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Semester Outline Beyond the Phoneme: Outline
1. Phonetics and phonology: basics 1. Connected Speech (& introducing transcription) 2. Syllable 2. English consonants
3. English vowels 3. Word Stress
4. Beyond the phoneme (connected speech, 4. Sentence Stress = SUPRASEGMENTALS
suprasegmentals etc.) 5. Intonation 5. Accents of English
1 Connected Speech Weak forms & linking /intrusive r
Phenomena of connected speech: TASK: weakening: reduction of vowels and sometimes Where in these sentences is a linking r or an elision of sounds; intrusive r in RP likely? weak forms: weakening that occurs when Far away in the distance, I saw four elefants pulling function words occur in connected speech a car. And then, I saw another one over at the lake. linking (liaison): link between sounds or words in connected speech (e.g. linking r, intrusive r) Which words would be realized as weak forms in these sentences? assimilation There was a noise over there, but it wasn‘t clear what was happening. Before I realized it, he had elision escaped and we were left behind.
Assimilation Assimilation
What is assimilation? Classification of assimilation processes:
A sound (mostly a consonant), becomes more 1. types of assimilation like, or identical with, a neighbouring sound regarding one or more of its distinctive 2. direction of assimilation features 3. assimilation with allophonic versus Example: ten pigs /sdm oHfy / → /sdl oHfy / phonemic variation (because of bilabial /p/, nasal becomes bilabial) 4. obligatory vs. optional assimilation
2 Assimilation Assimilation
Types of assimilation: Assimilation of place of articulation: 1. assimilation of place of articulation
Example: alv. [d] dent. [d] - very common in English / __ S,C (width)
2. assimilation of manner of articulation - often affects alveolar consonants: Example: alv. plosive /d/ alv. nasal /n/ statement /rsdHsl?ms / /rsdHol?ms / /fTc m`Hs / /fTm^m`Hs /
3. assimilation of energy of articulation - often occurs across word boundaries: Example: 3rd person fortis /s/ lenis /z/ ten pigs /sdm oHfy / /sdl oHfy / / LC, V __ ( loves , plays ) good boy /fTc aNH / /fTa^aNH / 4. assimilation of voice that case /Czs jdHr / /Czj^jdHr / Example: voiced [r] voiceless [r] / p,t,k __ (proud, trick, crib)
Assimilation Assimilation
Sometimes, different types of assimilation occur Direction of assimilation: simultaneously:
1. progressive assimilation (A B) Example: Tuesday, shut your mouth /s ____ : / i/ /R/ e.g. voiceless [p,t,k] voiceless [r] - place of articulation: palatal palatoalveolar - intensity of articulation: lenis fortis 2. regressive assimilation (A B) - manner of articulation: approximant fricative e.g.: dental [d] dental [ S,C] (narrower gap between speech organs)
3 Assimilation Elision
Assimilation with allophonic or phonemic variation : Elision = omission of one or more sounds in spoken 1. allophonic variation (as learned); obligatory language 2. phonemic variation a) obligatory (unassimilated form no longer exists; end point of an historical process) and must be transcribed, e.g. Already encountered: multi-word units, e.g. /v/ /f/ in have to, of course; /y/ /r/ used to in weak forms (e.g. / ?m / for and ) contracted ‘s (has/is ) as learned elision of /t/ in GA after /n/ ( winter ) morpheme realizations (-s, -ed ) as learned elision of vowels (e.g. elision of schwa before syllabic b) optional and may be transcribed, e.g.: consonant: bottom , garden) /n,t,d/ / __ bilabial /m,p,b/ /n,t,d/ / __ velar /ŋ,k,g/ /j/ /t,d __ /R,Y/
Elision Elision
Elision of consonants (often to simplify consonant Elision of syllables: clusters): can occur when the syllables are unstressed (esp. when facts / / → / / ezjsr ezjr the elided syllable contains a consonant that is clothes /jk?TCy / → /jk?Ty / (GA: / jknTy /) repeated in the following syllable) months /lUmSr / → /lUmr / old man /?Tkc lzm / → /?Tk lzm / (GA: / nTk /) library /k`Ha -q? -qH / → /k`Ha -qH / next, please /mdjrs okh9y / → /mdjr okh9y / particularly /o? -sHj -i? -k? -kH / → /o? -sHj -i? -kH / Task: Try saing Henry the Sixth’s three advisers 1) Without elision 2) Naturally -> which consonants would you omit?
4 Beyond the Phoneme: Outline Connected speech Areas covered: 1. Connected Speech weakening (weak forms) linking (linking r, intrusive r) 2. Syllable assimilation: 3. Word Stress types (of place, manner, energy, voice) direction (progressive, regressive) 4. Sentence Stress = SUPRASEGMENTALS allophonic vs. phonemic variation obligatory vs. optional assimilation 5. Intonation elision
The Syllable Syllable Structure try → /sq`H / → monosyllabic Syllable sentence → /rdm -s?mr / → disyllabic Onset Rhyme phonetics → /e? -md -sHjr / → trisyllabic Nucleus Coda supra-segmentals → /rt9 -oq? -r?f -ldm -sky / Phonetic description of a syllable: obligatory nucleus (centre, peak) + optional onset and coda; nucleus: produced with little → polysyllabic or no obstruction of air (usually a vowel); onset and coda: produced with greater obstruction of air (consonant(s))
5 The Syllable The Sonority Scale
- minimal syllable: only nucleus, i.e. single vowel ( I Description of a syllable in terms from auditory /`H /, RP are /@9 /, RP err /29 /) phonetics: the sounds occurring a the peak are more sonourous than the ones at the margins. - some syllables consist of an onset and peak only: e.g. my /l`H /, RP bar / a@9 / (= open syllables) Sonority = the inherent loudness of a sound, or its ‘carrying-power’; dependent on the degree and type - some consist of peak and coda only: at / zs /, ice / `Hr / of obstruction (= closed syllables) - some consist of onset, peak and coda: mine / l`Hm /, Obstruents: air-flow impeded to such a degree that cat / jzs / (= closed syllables) sound has a noise component -> fricatives and plosives Sonorants: air-flow not impeded to a degree that causes noise -> voiced nasals, approximants, and vowels
But: sonority is really a matter of degree
The Sonority Scale Syllabic Consonants
syllabic consonant = a consonant is the peak of a syllable Source:Collins/Mees 2003, 75 only relatively sonorous consonants can be syllabic
in English: / m/ / k/ (both frequent), / l/, / M/ / (less
frequent); /r/ in GA
diacritic: [ such consonant-centred syllables can only occur together with a ‘normal’ syllable syllabic consonants occur in environments in which / ?/ could or does occur in slow speech 6 Syllabic Consonants Phonotactics In slow speech: In normal speech: Phonotactics: the rules of possible student : /rsit9 -c?ms //rsit9 -cms / [cm Some Possible Syllables in Constraints on Syllable Structure English in English (Collins/Mees 2003, 73) V I /`H / 1. /M/ never occurs in onsets. CV two /st9 / 2. /g,i,v/ never occur in codas. VC up /Uo / 3. /q/ never occurs in codas in non-rhotic varieties of English. CVC cat /jzs / 4. The lenis fricatives / u,C,y,Y/ never occur in onset CVCC cats /jzsr / clusters. CCV tree /sqh9 / 5. In three-element onset clusters the initital CCVC trees /sqh9y / consonant is always / r/. CCVCC treats /sqh9sr / 6. /s,c,S/ never combine with / k/ in onset clusters. 7. Nasals never combine with plosives or affricates CCCVCCC strands /rsqzmcy / in onsets. CCVCCCC glimpsed /fkHlors / 8. Nasals and plosives combining in codas are CCCVCCCC strengths /rsqdMjSr / always homorganic. 7 Beyond the Phoneme: Outline Task Which of the following are permissible syllables in English? Why? 1. Connected Speech 2. Syllable /uv@9jr / /roq@9Sr / 3. Word Stress /jq@9g / /cq@9v / 4. Sentence Stress =SUPRASEGMENTALS: /ck@9m / features that extend 5. Intonation over more than one segment Word Stress Word Stress Stress is indicated in transcription by What is stress? stress marks : There are four variables that contribute: intensity (greater breath effort and muscular energy; ! = primary stress perceived as greater loudness) pitch variation (higher pitch meaning stronger stress); = secondary stress $ pitch = Tonhöhe vowel quality (in unstressed syllables we often have /s?!cdH / vowel reduction to central / ?/ or also / H,T/) /$djrok?!mdHRm / vowel duration (English vowels are shorter in unstressed than in stressed syllables) 8 Word Stress: Some Common Word Stress Patterns in English !1-2-3 wonderful in some languages (e.g. Italian), stress 1-!2-3 suspicious always falls on the same position in the $1-2-!3 engineer word !1-2-3-4 personally English, in contrast, has lexically 1-!2-3-4 phonology $1-2-!3-4 scientific designated stress , e.g.: !1-2-3-4-5 Protestantism Monday !1-2 1-!2-3-4-5 Catholicism prefer 1-!2 $1-2-!3-4-5 possibility $1-2-3-!4-5 characteristic Word Stress: Some Common Word Stress Patterns in English Some suffixes that invite primary stress on $1-2-!3-4-5-6 transformationally the suffix itself: $1-2-3-4-!5-6 characterization -ade (nouns): parade 1-$2-3-!4-5-6 inferiority -ain (verbs): abstain -ee (nouns): addressee -eer (nouns): engineer -esque (adj., nouns): grotesque -ess (verbs): assess -ique (nouns): critique -self/-selves : herself 9 Word Stress Word Stress Some suffixes that invite primary stress on the Suffix –ary, -ory: syllable directly preceding the suffix: -ative : alternative -itive : positive / !S __ /( ?)qH / (satisfactory) -cient : ancient -ciency : deficiency -eous : outrageous -ety : propriety <-ary,-ory> -ial : superficial -ic : melancholic /( ?)qH / in RP -ical : radical -ident : accident / .S __ (territory, -inal : criminal -ion : occasion /dqH ,N9qH / in GA temporary ) -itude : multitude -ity : incredulity -ive : attentive -ual : perpetual -uous : conspicuous -wards : outwards → pattern !1-2-$3-4 exists in GA, but not RP Word Stress: Compounds Word Stress Compounds either have Stress shift examples: initial element stress: !paperback, !orange juice, !safety belt or method /!l dS?c/ !1-2 double stress : methodical /l?!S PcHjk / 1-!2-3 $paper !bag, $upper-!class certain /!r 29 (q)s(?)m/ !1-2 Most compound place-names have double stress, e.g. $Notting !Hill, $New !York, $Silicon !Valley, ascertain /$zr ?(q)!s dH m/ $1-2-!3 $Trafalgar !Square, $Fifth !Avenue, $Paddington !Station, $Piccadilly !Circus $Hyde !Park, $Park !Road, politics /!o PkHsHjr / !1-2-3 $Park !Drive ; Exception: road names ending in political /o?!kHsHjk / 1-!2-3-4 Street , e.g. !Park Street N.B. German !Buckingham Pa $last politician /$o PkH!sHRm / $1-2-!3-4 English $Buckingham !Palace 10 Word Stress Beyond the Phoneme: Outline Contrastive Stress: 1. Connected Speech We speak of contrastive stress when two words have the exact same segmental structure and are only distinguished by stress: 2. Syllable insult 3. Word Stress =SUPRASEGMENTALS: /Hm!rUks //!HmrUks / 4. Sentence Stress = verb = noun features that extend 5. Intonation over more than one segment Sentence Stress Sentence Stress In connected speech, function words tend to receive no stress Rhythm: I’ve heard that Jack and Jane spent their holidays in Jamaica. In English, sentence stress is the basis of rhythm: stressed syllables occur at roughly regular intervals, Exceptions: no matter how many unstressed syllables come in - if the speaker wants to particularly emphasise the function between word (e.g. for contrast) (= stress-timing ; ≠ syllable-timing) - wh -words functioning as interrogative pronouns ( where, why, which ) and demonstratives ( this, that, these, those ) are usually stressed ‘What are the l ‘plans for to- l ‘morr -ow, l ‘John ? In more rapid speech, the number of unstressed syllables in a sentence increases, and more content words are also unstressed: I’ve heard that ‘Jack and ‘Jane spent their ‘holidays in Ja‘maica. 11 Beyond the Phoneme: Outline Intonation intonation (pitch movement) 1. Connected Speech = the variation of pitch over stretches of speech 2. Syllable pitch = Tonhöhe 3. Word Stress pitch is the result of the frequency (i.e. speed of vibration) of the vocal folds =SUPRASEGMENTALS: 4. Sentence Stress in some languages (= tone languages), features that extend pitch differences can be used to distinguish 5. Intonation over more than one the meaning of words (e.g. Mandarin segment Chinese) Intonation Intonation Four functions of intonation: grammatical function : intonation can Task: Try saying “HAS he?” with two different signal the syntactic role of an utterance intonations; in the first case expressing something like “that’s great!”, in the second focusing function : intonation can mark the something like “who cares?” most important information attitudinal function : intonation can signal Chris has written a wonderful book the attitudes a speaker has towards what on phonetics. they are saying or towards other people – HAS he? (great!) discourse function : intonation can be used – HAS he? (who cares?) to indicate to a conversation partner whether it is his/her turn or not 12 Intonation Intonation the basic unit of intonation is the Examples of intonation groups: intonation group (or tone group) WHEN ? ∆ intonation groups often, but not WHEN did you say you would ARRIVE ? ∆ necessarily, correspond to grammatical When he finally ARRIVED , ƒ he discovered his friends had clauses already LEFT . ∆ an intonation group consists of a syllable REGRETTABLY , ƒ he discovered his friends had already LEFT . ∆ which carries the main stress (= nucleus) (Do you really want to leave?) and optionally of unstressed and less I don’t KNOW . ∆ heavily stressed syllables preceding or I DON’T. ƒ NO . ∆ following the nucleus Intonation Intonation Types of intonation patterns / nuclear tones: the nucleus normally is the last very prominent syllable in the intonation group fall: WHERE do you LIVE (neutral question) the main pitch movement of the intonation rise: WHERE have you BEEN (angry parent group is in the nucleus ( nuclear tone ); it is to a child) either restricted to the nucleus or fall-rise: I’ll BE there SOON (reassurance) continues to the end of the tone unit rise-fall: The FILM was WON derful (emphatic statement) 13 Intonation Revision Part IV New trends in intonation: High-Rising- Connected speech: Terminal ( HRT ) - assimilation: types (of place, manner, energy, voice) HRT = rising tones at the end of an direction (progressive, regressive) intonation group which is not a question allophonic vs. phonemic variation obligatory vs. optional assimilation mostly used by younger people, especially - elision: consonant clusters, syllables by women Syllable: - articulatory description: onset, nucleus, coda seems to grow in use in all English- - closed vs. open syllables speaking countries - auditory description: nucleus more sonorous than onset and coda (sonority scale!) seems to be used in order to appear less assertive Revision Part IV Revision Part IV Syllable continued: Sentence stress: - syllabic consonants - function words vs. content words - phonotactics (possible syllables; constraints on - rhythm (stress-timed vs. syllable-timed rhythm) syllable structure) Intonation: Word stress: - pitch (speed of vocal fold vibration) - phonetic variables: intensity, pitch variation, vowel - tone languages vs. intonation languages quality, vowel duration - functions (grammatical, focusing, attitudinal, discourse) - lexically designated stress - intonation group (nucleus = last very prominent syll. - common word stress patterns (in general; for words + less heavily stressed syllables) with certain suffixes; difference RP-GA; compounds) - intonation patterns (fall, rise, fall-rise, rise-fall) - stress shift; contrastive stress - High-Rising Terminal 14 Revision Part IV Revision Part IV 1) In phonetics, the term nucleus can refer to two different Are the following statements true or false? things. Define briefly. 1) The maximal syllable in English consists of three consonants in the coda, a vowel, and four consonants in 2) In what respect(s) and why are the underlined vowels the onset. different in the following words: 2) / gUmj / is a possible word in English. a) content (noun) vs. content (verb) 3) All consonants except approximants are sonorants. b) trai ner vs. trai nee 4) The noun decrease and the verb decrease can be said to have contrastive stress. 3) Is it likely that the second or the third syllable in historical 5) Stress-timing means that stressed syllables occur in is elided in rapid speech? Why or why not? roughly equal intervals in a language. 6) Function words can receive sentence stress. 4) A speaker pronounces ten bikes as / sdl a`Hjr /. Which 7) High-Rising-Terminals are only used by women. phenomenon is at work here (be precise!)? 8) English is a tone language, because it uses intonation to change the meaning of an utterance. 15 phonotactics tells us which words are rhythm : / qH -C?l / /qH -Cl / [Cl<] possible in a language: But remember: / ?m / cannot be [m<] in the following contexts: /okzl / plam / nas. __ cannon, German / nas.+plos. __ London(!), Washington */ M?TaH / ngoby