South Africa and the ‘Congo Crisis’, 1960-1965 By Lazlo Patrick Christian Passemiers SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS IN RESPECT OF THE DOCTORAL DEGREE QUALIFICATION IN AFRICA STUDIES IN THE CENTRE FOR AFRICA STUDIES, IN THE FACULTY OF THE HUMANITIES, AT THE UNIVERSITY OF THE FREE STATE February 2016 Supervisor: Prof. I.R. Phimister Co-supervisor: Dr. A.P. Cohen Declaration (i) I, Lazlo Passemiers, declare that the Doctoral Degree research thesis that I herewith submit for the Doctoral Degree qualification in Africa Studies at the University of the Free State is my independent work and that I have not previously submitted it for a qualification at another institution of higher education. (ii) I, Lazlo Passemiers, hereby declare that I am aware that the copyright is vested in the University of the Free State. (iii) I, Lazlo Passemiers, hereby declare that all royalties as regards intellectual property that was developed during the course of and/or in connection with the study at the University of the Free State will accrue to the University. Signature: Date: I Abstract On 30 June 1960, the Belgian Congo gained independence. Congo’s newfound freedom was soon disrupted by a period of severe socio-political chaos and conflict that became known as the ‘Congo crisis’. The exact nature of the relationship between South Africa and the Congo crisis largely remains unknown. The thesis addresses this historiographical omission by asking three main questions. First, how was South Africa involved in the Congo crisis? Secondly, what was the rationale for its involvement? Thirdly, how was the Congo crisis perceived inside South Africa? Besides significantly strengthening and expanding the existing historiography on Pretoria’s involvement and South African mercenaries, hitherto neglected aspects of the crisis are also examined. These include an analysis of white refugees who fled from Congo to South Africa; the Pan Africanist Congress’ and South West African People’s Organisation’s involvement in the ‘Congo alliance’; and the views and opinions of South Africans from across the racial and political spectrum on the Congo crisis. The primary material used in this study consists of archival sources in South Africa, Belgium, Britain, and the United States. This material is complimented by South African newspapers and periodicals, as well as oral interviews. The Congo was of considerable importance to South Africa. Not only was it a central part of Pretoria’s foreign policy, it also influenced the exile politics of South Africa’s nationalist movements. In addition, it influenced South African perceptions of its own turbulent socio-political changes, as well as the political transformation of the African continent. The Congo crisis was used and abused by both proponents and opponents of apartheid South Africa in pursuit of their objectives. South Africa’s relationship with the Congo crisis altered its internal and external politics during the first half of the 1960s. The scope of this thesis aligns itself with research on Southern African dynamics of the Cold War and African decolonisation, as well as South African foreign policy and Southern African liberation movements. It makes a significant contribution to the historiography on foreign interference in the Congo crisis, particularly the involvement of Southern African states. Keywords: South Africa, Southern Africa, Congo, Katanga, Cold War, Mercenaries, Refugees, Pan African Congress, South West African People’s Organisation II Opsomming Op 30 Junie 1960 verwerf die Belgiese Kongo onafhanklikheid. Hierdie nuutgevonde vryheid word egter gou deur ‘n tydperk van ernstige sosio-politieke chaos en konflik, wat as the ‘Kongo-krisis’ bekend word, ontwrig. Die presiese aard van die verhouding tussen Suid- Afrika en die Kongo-krisis is steeds grootliks onbekend. Hierdie studie stel drie vrae om hierdie historiografiese leemte aan te spreek. Ten eerste, wat was die aard van Suid-Afrika se betrokkenheid by die Kongo-krisis? Ten tweede, wat was die beweegrede vir hierdie betrokkenheid? Ten derde, hoe is die Kongo-krisis binne Suid-Afrika waargeneem? Naas ‘n betekenisvolle uitbreiding van die historiografie, spreek hierdie ondersoek ook aspekte van die krisis aan wat voorheen nagelaat is. Dit sluit in: ‘n ontleding van wit vlugtelinge uit die Kongo na Suid-Afrika; die betrokkenheid van die Pan Africanist Congress en South West African People’s Organisation in die sogenaamde ‘Kongo-bondgenootskap’; en Suid- Afrikaners van alle rasse en politieke oortuigings se sieninge en opinies oor die Kongo-krisis. Hierdie ondersoek maak van primêre materiaal in die vorm van argivale bronne uit Suid- Afrika, België, Brittanje en die Verenigde State van Amerika gebruik. Hierdie materiaal word deur Suid-Afrikaanse koerante en joernale, asook mondelinge onderhoude, aangevul. Die Kongo was geweldig belangrik vir Suid-Afrika. Dit het ‘n belangrike komponent van Pretoria se buitelandse beleid gevorm, en het ook die ballingskappolitiek van Suid-Afrika se nasionalistiese bewegings beïnvloed. Daarbenewens het dit ook Suid-Afrika se waarneming van sy eie onstuimige sosio-politieke veranderinge, asook die politieke transformasie van die Afrika-kontinent, help vorm. Die Kongo-krisis is deur voor- en teenstanders van apartheid Suid-Afrika gebruik en misbruik om hulle eie doestellings na te jaag en ideologieë te verdedig. Suid-Afrika se verhouding tot die Kongo-krisis het die land se interne en eksterne politiek gedurende die eerste helfde van die 1960s verander. Hierdie ondersoek sluit aan by navorsing oor die dinamika van die Koue Oorlog in Suider-Afrika en die dekolonisasie van Afrika, asook Suid-Afrikaanse buitelandse beleid en Suider-Afrikaanse vryheidsbewegings. Dit lewer ‘n betekenisvolle bydrae tot die historiografie van buitelandse inmenging in die Kongo-krisis, veral met betrekking tot die betrokkenheid van Suider-Afrikaanse state. Sleutelwoorde: Suid-Afrika, Suider-Afrika, Kongo, Katanga, Koue Oorlog, Huursoldate, Vlugtelinge, Pan African Congress, South West African People’s Organisation III Acknowledgments First, I would like to thank my parents, siblings, and family for all of the love and support they have shown me during the process of writing this thesis. Thank you for being there for me; I appreciate you. I would especially like to thank my primary supervisor and the International Studies Group’s Supreme Leader, Prof Ian Phimister, and my co-supervisor and academic mentor, Dr Andy Cohen, for their support, advice, and guidance. This thesis would not have been possible without them. I am glad to have crossed paths with you and to have learned from you. A special mention should also be made of the International Studies Group’s senior officer and matriarch, Mrs Ilse Le Roux, and her right-hand woman, Mrs Tarisai Gwena, for all their kindness and assistance. To my fellow colleagues I would like to say that spending these past three years with you has been a great experience filled with much laughter and enjoyment. I salute you and thank you for all your help. A special thank you is also in order for: Ms Helen Garnett for designing the maps; Dr Danelle van Zyl-Hermann for translating the abstract; Mr R.A. Vine for being my second pair of eyes; and Prof Sandra Swart for being my academic labour broker whose commission remains outstanding. Finally, I would like to acknowledge the University of the Free State for providing me with a generous studentship that enabled me to write this thesis, as well as the staff of all the archives and libraries I made use of whilst conducting research. IV List of acronyms African National Congress ANC Alliance Des Bakongo ABAKO American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations AFL-CIO Archive for Contemporary Affairs ACA Armée Populaire de la Liberation APL Association des Baluba du Katanga BALUBUKAT Central Intelligence Agency CIA Confederation des Associations Tribales du Katanga CONAKAT Conseil National de Libération CNL Convention National Congolaise CONACO Department of International Relations and Cooperation DIRCO Exército de Libertação National de Angola ELNA Federal Public Service Foreign Affairs FPSFA Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola FNLA Front de la Libération Nationale FLN Govêrno revolucionário de Angola no exílio GRAE International Confederation of Free Trade Unions ICFTU Mouvement National Congolais MNC Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji MNC-K Mouvement National Congolais-Lumumba MNC-L National Archive and Records Administration NARA National Archives of South Africa NASA National Arts and Heritage Cultural Studies NAHECS National Committee for Liberation NCL Non-European Unity Movement NEUM National Party NP V National Radio Archive NRA Opération des Nations Unies au Congo ONUC Organisation of African Unity OAU Pan African Congress PAC Pan African Freedom Movement for East and Central Africa PAFMECA Pan African Freedom Movement for East, Central and Southern Africa PAFMECSA Parti Solidaire Africain PSA Progressive Party PP South African Coloured People’s Congress SACPC South African Communist Party SACP South African Defence Force SADF South African Department of Defence SADoD South African Institute of Maritime Research SAIMR South African Police SAP South African United Front SAUF South West African National Union SWANU South West African Peoples Organisation SWAPO The National Archives TNA União das Populações de Angola UPA União Democrtica Nacional de Moçambique UDENAMO Union Minière du Haut-Katanga UMHK United Nations Archives