets under 5 m were not counted.

Outside the this forest found soil ridge area is on various types, provided

the drainage is moderate to good, in the lowlands, on the hills and in the least of mountains up to at 550 m (altitude Nassau Mts). Our sample and around the bauxite hills North of the plots on Moengo tapoe, near

Tibiti savanna and in the Nassau mountains show in the floristic com-

with each other and with the forests the position a good agreement ridge in Wiawia which demonstrate series transect a very good developmental from forest the poorly developed wood near the seacoast to the rich on the oldest ridges.

The flora of the seasonal forest is difficult to charac- evergreen very number terize as a result of the large of species represented in each stand and the of of them. in the small comparative rarity many Therefore,

sample plots we were obliged to use, one will often miss species that are the and the number of that present in neighbourhood, species are really

remains matter of present a conjecture. 85

Comparison shows that but few species that were not present in a sample

noted in the within 100 from the and the plot were strip survey m plot, majority of the commoner species therefore are represented in an area of

of 10 400 square m (4 quadrats m square each). Conversely many species noted in the and in the this were sample plots not strip survey; were

herbs and small but also individuals of the taller not only trees, young species.

The usual opinion is that in the mixed tropical forest the heterogeneity is that the individuals of far so great most tree species are growing very

This holds true if looks at apart. certainly one only full-grown trees, but when taken the all individuals in a sample plot are into account,

I mean distance between the individuals diminishes. On our experience

the that for the richest forests in Suriname venture to express opinion even and probably elsewhere the characteristic combination of species is

in small the of forest represented a relatively area, say according to type in between 100 and 1000 a quadrat square m.

As stated above do know the total number of in we not species present the investigated forests.

However, the records of Davis and Richards (71) obtained from forests in British Guiana give some indications for the estimation of this number.

They counted all trees with stems over 10 cm in diameter in sample plots

1.5 4.5 2 of ha and all smaller trees that were over m high in strips covering together 1/8 of the surface of the plots. In their mixed forest association and consociation and greenheart they met resp. 91 95 tree but and of these occurred than species only 55 63 in more 1 or 2 individuals. If the last-named with those obtained we compare figures we

from of combined with the data of the our plots 4 X 100 sq. m survey

200 line of the nearest m of the we see a good agreement.

record number 69 70 73 74 76 77 83

number of tree species 51 62 68 51 50 44 51

Record no 75 of 6 100 600 line 74 X sq. m plus m survey yielded species, the records of smaller plots, however, less than 35 species.

For uniform stand of seasonal forest, therefore, a typical evergreen

a number of about 100 tree species seems to be a fair estimate.

have earlier in this it often that the As I pointed out paper happens which could be determined and that species to a tree belongs not only a

be between 2 As that choice can given or more species. it is improbable

these species will have the same ecological amplitude, heterogeneous elements under and such unit show much wider come one heading, a may a

than each of its will Instructive range components possess. examples are div. and Mouriria div. swietihoontje, Inga sp. spikrihoedoe, sp.

of the restricted this forest but Some species probably are to type, as all that recorded times show wider names were many a distribution, these be looked for the with low species must in group frequency, 86

represented in table II by a small number of findings and this makes it

to draw conclusions with the and impossible regard to fidelity constancy of these species from the available material.

this characters left For reason only negative are at present, namely the less absence of and more or complete swamp- marsh-forest species on one hand and of savanna-forest elements on the other hand.

with Species a high presence, 60% or more, are: Parinari campestris [47],

Tapirira guyanensis [48], Duroia eriopila [52], Oenocarpus [50] probably more than one species, probably Protium heptaphyllum [49], and from the herbs warimbo, Ischnosiphon gracilis and obliquus [151], and bos- ananas [152], a large terrestrial Bromeliacea. Marsh- and that absent swamp-forest species are entirely or represented only by an occasional individual are: Triplaris, Pterocarpus officinalis.

Simaba Tabebuia Licania Genipa, multiflora. insignis- group, macrophylla. Cordia tetrandra, Chrysobalanus and Mauritia.

Savanna-forest species that are nearly completely missing are; Swartzia bannia, Clusia nemorosa and fockeana, Humiria balsamifera and flori- bunda, Bombax flaviflorum, Ormosia costulata, Licania incana, Cono- morpha magnoliifolia, Dimorphandra conjugata. less Many species occur more or locally and on this account it is possible

to make a subdivision. The limits, however, are not sharp. I draw attention

this subdivision the limits of the units coincide to as vegetation in part with geographical limits.

I. Cereus ridge wood.

In the Wiawia transect the first change occurs between the 6th and

7th ridge at km 2.5 and the second coincides with the division between the marsh-forest located this types at km 9.5. The three subtypes in way

are bound to different phases in the formation of the ridges.

From the 2nd the 6th find forest wood of up to ridge we or one

subtype. The first ridge belongs genetically to the same series, but it is as

we have seen so small and so soaked with salt water that it bears a

different In habit this close Beard’s fully vegetation. subtype comes to

littoral woodland(48), which is not found in Suriname as nowhere along the of sand and present coast important amounts are deposited, as no

dunes of extent formed. In the the time the any are past during larger formed littoral woodland have been ridges were may present.

in this the form continuous much As subtype trees no canopy, light

the and allows the of herbs. penetrates to ground development many stories and stunted and show burn- No are discernable, many trees are

which that fires the scars, proves swamp occasionally sweep through ridge

forest too.

these Important species on young ridges are Astrocaryum segregatum [37], Eugenia wullschlaegeliana [95], Protium cf. heptaphyllum [49], and the and broader 4th Inga probable mainly ingoides [19], on higher 87

and 6th ridge vigorous trees of Hymenaea courbaril [38] and Plumeria

[96]. The first and last-named couple of species have their optimum here and disappear on the ridges to the South. Restricted to this subtype is an

of 10 and enormous Cereus species [97] reaching a height m provided with that become in the lower stems woody parts. On the 2nd and 4th ridge the usually epiphytic Aracea Monstera the and considerable The sagotiana creeps over ground covers areas.

Ximenia americana occurrence of on the second ridge is also interesting.

This species has frequently been reported as an inhabitant of strand wood

in the Caribbean but in Suriname it was collected only a few times, twice

near Paramaribo and by us also near Albina on a sandy terrace of the

Marowijne River.

Species we found only in the subgrowth of the 4th, 5th and 6th ridge, but there abundant, are Cyperus chalaranthus, a slender sedge met else- where in and the Solanum secondary growth, shrubby asperum.

The second subtype belongs to the vast 7th and 8th ridge complexes

9.5. In and to some single ridges South of them to km this subtype several make their others species appearance, some as important elements,

scattered individuals. With the last-named have be as group we to some-

what cautious, for the fact that we have not met them on the first six ridges does not necessarily mean that they are completely absent; we have made observations the only along line, thus covering only a small strip of these this be narrow ridges. In regard to It may instructive that of

the 23 tree species we recorded on the 200 m wide 4th ridge 4 were met only there and later on the 7th and 8th ridge; the other ridges, which are less wide each. the other hand 100 m or yielded only 9 to 12 species On the vegetation of the 4th ridge came closest to a real forest and it is there- fore that it is richer in than the wood probable really species open on the smaller ridges.

II. Intermediate ridge forest.

The forests of the second have closed subtype a canopy at 14—25 m and lower and a more or less well-developed story subgrowth. Common species are Inga sp. div. [19], Protium heptaphyllum a.o. [49], Parinari [47], Oenocarpus [50], Tapirira [48] (often abundant), Manilkara [51 ], Simarouba [64] and Caryocar microcarpum [21] (always in small numbers). and Astrocaryum segregatum, Eugenia wullschlaegeliana, Hymenaea Plumeria disappear gradually.

In the lower story Duroia eriopila [52] comes into prominence, and in the subgrowth Ischnosiphon, warimbo [151], and bosananas [152].

III. Parinari ridge forest.

The forest on the old ridges is dominated by Parinari campestris [47] the in canopy; Duroia eriopila [52] and Ravenala [59] take nearly every- where the first in the lower warimbo does in the place story, as [151] 88

subgrowth. Euterpe [17] and several Melastomataceae [70] are usually

in the lower This variant sand where present story. grows on leaching has with discontinuous iron produced a podsol profile a pan.

IV. seasonal Typical evergreen forest.

In the all fourth subtype the lowland and upland forests are brought

together. This subtype is richest in species and only here the stories are well differentiated, especially in the upland forest. As common species we find here once more Inga sp. div. [19], Parinari [47], Oenocarpus [50],

Protium heptaphyllum a.o. [49]. New in this subtype are Iryanthera vs.

In hostmanni [63], Licania sp. div. [67 —69]. the undergrowth we find the same species as in the third subtype. The topographical designation of lowland and upland forest only partly coincides with differences in the physiognomy and composition of the Such differences the correlated with the vegetation. are probably in main

water household, which in forest at a higher altitude need not be less

favourable than the lowland. In this think in respect I 2 variants can be recognized:

A. A variant rich in palms: Euterpe, Oenocarpus, Maximiliana maripa,

div. soil with all the round. Astrocaryum sp. on a good watersupply year B. A variant with only scattered and poorly developed individuals of

the palms occurring in the former variant; it is found on soils that are

well in too drained to retain enough moisture the dry season. North of the besides the Moengo tapoe we met two variants one other,

the dry one on the bauxite hills and the moist variant in the valleys

hills where under ± 1 between the m clay an impermeable kaolin layer

free In the the be prohibits drainage. rainy season ground may more or less for and the soil is thick that it waterlogged some time, top so stores

last the At lowest where enough water to through dry season. the spot

the waterlogging lasts longest a few marsh-forest trees (Licania macrophyl- but the whole is still that of seasonal la) appear composition as a evergreen forest.

V. Forest of the ridges near Coronie.

The forest the drier of the the Coronie on parts ridge complex along

road in from that the in the near our camp differs composition on ridges The of which Wiawia transect. northernmost part the ridge complex on the road has been of almost several Coronie built, consists an pure, meters

thick of but the of it is formed of fine sand deposit shells, greater part with admixture of shell which both an fragments varies greatly in

vertical and horizontal direction; it contains also a fair amount of mica.

less The ground water in the ridge complex was more or brackish with the

exception of the water in the shell beds which proved to be completely fresh. the second line values from Cl/1 km In 140 mg (at 1.10) up to km km but 6700 mg at 0.36 and 6600 mg at 1.35 were measured no 89

correlation between the variations and the topography could be found.

the visited lies rather isolated in extensive As ridge complex we swamps, and as we do not have records from other shell ridges, we are as yet unable whether the shell lato bear distinct forest to say ridges sensu a

At confine ourselves the remark community or not. present we must to that like and Trichilia some species Couroupita guianensis [116] trinitensis which be Coronie [119], proved to frequent near our camp, were not found the sand On the other hand all encountered on poor ridges. species the forest of the also outside the the in Coronie ridge occur shell-ridge area.

CHAPTER IX

SAVANNA FOREST AND SAVANNA

I. Savanna forest.

Savanna forest with well defined is a community a composition occur- white sand with bad i.e. soils that ring on or on clay a structure, on are

exposed to serious desiccation in the dry season. Physiognomically it is the best form forest with continuous very variable, in developed it is a a

of number of canopy layer at 10—18 m consisting a remarkably large

few A lower thin trees overtopped by a bigger ones. story is hardly recog- the slender. The flora consists of nizable, young trees being very ground

Most herbs and small ferns, and lianas and epiphytes are not numerous. have trees micro- to mesophyllous leathery leaves.

Where conditions are more adverse, the vegetation is lower and we

meet all from scrubwood and scrub to gradations wood, an open savanna

with of 2 groups scattered shrubs sometimes not more than m high. Many of the in this from small species occurring sequence pass regular trees to

but Bombax retain their however shrubs, some, e.g. flaviflorum, tree form, small become. they may

Characteiistic species for the woody savanna vegetation in all its forms

are: Clusia nemorosa and fockeana [B6], Humiria floribunda and balsami-

fera [l32], Ormosia costulata [l3s], Licania incana [l34], Bombax

flaviflorum [l33], Conomorpha magnoliifolia [l37] and Dimorphandra

conjugata [l36]. Swartzia bannia [Bs] occurs mainly in the forest and is

often In also there abundant. the forest we meet species that are just as well found in other types, e.g. Parinari, Tapirira, Protium cf. heptaphyl- lum and Oenocarpus. Miconia myriantha, Calycolpus revolutus and

Marlierea montana prefer savanna forest, but are found elsewhere too. Differential for the scrub species savanna are: Bactris aff. savannarum,

Retiniphyllum schomburgkii and probably Ternstroemia punctata and the herbs Scleria and cyperina Lycopodium cernuum. Chrysobalanus and also this but indicate low Mauritia belong to group spots in the savanna

where the ground water remains within reach of the deeply penetrating

palm roots. 90

In its normal composition the savanna forest s.l. occurs on strongly

sands with sometimes at 1 —1.30 leached an iron pan at varying depth, m the but as on the savannas on the oldest ridges in Moengo tapoe transect;

reached 2.50 It is found near the Tibiti savanna it was not yet at m. also the between km 80 and 110. on kaolinic soils, e.g. along railway the the Wane We met a deviating variant on clay savannas North of shallow with bad creek where clay (40 —70 cm) very polygone structure surface overlies kaolin. and a hogwallow impermeable

These flat and lower than the savannas are very surrounding country,

level of the Great which is even actually beneath the Swaying Swamp, separated from them by the oldest ridges. The hogwallow structure

indicates that these savannas are inundated in the wet season, probably

of and for a considerable time, but at the time our visit in September

The scrub these contains October the ground was bone-dry. on savannas besides of savanna-forest number of marsh a majority species a plants

like Symphonia, Tabebuia insignis and Aulomyrcia pyrifolia. Chrysobala-

and Mauritia scattered but abundant. nus is frequent locally of Trinidad These savannas show resemblance to the Aripo savannas marsh formations in the of and are the only ones which are sense

Beard (48).

forest. In the Wiawia- Facies formation is a common feature in savanna

far the abundant transect between km 10 and 13 Swartzia bannia is by most

stands of which species. Near the Tibiti we met nearly pure Dimorphandra the base had been badly damaged by fire. All trees had been killed to

number of In of the of the stem and had formed from it a new stems. one makes largest of these secondary stems I counted 21 annual rings; this

it that the forest was in the excessively dry very probable destroyed

1926. year this facies inflammable. The Helstone told me that is extremely trees

leaves which catch fire in the season. produce much dead very easily dry considerable of In general we meet in savanna forest a layer litter,

which downwards into a loose forest may change peat (“Rohhumus”). wood Suhosa Suriname I In a dense savanna at (middle River) saw a free like litter and forest-peat layer some 20 cm thick lying a springy sand. and the matras on the white According to Gonggrijp Burger (34)

inflammability of the forest is mainly due to this dry litter. forest into under natural The savanna gradually merges savanna con- observations made the will be ditions. The savanna during expedition

published later on by Lanjouw.

II. Wallaba forest.

the An economically important facies is the wallaba forest where in exhibit absolute dominance timber tree Eperua falcata, (sand) wallaba, may

this forest the Tibiti savanna in the canopy stratum. We met only near coastal Westwards in British Guiana in narrow strips, not in the region. 91

it is common on the white sands. It occurs on leached sands in which the rain sinks iron be water rapidly to a great depth. An pan may present, but only at a depth of 2 m or more. This forest is obviously in all respects intermediate between the normal seasonal forest and the evergreen savanna forest.

Beard that the wallaba forest of British Guiana (47) supposes may his forest and the of this belong to dry evergreen formation, description

fits the Suriname forest rather well. This is in type savanna complete contrast to the opinion of Gonggrijp and Burger(34) who did not recognize xerophytic rain forest and placed high wallaba stands under seasonal forest and the dense thin-stemmed woods evergreen wallaba with the forests under transitional together typical savanna vegetations modified under the influence of fires. In the man by my opinion savanna forest is distinct of it is modified a edaphic type, independent burning; by fire in the same direction as by more adverse conditions of the habitat.

CHAPTER X

SUCCESSION

this will of the In chapter I try to give a general picture development of the From the data that available limited vegetation. are at present, only a number of in the succession be traced with Several of steps can certainty. the less connections given here are more or hypothetical and will have to be verified afterwards by observations in the field. For this work it will be establish series of necessary to as soon as possible a well-marked

which be In different and permanent quadrats, can investigated seasons without disturbance from during many years in succession outside.

Several seres can be recognized according to the habitats in which they

it is define and but start. Theoretically easy to primary secondary seres,

in in like Suriname with uninhabited practise, even a country large areas, difficult realm of ends the influence of it is to say where the nature and

The factor which from man begins. most important by man very early times to the present day has affected his surroundings, is fire, and in this extend influence exceptionally dry years can its devastating over vast areas. Therefore we must always be on the look-out for deviations or for retardation of the where of a primary succession, even not a single sign a fire be found. and the effect of previous can How great longlasting one

fire illustrated Beebe severe can be, is by an example reported by (cited by Myers 98). He writes that near the Abary River in British Guiana where with and reeds stretches almost the now an open swamp grass to horizon, once a densely wooded jungle was found with mora trees, eta

In 1837 of palms (Mauritia flexuosa), etc. during a period extreme drought

the whole vegetation became dry as chips. Then a fire broke out which the whole and the forest. floods broke swept region, destroyed Afterwards 92

through the weakened barrier and transformed the area into one large

swamp.

The common opinion is that all fires in Guiana are man-made. Lightning excluded thunderstorms these can be as cause as are in regions always

accompanied by heavy rain. Even in the wooden town Paramaribo, where have records of fire caused no lightning-rods are found, we no a by lightning.

However, I should like to draw the attention to another source of

natural fires, viz. the self-combustion of drying litter. The latter may be heated to the critical point under the action of bacteria in the same in stack catch fire. This has been way as our country a hay may process

in the in the North American coastal reported to occur swamps plain when the and the is the in dry years water evaporates peat exposed to air and dries In the out. very dry years same phenomenon might occur here and there the which the soil the of in pegasse covers in swamps

Suriname. Once started, a fire can doubtless run for miles and miles.

Successions on clay soil.

Halosere starting on growing mud flat along the coast

A halosere mud flat the of the tidal starts on a growing in uppermostpart where zone. It begins with the establishment ofAvicennia and Laguncularia or,

the sedimentation is with hrasiliensis. A very active, Spartina preceding submersed of kinds of community consisting different seagrass (mainly

Thalassia testudinum (Sol.) Konig and Cymodocea manatorum Asch.) and

confined to the lower part of the mud flat has been described from many

localities in the Caribbean, but has never been reported from the coast of Guiana. this does that is does nowhere However, not prove occur, and we should therefore be on the look-out for it in the future. As the

mud flat the scrub into rises, pioneer mangrove gradually develops a that mature Avicennia forest. What happens to this forest, is a problem

is connected with the of the coastal very intimately morphogenesis region

as a whole.

of Richards (14) draws the attention to the sequence the vegetation belts described from Rico and other and that Porto (77) regions, suggests the Avicennia forest would disappear simply by lack of rejuvenation and

would be herbs. replaced by swamp this it that the front of the belt For development is necessary coast

increases in and that the older is the time gradually height part at same

converted in a shallow basin which fills itself with brackish water. It is

unknown whether the formation of such a basin is possible under constant

external conditions or can only be the result of a relative rise of the sea

level. Jenman (87) keeps to the first possibility and states that a barrier

will be formed along the front of a mud flat when the latter has become and shallow that the flood it that it looses so large water covers so slowly

most of its silt already at the seaward side. We have, however, no facts 93

this Therefore it is tell whether such to support theory. impossible to a

is normal In find in the development or not. any case we western part coastal barrier with forest which of Suriname a grown parwa merges

into brackish As said the of gradually a swamp. on p. 44 germination under and where the inundation of Avicennia seems to be impossible water

the becomes it Is therefore of time until the parwa permanent a question and succeeded articulatus When trees die, are by Typha-Cyperus swamp.

the forest is fire the succession be parwa destroyed by or cutting, may accelerated, but only where the soil is permanently inundated. Where the

less the soil is more or regularly exposed to air, a secondary succession which leads forest. the salt takes place to a new parwa In very swamps behind the Wiawia offshore bar Sesuvium, Sporobolus and Eleocharis

mutata are the pioneers which precede the reestablishment of parwa. On levees the lower of the rivers Acrostichum often forms along part aureum The herbs decline the dense pioneer stands. again as soon as Avicennias overshade them. The articulatus be begin to Typha-Cyperus swamp can

succeeded wood North of Coronie by a swamp as we saw our camp.

think that this is the normal when disturbance I development no occurs, and that formation and of the soil level will peat consequently a rise

the for the of marsh forest. This pave way development theory implies

that all other must be due to deviations of the my swamp types primary

succession sere.

On account of the observed of the in the visited sequence types areas that the of I suppose Typha-Cyperus articulatus vegetation shallow when the decreases and is swamps can, salinity tree growth suppressed occasional be succeeded and this by fires, by a Leersia hexandra stage stage In by a Cyperus giganteus vegetation. deeper water the Typha swamp

probably develops into the typical Cyperus giganteus-Typha-Scleria com-

munity. This in turn changes into the variant with abundant fern

which fills the the formation of The growth, swamp by pegasse. Important role of the ferns (Blechnum indicum and Dryopteris gongylodes) has

been stressed Often in these tree already by Jenman (87). swamps groups

and small woods are found, which seem to be remarkably stable. In aerial photographs taken respectively in 1939 and in 1948 I could find no differences in form in the woods considerable or extent swamp over a

area between the Corantine and the Nickerie River. This stability is

the result of fires which the probably not light superficial swamp affect

mainly geophytic and chamaephytic herbaceous vegetation and the trees

but slightly, but by which tree seedlings would be killed. Then one would that the expect at leeward side of the woods locally seedlings would

survive and in that case the woods would change in form. A possible

be that for the establishment of in reason, however, might trees a swamp of a series conditions is required which are fulfilled but once in several

and then At have indications for the years only locally. present we no

occurrence of fire cycles comparable to those described by Egler from the

saline Everglades in Florida (73). 94

The of the 5th and 6th with have swamps type a floating peat layer probably been formed by catastrophes which cleared the area completely and left it of rather A as a body deep open water. very important pioneer often for the formation of a floating mat is Polygonum acuminatum, with Panicum could observe in the small together mertensii, as we swamp behind Coronie where tiliacea abundant. our camp Ipomoea too was In the Nanni creek Polygonum and Panicum occupied the margin of the floating islets and of the floating belts along the levees. These observations

confirm the supposition of Lanjouw (35) on the róle of Polygonum acuminatum.

Each has the via wood towards swamp type potency to develop a swamp

marsh forest which I regard with Richards (14) as the edaphic climax of all hydroseres.

The dominance of in have a single species a large swamp area, as we observed in the Wiawia transect, is probably promoted by a separation of the Where absent find swamps by ridges. ridges are we much more

variation within the various swamp types.

Sere starting in brackish water.

Where inroad of the has brackish an sea produced an open lagoon, a

sere start. I have fine of the latter in the may seen a example Bigie pan.

The first pioneer is Ruppia maritima. When the salinity has decreased to

oligohalinous a Nymphaea ampla community can establish itself with Ceratophyllum demersum, Lemna perpusilla, Wolfiella lingulata and algae. forms forms Limnobium stoloniferum a distinct final stage; it by vegetative

propagation floating disks. After some time the plants in the centre die Eleocharis which and are succeeded by mutata or Paspalum vaginatum,

root in the mud that has accumulated on the clay soil. As Limnobium is a

that Eleocharis and free-floating plant I see as possibility Paspalum ger- and obtain second minate between the dead Limnobium shoots in a phase

hold after which a in the soil, they grow rapidly out to large clumps.

Soon the associates Jussieua decurrens, Torulinium and Acnida come in.

The of Eleocharis have time to coalesce before the invasion of groups just This in the succession with considerable Typha begins. represents a stage

From the in the the halosere. stability. now on sere develops same way as

Hydroseres in fresh water.

be said with successions Very little can at present regard to starting in fresh In of the 2nd 4th sometimes small water. swamps to type open locks which have been formed unknown are met must by some agency.

Man-made ditches offer a similar habitat. The pioneers are here floating Utricularia aquatics, Nymphaea spp., foliosa, Hydrocleys, Limnobium,

Pistia, Azolla, Salvinia and Lemnaceae. This community is widely

distributed in America and related to the association tropical very closely of Pistia stratiotes and Lemna paucicostata from tropical Africa with 95

which it has in common the name-giving species and Spirodela polyrrhiza different whereas Nymphaea and Azolla are represented by species.

The second consists often of Eleocharis E. stage interstincta, mutata or

Leersia hexandra, sometimes Cyperus haspan or other species play a part. After that the the surrounding swamp vegetation occupies seat once more.

Small locks be colonized this may probably directly by vegetation. In locks the in swaying swamps Nymphaea odorata and Mayaca longipes

are the pioneers. Then Eleocharis interstincta, Rhynchospora triflora, etc.

from the border and form mat. In the penetrate a floating margin green

algae and Drosera capillaris flourish, in the next phase often Lycopodium

meridionale. After has been the other of the a peat layer formed, species

Lagenocarpus vegetation come in.

Large stands of Eleocharis interstincta have been reported by Geijskes from and from river (30) swamps near Republiek by Benoist (53) quiet bends in French Guiana. I that suppose they represent an early stage

in the succession.

Succession on sand, psammosere.

Where sand shells the or are deposited along coast, a psammosere can and start, this can be traced with fair certainty to the end. Where an offshore is bare the sand bar above bar deposited on mud, as soon as rises normal high tide the Ipomoea-Canavalia community will establish itself.

Is the sand than shrubs in with supply small, mangrove come together Cordia macrostachya and Caesalpinia bonduc. Where much sand is and this deposited is raised by the aid of the sea wind to a low dune ridge the herbaceous strand community is apparently directly succeeded the scrub which the strand by same Hibiscus tiliaceus follows on mangrove.

This also be reached in another viz. the point can way, by interruption of halosere. offshore bar either from a Every must start a fixed point of where the sand Is the of the coast deposited in margin a parwa forest, else of the which or on a part coast is in regression, but the bar itself is formed of the Such on a growing part coast. offshore bars are straight or curved. Where mud often that slightly a coast retreats, we see sand or shells tides in the of the are deposited by high parwa forest on top cliff. When the of Avicennia hurried the sand the pneumatophores are in and latter is heated the killed and the die. by sun, they are trees consequently

This has been observed Huber by (83) on the Brazilian coast near Dunas, where between the dead trees strand plants had established themselves.

On similar small sand bars along the Suriname coast we have observed

which I be the this strand mangrove, suppose to next stage, and is in its turn bound to disappear when the abrasion of the coast continues.

when the chances and the these However, turn coast begins to grow again, form of small bars are sometimes preserved in the winding ridges. These be found the aerial in the can on photographs many places near coast

show the of the former abrasion (see map I). They clearly scallops coast. the Hibiscus tiliaceus In this case strand mangrove is replaced by scrub. 96

By continued accrescence of the coast the influence of the sea slowly

diminishes and the succession in the can develop same tempo. the fresh On higher ridges, in which soon a body of ground water is

formed, the scrub probably develops rather fast Into the mixed wood

that have found the in the Wiawia This we on youngest ridges transect.

is variant of the lowland forest differentiated few littoral a poor by a

species. Whether the still higher old ridges in the Wiawia transect have borne in this real littoral is known. is im- stage a woodland, not It not

that the lower rainfall'near the and the free probable coast, very drainage in the sand have suitable conditions for the to great depth may produced

development of a xerophytic woodland similar to that found on dunes

in the Caribbean.

On the small low and the borders of the the ridges along higher ones Hibiscus scrub has a much longer life because the ground water here remains brackish for and have observed a long time, we this vegetation at considerable distances from the after the present coast. Only water In

the has decreased in the surrounding swamps salinity to oligohalinous,

succession can on. As the of the coastal is go drainage swamps extremely

bad, the water level will rise in the rainy season above high-tide level

and the lowest of the will be inundated. At these parts ridges places there- fore the Hibiscus scrub will towards seasonal not proceed evergreen forest but towards Triplaris marsh forest.

On the higher ridges the wood changes apparently in the course of

centuries via the intermediate ridge forest in the forest on the old ridges

which is dominated Parinari. On the of the which by highest parts ridge have born in their littoral woodland the conditions become may youth a

adverse in their old serious of the and then the again age by leaching soil, forest first forest and later ridge gives way to savanna on to savanna as the North and South of the Great we see clearly on ridges Swaying swamp.

Whether the last is conditioned accelerated step or only by fire, I cannot but there is doubt that fires have reached almost say, no can every spot North of the Wane creek. In the ridge-forest in the Wiawia line burn

from the found from km scars probably dating very dry year 1926 were

1 to 4.2, at km 5.4 in the centre of the 8th ridge complex, from km

10.3 to 11.9 and from km 12.6 to 13.

CHAPTER XI

AUTECOLOGICALREMARKS

This chapter contains a list of all the species mentioned in the preceding

minor chapters unless they were of importance. The Pteridophyta have

been from the but within each the separated Spermatophyta, group species have been and arranged alphabetically according to family, genus species.

After the scientific follow the met with in the accepted name synonyms 97

references cited literature, the vernacular names collected by us and to the place in the tables I and II, the area of distribution and the life form.

As vernacular Surinam these without most names are ones, are given other indication; they are separated from names in languages by a semicolon, and to the latter is added (Ar.) for Arawak, (Car.) for Caraib and (Hind.) for Hindustani.

The abbreviations used for the area of distribution have the following meaning:

Car Caribbean, including the coastal regions in and around the Caribbean sea and

in Guiana; the distribution of some of the species extends southeastwards as far

as the Amazone estuary,

cosm cosmopolitan.

End endemic in Suriname.

BG only known from Suriname and British Guiana.

EG only known from Suriname and French Guiana.

Gui in Guiana and N. Brazil, also in the eastern part of Venezuela and in Trinidad.

of NSA in the northern part South America, pt pantropic,

and pts pantropic subtropic.

tA in tropical America from Mexico and S. Florida southward.

tsA in tropical and subtropical America.

tSA in tropical South America. tSCA in tropical South and Central America.

tAA in tropical America and Africa. tAWA in tropical America and West Afrika.

For the life forms have the of I followed system Raunkiaer, although this difficulties in certain classes of herbs. This is gives a consequence of the absence with of whereas the many species a resting period, way this is is the On the resting period passed key to Raunkiaer’s system. other hand often substitute for the which the we can it way in plants

survive when of their they are accidentily deprived assimilating parts.

A number of I I species was unable to classify and several more have classified with but little information some doubt, as we have at present

the life of most Herbarium often miss on cycles species. specimens very the basal and subterranean of the and field parts plant, our observations

limited. The of the life forms are only way to acquire a good knowledge will be make observations to regular on the plants in a series of field stations established in various habitats.

For the life forms the following abbreviations have been used:

MM and of mega- mesophanerophytes, trees more than 8 m high.

M microphanerophytes, trees and shrubs of 2—8 m high. N of nanophanerophytes, shrubby plants 0.3—2 m high. PH phanerophytic herbs.

S stem succulents.

L lianas with distinctly woody stems,

Ch chamaephytes.

V vines: twiners and climbers with not or only slightly woody stems.

H hemicryptophytes.

G geophytes; rG, rhizome geophytes.

Hy hydrophytes.

Th therophytes.

97 98

fresh brackish salt _ ... _ fresh .. t Table IV. Salt tolerancetolerance of the

eu- andand oligo-oligO- meso- poly- eu- and ollgo-oligo- . more important swamp hi eeutrophicf° pn trophic halinous halinous halinous hypcrhal.hyperhaJ. moisture-loving species. [

100-1000 1000-10.000 10.000- 17.000 , „„ < 100too mg Cl/1Off ■ mg Ci/ICl/1 mg Cl/1 17,000 mg mgmgCMCl/1

IresineIresine verm.,verm., BatisBatis mar. SesuviumSesuvium Sporobolus virg., port.,port., Fimbristylis spath.spath. Avicennia nitida, Eleocharis mutata

...... — ™ » —— Laguncularia racemosa . ■

" “ Rhizophora mangle 1 1

Cyperus articulatus “““““" —

Mariscus ligularis

Cyperus polystachyos AcnidaAenida cuspidatacuspidata —

Acrostichum aureum

Fimbristylis ferrug.ferrug. and spad.

Ruppia mar., Paspalum vag.,

Brachypteris ov., RhabdadeniaRhabdadenia bifl. Rosenbergiodendron formosum

Hibiscus til., Paspalidium gem.,

Phragmites comm.comm. Machaerium lun., Torulinium fer., “ Scirpus cub. Mikania Typha ang., Jussieua lept., micr.,mier., Cissus park.

— Leersia hexandtahexandra

Neptunia plenaplena

Cydista aequ., Eclipta alba, IpomoeaIpomoea til., Canna glauca

Montrichardia arborescens

Panicum meet.,mert., Solanun stram., En-

tadatada pol., Ceiba pent., Coccoloba

lat., Crataeva tap.tap. Sacciolepis stri.,stri.. Phaseolus trich.

Hura Annona crep.,crep., glabra Thalia Cyperus gig,,gig., gen., Aeschyno-

mene sens., Jussieua aff., dec., and Luziola er. suffr., sprue., CissusCissus sic., Paullinia pinn,,pinn., Ipo-

moea park, andand subrev., Azolla

car., Salvinia aur.,aur., Pistia strat., Nymphaea amplaampla andand rudg., Hy- drocotyle umb., NymphoideS humb.

Andira iner.,iner., Triplaris sur., Erythri-

na glauca, Cordia tetr., Bactris, Inga ing., Diospyros gui., Cecro- pia pelt., Spondias momb., Cou-

roupita gui., Tabebuia aqu.aqu. Blechnum ind.,ind., Heliconia psitt.,psitt, Chrysobalanus icacoicaco

and Dryopteris gong.,gong., prot.prot. serr., Nephrolepis bis., Pityrogramme cal., Cyperus haspan

Fuirena umb.,umb., Rhynchospora cyp.,

cor. and gig., EleocharisEleocharis interst.,

Jussieua nerv. LagenocarpusLagenocarpus gui., Eleocharis plic.,

' * Rhynchospora trifl. 99

Table IV shows the salt tolerance of the and more important swamp

moisture-loving species, as it could be deduced from the available data. One half of the about in the list shrubs. 450 species are trees or large the For six swamp types I have calculated from table I the biological

For each 2 table spectra. type spectra are given in V, a bruto one based

on the species alone, and a balanced one made with the method of Tuxen and The latter Ellenberg. takes into account the degree of cover for each and shows the real each life form species part plays in the In table V vines and lianas in the vegetation. are included nano- phanerophytes.

number of MM.M N Ch G Hy Th ? species

Eleocharis mutata 15 35 35 15 6 bruto

1 5 1 swamp 93 balanced

Typha-Cyperus articulatus 46 10 27 7 10 30 bruto

3 5 swamp 90 1 1 balanced

3 Leersia hexandra 29 11 33 9 6 9 36 bruto

1 3 83 8 3 swamp IVj Va balanced

5 Cyperus giganteus-Typha-Scleria 28 10 40 11 4 2 53 bruto

2 10 86 1 swamp 1 — — balanced

17 Rhynchospora corymbosa 17 11 40 9 6 35 bruto

20 1 19 60 — swamp — balanced

21 Lagenocarpus guianensis 9 4 45 4 9 8 24 bruto

1 3 ‘ ’ swamp 95 1 balanced

Table V. of the Biological spectra swamp types.

Annotated list of species.

PTERIDOPHYTA

HYMENOPHYLLACEAE.

Trichomanes hostmannianum (Kl.) Kze. In marsh forest along creeks. Other species like T. arbuscula Desv. and T. pinnatum Hedw. in dry to moist forests.

LYCOPODIACEAE.

Lycopodium meridionale Underw. et I Ch. in Lloyd; 71, tA, Creeping savannas, very in abundant the floating savanna in the Great Swaying swamp where the peat is thin and loose.

Lycopodium cernuum L., in savanna there pratilobie; pt. Optimal scrub, up to 1.2 m high,

in even in the in the Great occasionally savannas, floating one Swaying swamp.

POLYPODIACEAE.

Acrostichum aureum L., payuli (Car.); I 2, II 144, pts, rG. Gigantic halophytic fern,

scattered Where forest is often common as clumps. parwa destroyed it forms dense stands.

Blechnum indicum Burm. serrulatum I II rG. (B. Rich.); 17, 143, pt, Very common fern

in fresh-water one of the producers of swamps, principal pegasse in oligotrophic water.

Also in marshlets in savannas. 100

Ceratopteris deltoidea R. C. Benedict and C. pteridoides (Hook.) Hieron.; Hy. Occasionally

in fresh floating or oligohalinous swamps.

I rG. in fresh-water Dryopteris gongylodes (Schkuhr) Kze; 18, pt, Very common swamps,

of the of one principal producers pegasse.

Dryopteris protensa (Afzelius) C. Chr. var. funesta (Kunze) C. Chr.; tSA, rG. Widely

distributed in marsh and rain forest.

C. rG. in Dryopteris serrata (Cav.) Chr.; tSA, Widely distributed fresh-water swamps

and marsh forest.

stricta In in Lindsaya Dryand. marshy spots savannas.

biserrata I rG. Occasional in fern Nephrolepis (Sw.) Schott; 19, pt, swamps.

Link cal. Pityrogramme calomelanos (L.) (Ceropteris (L.) Underwood); pt, rG. Widely

distributed in marsh and moist forest. swamps,

SALVINIACEAE.

Azolla caroliniana Willd.; I 81, tsA, Hy. Floating everywhere on eutrophic or oligohalinous

in the under shade. stagnant water open or light Salvinia auriculata Aubl.; I 80, tA, Hy. The same.

SPERMATOPHYTA

ACANTHACEAE.

Dianthera obtusifolia (Nees) Brem. (Justicia obt. (Nees) Lindau); tsA, Ch. Herb with

decumbent shoots the in and ditches. rooting at base, swamps along

Trichanthera gigantea (H. et B.) Steud., tapokai (Car.); tsCA, M. Tree of low river banks.

AIZOACEAE.

Mollugo verticillata L.; tsA, Th. Pioneer on open sandy spots, strand, sand flats in rivers

and fields.

Sesuvium Ch. Succulent Common portulacastrum L., zwamp porselein; pts, halophyte.

along the coast both on clay and sand.

ALISMATACEAE.

Micheli. tall in Echinodorus grandiflorus (Cham, et Schltr.) 2.5 m herb swamps, rare.

I rG. Occasional in fresh-water Sagittaria lancifolia L.; 65, tsA, swamps.

AMARANTACEAE.

Th? Tall herb with thick hollow stem Acnida cuspidata Bert, ex Spreng.; I 3, Car, a very

in brackish characteristic of second swamps, my type.

Alternanthera ficoidea (L.) R. et S.; tsA, Ch? On strand and ruderal places.

Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Gris. (Achyranthes phil. Mart.); ptA, Ch? Along

riverbanks (a.o. in mangrove in fresh water) and ditches.

sessilis R. Alternanthera (L.) Br.; pts. Pioneer in wet or moist open spots.

Iresine vermicularis (L.) Moq. (Philoxerus verm. (L.) R. Br.); tAA, Ch. Succulent halophyte,

sand. common along the coast more on clay than on

ANACARDIACEAE.

Loxopterygium sagotii Hook, f., slangenhout; tSA, MM. Valuable timber tree of rain forest.

II tAWA, Spondias mombin L. (S. lutea L.), moppé; 12, MM or M. Moisture-loving

deciduous with delicious the tree, plum-like fruits, common on younger ridges.

Tapirira guyanensis Aubl., witte hoedoe; tapiriri or atapriri (Car.); warimia (Ar.); II 48,

tSA, MM. Common in rain and savanna forest, also in marsh forest.

ANNONACEAE.

Annona glabra L. (A. palustris L.), zwamp zuurzak; arast’urang (Car.), pakaturupo (Car.);

II MM. Small in mixed in 4, tAWA, tree, common swamp wood oligohalinous water.

Annona montana Macfad., boszuurzak; rusulu or urusuru (Car.); II 115, MM. In ridge forest.

Xylopia spp., pegrekoe; arara (Ar.); II 72, M. X. amazonica R. E. Fr., X. aromatica (Lam.) Mart, and X. discreta Sprague et Sandw., (called also pegrekoe pisie). In the

forest. lower story of rain 101

APOCYNACEAH.

Allamanda cathartica L; tA, L. In strand scrub, savanna, along river banks, etc.

Ambelania acida Aubl. (A. sagotii Mull. Arg.), batbatti (Sur, Ar.); II 80, FG, MM.

In rain forest, never found in the coastal region.

II MM. A. album R. Woods. Aspidosperma spp.; 130, (Vahl) Ben., marcgravianum

(A. nitidum Benth.), oblongum A. DC., a.o. The significance of the vernacular names

parelhout (wit and zwart) or parihoedoe and kromantikopie is not yet cleared; jaroro

(Ar.); apukut’a (Car.) seems to hold for all species.

Bonafousia tetrastachya (H. B. K.) Mgf. (Tabernaemontana repanda E. Mey.), kapoeatikie;

yamorodang (Ar.); wako (Car.); II 142, Gui, M. Common, mainly in the lowest

in marsh forest. parts, Triplaris

Bonafousia undulata (Vahl) DC., mirkitikie; II 124, Gui, MM. In rain forest.

MM. rain Couma guyanensis Aubl., mappa; II 60 p.p., Gui, In forest.

Macoubea II 60 MM. The in with guyanensis Aubl., mappa; p.p., Gui, name mappa, use

known older collections. the Forest Service, was not for this species from In marsh,

rain and savanna forest.

Parahancornia amapa (Hub.) Ducke, mappa; II 60 p.p.?, Gui, MM.

Himatanthus articulatus (Vahl) Woods. (Plumeria art. Vahl and sucuuba R. Spruce ex

Mull. Arg. in Flora of Suriname), savannebolletrie; mabwa (Ar., Sur.); anahi (Car.);

and the in the II 96, Gui, MM. In rain savanna forest. Common on younger ridges

Wiawia transect, where a specimen of H. lancifolius (Mull. Arg.) Woods, was collected

Plumeria sucuuba = Himatanthus too. The true R. Spruce ex Mull. Arg. suc. (Spruce)

Woods, is an Amazonian species not known from Suriname or British Guiana.

Rhabdadenia biflora (Jacq.) Mull, Arg. (Echites bifl. Jacq.), V. A common twiner in

the salt and distinctly brackish coastal zone of tropical America. It is not clear

whether this species is specifically different from R. paludosa (Vahl) Miers. Britton

and the Flora of the four Millspaugh in Bahama separate two, but they cite authorities

combining them. In the former case the two species are vicariants, R. paludosa being

found in the Greater Antilles, Bahamas, S. Florida and W. tropical America, R. biflora in the Lesser Antilles and along the Atlantic coast of S. America.

Rhabdadenia macrostoma (Benth.) Mull. Arg. (Echites macr. Benth.); I 31, tSA, V. Rare

twiner in fresh-water swamps.

AQUIFOLIACEAE.

M. in Ilex guianensis (Aubl.) O.K.; Car, swamp wood, strand and savanna scrub.

martiniana D. Ilex Don.; Gui, M. In marsh forest in the old coastal region.

ARACEAE.

Monstera donke. the sagotiana Engl., kleine Usually epiphytic, on the youngest ridges in Wiawia line creeping over the ground.

Montrichardia arborescens Schott (M. aculeata Schott), mokomoko; I 20, II 141, tA, rG.

in mesohalinous often Very common oligotrophic to swamps, gregarious along ridge

borders and river banks in the tidal zone.

Pistia stratiotes L.; I 83, pt, Hy. Floating in stagnant water.

ARALIACEAE.

Didymopanax morototoni (Aubl.) Dene et Planch., kassavehout, kasabahoedoe; II 90

MM. In rain sand and p.p., tA, forest, on clay.

ASCLEPIADACEAE.

Funastrum clausum I L. In and river (Jacq.) Schltr.; 29, tA, swamps along banks.

BALANOPHORACEAE.

Helosis cayennensis (Sw.) Spreng.; tSA, W. Ind. Parasitic herb on tree roots in marsh

and moist forest. 102

BATIDACEAE.

Batis maritima Ch N. L.; tsA, or Succulent halophyte, sun-loving, tolerating very high

salt concentrations. Common the shaded along coast on open or lightly spots mainly

on clay.

BIGNONIACEAE.

Cydista aequinoctialis (L.) Miers; I 27, tA, V. Very common climber along river banks and

in swamps.

Jacaranda copaia D. Don., goebaja; fut£ (Ar.); kupaya (Car.); II 6l, tSCA, MM. In

rain forest.

Jacaranda rhombifolia G. F. W. Mey.; NSA, MM. Common on low river banks.

Tabebuia insignis-group, zwamppanta; walukuli (Ar.); pandra (Car.); I 90, II 3. T.

aquatilis (E. Mey.) Sprague et Sandw. (Couralia fluviatilis Aubl.); NSA, M, and

T. insignis (Miq.) Sandw. var. monophylla Sandw. (T. longipes Baker); BG, M. In

and marsh M. In marsh swamp forest. T. insignis (Miq.) Sandw., zwarte panta; Gui,

forest and in inundated scrub seasonally clay savanna in Moengo tapoe line. Tabebuia capitata (Bur. et K. Schum.) Sandw., makkagrieng; arawanni (Car.); Gui, MM.

Deciduous, in rain forest on sandy soil.

Tabebuia serratifolia (Vahl) Nicholson, groenhart, grienharti; (k)wassiba (Ar.); tSA,

MM. in rain avoids sand. Deciduous, forest, wet soil, often on poor

BOMBACACEAE.

Bombax Schum. MM. aquaticum (Pachira aqu. Aubl.), watercacao; tA, Very common along

river banks in fresh water.

Bombax flaviflorum Pulle, savannekatoen, -kapok; iteme (Ar.); krikrimaururu (Car.); II

133, BG, MM or M. Characteristic tree in savanna forest and -scrub.

Bombax globosum Aubl., boskatoen, parakatoen; krikrimaururu (Car.); II 62, Gui, MM.

In rain, marsh and savanna forest.

Bombax spectabile Ulbrich (Pachira insignis Sw.), bosmomow; II 44, NSA, W. Ind., MM.

Tall moisture-loving tree.

Catostemma sp., barmanni; wanaballi (Ar.); II 35, MM. Common in rain and marsh forest.

Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn., kankantrie; II 13, tAWA, MM. Very large buttressed, banks; stands fair of deciduous tree, on ridges and sandy river a amount soil

water and salt.

Aubl., tele; Gui, M. On low river banks. Quararibaea guyanensis ,

BORAGINACEAE.

Cordia macrostachya (Jacq.) R. et S.; Car, N. Along the coast on strand and in culti-

vated areas on sand and clay common. alatruka Cordia tetrandra Aubl.; II 9, NSA, M or MM. The names tafra (bong), tafelhout;

(Car.) are used for all arboreous Cordia species. C. tetrandra is common in swamp

and marsh forest in the coastal region, other species in sec. growth.

Heliotropium curassavicum L.; tsA, Ch. Common perennial along the coast of tropical

its eastern limit the mainland America, mainly on sand; apparently reaching on near

Nickerie.

BROMELIACEAE.

toothed leaves and bosananas; II 152. Forms rosettes of thick, sharply one m more long,

in wet to dry forests.

BURSERACEAE.

This is known in and the vernacular names are confuse, see family very insufficiently Sur., salie, witte salie and tiengiraonnie.

rain forest. Protium glabrescens Sw., witte salie; II 58 p.p., Gui, MM. In Protium heptaphyllum (Aubl.) March, tiengimonnie; hajawa (Ar.); sipio (Car.); II 49

MM. the in Guiana and Amazonia. p.p., NSA, Probably commonest species 103

Protium hostmannii (Miq.) Engl., tiengimonnie; hajawa (Ar.); Gui, MM. Common in rain forest.

Protium insigne (Tr. et PI.) Engl., tiengimonnie; olo (Ar.); tSA, MM. In rain forest.

Protium sagotianum March., witte salie; II 58 p.p., NSA, MM. In rain forest.

Trattinickia rhoifolia Willd., tiengimonnie, awaloe pisie; olo (Ar.); ajawa (Car.); Gui, MM,

BUTOMACEAE.

I in and Hydrocleys nymphoides (Willd.) Buch.; 82, tSA, Hy. Floating eutrophic swamps

ditches, common.

CACTACEAE.

Cereus II S. Arborescent 10 the sp., 97, up to m high cactus, common on youngest ridges

in the in strand East, even mangrove.

CAMPANULACEAE.

Sphenoclea zeylanica Gaertn. Originating from the Old World, but now widely distributed

in America on found Nickerie. tropical wet spots, in Sur. only near

CANNACEAE.

Canna G. border of glauca L.; tSA, Gregarious along eutropic swamps.

CAPPARIDACEAE.

M MM, On the and sand Crataeva tapia L., kuleru (Car.); II 99, tA, or youngest ridges of flats in rivers; stands a fair amount soil water and salt.

CARYOCARACEAE.

Caryocar glabrum (Aubl.) Pers,, sopohoedoe (glad), with smooth cortex; alukumarirang

(Car.); NSA, W. Ind., MM. Not common in rain forest.

Caryocar microcarpum Ducke, sopohoedoe (ruw), with rough cortex; kula (Ar.); II 21, tSA?,

MM. Moisture-loving, wide-spread in marsh forest and on the lower ridges.

Caryocar nuciferum L., sawarie; Gui, MM. In rain forest.

CELASTRACEAE.

Goupia glabra Aubl., kopie; kopi-i (Car.); II 104, Gui, MM. Timber tree, in rain forest

locally dominant.

CERATOPHYLLACEAE.

demersum L. cristatum K. In Ceratophyllum var. Sch.; Hy. stagnant open water.

COMBRETACEAE.

landside of in Sur. Conocarpus erecta L.; tsAWA, M. At the mangrove, very rare banks Laguncularia racemosa (L.) Gaertn. f., akira; tsAWA, M. Gregarious along river

scattered forest. in brackish water, in mangrove naturalized Terminalia catappa L., amandel, M. Introduced from Asia, at present along

strand coasts in tropical America.

Terminalia dichotoma G. F. W. Mey (T. tanibouca Smith), kalebashout, sansanhoedoe;

Gui, MM. In marsh and rain forest.

COMPOSITAE.

Th. in river Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. (Verbesina alba L.); I 37, pt, Common swamps, along

banks and as weed.

Raf. Th. Occasional weed. Erechtites hieracifolia (L.) ex DC; Car, in swamps, common

Mikania congesta DC. (M. micrantha var. congesta (DC.) Robinson); tA, V. Twiner

river and in along banks swamps.

Pacourina edulis Aubl.; NSA, Th? Occasional in fresh to mesohalinous swamps.

In Pluchea odorata (L.) Cass.; Car, N. Sur. near Nickerie only, in moist to wet soil. 104

CONVOLVULACEAE.

Cuscuta umbellata Car. Twining parasite, in Sur. found only on Sesuvium por-

tulacastrum, on the W. Indian islands also on other coastal plants.

I Gui, V. In and Ipomoea parkeri Choisy; 23, eutrophic oligohalinous swamps. Ipomoea Sweet biloba kumatara pes-caprae (L.) (I. Forsk), (Car.); pts, Ch. Very common strand plant.

Poir. littoralis Ipomoea stolonifera (Cyrill.) (I. Boiss., I. carnosa R. Br.); pts, Ch. Strand plant.

subrevoluta I 24, Gui, V. In Ipomoea Choisy; eutrophic swamps.

Ipomoea tiliacea (Willd.) Choisy, halitsiballi (Ar,); bawar (Hind.); I 22, tA, V. Common

in mesohalinous banks eutrophic to swamps, along river and in sec. growth.

G. Don. tuba Ipomoea tuba (Schlecht.) (Calonyction (Schlecht.) Colla); pt, V. Strand plant. velutina Found Jacquemontia Choisy; I 32, V. only in the swamp S. of the Coronie ridges.

CYPERACEAE.

of the Great Becquerelia tuberculata Pfeiff.; I 70, Gui, rG. Abundant in shallow parts

and in occasional in forests. Swaying swamp bogs on savanna,

Cladium mariscus Pohl (C. jamaicense Crantz, Mariscus jamaicensis (Crantz) Britton);

I 58, cosm, rG, not in NSA, where similar habitats are occupied by Cyperus gigan-

teus. In Gatun Lake in Panama both species meet each other,

Cyperus articulatus L., biesbisi; bioro (Ar.); kupas’idang (Car.); I 6, pts, rG. Characteristic

of 2nd associate of the and 4th my swamp type, 3d type. Cyperus chalaranthus Presl.; II 160, tSA, rG. Common in light shade, in wood on the

and youngest ridges sec. growth. but Collected in Cyperus comosus Poir.; tA, rG. Closely resembling C. giganteus, smaller.

ditches of lower rivers. and on muddy banks the

rG. Rare in Cyperus digitatus Roxb.; pts, swamps.

Cyperus elegans L.; I 61, Car, without NSA?, in swamps.

I rG. Characteristic of 4th Cyperus giganteus Vahl, papajagras; 16, tA, my swamp type.

be with C. Small specimens may confused comosus.

I rG. In and elsewhere in moist Cyperus haspan L.; 50, pts, swamps wet or spots.

in Cyperus luzulae (L.) Retz.; tA, rG. Rare in swamps, common sec. growth. Cyperus polystachyos Rottb. (Pycreus pol. (Rottb.) Beauv., C. odoratus L.), motha (Hind.);

Th. moist often in salt-tolerant. pts, In to wet ground, sec. growth, Cyperus surinamensis Rottb.; tsA, rG. In moist to wet ground.

Diplasia karataefolia L. C. Rich.; II 158, Gui, rG. In marsh and rain forest and on

with of savanna. Gigantic sedge rosettes up to 3.5 m long, sharply toothed, leathery

leaves.

Eleocharis caribaea (Rottb.) Blake; pts, Th. Small tender plant on clayey river banks

in the tidal zone.

Eleocharis geniculata R. Br.; tA, rG. Along river banks in completely fresh water.

Eleocharis interstincta (Vahl) R. et S.; I 43, tsA, rG. Common pioneer in stagnant fresh

water, associate in swamps.

R. I rG. Forms almost stands in Eleocharis mulata et S.; 1, tA, pure pioneer hyperhalinous

fresh-water to swamps.

Eleocharis I rG. In of the plicarhachis (Gris.) Svenson; 57, tA, oligotrophic swamps

and 6th 5th type.

Fimhristylis annua (All.) R. et S. (F. diphylla (Retz.) Vahl); pts, Th. On moist to wet

open ground.

sand Fimbristylis ferruginea (L.) Vahl; pts, Ch. Locally abundant on wet brackish or clay.

miliacea I Th. In fresh-water wood and Fimbristylis Vahl; 55, pts. swamps, open swamp

moist sec. growth. submersed Fimbristylis spadicea (L.) Vahl; tsA, Ch or rG. On salt clay, by high floods.

robusta fresh Fuirena Kunth; I 45, tA, rG. In or oligohalinous swamps.

Fuirena umbellata Rottb.; I 44, pts, rG. In fresh-water swamps and wet spots in savannas.

Hypolythrum longifolium Nees var. sylvaticum (Poepp. et Kunth) Uitt.; II 156, tSA, rG.

In marsh and moist forest along creeks. 105

Hypolythrum pulchrum (Rudge) Pfeiff., NSA, rG. Very common in sand and clay

savannas, stands shade and permanently wet soil.

Link; in E. rG. In Sur. and Kyllinga pungens tsAA, very rare Asia, on savanna as weed,

in the Caribbean also on strand.

I rG. Dominant in the Lagenocarpus guianensis Nees; 69, tA, swaying swamps, occasionally

in savannas.

tremulus Lagenocarpus Nees; tA, rG. Common in savannas,

Mariscus and ligularis (L.) Urb. (Cyperus lig. L.); tAA, rG. On strand, savanna, also a

common weed.

Remirea maritima Characteristic strand but Aubl.; pt, rG. plant, in Sur. once collected.

Rhynchospora corymhosa (L.) Britton (R. aurea Vahl); I 56, pt. rG. Characteristic of my

sth swamp type, occasionally in the 4th type.

I rG. Common in in Rhynchospora cyperoides (Sw.) Mart.; 67, tAA, wet spots savannas,

also in oligotrophic swamps.

I rG. In Rhynchospora gigantea Link; 66, tA, oligotrophic swamps; resembles closely R. corymhosa but seems to be ecologically different.

Rhynchospora micrantha Vahl; I 63, tAWA, not in Guiana.

Rhynchospora stellata (Lam.) Gris. (Dichromena colorata (L.) Hitchc.); I 64, Car,

without NSA.

Vahl; I rG. Characteristic of 6th Rhynchospora triflora 68, pt, my swamp type, most frequent in the initial phase.

cubensis I rG. In mesohalinous Scirpus Poepp. et Kunth; 36, tAA, to eutrophic swamps,

and prefers rather deep open spots. Scleria cyperina Willd.; Gui, rG. Common on savannas in and around scrub groups.

Scleria Boeck.; I rG. abundant in dense in 4th eggersiana 48, Car, Locally groups my

swamp type.

Scleria II 162 V. Forms with its flagellum-nigrorum Berg, baboennefie; p.p., tA?, sharp-

branches almost in wood and sec. edged and leaves an impenetrable tangle swamp growth.

Presl. rG. In wood. Scleria macrophylla (S. paludosa Kunth); tSCA, swamp

of and Scleria microcarpa Nees; I 49, tA, rG. Locally in groups in swamps the 4th sth type.

II 162 V. Forms almost Scleria secans (L.) Urb.; baboennefie; p.p., tA, impenetrable tangles

in wood and like S. swamp sec. growth, just flagellum-nigrorum.

Torulinium ferax (L.C. Rich.) Urb. (Cyperus ferax L.C. Rich.), piripiri (Car.); I 9,

river banks and weed moist soil. pt, G. In brackish swamps, along as on

DILLENIACEAE.

Curatella americana L.; tA, M. Stunted treelet in orchard savanna.

Tetracera asperula Miq., (savanne) kautété; II 154, Gui, L. The vernacular names point

to two forms of the species, in rain forest it is a liana, in and around savanna scrub

a low trailing shrub.

DROSERACEAE.

tA. and Drosera capillaris Poir.; I 72, On wet spots in savanna in the Great Swaying

swamp.

EBENACEAE.

Diospyros guianensis (Aubl.) Gurke, blaka oema; barabara (Ar); tarara (Car.); II 27,

forest. Gui, M. Small tree, common in marsh forest and moist rain

EUPHORBIACEAE.

Aparisthmium cordatum (Juss.) Baill., bradiliefie; mababalli (Ar.); sawranani (Car.); tSA,

MM. In rain forest.

abundant Amanoa guyanensis Aubl., zwampgujave; II 25, Gui, MM. Moisture-loving tree, creeks mud. in scrub wood along on peaty weed. Caperonia palustris (L.) St. Hil.; tAA, Th. In fresh-water swamps and as II MM. Hura crepitans L, possentrie, possem; warayua (Ar,); kumakara (Car.); 121, tA, 106

brackish and in the eastern Locally dominant in marshy, usually spots on along ridges,

few stunted trees been found. part only a have Omphalea diandra L., baboennoot; idaballi (Ar.); sitio (Car.); tA, L. Wide-spread in

moist and wet woods and forest margins.

Phyllanthus acidus (L.) Skeels (Cicca disticha L.), goesberie; II 7, M; probably introduced

tA woods. from India, at present widely distributed in in moist to wet Phyllanthus nobilis (L.f.) Mull. Arg., boskoffie; tA, M. In moist to wet woods.

Sapium klotzschianum (Mull. Arg.) Hub.; Sur, S. Brazil, MM. Moisture-loving tree.

Sapium obtusilobium Mull. Arg., mirkiehoedoe; II 117, MM. Found only on the Coronie

ridges.

FLACOURTIACEAE.

Casearia macrophylla Vahl, hoskoffie; II 123, NSA, MM. In rain forest.

Homalium guianense (Aubl.) Warb. and racemosum Jacq., bietahoedoe; II 101, Gui, MM. Common along river banks, moisture-loving.

MM. In rain Laetia procera (Poepp. et Endl.) Eichl., pientokopie; II 89, NSA, W. Ind., forest.

GENTIANACEAE.

Other in Lisianthus alatus Aubl.; Gui, N, Mainly in oligotrophic swamps, rare. species

savannas.

GRAMINEAE.

base. Acroceras zizanoides (H.B.K.) Dandy (Panicura ziz. H.B.K.); pt, Ch, with creeping

In moist to wet woods and sec. growth.

bicornis I Ch. In fresh-water fire and Andropogon L.; 54, tA, swamp, on savanna waste places.

Cenchrus echinatus L., pratatai (Car.); pt, Th. On strand and waste places.

Culms ascend Echinochloa polystachya (H.B.K.) Hitchc., paragras; I 13, tA, Ch. from a

base. Common in moist and it also in creeping grassland swamps; can play a part

the formation of floating mats.

Gynerium sagittatum (Aubl.) Beauv., pijlriet; tA, rG. According to Splitgerkeh not rare,

in the coastal in dense river banks especially region; seen by us only groups on near

villages where it has been In other countries it also in probably planted. grows swamps. Hymenanche amplexicaulis (Rudge) Nees (Panicum ampl. Rudge); I 47, tA, Ch, creeping the base. In fresh and at oligohalinous swamps; plays sometimes a part in the formation of floating mats.

Leersia hexandra Sw. (Homalocenchrus hex. (Sw.) Kuntze), warapagras; I 15, pt, Ch. Domi-

nant in of the in the 4th in Trinidad found swamps 3d type, common type, even in wet

spots in savanna. Ridley in Flora of the Malay Peninsula states that it is one of the best

fodder but the Leersia for this method grasses, to exploit swamps purpose a special

be An effective control of the will be and must developed. water supply necessary

trampling of the vulnerable mat must be avoided.

Luziola Benth. I rG. In spruceana ex Doell.; 46, tA, fresh-water swamps.

II G. Tall forest Olyra latifolia L., pinpin; 157, tAA, erect or climbing grass, very euryoecious.

Oryza latifolia Desv., boesihalesie; pt. rG. Sometimes confused with O. sativa. Moisture- loving.

Panicum grande Hitchc. et Chase; I 53, tA, Ch with creeping or floating stolons. In

fresh-water and sometimes swamp swamp wood; forms floating mats.

Panicum Ch. On moist sand soil. laxum Sw.; tA, open, or wet or clay

Panicum mertensii Roth. I tA. in (P. megiston Schult.); 10, Tall, not gregarious grass

fresh mesohalinous and river stands shade. to swamps, along banks;

Panicum pilesum Sw.; tA, Ch. Moisture-loving.

P. Paspalidium geminatum (Forsk) Stapf (Panicum gem. Forsk, appressum Lam.); I 5, pts,

Ch. Usually on wet brackish clay. Paspalum densum Poir., baboen grassie; tA, caespitose Ch. On moist and wet clay soil. 107

brackish Paspalum distichum L.; I 62, pts, creeping Ch. In moist or wet, fresh or ground.

the Rare in Paspalum repens Berg.; pts, Ch, creeping at base. swamps.

the and Forms dense Paspalum vaginatum Sw.; pts, Ch, creeping at base stoloniferous.

in patches brackish swamps.

tA. Broad-leaved of rain and marsh Pharus latifolius L.; grass forest.

Phragmites communis Trim, tamakus'idang (Car.); I 40, cosm, rG. In Sur. rather rare in

brackish swamps.

striata I Ch. Common in fresh mesohalinous Sacciolepis (L.) Nash; 14, Car, to swamps.

Spartina brasiliensis Raddi; NSA, rG. Pioneer on mud in the tidal zone along the coast and

in the lower part of the rivers.

Sporobolus virginicus (L.) Kunth; pts, rG. Very common and locally dominant on saline

clay or sand, not on permanently inundated soil.

americanum Stenotaphrum secundatum (Walt.) Kuntze (S. Schrank); tsAWA, G or Ch.

Common on strand.

GUTTIFERAE.

Calophyllum brasiliense Camb., koelarie; kurara (Sur., Ar.); kulahara (Car.); tSA, MM.

Moisture-loving tree, common in marsh forest.

Caraipa densifolia Mart., laksirie, alakasirie; alakuser! (Ar.); Gui, MM. Moisture-loving

tree.

II 86 Clusia fockeana Miq., savanne mangro; mataburi (Ar.); kunapolan (Car.); p.p.,

Gui, MM or M. Characteristic of savanna forest.

Clusia G.F.W. II nemorosa Mey., savanne mangro; mataburi (Ar.); kunapolan (Car.);

Characteristic of also in Mauritia- 86 p.p., Gui, MM or M. savanna forest, grows

association and in the 6th This is Chrysobalanus rarely swamp of type. species

variable and be in how far these forms have very only experimentally can proved

and with related C. a genetic base hybrids species e.g. fockeana occur.

Clusia End?. in and purpurea (Splitg.) Engl.; Hemi-epiphytic tree mangrove (on parwa)

in bank forest along Upper Saramacca River. Platonia insignis Mart.; Gui, MM. In marsh forest.

Rheedia benthamiana PI. et Tr., pakoelie; pakuli (Car.); II 82, BG, MM. In rain forest.

asas’i II MM. Rheedia kappleri Eyma, zwamppakoelie; (Ar.); 34, FG, Moisture-loving tree,

in marsh forest. optimum Symphonia ,

Symphonia globulifera L.f., (hoogland) matakki; mani (Ar.); II 30, tAA, MM. Timbertree with abundant knee-shaped pneumatophores. Frequent to very in my 2nd type of

marsh forest, stands permanent inundation, rare in rain forest.

Vismia II 106 M. Common cayennensis (Jacq.) Pers., oema pienja; waraja (Ar,); p.p., NSA,

in tolerant soil and soil woods, very as to moisture.

firoberobana II 106 Vismia confertiflora Spruce, oema pienja; waraja (Ar.); p.p., Gui,

M. Like the former.

Vismia guianensis (Aubl.) Choisy, reddibakka pienja; iyaro waraja (Ar.); swinani (Car.),

tSA, M. Like the former.

HUMIRIACEAE.

Humiria balsamifera (Aubl.) St. Hil. and floribunda Mart., blakaberie; meri (Car.); II

M MM. Characteristic of The 132, tSA, or savanna forest. 2 species are both very

variable and they are connected by intermediate forms. Experiments must show

whether these are hybrids or the 2 species must be reduced to one wide species.

Sacoglottis guianensis Benth. var. sphaerocarpa Ducke, bofrohoedoe, kwattasirie; II 91,

Gui, MM. In rain forest.

HIPPOCRATEACEAE.

Hippocratea volubilis L.; tA, L. In strand scrub and along river banks.

HYDROCHARITACEAE.

Limnobium stoloniferum (G.F.W. Mey.) Gris., bomagrassie; opono payulide (Car.); tA,

In fresh Hy. stagnant, or oligohalinous open water. 108

HYDROPHYLLACEAE.

Hydrolea spinosa L.; tA. On moist to wet places.

LAURACEAE.

Cassytha filiformis L. (C. americana Nees); I 75, pt. Twining parasite, very euryoecious

and as well to host as to habitat, common in strand, swamp savanna vegetation.

Licaria canella (Meissn.) Kosterm.; Gui, and L. cayennensis (Meissn.) Kosterm.; EG,

In forest. kaneelhart, kaneriehoedoe; MM. rain and high savanna

Licaria guianensis Aubl., kaneelpisie; II 73, EG, MM. In rain forest.

Valuable rain forest. Ocotea rubra Mez, wana, wane; Gui, MM. timber tree, in

other Ocotea and also of other Nectandra Many spp. species genera, mainly are

form and confuse combined under the name pisie; II 74. They a very heterogeneous

group.

LECYTHIDACEAE.

The of this still Couratari spp., iengipipa; II 75, MM. species genus are very insufficiently

trees with known, although they are well recognizable in the forest. Very large broad

distributed but rare. crowns, widely Couroupita guianensis Aubl., boskalebas; kaupfi (Car.); II 116, Gui, MM, deciduous. In

rich soil of sand. dry to marshy forest, probably on only, not on ridges poor timber Eschweilera longipes (Poit.) Miers, manbarklak; II 32, Gui, MM. Valuable tree,

in rain and Symphonia marsh forest.

Eschweilera corrugata (Poit.) Miers; Gui, MM, and E. floribunda Eyma; Sur., MM; oema-

Ndz. and chartacea have been col- barklak; II 76, also E. amara (Aubl.) E. (Berg.) Eyma

lected in the past under this name. The genus as a whole is inadequately known and

therefore unidentified barklak the vernacular names are rather confuse, specimens

combined under II kakaralli kwatgrfi are 33; (Ar.); (Car.).

Gustavia Aim lanaballi wanaballi augusta sensu Berg, watramamabobbie; or (Ar.); arepawana

(Car.); II 57, NSA, MM. In rain and marsh forest.

LEMNACEAE.

Lemna perpusilla Torr. (L. paucicostata Hegelm, ex Engelm.); pts, Hy. Floating in

fresh stagnant or oligohalinous water.

Spirodela polyrrhiza (L.) Schleiden; cosm, Hy. Floating in stagnant water.

fresh Wolffiella lingulata (Hegelm.) Hegelm; Hy. Floating in stagnant or oligohalinous

water.

LENTIBULARIACEAE.

Biovularia olivacea (Wright) Kam. (B. minima (Warm.) Kuhlra.); Hy. Minute, almost

colourless floating plant in oligotrophic water.

Th. In in Great Utricularia angulosa Poir.; floating savanna Swaying swamp.

L. St. I In fresh Utricularia foliosa (U. oligosperma Hil.); 84, tA, Hy. stagnant open water.

A. Th. sand and Utricularia guyanensis DC.; I 73 p.p., In floating savanna.

I.OGANIACEAE.

Antonia ovata Pohl, (savanne) soekroehoedoe, likahoedoe; turara (Ar.); II 129, Gui, MM.

forest. In rain and savanna

LYTHRACEAE.

Crenea maritima G. F. W. akirae Aubl. (Cren(a)ea repens Mey.); (Car.); NSA, N. In

the margin of mangrove.

MALPIGHIACEAE.

(Car.) Small (B, borealis Tuss.); I N L. In brackish Brachypteris ovata 4, Car, or swamps

and mangrove scrub very common.

Byrsonima coriacea (Sw.) Kunth var. spicata (Cav.) Ndz., lontoekassie; mulei (Car.); 109

II MM. Common the and in savanna forest, rare in rain- 94, tA, on younger ridges forest.

Byrsonima crassifolia (L.) Rich., mulei (Car.); tA, M. Stunted fireproof treelet, common

in orchard savannas.

MALVACEAE.

Hibiscus bifurcatus Cav., jorka okro; haimiara menkarare (Car.); I 52, tSCA, N. Common

and marsh wood. in fresh or oligohalinous swamps, along rivers in

Hibiscus furcellatus Desr. in Lam.; tsA, N. Rare in wet spots.

Hibiscus sororius L. f.; tA, N. Occasional in fresh-water swamps. Hibiscus tiliaceus L. (Pariti(um) til. (L.) St. Hil.), maho, tjawassie; kayese (Car.); II 41,

pt, M. Characteristic of strand scrub, also in dense stands along river banks in

brackish water.

Pavonia racemosa Sw.; Sur, W. Ind., M. In brackish mangrove belt along lower rivets.

Pavonia scabra (B. Vogel) Stehle (Malache sc. B. Vogel); tA, M. Like the former,

but not in Sur.

MARANTACEAE.

and Ischnosiphon gracilis (Rudge) Koern. obliquus (Rudge) Koern., warimbo; II 151,

G. tall often in in marsh and moist rain forest. NSA, Very common herbs, large groups

Monotagma plurispicatum (Koern.) K. Schum., kleine warimbo; II 159, G. In rain forest.

Thalia I 41, tsAA, rG. abundant in fresh or geniculata L.; Locally oligohalinous swamps.

MAYACACEAE.

Submersed locks Mayaca longipes Mart, ex Seubert; Gui, Hy. in in the swaying swamps

and in clear creeks.

MELASTOMATACEAE.

Miconia myriantha Benth., pikientikie, bojohoedoe; kabuyakoro (Ar.); kumete (Car.); shade. II 55, tSA, M or MM. In wet to dry forests, not in deep

Many other species of Miconia and Henriettea in rain and savanna forest are given the

name mispel; II 70, M, MM.

alasuaba komotori II MM. In marsh and Mouriria spp., spikrihoedoe; (Ar.), (Ar.); 26,

rain forest, a.o. M. guianensis Aubl.; NSA, M. plasschaerti Pulle; End, M. princeps

Naud.; Gui.

N. In and forests. Nepsera aquatica (Aubl.) Naud.; Car, swamp, savanna dry to wet

N. In and of the Rhynchanthera grandiflora (Aubl.) DC.; NSA, clay savanna swamps

6th type.

Tococa guianensis Aubl.; II 108, NSA, N or M. In dry to wet forests.

MELIACEAE.

Carapa guianensis Aubl.; NSCA, MM.

EG and In much Carapa procera DC., krappa; karapa (Car.); II 28, trop. Africa. Sur.

than the related C. with which it be confused. commoner closely guianensis, may easily

found the this is mentioned for forest In the literature I only latter, many types,

whereas C. procera in Sur. is a distinctly moisture-loving tree.

Guarea Wils., karababalli atuwag kuleku guara (Jacq.) doifiesirie; (Ar.); (Car.), (Car.);

II 102, MM. On the younger ridges, in rain and sometimes in savanna forest.

Trichilia trinitensis Juss., kabowasitoko (Ar.); marakatano (Car.); II 119, Gui, M. Probably

restricted to the shell-ridge areas and rain forest in the interior.

MIMOSACEAE.

sand Entada polystachya (L.) DC.; II 147, tA, L. On moist to wet or clay, stands meso-

halinous ground water.

Inga alba (Sw.) Willd., prokonie; II 88, Gui, MM. In rain forest.

Inga ingoides (Rich.) Willd., swietiboontje; karoto (Ar.); warapotgrS (Car.), want’i 110

(Car.); II 19 p.p., Car., M or MM. Moisture-loving tree, common in the coastal region,

in and salt. other under the penetrating swamps tolerating some Many species occur

same names in the forests and fall under one heading II 19 with the first species.

Inga lateriflora Miq.; Gui and heterophylla Willd.; tSA, W. Ind., turiri (Car.); tuleli

(At.); MM. In rain forest.

Neptunia plena (L.) Benth., samasamari (Ar.); I 35, tA, N? In eutrophic to mesohalinous

swamps.

Neptunia prostrata (Lam.) Baill.; pt, Hy. Creeping herb, floating on the water surface

on its inflated stems.

Parkia nitida Miq., agrobigie; II 128, FG, MM. Large tree in rain forest.

Pentaclethra macroloba (Willd.) Kze ; tSCA, MM. On low river banks.

Pithecellobium jupunba (Willd.) Urb. (Abarema jup. (Willd.) Britton et Killip) zwamp-,

hostamarin; hurwasa (Ar.); uya (Car.), kraipig (Car.); II 56, Car, MM, Grows

in all forest types.

Zygia cauliflora (Willd.) Killip and glomerata (Veil.) Pittier, moeserkie or moesirtjie;

banks. alekoyo (Ar.); Gui, M or MM. Common on low river

MENYANTHACEAE.

Nymphoides humboldtianum (H.8.K.) O.K. (Limnanthemum humb. (H.8.K.) Gris.);

In fresh mesohalinous I 79, tA, Hy. to swamps.

MONIMIACEAE.

Siparuna guianensis Aubl., fajapau; muneridang (Ar.); yarakopi or ir(i)akopi (Car.); II

84, tSA, M. Common shrub in rain forest.

MORACEAE.

Cecropia peltata L., bospapaja; boroma (Ar.); yarayara (Car.); II 10, MM. C. peltata is

the commonest species in the coastal region and a differential of the Triplaris marsh

Willd. forest, but other species occur under the same vernacular names a.o. C. palmata

Ficus I II MM. Material determined. Kwassini common in spp.; 88, 6, not yet (Car.),

the marsh forest in the Coronie area probably indicates one species, it has a broad

crown and large buttresses.

MUSACEAE.

Heliconia psittacorum L.f., papegaaientong, popokaitongo; kulewako anuru (Car.), konosa-

I II rG. Common moist rang (Car.); 11, 163, tSA, on to wet soil, along swamp

borders, in woods and in savannas in marshlets and on ant hills.

Heliconia, kleine paloeloe; II 145, PH. One or more tall species, in marsh forest and

wood. penetrating in swamp

Ravenala II 59, PH. Often in guyanensis (L.C, Rich.) Benth., paloeloe; Gui, large groups

in moist or marshy forest.

MYRISTICACEAE.

Iryanthera hostmanni Warb., s(a)rébébé; kirikawa (Ar.), at’iballi (Ar.), kassalerodang

(Ar.); II 63, Gui, MM. In marsh and rain forest.

Iryanthera sagotiana Warb., bloedhout, broedoehoedoe; marakaipo (Car.); Gui, MM. In rain forest.

Virola sebifera Aubl., hooglandbaboen; warolo (Car.); II 105, Gui, MM. In rain forest,

Virola surinamensis (Rol.) Warb., baboen; dalli (Ar.); warusi (Car.); II 18, Car, MM.

More of less buttressed moisture-loving tree. Very common in marsh and moist rain

forest, in the latter less abundant.

MYRSINACEAE.

Conomorpha magnoliifolia Mez, teteruma(balli) (Ar.), sabana wanaballi (Ar.); II 137,

BG, M. Common in savanna scrub. 111

MYRTACEAE.

Aulomyrcia pyrifolia (Desv.) Berg, zwamp gujave, banda; bande (Ar.), mariaba (Ar.); scrub II 24, Gui, M or MM. Common in marsh and moist .rain forest, in wood along

creeks abundant. very

Calycolpus revolutus (Schauer) Berg, kwakkoe, savanne gujave; mariaba (Ar.); EG, M or

MM. In savanna forest.

Eugenia wullschlaegeliana Amsh., ololi, apiwenai (Car.); II 95, Gui, MM. Common on

the young ridges, only near coast.

Marlierea montana (Aubl.) Amsh., kwakkoe; II 93, Gui, MM or M. Characteristic of

sometimes in the 6th savanna forest, swamps of type.

Myrcia sylvatica (Mey.) DC.; Gui, and splendens (Sw.) DC., Gui, W. Ind., bosgujave;

II MM. In rain and forest. ibibanaro (Ar.); 109 p.p., savanna

II Myrciaria floribunda (West ex Willd.) Berg, bosgujave; 109 p.p., Gui, W. Ind; MM.

In rain forest.

NYCTAGINACEAE.

Pisonia Klotzsch II MM. On the and olfersiana Link, et Otto; 98, young ridges near coast

forest. in savanna

NYMPHAEACEAE.

Mart, I 78 In fresh Nymphaea amazonum et Zucc.; p.p., tSA, Hy. stagnant water.

I in Nymphaea ampla (Salisb.) DC.; 77, tA, Hy. Mainly open oligohalinous lagoons.

odorata This known from S.U.S. and found 'in Nymphaea Ait.; Hy. species Cuba was open

in the locks swaying swamps.

Nymphaea rudgeana G.F.W. Mey.; I 78 p.p., tSCA, Hy. In fresh and oligohalinous

and creeks. swamps sluggishly flowing

OCHNACEAE.

forest Ouratea polygyna Engl., kassibon, basrawana; II 131, tSA, M. In rain and savanna scrub.

Ouratea surinamensis (Planch.) Wehlbutg, kassihoedoe; II 110, End, M. In marsh forest

and savanna scrub.

OENOTHERACEAE.

I Th? In fresh to mesohalinous and Jussieua affinis DC.; 38, tA, slightly swamps swamp wood and along river banks.

decurrens Th?. In fresh and Jussieua (Walt.) DC.; tsA, oligohalinous swamps. Jussieua erecta L.; tsAA, N. In fresh water.

I N? In and fresh mesohalinous Jussieua leptocarpa Nutt.; 8, tsAA, along to swamps.

I N. In fresh-water in Jussieua nervosa Poir.; 39, tSCA, swamps and wet spots savanna.

L. tAA N. Jussieua suffruticosa (J. angustifolia Lam.); or pt, In wet places and in sec. growth.

tA. Rare in Oocarpon torulosum (Ara.) Urb.; swamps.

OLACACEAE.

Chaunochiton Ducke, II 65 MM. In rain kappleri (Sagot) patakoana; p.p., Gui, forest.

Minquartia guianensis Aubl., alattahout; Gui, MM. Stem with deep growth holes, used for poles. In rain forest.

Ximenia americana Fransman M. low L., moppé; pt, Thorny shrub or tree in wood on

the youngest ridges.

ORCHIDACEAE.

Reich, tAWA, G. Tall inflorescence Cyrtopera longifolia f.; orchid, the up to 3 m high,

in fresh-water rare swamps.

PALMAE.

of therefore few This family is in great need a special study, only a species can be

named at present with reasonable certainty. 112

moist rain forest Astrocaryum paramacca Mart., paramakka; II 111, Gui, M. Common in

outside the coastal region.

Astrocaryum segregatum Drude, awarra (Sur., Ar., Car.); II 37, Gui, M. Very common

on the younger ridges, also in marsh and rain forest.

Astrocaryum cf. sciophilum (Miq.) Pulle, hoegroemakka; II 112, M. Stahel (39) gives

A. could not the name murumuru Mart.; the exact name be ascertained as no material

was collected. Common in rain forest in the interior.

kiskismakka or kaumakka; Bactris spp., II 14, M. Several large-leaved species are moisture-

and in marsh forest and borders. loving grow along swamp

Bactris sp., nanaimakka, small stemless palm with long needle-like spines.

Desmoncus alakule II D. horridus et spp., bambamakka; (Car.); 8, Splitg. Mart., a really

horrible hooks climbing palm with sharp on the leaf tips, is certainly rather common

in the coastal in marsh forest and wood. region swamp oleracea Euterpe Mart., pina, palissade, prasara; wase (Car.); II 17, NSCA, MM. Moisture-

loving palm; at its optimum in marsh forest it forms clumps and dominates completely the understory. Whether E. edulis Mart, reported from the other Guianas and Brazil

occurs in Suriname I do not know.

Geonoma spp., tas; II 150, N. In marsh and moist rain forest.

Jessenia bataua Burret bat. II (Mart.) (Oenocarpus Mart.), patawa (koemboe); 50 p.p., Gui, MM.

Manicaria saccifera Gaertn., truli; NSCA, MM. Common on low banks of the lower rivers.

Mauritia flexuosa L.f., maurisie; I 92, II 20, NSA, MM. Very abundant along the border of low banks oligohalinous swamps, on river and on low spots in savannas. Whether

this is the in Sur. is only species unknown (see p. 83). Maximiliana maripa (Mart.) Drude, maripa; II 29, Gui, MM. Common in marsh and moist rain forest.

koemboe; lo kumu II MM. Oenocarpus spp., (Ar.); (Car.); 50, See Jessenia; the only collected specimen to bacaba may belong O. Mart.. Very common in marsh and moist

rain forest.

PAPILIONACEAE.

Aeschynomene sensitiva Sw.; I 33, tAA, N. Common in fresh to slightly mesohalinous

swamps.

Alexa wachenheimii R. Ben., nekoehoedoe, EG, MM, In rain forest .

Andira coriacea Pulle, reddie or rode kuraru II 16 MM. kabbes; (Ar.); p.p„ EG, In rain

and savanna forest.

Andira inermis (Wright) H.B.K., reddie or rode kabbes, zwampkabissie; kuraru (Ar.);

ereyuru (Car.); II 16 p.p., tAWA, MM. In dry to wet forest, but prefering a marshy habitat.

Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. (C. bonducella Flem., Guilandina crista (L.) Small); pts,

N. Common shrub on high strand and in dune scrub.

maritima Thou. obtusilobia kumatara Canavalia (Aubl.) (C. DC.), zeeboon; (Car.); pts,

Ch. Very common creeping strand herb.

Cassia alata L., srabritie; pt, N. In moist to wet places, river banks, etc..

II Copaifera guianensis Desf., hoepel, okro-oli; kupaiwa (Ar.); apa-ua (Car.); 36, Gui,

MM. Common in marsh and rain forest.

Crudia watrabirie; glaberrima (Steud.) Macbr., atapa (Car.); Gui, MM. Common on low

river banks.

Cynometra hostmanniana Tub, makraka; sakaballi (Ar.); II 43, Gui, MM. On low river banks.

Dalbergia ecastophyllum (L.) Taub. (Ecastophyllum brownei Pets.), akaleroai (Car.); tsAWA, strand scrub M. In and along ridge borders near the coast and river banks. Dalbergia monetaria L.f.; tsA, M. Along river banks.

Dicorynia guianensis Amsh., basralokus; II 78, EG, MM. Timber tree, in rain forest outside the coastal region.

Dimorphandra conjugata (Splitg.) Sandw., dakama (Sur., Ar.); akayoran (Car.); II 136, 113

Gui, M. Characteristic of savanna forest, locally dominant in a wood facies.

Dipteryx odorata Willd., tonka; kumaru (Ar.); Gui, MM. In rain forest.

Eperua falcata Aubl., (zand) wallaba; II 79, Gui, MM. Widely distributed in forests,

dominant but well-drained sand. locally on poor,

Eperua jenmani Oliv., (oever) wallaba, MM. according to Gonggrijp and Burger (34)

common on low sandy river banks. It should be easily recognizable by its brown pods.

I doubt the strongly specific name as E. jenmani has been collected only twice in

Suriname without and also in British pods Guiana this species is rare. On the other

hand E. with has collected rubiginosa Miq. rusty brown pods been many times along

rivers.

Erythrina glauca Willd., koffiemama; as'iakara (Car.); I 87, tA, MM. Very common in and eutrophic oligohalinous swamps in the eastern and western part of the young

coastal It region. forms almost pure stands of sometimes great extent. Also in marsh

forest along the upper rivers.

courbaril kawanali Hymenaea JL, lokus; (Ar.); II 38, tA, MM. In rain forest and on

low river banks. According to Marshall (94) on well drained sands and clays, prefer-

not to much ring rain; 1900—2150 mm a year seems best. This might be a reason for abundance its on the younger ridges in the Wiawia transect and its disappearance landinward.

Machaerium lunatum (L.) Ducke (Drepanocarpus lun. Mey.), brantimakka; akarirowai

atulia I M. in almost stands (Car.), (Car.); 86, tAWA, Very common pure in oligo-

and mesohalinous and the lower rivers. swamps along

Macrolobium bifolium (Aubl.) Pers. (M. hymenaeoides Willd.), waratappa; II 42, Gui,

MM. Common on low river banks. Other like species M. chrysostachyum (Miq.)

Benth, M. multijugum Benth. and M. Benth. in the (DC.) acaciaefolium grow same places.

Mora excelsa Benth., mora; parakuwa (Car.); II 39, NSA, MM. Dominant on low river

banks in the western half of Suriname, valuable timber tree.

Muellera moniliformis L.f. (M. frutescens (Aubl.) Standi., Coublandia frutescens Aubl.);

N. the coast on sand and and NSCA, Along clay along river banks in the brackish area.

Ormosia others O. coccinea spp., kokriki, among Jacks.; Gui, MM. In rain forest.

Ormosia costulata (Miq.) Kleinh., kokriki; ibikoro barakaro (Ar.); kunakoko (Car.);

II MM of M. Characteristic of 135, BG, tree or shrub savannaforest.

Peltogyne venosa (Yahl) Benth., purperhart; Gui, MM. In rain forest. cf. Pera glabrata Poepp., peprehoedoe; atsiballi (Ar.); II 126, MM.

Phaseolus campestris Mart, ex Benth.; V. In fresh and and Gui, oligohalinous swamps along river banks.

Phaseolus trichocarpus I V. In fresh mesohalinous and Wright; 28, tA?, to swamps along river banks.

Pterocarpus officinalis Jacq. (P. draco L., P. belizensis Standi.), waterbébé; itikibolo (Ar.);

mutusi (Car.); I II Car, MM. common and abundant in marsh and 91, 2, Very swamp forest, with large sinuous buttresses.

Pterocarpus rohrii Vahl, hooglandbébé; mutusirang (Car.); NSA, MM. In rain forest.

Marshall that it is in Trinidad (94) says, essentially a swamp tree in Carapa-Bactris

similar to P. In Suriname forest, officinalis. on the contrary as far as we know it

avoids wet soil.

Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC.; pt, V. On sand at or near the coast.

Sesbania N. In fresh exasperata H.B.K.; tA, or oligohalinous swamps, Sclerolobium melinonii Harms, djaditja; II 46, FG, MM. Moisture-loving tree.

Swartzia bannia Sandw., II MM. Characteristic of savanneijzerhart; 85, savanna forest.

Swartzia II spp., gandoe; 113, MM, probably S. benthamiana Miq., S. tomentosa DC. and S. prouacensis (Aub.) Amsh. In rain forest.

Tephrosia cinerea Britt, var. littoralis Th. On sand (L.) (Jacq.) Benth.; tA, at or near

the coast.

luteola Benth. strand Vigna (Jacq.) (V. repens (L.) Kze); pts, V. On and on waste in places the young coastal region.

113 114

PLUMBAGINACEAE.

Plumbago scandens L.; tA. In wood on the youngest ridges.

POLYGONACEAE.

Coccoloba latifolia Lam., bradiliefie; padura (Car.); II 11, Gui, M or MM. Moisture-

the coastal the for loving tree, common in region. (Huber states same Brazil). but Coccoloba uvifera (L.) Jacq.; Car, N or M. Very common in strand scrub, not

occurring in Sur.

Many other species grow in forest and clayey savannas, bradiliefie; matura (Ar.).

Polygonum acuminatum H.B.K.; I 42, tAA, rG. Common in fresh or almost fresh

and swamps, along open water sometimes abundant, with a highly constructive value

in the formation of floating mats.

Polygonum hydropiperoides Michx. (Persicaria hydr. (Michx.) Small); S.U.S. and Peru,

rG. Rare in fresh-water swamps.

Elliot Polygonum punctatum (Persicaria punc. (Ell.) Small); tsA, rG. In moist to wet

places.

Triplaris surinamensis Cham., mierenhout, mierahoedoe; yekuna (Ar.); I 89, II 1, Gui, MM.

Abundant in and marsh forest in the coastal also in swamp young region, common banks. sec. growth, especially on river

PONTEDERIACEAE.

Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms (Piaropus crass. (Mart.) Britton); tsA, Hy. Very

common along river banks, in dead loops and bends often covering large areas.

Pontederia rG? river banks and in rotundifolia L.; tsSA, Along rarely swamps.

POTAMOGETONACEAE.

Ruppia maritima L., sewar (Hind.); cosm, Hy. In open brackish lagoons.

RHIZOPHORACEAE.

MM. Forms belts the lower Rhizophora mangle L., mangro; tAWA, pure along rivers,

single trees occur in permanently fresh water. Rare along the coast.

ROSACEAE,

Chrysobalanus icaco L., pruim; kulimiro (Ar.); I 93, II 5, tAWA, M. Very tolerant as

to soil moisture, in strand scrub (in Sur, only along the lower Marowijne R,), in

swamp wood, marsh forest and low spots in savannas. Characteristic of Mauritia-

Chrysobalanus association. Often in the literature C. pellocarpus G. F. W. Mey. is

mentioned which in the Flora of Suriname has been reduced to a variety of C. icaco

with smaller fruits. I doubt whether is has all and is any significance at not merely

form. were shrivelled of shrubs a I have often seen that the fruits and dry. In a group

usually but a few well developed plums are found.

Hirtella paniculata Sw., witte foengoe, kolethoedoe; II 92. Gui, M. In rain and savannaforest.

Licania apetala (E. Mey.) Fritsch, kwepie; kwepi (Car.); II 69, Gui, MM. In rain and

savanna forest.

Licania heteromorpha Benth., anaura; II 67, Gui, MM. From marsh to savanna forest.

and older Very common frequent on the ridges.

Licania incana Aubl., savanne foengoe; onit'at’a (Ar.), marisiballi (Ar.); II 134, Gui, M

or MM. Characteristic of savanna forest.

Licania leptostachya Benth., savanne foengoe; onit'at’a (Ar.); II 114, Gui, MM. In rain

forest.

Licania macrophylla Benth., sponshout; II 31, Gui, MM. In Symphonia marsh forest. divaricata boroboroli Licania Benth., savanne anaura; (Ar.); anaura (Car ); BG, MM. In

savanna forest.

Licania micrantha Miq., zwarte foengoe, blaka foengoe; marisiballi (Ar.); II 68, Gui, MM.

In rain forest, common on the older ridges.

Parinari campestris Aubl., foengoe; kupesini (Car.); II 47, NSAWA, MM. Very tolerant

as to soil and soil-moisture, dominant on the old ridges. 115

RUBIACEAE.

Amajoua guianensis Aubl., murmeldoosje; II 53, Gui, M. In rain forest. Hoffmans Willd., Cephaelis spp., bofroekasaba; II 155, N. Among others C. pubescens ex

C. tomentosa (Aubl.) Vahl and C. violacea (Aubl.) Sw. In rain and savanna forest. koffiballi Coussarea paniculata (Vahl) Standley and racemosa A. Rich.; (Ar.) koffirang

(Car.); II 83, MM. In rain forest.

kumaramara II Duroia eriopila L.f., marmeldoosje; (Ar.); 52, Gui, M. In rain and savanna

forest common, especially frequent in ridge forest.

Genipa americana L., (hoogland) taproepa, tapurupo (Car.); lana (Ar.); II 22, tA, M or

MM. In marsh forest, often abundant. This is quite different from the statement

of Marshall (94) that on Trinidad it seems to prefer well-drained clay and less than

1900 mm rain a year.

Isertia coccinea M. In rain and (Aubl.) Gmel., pinpin, kandrahoedoe; NSA, forest sec.

growth.

Isertia parviflora Vahl, kandrahoedoe; Gui, M. In savanna and rain forest.

Mapouria fockeana (Miq.) Brem., akamikunare (Car.); II 120, BG, N. In forest and

moist sec. growth.

Palicourea crocea (Sw.) DC., bofroekasaba; adatekorong (Ar.); akamikunare (Car.); I 94,

II N M. from 164, tSCA, or Extremely euryoecious, swamp to savanna.

Palicourea guianensis Aubl., pinpin; kamadang (Ar.); NSA, M. In rain forest and sec.

growth.

Posoqueria latifolia (Rudge) R. et S., pipahoedoe; kalokodang (Ar.); pipiatamer (Car.); II 66, tSCA, MM. Usually in rain forest.

Retiniphyllum schomburgkii (Benth.) Mull. Arg., kayakayadang (Ar.); NSA, N. Common

in savanna scrub.

Rosenbergiodendron formosum (Jacq.) F. Fagerl. (Randia form. (Jacq.) K. Schum.),

II In konotopotrS (Car.); 40, tSCA, M. scrub and wood on brackish, often moist sand.

Often together with Hibiscus liliaceus.

RUTACEAE.

II MM. On Fagara pentandra Aubl., pritijari; alemikirang (Car.); 103 p.p., ridges.

SAPINDACEAE.

scrobiculata L. C. kulisiri II Cupania Rich., gauetrie; (Ar.); tonoropio (Car.); 54 p.p.,

tSCA, M. In rain and savanna forest.

Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. var. vulgaris Benth.; pts, N. On strand.

Matayba arborescens (Aubl.) Radik, and opaca Radik., gauetrie; tonoropio (Car.); II 54

M, In rain and p.p., Gui, savanna forest.

Paullinia boter kaas pinnata L., fijfifingrie, melk en ; I 30, II 148, tAA, L. In scrub or low

woods in and moist soil. swamp on

Talisia megaphylla Sagot, kraskrastikie; turisi (Car.); II 122, Gui, MM. In rain forest.

SAPOTACEAE.

known This family is still very insufficiently in Sur. and most vernacular names are used

for more than one species. Often they cover each other in part.

Ecclinusa guianensis Eyma, bata(m)balli (Sur., Ar.); II 77, Gui, MM. In rain forest.

Manilkara bidentata (A, DC.) Chev,, bolletrie; buruwe (Ar.); II 51, Gui, MM. Balata.

and Common in rain forest on low river banks.

Micropholis guyanensis (A. DC.) Pierre, wit (or zwart) riemhout; EG, MM, In rain forest.

Pouteria caimito (R. et P.) Radik., jan snijder; tSA, MM.

Pouteria engleri Eyma, zwart riemhout; Gui, MM.

Pouteria guianensis Aubl., jan snijder, pientobolletrie; Gui, MM.

Pouteria robusta (Mart, et Eichl.) Eyma var. longifolia Eyma, djoebolletrie, kiemboto; MM. Pouteria trigonosperma Eyma, djoebolletrie; End, MM. 116

SCROPHULARIACE AE.

not known Bramia monnieri (L.) Drake (Bacopa monn. (L.) Wettst.); I 60, pt. In swamps,

from. Sur.

Capraria biflora L.; tA, Ch? On moist often saline sand and clay.

SIMAROUBACEAE.

II L. In marsh and rain forest. Quassia amara L., kwassibita; k'erapu (Car.); 15}, Gui?,

Simaba multiflora A. Juss., noianjang; guyari (Car.); II 23, Gui, M of MM. Common in

marsh forest and along river banks.

Simarouba amara Aubl., soemarouba or simarouba, II 64, Gui and S.W. Ind., MM. In

rain forest.

SOLANACEAE.

Solanum asperum Rich.; II 161, M.

boboro kwas’is’i Solarium stramonifolium Jacq.; (Ar.); (Car.), paremuru or polemuru

I 12. (Car); Common along the youngest ridges and in sec. growth, stands salt and

inundation.

STERCULIACEAE.

Melochia lanceolata N. In fresh-water Benth.; Gui, swamps. Sterculia pruriens Schum., basraboskatoen, okrohoedoe; yahoballi (Ar.), kuyetsi (Ar.)

Gui, MM. In marshy and rain forest.

THEACEAE.

Laplacea fruticosa (Schrad.) Kobuski (L. semiserrata (Nees) Camb.), patako(e)ana; warimiri (Ar.); II 65 p.p.?, tSCA, MM. In rain forest. Ternstroemia punctata (Aubl.) Sw., kayakayadang (Ar.); Gui, M. Characteristic of savanna wood and scrub.

TYPHACEAE.

Typha angustifolia L. (T. domingensis Pers.), langa grassie; I 7, cosm, rG. Locally

dominant in mesohalinous the 2nd and 4th to eutrophic swamps of type.

UMBELLIFERAE.

umbellata I tsA. In fresh and Hydrocotyle L.; }4, oligohalinous swamps.

I Great S. Brazil. Hydrocotyle verticillata Thunb.; 59, S.U.S., Antilles, In swamps.

VERBENACEAE.

Avicennia nitida Jacq. (including A. tomentosa L.), parwa; koroda (Ar.); apaliu (Car.);

forest belt tAWA, MM. Forms an extensive along the coast and the estuaries of the

rivers.

Vitex kalebashout; kwairan II MM. others V. spp., (Car.); 45, Among compressa Turcz.;

NSA and V. orinocensis H.B.K. var. multiflora (Miq.) Huber; NSA. In rain forest.

VIOLACEAE.

arborea II L. In wood and river Corynostylis (L.) Blake; 149, tSA, swamp along banks.

cacaoballi M. Paypayrola guianensis Aubl., tajahoedoe; (Ar.); cacaorang (Car.); Gui,

In rain forest.

Rinorea baririkuti II M. In rain forest. spp., lèlè (tikie); (Ar.); 107,

VITACEAE.

Cissus I L. In fresh mesohalinous parkeri (Baker) Planch.; 25, Gui, to swamps.

river banks and in moist forest Cissus sicyoides L.; I 26, tA, L. In swamps, along margins.

VOCHYSIACEAE.

Qualea coerulea Aubl., gronfoeloe; muneridang (Ar.); gronfulu (Car,), ir(i)akopi (Car.);

forest. II 100, Gui, MM. In rain and marshy 117

XYRIDACEAE.

in and in Xyris dolichosperma Lanj.; I 74, Sur. In wet spots savanna swamps.

ZINGIBERACEAE.

rG. is least for C. niveus Costus spp., sangrafoe; II 146, Witte sangrafoe at a large part

G.F.W. Mey., rode sangrafoe are several red flowered species. In wet or marshy forest.

others L.f.. moist and Renealmia spp., masoesa; masusa (Ar.). Among R. exaltata In marshy forest.

SELECTED LIST OF VERNACULAR NAMES:

agrobigie — Parkia nitida (Mim.) ajawa (Car.) — Trattinickia rhoifolia (Burs.) akira — Laguncularia racemosa (Comb.) alakasirie — Caraipa densifolia (Gutt.) anaura — Licania heteromorpha (a.o. ?) (Ros.), in older collections also Couepia versicolor

R. Ben. (Ros.) awarra — Astrocaryum segregatum (Palm.)

baboen — Virola surinamensis (Myri.)

baboennefie— Scleria flagellum-nigrorum, secans (a.o.?). (Cyp.) bambamakka — Desmoncus horridus a.o. (Palm.) banda — Aulomyrcia pyrifolia (Myrt.)

barklak — Eschweilera spp. (Lee.)

— Catostemma barmanni sp. (Bom.) basralokus — Dicorynia guianensis (Pap.) bata(m)balli (Sur., Ar.) — Ecclinusa guianensis (Sapo.) batbatti (Sur., Ar.) — Ambelania acida (Apo.)

bietahoedoe — Homalium and guyanense racemosum (Flac.) blakaberie — Humiria floribunda and balsamifera (Hum.) blakafoengoe — Licania micrantha (a.o.?) (Ros.) blakaoema — Diospyros guianensis (Eben.) boegroemakka — Astrocaryum cf. sciophilum (Palm.)

bofrohoedoe — others among Sacoglottis guianensis var. sphaerocarpa (Hum.)

bofroekasaba — Cephaelis violacea, glabrescens, also Nonatelia racemosa Aubl., Palicourea

longiflora (Aubl.) A. Rich. (Rub.) bolletrie — Manilkara bidentata (Sapo.) bosgujave — Myrcia sylvatica and splendens, Myrciaria floribunda (Myrt.)

boskatoen — Bombax in the interior also globosum, B. nervosum Uitt. (Bom.) boskoffie — Casearia macrophylla (Flac.), Phyllanthus nobilis (Euph.)

— Pourouma bospapaja Cecropia peltata a.o., Coussapoa spp., spp. (Mor.) boszuurzak — usually Annona montana (Ann.), sometimes Rollinia exsucca (Dun.) A.DC. with small fruit.

— Coccoloba sometimes bradiliefie spp. (Poly.), Aparisthmium cordatum (Juss.) Baill. or Conceveiba guyanensis Aubl. (Euph.) brantimakka — Machaerium lunatum (Pap.)

dakama (Sur., Ar.) — Dimorphandra conjugata (Pap.) djaditja — Sclerolobium melinonii (Pap.)

— several with soft worthless wood and leaves: Sclerolobium djedoe trees compound spp.

hirsuta Radik, (Pap.), Thyrsodium sp. (Anac.), Cupania (Sapi.) djoebolletrie — Pouteria robusta and trigonosperma, also Chrysophyllum prieurii A.DC. (Sapo.)

— Guarea doifiesirie guara (Meli.)

dukali — others Pouteria (Ar.) among sp. (Sapo.) 118

fajapau — Siparuna guianensis (Mon.) foengoe — Parinari campestris (Ros.)

— arborescens and gauetrie Cupania scrobiculata, Matayba opaca (Sapi.)

goebaja — Jacaranda copaia (Big.) goesberie — Phyllanthus acidus (Euph.) groenhart — Tabebuia serratifolia (Big.)

hajawa (Ar.) — Protium heptaphyllum and hostmannii (Burs.)

hoepel — Copaifera guianensis (Pap.) hooglandbaboen — Virola sebifera (Myri.)

hooglandbebe — usually Pterocarpus rohrii (Pap.), also Alchorneopsis trimera (Euph.),

the latter be named. may wrongly

— Couratari iengipipa spp. (Lee.) ir(i)akopie (Car.) ) — Siparuna guianensis (Mon.), sometimes Qualea jarakopie ) coerulea (Yoch.) jan snijder — Pouteria guianensis and caimito (Sapo.)

— Vitex kalebashout orinocensis, compressa a.o. (Verb.) kalokodang (Ar.) — Posoqueria latifolia (Rub.) kaneelhart — Licaria cayennensis and canella (Laur.) kaneelpisie — Licaria guianensis (Laur.) kapoeatikie — Bonafousia tetrastachya (Apo.) kasabahoedoe ) — B.B.S.: Didymopanax morototoni (Aral.); also Alchornea kassavehout ) triplinervia (Spreng.) Mull. Arg., Alchorneopsis trimera Lanj. (Euph.) kassihoedoe — Ouratea surinamensis (Och.) kayakayadang (Ar.) — Retiniphyllum schomburgkii (Rub.), sometimes Ternstroemia

punctata (The.)

kiemboto — others Pouteria robusta and surinamensis among Eyma (Sapo.)

kiskismakka — Bactris spp. (Palm.)

koemboe — and bataua Oenocarpus spp. Jessenia (Palm.) koffieraama — Erythrina glauca (Pap.)

kokriki — in savannas Ormosia costulata, in forest Ormosia spp. (Pap.) kopie — Goupia glabra (Cel.)

— krappa Carapa procera (Meli.) kraskrastikie — probably Talisia megaphylla (Sapi.)

— kromantiekopie usually Aspidosperma spp. (Apo.)

kwakkoe — mostly Marlierea montana, also other Myrt.

kwassiba — usually written without k: Tabebuia serratifolia (Big.); sometimes with prefix a:

Pouteria sp. (Sapo.) kwepie — Licania apetala, also other Ros.

= laksirie alakasirie — Caraipa densifolia (Gutt.)

leldtikie — Rinorea usually sp. (Viol.)

likahoedoe — Antonia ovata (Log.)

lokus — Hymenaea courbaril (Pap.)

lontoekassie — Byrsonima coriacea var. spicata (Malp.)

mabwa (Sur., Ar.) — Himatanthus (Plumeria) articulatus (a.o.?) (Apo.)

maho — Hibiscus tiliaceus (Malv.)

manbarklak — Eschweilera longipes (a.o.?) (Lee.)

— mangro Rhizophora mangle (Rhiz.)

— Couma Macoubea Parahancornia mappa guyanensis, guianensis, amapa (Apo.)

maripa — Maximiliana maripa (Palm.)

marmeldoosje — usually Duroia eriopila, also Amajoua guianensis (Rub.)

— Renealmia masoesa spp. (Zing.)

matakki •— Symphonia globulifera (Gutt.)

maurisie — Mauritia flexuosa (Palm.) 119

mierahoedoe, raierenhout — Triplaris surinamensis (Poly.)

— Miconia Henriettea mispel spp., spp. (Mela.)

mokomoko — Montrichardia arborescens (Arac.)

— mombin moppe Spondias (Anac.)

— Aubl. muneridang (Ar.) Siparuna guianensis (Mon.) and Qualea coerulea and rosea

(Voch.)

nanaimakka — Bactris sp. (Palm.)

nekoehoedoe, nikkoehout — Alexa wachenheimii, Poecilanthe Hostmanni (Benth.) Amsh.,

Lonchocarpus latifolius (Willd.) H.B.K. (Pap.), old also Conceveiba guyanensis Aubl. (Euph.), Clathrotropis brachypetala (Pap.)

noianjang — Simaba multiflora (Sim.)

— Acrocomia to Elaeis melanococca Gaertn. obe cf. sp. (Palm.); according Stahel (39) (Palm.)

oemabarklak — floribunda, Eschweilera corrugata, a.o. (Lee.)

pakoelie — Rheedia benthamiana (Gutt.)

— Ravenala kleine Heliconia paloeloe guyanensis, paloeloe (small kind) one or more spp.

(Mus.)

= — also panta Fusaea longifolia (Aubl.) Saff., Duguetia sp. (Ann.); zwamppanta papaja gras — Cyperus giganteus (Cyp.) pararaakka — Astrocaryum paramacca (Palm.) parelhout, parihoedoe — Aspidosperma maregravianum a.o. (Apo.)

— Avicennia nitida parwa (Verb.) patako(e)ana — Chaunochiton kappleri (Olac.), Laplacea fruticosa (The.) pegrekoe — Xylopia discreta, amazonica, aromatica, a.o. (Ann.)

— and pienja Vismia spp. (Gutt.); man pienja V. angusta, oema pienja V. confertiflora V. cayennensis. pientobolletrie — Pouteria a.o. guianensis (Sapo.)

— pientokopie usually Laetia procera (Flac.)

— Miconia sometimes pikientikie usually myriantha (Mela.), Maprounea sp. (Euph.) pina — Euterpe oleracea (Palm.)

Isertia Palicourea also pinpin —r coccinea, guianensis (Rub.), Olyta latifolia (Gram.) pipahoedoe — Posoqueria latifolia (Rub.)

— and sometimes other pisie many Ocotea Nectandra spp., Laur.

— also other pritijari Fagara pentandra, Zanthoxylum sp. (Rut.); spp. of fam.? prokonie — usually Inga alba, sometimes I. pezizifera Benth. (Mim.)

reddie or rode kabbes — Andira inermis, sometimes A. coriacea (Pap.)

salie — sometimes Tetragastris spp., also Protium altsonii Sandw. (Burs.) erroneously

used for Meli. sangrafoe — Costus spp. (Zing.) savannefoengoe — usually Licania incana, sometimes L. leptostachya (Ros.)

— Clusia and forest savannemangro nemorosa fockeana; in other Gutt.? savannekatoen — Bombax flaviflorum (Bom.) savanneijzerhart -— Swartzia bannia (Pap.)

soemaroeba — simaroeba or Simarouba amara (Sim.) sipio (Car.) Protium heptaphyllura (Burs.)

— with toothed leaves, snijgras many Cyp. hard, sharply soekroehoedoe, (savanne-) — Antonia ovata (Log.) sopohoedoe — Caryocar microcarpum and glabrum (Car.), sometimes Pithecellobium jupunba (Mim.)

— Mouriria others spikrihoedoe spp. (Mela.) among guianensis, princeps, plasschaerti sponshout — Licania macrophylla (Ros.) srebebe — Iryanthera hostmanni (Myri.); also other spp.?

— the and in I. swietiboontje many Inga spp., (Mim.) near coast wet places mainly ingoides. 120

— the arboreous in the coastal tafelhout, tafelboom ) Cordia, spp., (Bor.) region tafra ) C. tetrandra.

tapiriri (Car.) — Tapirira guyanensis (Anac.) taproepa ) — Genipa americana (Rub.) tapurupo (Car.) ) teteruma (-balli) (Ar.) — Conomorpha magnoliifolia (Myrs.) tiengimonnie — Protium heptaphyllum a.o., Trattinickia rhoifolia (Burs.) tjawassi — Hibiscus tiliaceus (Malv.) watrabebe — Pterocarpus officinalis (Pap.) witte salie — Protium glabrescens, sagotianum a.o.? (Burs.)

witte foengoe — Hirtella paniculata (Ros.)

witte hoedoe — Tapirira guyanensis (Anac.)

wit parelhout — Aspidosperma marcgravianum a.o. (Apo.)

wit riemhout — Pouteria Micropholis guyanensis, spp. (Sapo.) zwampgujave — Aulomyrcia pyrifolia (Myrt.), Amanoa guyanensis (Euph.)

zwamppakoelie — Rheedia kappleri (Gutt.), sometimes not distinguished from pakoelie.

— Tabebuia zwarappanta aquatilis, insignis and insignis var. monophylla (Big.)

zwampzuurzak — Annona glabra (Ann.)

zwarte foengoe — Licania micrantha (Ros.)

zwart riemhout — Pouteria engleri, a.o. (Sapo.)

ADDITIONS TO TABLES I AND II

After each species the family and the area of its distribution are indicated. In the list

remarks the be found. Vernacular on p. 99 on species may names are printed in italics,

and be with the list may compared on p. 117. in parentheses indicate the Figures placed that species was met outside the sample plot. those the In cases where species was identified, but where the entry in general refers

to several of one the first of species genus, one or two letters the specific epithet are indicated l with superior types. For example: Inga f means that Inga ingoides was frequent

0 in that plot. Nota bene: indicates reduced vitality.

In the additions trees are given first and they are separated from the names of herbs,

shrubs and lianas by a dash.

(?) after a name indicates that this name is a “nomen nudum’’. In case the species is

not yet identified the collecting number is given in italics.

Additions to the swamp records of table I

Where the is it is 100%. coverage not indicated, about

1. 5 May 1949. ± 10 cm soil covered water, grey clay by 10 cm pegasse.

Ceratopteris deltoidea + 1.

2. 5 May 1949. 10—20 cm soil covered 10 water, grey clay by ± cm pegasse.

Ceratopteris deltoidea + 1, Sesbania exasperata + 1.

4 40 soil 3. May 1949. ± cm water, grey clay, pegasse layer not measured.

4 and 5. 13 Nov. Soil — 5.8—6. 1948. wet clay, groundwater at + 3 to 25 cm, pH

few Under Peaty rootlayer only a cm. Acrostichum group pH 4.8.

6. Lanjouw 1933 (35).

soil ± 2 7. 21 Dec. 1948. 30 —40 cm water; grey clay. Typha m high.

Dec. soil coveted 8. 21 1948. 20—30 cm water, grey clay by some pegasse.

broad the 9 and 10. 13 Nov. 1948. ± 5 m transition zone fringing ridge; sandy soil,

inundated in upper 10 cm peaty, rainy season.

affected border dead branches from 11. 16 Nov. 1948. swamp strip by fire, along many

burned shrubs; 0—10 cm water; coverage 80%. 121

12. 16 Nov. 5 ± 60 cm 1948. ± cm water, grass carpet high.

16 Nov. rich in humus. 13. 1948. ± 5 cm water, upper clay layer very

of burnt brantimakka and 14. 16 Nov. 1948. Remnants scrub heaped up ± 50 cm high

the overgrown by climbers, coverage 80%; groundwater below surface; top layer

rich in 15—75 with brown black clay, humus; cm grey clay spots.

Pacourina edulis + 1.

± soil 0 15. 16 Nov. 1948. Groundwater 5 cm below the surface; —5 cm pegasse;

—100 with 5 cm grey clay brown spots.

18 at km 2.10: 0—10 10—100 16. Nov. 1948. Soil soggy, profile cm pegasse; cm tough

km grey clay with brown spots; at 2.17: 0—25 cm pegasse; 25—50 cm grey clay

Around with brown and red spots; 50—150 cm tough grey clay. Erythrina groups a

fringe of Montrichardia and clumps of Cyperus giganteus. Near border Luffa operculata

(L.) Cogn. + 1.

Nov. soil 10—150 17. 18 1948. 20—50 cm water; 0—10 cm pegasse; cm tough grey clay

with brown spots.

Pacourina edulis + 1.

60 18. 7 May 1949. ± 30 cm water, grass carpet ± cm high.

Melochia lanceolata + 1, Echinodorus grandiflorus + 1.

19. 7 May 1949. 20—30 cm water.

Ceratopteris pteridoides + 1, Pluchea odorata 1*1, Sphenoclea zeylanica + 1, Panicum

laxum + 2.

Dense crossed and 20. 7 May 1949. meadow, only occasionally by cattle; grass

Fimbristylis ± 50 cm high.

Pluchea odorata 11, Panicum laxum 2 2, Cyperus polystachos + 2, Echinodorus

grandiflorus + 1. Sphenoclea zeylanica + 1, Phyllanthus niruri L. + 1, Caperonia

palustris + 1, Jussieua suffruticosa + 1.

Groups of Cassia alata shrubs and small scattered trees and shrubs, see table II

record 6.

21. 7 May 1949. Vegetation badly trampled by cattle, coverage ± 35%; highest bumps Chara hydropitys at water level, holes 20—30 cm deep with aquatic plants a.o.

Nordst. Reichenb. var. majuscula 1’2; grass ± 20 cm high.

Neptunia prostrata + 1, Alternanthera sessilis + 1, Cassia alata in scattered groups.

22. 17 May 1949. Soggy meadow, slightly pastured.

23. 19 Nov. 1948. ± 5 cm water.

24. 19 Nov. 1948. 20—40 cm water; soil profile at km 3-6: 0—20 cm clayey mould;

20—120 with brown cm tough grey clay spots.

Habenaria sp. (1169) I X.

25. 19 Nov. 1948. 40—80 cm. water.

Nov. soil 26. 28 1948. 0—10 cm water; 0—10 cm pegasse; 10—105 cm alternating

layers of clay and coarse sand with mica; 105—255 cm blue-grey sand with mica.

Nov. and 27. 22 1948. 0—20 cm water, root pegasse layer ± 20 cm.

28. 23—24 Nov. 1948. The same.

Odontocarya paupera + 1.

20—50 29. 23—24 Nov. 1948. cm water, pegasse layer 30 cm or more.

Nov. soil 30. 22 1948. 20—50 cm water; 0—10 cm pegasse; 10—380 cm grey clay.

Oocarpon torulosum + 1.

31. 8 ± 60 soil tall herb 90% 2 May 1949. cm water; clay; stratum coverage, m high,

low herb stratum 100%, 1 m high.

Polygonum hydropiperoides + 1.

holes in 32. 8 May 1949. 60—70 cm water, pegasse layer to 1 m deep, clay at ± 1.10 m.

33. 8 40 —50 with in it May 1949. cm water, deep pegasse layer a few locks forming

several and and with open pools meters across 1—1.20 m deep grown Cyperus haspan Utricularia and foliosa, except one which was covered by a floating mat of Leersia

hexandra.

34. 7 May 1949. 20—30 cm water, 30—80 cm pegasse; vegetation ± 2.5 m high.

35. 7 May 1949. 50 cm water with deeper holes to 70 cm; clay soil covered by some

pegasse; vegetation 2.5 m high. 122

36. ± —8 herb 90%. 15 May 1949. 25 cm water; tree stratum 70%, 5 m high, layer

Phyllanthus acidus 3*1, Cecropia peltata +1, — Heliconia sp. 2 1, Scleria flagellum-

+ nigrorum 2, Costus vs. niveus + 1, Dianthera oblusifolia + 1.

37. 15 May 1949. 30 —40 cm water; several small trees, half killed by a fire.

Inga ingoides + 1> Heliconia sp. 11, Phyllanthus acidus + 1.

38. 15 May 1949. ± 50 cm water; few small trees up to 5 m high.

Annona glabra + 1, vs. Pithecellobium jupunba + 1, — Phaseolus campestris + X. Dianthera obtusifolia + 1.

39. 15 May 1949. ± 30 cm water; vegetation 2—2.5 m high, but not very dense.

40. 17 —2 May 1949. Cyperus giganteus dominant, 1.5 m high.

Canna glauca + 1.

41. Lanjouw 1933 (35).

Mikania Cyperus digitatus X, Sesbania exasperata X, congesta X.

42. Lanjouw 1933 (35).

43. Lundell 1937 (91).

Dryopteris serrata 2 3, Erechtites hieracifolia + 1, Habenaria pringlei Robins. +,

Bletia tuberosa (L.) Ames +, Begonia tovarensis Klotzsch +, Vigna luteola +,

Echinodorus tenellus (Mart.) Buch. (Helianthium tenellum (Mart.) Britton) +.

44. Lundell 1937 (91).

Nymphaea ampla dominant; Polygonum acuminatum important in the border zone.

45. Kenoter 1929 (88). Cyperus luzulae X, Scleria macrophylla X, Gynerium sagittatum X, Dryopteris serrata

X, Jussieua suffruticosa X-

46. Gleason and Cook 1926 (77). Almost fresh water.

X. Mikania congesta X, Pluchea odorata

47. The Around same, Yauco-Boquer6n-valley, water up to 80 cm. Typha groups floating

of mats Sporobolus are mentioned, this is highly improbable; as no species is indicated

the grass was apparently sterile and may have been confounded with Leersia hexandra.

Sesban Urb. In Polygonum punctatum 11. emerus (Aubl.) +. open water Ceratophyl- lum demersum, Lemna perpusilla, Nymphaea ampla.

48. Stehle 1935 2 behind the therefore (116). Vegetation m high, mangrove, probably in oligohalinous water.

laterite 49. Stehle 1937 (117). Soil or alluvial clay.

Scleria lithosperma Sw. X, Cyperus polystachyos X, Cyperus acicularis With. X, Fimbristylis spadicea X.

Peat 60 the 50. 10 May 1949. layer ± cm, compact and strong enough to bear weight

of a man.

Nepsera aquatica IT, Hibiscus furcellatus + 1, Cyrtopera longifolia + 1, Lisianthus

alatus + 1, Mandevilla hirsuta (Rich.) K. Schum. + 1.

51. 16 Dec. 1948. ± 50 cm water, thick layer of pegasse on clay; at km 1.9 grey-blue

with 5.1 and 0.08% shrubs 4—-7 km 1.8 clay pH Cl; m, coverage 40%, beyond

Mauritia up to 10 m high, duckweed, liana Connarus punctatus Planch.

52. 16 Dec. 70—80 thick of 1948. cm water, layer pegasse on clay.

Dec. thick of km 53. 20 1948. 40—50 cm water, layer pegasse on clay; at 2.15 grey clay

with pH 6.9 and 0.12% Cl. Before km 2 Chrysobalanus abundant, beyond Rhyncho-

spora corymbosa.

54. 20 Dec. ± 80 thick of 1948. cm water, layer pegasse.

Pityrogramme calomelanos + 1, Lisianthus alatus + 1.

55. Lanjouw 1933 (35).

Erechtites hieracifolia X, Limnobium stoloniferum X, Hibiscus sororius X.

—2 2 56. 27 Nov. 1948. 2—5 m water, floating peat 1 m thick. Vegetation m high, dense.

57. 27 Nov. 1948. 2—3 m water, floating peat 1—2 m thick. Vegetation 1.6—1.8 m high, dense.

58. 22 Oct. 1948. The same. Interrupted by an undeep zone without floating peat, sandy

clay at 50—70 cm depth; maurisie palms and some shrubs of Chrysobalanus, Clusia

and nemorosa and Marlierea montana; herb layer with much Rhynchospora corymbosa Becquerelia tuberculata. 123

Small herbs 59- 22 Oct. 1948. 1—2 m water, floating peat ± 50 cm thick, rather loose.

a.o. Utricularia Poir. bordering open pools angulosa

Scattered small with odorata and 56—59. open pools Nymphaea Mayaca longipes.

21 —50 60 and 61. Oct. 1948. 30 cm water; soil 0 —50 cm dark-grey clay; 50—120 cm

with brown and red grey sandy clay some spots.

18 soil 62. Oct. 1948. 40—50 cm water, clay.

Biovularia olivacea + 3, Mayaca longipes + 1.

18 soil 63. Oct. 1948. 20—40 cm water, clay.

border Hypolythrum pulchrum 11, along the Rhynchanthera grandiflora.

64. 11 Oct. 1948. 20—50 cm wet peat and 50—70 cm sapropelium on clay, groundwater

± 10 cm below the surface.

Lindsaya stricta Dryand. + 2, Panicum nervosum Lam. + 1, Raddia nana (Doell.) Chase

Tihouchina + 2, Clusia nemorosa + 1, Rhynchanthera grandiflora I’l, aspera

Aubl. + 1, Rheedia kappleri + 1, Vismia sp. + 1, Calophyllum brasiliense + 1.

Additions to the forest records of table II

1. 18 and 21 Dec. 1948. 10—40 cm water; bushes 4—7 m high.

Ilex guianensis +, — Fuirena robusta f 2, Rhabdadenia biflora +.

2. 23 Dec. 1948. ± 40 cm water; vegetation 3 —4 m high.

lunatum Machaerium a, Phyllanthus nobilis + .

3. Lanjouw 1933 (35). In the same wood by Prof. Stahel in 1926 Jussieua affinis

found. and Panicum grande were

7 ± water. 4. May 1949. Scrub, 30 cm

wood —6 5. 7 May 1949. Scrub 5 m high, coverage 100%; 0—10 cm water;

15—25 cm pegasse on clay.

Rhabdadenia biflora X, Mikania micrantha X> Ipomoea tiliacea X.

6. 7 May 1949. Scattered shrubs in the swamp; see table I record 20.

14 Tree in 7. May 1949- stratum 8 —12 m high, crowns not contact, coverage ± 60%;

subgrowth 2—4 m, dense. Renealmia Heliconia abundant sp., sp. and Ischnosiphon sp. near the levee, gradually

disappearing northward.

Scleria microcarpa + 2, Fimbristylis miliacea + 2, Torulinium ferax +. 2, Jussieua

affinis + 2, Oryza latifolia + 2, Panicum pilosum + 2, Solanum stramonifolium Climbers: + 1. Adenocalymna bilabiatum (Sprague) Sandw., Heteropteris nervosa

Juss., Pseudocalymna alliaceum (Lam.) Sandw., Allamanda cathartica L., Acroceras

zizanoides, Mikania micrantha, Ipomoea tiliacea.

Tree 6—10 herb 8. 15 May 1949. stratum m high, coverage 70%; layer up to 2 m,

table coverage 50—80°/o; see I record 36.

9. Stahel and Geijskes 1940, swampwood situated directly behind the coastal

mangrove; data taken from herbarium labels.

10. Nov. Soil 0—10 10 with 1948. soggy, cm peaty; —70 cm grey-black clay brown

with and thin sand spots; 70—110 cm grey clay brown spots a layer.

11. Nov. Soil km km under 1948. slopes gradually, at 3-3 moist, near 3.4 ± 10 cm black water; 0—20—25 cm clay with much humus; 25—100 cm grey clayey sand

and sandy clay with mica. Shrub 1166.

12. Nov. 1948. Soggy ridge border.

13. Nov. 1948. Soil rather dry, marsh profile, clayey sand with mica. Qualea dinizii Ducke +.

14. Nov. 1948. Scrub wood.

Phyllanthus nobilis X.

15. Nov. 1948. Renealmia sp. X.

Nov. Soil towards the 17. 1948. slopes ± 1 m swamp. 0—35 cm grey sand; 35 —50 cm

50—80 80 yellow clay with grey spots; cm yellow clayey sand, much mica; —90 cm blue-green sand. 124

18. Nov. 1948. 0—20 cm fine sand, much humus; 20—50 cm dark-brown sand;

—80 50 cm yellow-grey, fine, clayey sand with mica; 80—95 cm yellow-grey clay.

20. Nov. 1948. Flat marsh forest belt.

22. Nov. 1948. Soil inundated.

23. Nov. 1948. Soil sloping, moist to wet.

Nov. 0—15 dark rich 27. 1948. cm clay in humus; 15—40 cm grey clay, little humus;

40—95 cm tough grey clay.

28. Nov. with and of 1948. Swampy strip open tree stratum subgrowth Cyperus

giganteus and mokomoko. Up to 25 cm clayey mould, deeper layers clay mixed with sand.

29. 16 Dec. 1948. 0—25 cm clayey mould; 25—75 cm fine, greenish clayey sand;

75—150 cm fine, blue-green sand with downwards increasing amount of shell

fragments; 150 —400 cm light-grey clay.

druifieboom (?) +.

20 Dec. Ground water 10—20 ± 30. 1948. cm below the surface, pH 6.5; 0—25 cm

black-grey sand, much humus; 25—50 cm brown sand; 50—120 cm brown sand

with shell fragments.

31. 20 Dec. 1948. Ground ± the surface, 1760—2780 Soil brown water at mg Cl/1.

sand with much mica, 50 cm decalcinated.

32. 20 Dec. Hura forms closed 1948. canopy, 25—30 m high, other trees small, very

little subgrowth; 10—15 cm water; soil brown sand with mica, 45 cm decalcinated.

33. 20 Dec. elevated 1948. Slightly sandy bar, 0—45 cm brown sand free of lime;

45—200 brown sand with shell cm fragments; ground water at 80 cm, 520 mg Cl/1.

34. 20 Dec. 1948. Low forest, rich in lime 60 top layer very humus, boundary at —70 cm, deeper sands with clay bands.

35. 20 Dec. 1948. Shell layer at the surface, soil moist, clayey sand.

Casearia H.B.K. arguta (X), tree 7495 (X).

Dec. Well 36. 15 1948. developed ridge forest. Soil brown sand; pH increasing

downwards from ± 4.2 to ± 7.

Ocotea caudata (Meissn.) Mez X.

Dec. 1948. The 37. 15 same. Soil yellow-grey sand.

Casearia H.B.K. arguta X, Sapindus saponaria L. X> Stemmadenia grandiflora Miers (Jacq.) X, Pterocarpus rohrii X, Myrcia splendens (Sw.) DC. X, matappitano

tekaholin — (Car.) (?) X, (Car.) (?) X, Piper 1393 and 1399 X.

38. 6 Dense wood with lianas. Soil in May 1949. ± 9 m high many sand, centre

± 25 cm above the in the Avicennia rich in clay surrounding. forest; upper 10 cm

humus. at 8. Groundwater mesohalinous, 45 cm, pH

One Ceiba of 15 m. Cassia chrysocarpa Desv. X.

39. 6 Nov. bank, flooded tides. Wood 1948. Sandy at very high 7—8 m high, partly shrubs in front.

Cordia macrostachya a, Rhizophora mangle X. Many lianas; Omphalea diandra,

Combretum cacoucia (Baill.) Exell, Hippocratea volubilis.

This mixed alternates with Avicennia with wood groves only some small Laguncularia.

40. Soil under scrub ± 4 12 May 1949. clayey, soggy to just water; m high, open

deeper spots with Cyperus giganteus and Scirpus cubensis.

Helosis cayennensis f.

Fine above wood. 41. 7 May 1949. sandy clay soil, ± 50 cm swamp level; light

Phyllanthus nobilis X, Sapium klotzschianum X-

42. 10 May 1949. Clayey sand, ± 20 cm submersed; light wood with dense subgrowth.

— Mikania Sapium klotzschianum X, Panicum mertensii + 2, micrantha +,

Ipomoea parkeri -f, Jussieua affinis + 1.

43. 12 May 1949. Fine sand.

44. 10 May 1949. Open wood; notes made in passing along the creek. 45. 11 May 1949. Rather low forest with single tall trees mostly Hymenaea, between

the mouth and Cupido; notes made from the boat. 125

46. 12 May 1949. Sandy clay soil, shallow furrows keep water brought in by spring

± 12—20 much flood; canopy layer at m, shrubby subgrowth.

47. 12 May 1949. On lowest places with some shallow pools pina is abundant. Soil

fine sand.

Trichanthera + — some ferns. gigantea , flooded. 48. 14 May 1949. Rather low and open forest, at springtide 25 cm deep Soil clay.

Crudia glaberrima f, Jacaranda rhombifolia X, Quararibaea guyanensis X.

Cyphomandra 3239 +; along the river bank Bombax aquaticum X.

49. 15 May 1949. Forest with medium-sized trees, levee ± 10 m wide with pools left

by spring flood. Soil clay. Trichanthera gigantea X.

wood dense 50. 15 May 1949. Light with rather herb layer; 0—20 cm water. Soil clay.

Crudia glaberrima X, jarani (Zygia sp.) X, — Acroceras zizanoides + 2,

- Cyrlopera longifolia + 1, Paspalum densum 2 2, Fimbristylis miliacea l 2.

51. Huber 1900 (83).

Mull, Sapium biglandulosum arg., Hura brasiliensis Willd.; along the bank

Muellera Mimosa lianas. moniliformis, Dalbergia monetaria, asperata L.; many

Nov. 1948. wood with dense rich 52. Open subgrowth. 0—50 cm black clay, very

in humus; 50—65 cm dark-grey clay; 65—90 cm yellow-grey clayey sand.

Rhynchospora gigantea X, Panicum grande X.

53. Nov. 1948. Grey clay downwards changing into clayey sand, top layer rich in humus. Rhynchospora gigantea X.

54. Nov. 1948. 0—85 cm clayey mould (between 50 and 60 cm sandy); 85—95 cm

From the into the forest. sandy clay. swamp Lagenocarpus guianensis penetrates

55. Oct. 1948. pausander (Ros.) X-

56. Oct. 1948. Canopy rises very steeply to 10 m, inward gradually higher.

iengibartjie (Ros.?) X, — Becquerelia cymosa Brongn. X.

57. 13 April 1949. ± 3 km from the river, 50 cm water; trees of 10—18 m form more

less the of tall 35 is little or a canopy, upper story trees up to m interrupted; very subgrowth.

58. Small creek filled with mud. Jan. 1949. valley soggy, peaty 59. 15 Jan. 1949. Moist slope of creek valley.

tamarinde (Mim.) X> — Crinum sp. 1981 X.

60. 15 Jan. 1949. After several rainy days water 80—100 cm deep, soil covered with

innumerable pneumatophores of Symphonia, the highest with their knees over

the table. 0—250 mould and water cm black-brown very soft, wet clay.

watertamarinde (Mim.) f, — waterlelie cf. Crinum and Rapatea paludosa Aubl. X.

61. 19 1949. Creek filled with 370 mud. Jan. valley soggy, cm deep, black, peaty Rapatea paludosa Aubl. f. Bombax bui 62. 20 Jan. 1949. aquaticum f, Tabe a serratif olia X, T capitata +, jaifie

(Conn.?) X, Vochysia densiflora Spruce ex Warm. X.

64. 18 inundated — Jan. 1949. Levee, at least at spring tides. 0 ± 45 cm grey-brown

with brown in the lower 45 with red clay spots part; —100 or 150 cm grey kaolin

100 or debris. spots; 150—500 cm grey clay with plant

Pellogyne venosa f, kiemboto f, cf. Cassipourea guianensis Aubl. +, Diospyros Mart. +, X, cauliflora Pogonophora schomburgkiana Miers Zygia cauliflora X, vs. Palicourea guianensis X, piboroballi (?) +, cf. Rapatea paludosa Aubl. X.

65. 18 Jan. 1949. ± 70 cm water. 0—80 cm grey-brown clay with brown spots; debris. 80—250 cm grey clay with plant

66. Oct. creek at km 1948. Periodically dry bed 12.9, Moengo tapoe line. 0—20 cm black mould; soft 20—60 cm black-grey clay rich in humus; 60—205 cm greyish

sand; 205—300 cm grey-white kaolin.

67. 1948. foreland, inundated Sept. Marshy in rainy season. Macrolobium multijugum va, Zygia cauliflora X, Aulomyrcia cf. divaricata Berg X,

Caraipa densifolia X, Arthrosamanea gonggrijpii (Kleinh.) Kleinh. X, — Clidemia

pustulata DC. X, 625 X.

68. Low the into several Sept. 1948. wood, many trees at base divided stems, many 126

epiphytes. o—ls0—15 cm litter and forest peat; 15—25 cm grey-brown clay rich in

humus; 25—100 cm grey clay.

Arthrosamanea Caraipa densifolia f, gonggrijpii (Kleinh.) Kleinh. X> Hevea

guyanensis Aubl. X, Sterculia pruriens X, obé ( X ), Trichomanes hostmannianum a.

22 Febr. forest, closed, dense 69. 1949. Medium-high canopy understory open, subgrowth, few lianas and epiphytes; marshy clay soil. 4 X 100 sq. m.

Oxandra asbecki (Pulle) R. E. Fr. f, Fusaea longifolia (Aubl.) Saff. X, cf.

rohrii Aniba hostmanniana Pterocarpus X, (Nees) Mez X, vs. Macrosamanea

pedicellaris (DC.) Kleinh. X, Tapura guianensis Aubl. X, obe X, Ormosia sp.

X, Caryocar nuciferum X, Sloanea sp. X, kaneelhart X, Heisteria cauliflora

Smith X, kapoeasirie 2098 (Log.) X, teteihoedoe (?) X, boesi awieon (?) X. -

Renealmia sp. X, Calyptrocarya glomerulata (Brongn.) Urb. X, Saxofridericia aculeata (L. C. Rich.) Koern. X.

22 Febr. forest, dense few lianas 70. 1949. Medium-high canopy closed, subgrowth,

and soil. 4 epiphytes; marshy clay X 100 sq. m. X, Aubl. Talisia cf. reticulata Radik, Vochysia sp. Tapura guianensis a, a, Fusaea

longifolia (Aubl.) Saff. f, Oxandra asbecki (Pulle) R. E. Fr. X, Dipteryx odorata

cf. X, Heisteria cauliflora Smith X, boegoeboegoe Swartzia schomhurgkii Benth.

(X), djedoe X, Ormosia sp. X, Macrolobium 2249 X, Apeiba sp. X, T ovomita

2248 X, kapoeasirie (Log.) X, pinpin X, Heisteria cf. microcalyx Sagot X,

Piratinera sp. (X), Caryocar nuciferum (X), cf. Sterculia pruriens (X), Ocotea

rubra (X), boskers (Myrt.) X, 2242 (Elae.) X, 2246 (Flac.) X, Saxofridericia

aculeata (L. C. Rich.) Koern. (f).

forest with small the brown 71. 12 April 1949. Medium-high many palms; sandy

soil slopes gradually towards a creek, at the low side ground water at 7 cm.

Dimorphandra conjugata X, vs. Lacmellea (Zschokkea) aculeata (Ducke) Monachino kwattabobbie X. X, bergmaripa (Palm.) a, zwampanaura (Ros.) X, (?)

72. Jan. 1949. Forest; tall trees cut out some years ago. o—7o0—70 cm grey-brown sand

with humus; 70—130 cm yellow-brown sand, slightly clayey; 130—190 cm

reddish clayey sand.

Trattinickia rhoifolia X, Ocotea guianensis Aubl. X, Palicourea guianensis X,

Dipteryx odorata X, Vouacapoua americana Aubl. X, Casearia javitensis H.B.K. X, Loxopterygium sagotii X, Aparisthmium cordatum (Juss.) Baill. X, riemhout

Aciotis (Sapo.) X, 1717 (Apoc.) X, Renealmia sp. X, purpurascens (Aubl.)

Triana X.

forest 73- 16 Febr. 1949. Medium-high with few lianas and epiphytes on river terrace.

4 X 100 sq. m.

Sloanea sp. X, Paypayrola guianensis Aubl. X, Tabebuia serratifolia X, cf.

Casearia javitensis H.B.K. X, Heisteria cauliflora Smith X, Apeiba sp. X, Swartzia

grandifolia Bong, ex Benth. X, cf. Chimarrhis turbinata DC. X, Ormosia sp. X,

Cordia laevifrons Johnston X, Dipteryx odorata X, Fusaea longifolia (Aubl.)

Saff. X, Eugenia coffeifolia DC. X, Rollinia exsucca (Dun.) A. DC. X,

pikientikie (Maprounea sp.) X, Inga lateriflora or heterophylla X, 2107 kiskismakka (Pap.) a, 2106 (Mor.) X, 2113 (Mor.) X, 2112 (Palm.) X, 2108

(Lacist.), 2109 (Pap.) X, 2117 X, bisakapau ( ?) X, - Piper 2110 X, small kind

of warimbo (Mar.) X, Pariana campestris Aubl. X, Ichnanthus panicoides Beauv. X.

little rather few lianas 74. 23 Febr. 1949. High forest, understory open, subgrowth,

and epiphytes. 4 X 100 sq. m.

Fusaea longifolia (Aub.) Saff. a, Oxandra asbecki (Pulle) R. E. Fr X, vs.

Trattinickia rhoifolia X, Tapura guianensis Aubl. X, Talisia cf. reticulata Radik.

X, Peltogyne venosa X, Sagotia racemosa Baill. X, Lecythis davisii Sandw. X,

wit riemhout X, Eugenia cupulata Amsh. X, cf. Swartzia schomhurgkii Benth.

(X). Piratinera sp. (X), 2261 X. 2259 X, 2274 X, 2275 X, small kind of

warimbo (Mar.) X, Olyra latifolia X.

75. 27 Sept. 1948. High 3-story forest, few small palms; soil slightly sloping, clay

of with pieces lateritic iron-stone, on bauxite. 6 X 100 sq. m.

Paypayrola guianensis Aubl. a, Vochysia densiflora Spruce ex Warm., tomentosa 127

(G. F. W. Mey.) DC. and surinamensis Stafl. a, Pogonophora schomhurgkiana

alternans Naud. Miers X, Miconia lepidota DC. X, M. prasina DC. X, vs. M. X,

Anaxagorea dolichocarpa Sprague et Sandw. X, Ocotea rubra X, Minquartia Aubl. X, cf. Parkia guianensis X, Calyptranthes speciosa Sagot X, Qualea rosea ulei (Harms) Kuhlmann X, cf. Guatteria conspicua R. E. Fr. X, cf. Buchenavia X, boroma caudata sp. (Cecropia or Coussapoa spp.) X, Ocotea (Meissn.) Mez. or

glomerata (Nees) Benth. et Hook. f. X, Mapouria opaca Brem. X, jan snijder X,

Inga 497 X, Inga 498 X, mandraballi (?) X. sěkěrědang (?) X, kayukutidang

(?) X. fokkofokkohoedoe (?) X, pakira-ě (Burs.) X, mano (?) X, lianas:

n’ikuran Passiflora sp. X, (?) X, 494 X.

76. 27 Sept. 1948. Rather high forest, 2 stories, understory with many palms; soil

more or less waterlogged in the rainy season, impermeable subsoil of kaolin with

red spots, covered by 60—80 cm grey clay or loam. 4 X 100 sq. m.

Paypayrola guianensis Aubl. a, Calyptranthes speciosa Sagot X, Minquartia

guianensis X, Guatteria scandens Ducke X, Tovomita sp. X, Apeiba sp. X, kwassiba X, pakira-ě (Burs.) X, sěkěrědang (?) X, krapparang (?)I X.

77. 2 Oct. 1948. Forest with few tall trees and dense understory up to 12 m, rather

little subgrowth; soil from 0—50 cm sandy clay, below 50 cm kaolin. 4 X 100 sq. m.

Caraipa densifolia X, Calyptranthes speciosa Sagot X, Pogonophora schomhurgkiana Miers X, jan snijder X, kwassiba X, Eugenia ramiflora Desv. X, krappaballi (?)

X. teteihoedoe (?) X, watergujave (Myrt.) X, mandredang (?) X, 640 (Sapo.)

X, — Strychnos sp. X, Trichomanes hostmannianum X, Lindsaya lancea

(L.) Bedd. X.

78. 2 Oct. 1948. Soil 0 —70 cm grey-brown clayey sand; 70—-140 cm yellow fine sand;

kaolin. below 140 cm fine-sandy

Hevea guyanensis Aubl. X, cf. Pterocarpus rohrii (X).

79. 2 Oct. 1948. Medium-high forest with much Ravenala in understory, rather much

soil kaolin. subgrowth; 0—80 cm fine-sandy clay; 80—100 cm very sandy

2 X 100 sq. m. Ilex Ormosia coccinea X, ovalifolia Mey. sensu Loesener X, Casearia combaymensis

Tul. X, Tovomita sp. X. Shrub below 80. 2 Oct. 1948. wood bordering clay savanna; soil 0—40 cm clayey;

40 cm kaolin. Some terrestrial ferns.

down 81. 5 Oct. 1948, Soil clayey, at 30 cm already moist, roots go to 90 cm.

82. 5 Oct. 1948. Soil 0—50 cm fine, clayey sand, pH 4.9—5.0, 50 —70 cm kaolin

with roots.

6 Oct. 83. 1948. Medium-high forest, canopy at 15—20 m, not fully closed, understory

rather little lianas. Soil surface above level dense, subgrowth, many 1—1.30 m

of Djai creek, but not flooded in rain season; soil 0—35 cm grey-brown crumbly

kaolin. 4 clay; 35 —80 cm X 100 sq. m.

Cupania diphylla Vahl X, Aulomyrcia cf. schaueriana (Miq.) Amsh. f, Ormosia

coccinea X, vs. Sacoglottis guianensis X, cf. Trattinickia rhoifolia X, Piratinera sp.

X, dukali 669 X, kromantikopie X, djedoe X, Pouteria caimito X, olomé (cf.

Pouteria) X, 677 (Til.) X, kirsie (?) X, — Piper 666 X, mananesie Piper sp.

X, Strychnos sp.■ X, bruinharttété (?) X, small Cyp. X.

84. 6 Oct. Rather low 14—18 rather dense 1948. forest, canopy at m, subgrowth,

mainly of tree seedlings, several lianas; soil 0—50 cm grey-brown crumbly clay;

below kaolin. 100 50 cm fine-sandy 3 X sq. m.

kaneriehoedoe X, Aulomyrcia cf. schaueriana (Miq.) Amsh. X, Eugenia sp. X,

Cupania diphylla Vahl X, Inga lateriflora Miq. X, Ormosia cf. coccinea (X),

sěkěrědang (?) X. - Strychnos sp. X.

85. 7 Oct. 1948. Marshy forest with few tall trees, understory dominated by pina

palms, subgrowth with some shrublets and herbs. Depression in the impermeable

subsoil, filled with more than 1 m fine-sandy clay, groundwater at 1 m depth,

rich in 4.6—4.8. 4 X upper 50 cm humus, pH 100 sq. m.

kaneriehoedoe X, Ilex 691 X, Protium sagotianum X, P. glabrescens X, Aulomyrcia

cf. schaueriana (Miq.) Amsh. X, kromantikopie X, Pouteria caimito X, cf. Inga 128

Odontadenia lateriflora Miq. X, mananesie, Piper sp. X, Strychnos sp. X,

puncticulosa (A. Rich.) Pulle X. trunks if 86. 19 Oct. 1948. Bad forest, many trees with irregular or inclined as a

had several In it deviates from the forest storm passed years ago. composition ridge

the of maurisie. Rather much soil below 75 by presence lianas; fine-sandy clay, cm

red km with iron concretions. 2 X 100 sq. m. Exact locality 16.35.

Vismia angusta X, djedoe X, mananesie Piper sp. X, Psychotria officinalis

(Aubl.) Raesch. f.

87. 14 Oct. 1948. Rather high forest marked by the flat crowns of Parinari in the

and in canopy and by the absence of distinctly emergent trees. In the understory

the rather much canopy layer up to 18 m many palms; lianas, many mosses on

trunk soil below with iron concretions. bases; greyish sand, 75 cm 2 X 100 sq. m.

cf. Vismia angusta X, Isertia parviflora X, Ocotea caudata (Meissn.) Mez or

glomerata (Nees.) Benth. et Hook.f. X, fokkofokkohoedoe (?) X, bruinhart-

tété (?) X, Lindsaya schomburgkii Kl. X.

88. 14 Oct. 1948. The same, many lianas, few epiphytes; soil greyish sand, below

60 cm mixed with clay, between 60 and 150 cm with red iron concretions.

2 X 100 sq. m.

Loxoplerygium sagotii f, kuseredang (?) X, boskers (Myrt.) (X), 823 X, Cyp. X. few few dense soil 89. 13 Oct. 1948. The same, lianas, epiphytes, rather subgrowth;

greyish to brownish sand, between 90 and 190 cm with red spots and iron

concretions. 2 X 100 sq. m.

Calophyllum brasiliense X, vs. Sacoglottis guianensis X, Humiria floribunda (X),

Clusia 969 (X), Isertia cf. parviflora X, Piper 898 X, Becquerelia tuberculata

f, tajer (Ar.) X.

90. 21 Oct. 1948. The same, few lianas, few epiphytes, mostly Bromeliaceae. 100 sq. m.

Calophyllum brasiliense X, kromantikopie X, cf. Miconia ciliata (L. C. Rich.)

DC. X, two Cyp. X, Lindsaya sp. X.

91. 22 Oct. 1948. The same.

Piratinera sp. (X).

92. Nov. 1948. Soil undulating, sandy, in the lower parts somewhat clayish.

Alchorneopsis trimera Lanj. X, Miconia alternans Naud. X, vs. Parkia pendula

(Willd.) Benth. X, Minquartia guianensis X, Hyeronima laxiflora (Tul.) Mull.

Arg. f, Casearia arborea (Rich.) Urb. X, Rollinia exsucca (Dun.) A. DC. X,

Inga pezizifera Benth. X, Piper 1256 X.

93. Nov. 1948. Soil 0—35 cm grey-brown fine sand with humus; 35 —95 cm grey-brown fine sand.

pisie 1252 X.

94. Nov. 1948. Soil 0—45 cm grey to yellow-brown fine sand; 45—130 cm light-yellow

brown and soft sand with spots mica (70—85 cm clayey layer); 130—525 cm

grey clay. Very few palms. Psychotria cuspidata Bredera. X. fine 95. Nov. 1948. Soil o—s0—5 cm forest peat; 5 —50 cm black-grey sand, pH 5.3;

fine sand with 50—115 cm brown-black ferruginous sand; 115—175 cm yellowish

few brownish spots and iron concretions. Rather few palms, lianas.

Caryocar glabrum X. fine dark-brown cemented 97. Nov. 1948. Soil o—6o0—60 cm light-grey sand; 60—80 cm

sand; 80—95 cm ochrous sand.

100. Nov. 1948. Caryocar nuciferum X, Vismia sp. (X).

101. Nov. 1948. Lianas frequent.

Ibetralia surinamensis Brem. X, Alchornea? X, Renealmia sp. (X).

102. Nov. 1948. Soil profile either with a greyish-white Ag-horizon reaching to a depth

140 another hard iron of 75 cm at one place to cm at and a more or less pan,

of with or with an ochrous layer at a depth 50 or 60 to 130 or 180 cm yellow

to white sand beneath.

Vochysia surinamensis Stafl. X, Tabebuia capitata X, Qualea dinizii Ducke (X), 129

Ternstroemia 11}7 X, teteihoedoe (?) X, — Piper sp. X, Renealmia sp. (X).

Nov. 1948. Exact forest. 103- locality: 1cm 2.5—3.3. Rather open Soil yellow to brownish

downwards sand, becoming coarser.

cf. Citharexylum 1154 X, Ternstroemia 11}7 X, 1128 (Mim.) X, Pisonia sp.

X, — Solanum surinamense Steud. X, Piper sp. X, Psychotria microcephala

Miq. X, Olyra cordifolia H.B.K. X, Pharus latifolius L. X, Streptogyne crinita Beauv. X.

104. 0 brown 18 Nov. 1948. Soil —30 cm sand with humus; 30—60 cm brown-grey

60—75 sand. lianas and sand; cm yellow Open forest, many epiphytes, among others

Omphalea diandra X, njamsimakka (?) X, Rhipsalis sp. and Monstera pertusa

(L.)de Yriese, — Renealmia sp. (X).

105. 18 Nov. dead Open wood, many twiners, several trees. Soil 0 —45 cm yellow-grey

sand; 45 —70 cm yellow sand.

106. 18 1948. forest with dense Nov. Open subgrowth, many lianas. Soil profile at the of highest point the ridge: 0—5 cm litter; 5—35 cm yellowish fine sand, some

—210 humus; 35 —130 cm light-yellow sand; 130 cm coarser sand with brown

210—225 spots; cm green-grey moist sand.

Hirtella racemosa Lam. X, Eugenia flavescens DC. X, Pisonia sp. X, Rapanea

cf. — guyanensis Aubl. X, 1128 (Mim.) X, poripo 1127 X, Piper 1137 and

1139 X, Plumbago scandens X, Monstera sagotiana a, Maranta arundinacea L. X.

107. 16 Nov. ± 9 m wood; lianas and dense Soil 1948. high, open many subgrowth.

profile at the highest point; 0—5 cm sand rich in humus; 5—65 cm yellowish

sand; 65—100 cm coarser brownish-yellow sand; 100—170 cm yellow, coarse wet sand; 170—200 cm clay.

Inga meissneriana Miq. f, Croton 1111 — a, Cestrum sp. a. Plumbago scandens X, Dalechampia scandens L. X.

108. 13 Nov. 1948. ± 10 m high wood, lianas. open many

Ximenia americana Pisonia s X, — X, sp. 1073 - X, Psychotria microcephala Miq.

X, Monstera sagotiana va (covering the soil).

109. Nov. Low forest the of the 1948. on higher parts ridges (km 10.2—10.3, 11.5—12.1,

12.2—12.3 and 12.65— soil white sand with iron Soil 12.95); an pan below. km profile at 11.55; 0—10 cm sand with grey humus; 10—180 cm light-grey to white sand.

Calycolpus revolutus X, Licania incana was km — frequent only near 12.7, Guatteria scandens Ducke X.

110. Oct. few 20 1948. Canopy at 8—12 m, emergent trees, nearly all stems inclined,

dead trunks of ± 10 diam. 100 many cm sq. m.

111. fire Jan. 1949. Forest islets in savanna, varying in height from 10 to 20 m.

Byrsonima coccolobifolia Kunth X, Ocotea guianensis Aubl. X, — Miconia

rufescens (Aubl.) DC. X, 1736 (Lacist.) X.

112. forest Jan. 1949. Open or wood, stems thin, between km 3.7 and 4 dominated by

Dimorphandra, which has been burned badly in 1926. Soil grey-brown to white

iron at from sand, pan a depth varying 150 to 400 cm.

113. from to the Jan. 1949. Varying forest scrub-wood, trees show numerous burn scars.

Soil grey-white coarse sand, with humus. Hard iron reached top layer pan at km of 3-6 at a depth 2.85 m.

Aparisthmium cordatum (Juss.) Baill. X, Licania divaricata X, Symplocos

Giirke — guyanensis (Aubl.) X, savanne dijatété (?) X.

114. 12 April 1949- Soil sand.

Licania divaricata X, pinpin X.

Oct. Marsh with 115. 1948. wood, trees several stems; soil clay, covered by knobs

overgrown with Hepatics.

Vismia guianensis X.

116. Oct. 1948. 1.5—2 m high scrub with scattered higher shrubs and maurisie palms, soil with kawfoetoes, sandy clay.

Hypolythrum pulchrum a. 130

Oct. from 1.5 117. 1948. Scrub zone rising to 4—5 m.

Hypolythrum pulchrum a, Lindsaya cf. stricta Dryand. a.

118. Oct. 1948. ± 5 ra scrub with dense herb high layer. 100 sq. m.

Hypolythrum pulchrum a, Scleria vs. cyperina X, Rhynchospora cyperoides X,

Lagenocarpus guianensis X, Panicum nervosum Lam. X, Isertia parviflora X, Clidemia Tibouchina pustulata DC. X, aspera Aubl. X, Bactris aff. savannarum X, Coccoloba

excelsa Benth. +, Lisianthus uliginosus Gris. X, Coccocypselum guianense (Aubl.) K. Sch. X.

119. Oct. 1948. 5 m wide belt, clay soil, water level ± at the surface.

Becquerelia tuberculata a.

122. 16 Dec. 1948. Shrubs and treelets 2.5—5 m, maurisie palms 5—9 m high; total

± for of dense fern I record coverage 60%, composition layer see table 52.

of 70—80 cm water, thick layer pegasse.

123. 16 Dec. 40—50 total of shrub table I 1948. cm water, coverage layer ± 40%, see

record 53.

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1893.

of 151 Watson, J. G. Mangrove forests the Malay Peninsula. Malayan For. Rec.

6: 1928. 1. the and the Nickerie Rhizophora, mangro, at right Laguncularia, akira, at left along

River near Paradise.

2. Machaerium, brantimakka, and Montrichardia, mokomoko belt along Cottica River near

Oranje creek; marsh forest behind it with Mauritia, maurisie palms. Abraded beach Galibi with of 3. near (mouth of Marowijne River) a group awara palms,

Astrocaryum segregatum.

4. Beach the Wiawia East of at flat, our camp; trees mainly Avicennia, parwa. 5. The Wiawia before flat; piakkas waiting landing for the rising tide.

6. Offshore bar at the Wiawia flat with Canavalia, Ipomoea pes-caprae and parwa shrubs. Wiawia transect from the offshore in the 7. First salt swamp in the seen bar; foreground

trees the small first Sporobolus and Sesuvium, in the background parwa on ridge.

forest behind the first East of the soil covered 8. View in the parwa ridge our camp, with pneumatophores. 9. Second ridge seen from the North, in the foreground the boundary line between

Eleocharis mutata and Sporobolus virginicus.

from 2nd westwards 10. Third swamp seen a tree on the ridge, a parwa grove sur- in the rounded by a brantimakka belt; foreground a Dalbergia ecastophyllum belt. 11. Brantimakka scrub seen from the parwa grove at the South side of the 2nd ridge; the

black ball is of a termite nest. In the foreground pneumatophores Avicennia.

12. Fifth with cacti from the 5th the latter with Leersia ridge (Cereus) seen swamp; and Phragmites, 13. mokomoko in the 6th the Erythrina, koffiemama groups fringed by swamp; grass

is Leersia hexandra; in the background a brantimakka scrub.

forest 14. Two carriers crossing the 7th swamp; in the background on the 7th ridge. 15. Gully along ridge at km 7.35; water 1 m deep, covered by Salvinia. The buttressed

tree is a young waterbébé, Plerocarpus officinalis.

with dams and islets covered shrubs and 16. Cyperus giganteus swamp by trees, seen

from a tree at km 9.2. The palms are maurisies, between km 13.1 and 13.4 seen westwards; under maurisie palm 17. Swaying swamp Chrysobalanus shrubs.

Same Southwards from ridge a Mauritia - Chryso- 18. swamp seen a palm; fringed by

balanus zone; in the foreground pools with waterlilies, Nymphaea odorata, in the Lagenocarpus guianensis vegetation. On 19. the way in the floating savanna towards the second island in the Great

Swaying swamp.

20. Part of in the of km a forest clay savanna East 6.7, Moengo tapoe transect. 21. Marsh forest along creek near km 15.7; Symphonia, matakki, with knee-shaped pneumatophores, at the right a clump of Aulomyrcia pyrifolia, swamp gujave; the palms are Euterpe, pina.

22. Marshy forest at ridge border near km 15.7; sun entering through a gap formed

by a dead tree; much pina palms; the trunk in the foreground is Parinari, foengoe. 23. Abrasion coast at the end of our sea line near Coronie; parwa forest.

24. with Typha swamp mixed swamp-wood groves in our sea line near Coronie at km the ferns 0.9; are Acrostichum aureum. of in the cliff several 25. Abrasion of the coast in front of the sea dyke Nickerie; visible; mixed forest. thin sandy layers are in the background mangrove

26. Close to 25. The uprooted tree is the largest parwa I have seen. 27. North side of in the around Bigie pan, Nickerie; ponds parwa forest; the trees disk-like of In the groups pneumatophores. centre a patch of Paspalum vaginatum and

a clump of Torulinium ferax.

28. Succession at the South side of Bigie pan; Nymphaea ampla, rings of Limnobium and of patches Eleocharis mutata. The trees are parwas. 29- Close to 28. Some fishermen at work.

30. Swamp along the Huntley creek, Nickerie, covered with Elcocharis mutata and

Cyperus articulatus; scattered groups of parwa. 31. Trial polder near Nickerie; Cyperus giganteus, papajagras, with undergrowth of Leersia hexandra.

A beautiful Crinum in indicum stand in the 32. a Cyperus giganteus-Blechnum swamp West of the Henar polder.