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American Jewish Year Book 1960

AMERICAN JFAVISH COMMITTEE JEWISH PUBLICATION SOCIETY OF AMERICA $6.00

N ITS 61 YEARS OF PUBLICATION, the AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK has provided a unique chronicle of Jewish life in the United States and throughout the world. Appearing at a time when anti-Semitism and neo-Nazism have shocked the world, when tensions and antagonisms in the Middle East are flaring anew and the Jewish communities of North Africa are faced with a rising tide of Arab nationalism, this latest volume once again colors in the indispensable background for an intelhV gent reading of today's headlines. The present volume also offers intensive examination of key issues in the United States and summaries of major programs in American Jewish life. An article based on the first National Study of Jewish Education describes the achievements and failures of Jewish education in America, gives statistical data, and analyzes its many problems. Another article reports the first findings of the National Jewish Cultural Study — which includes surveys of archives, scholarships, research, publications and Jewish studies in secular institutions of higher learning. In addition, there are incisive analyses of civil rights and civil liberties in the United States; recent developments in church-state relationships; anti-Jewish agitation; Jewish education, fund raising, the Jewish center movement, Jew- ish social welfare, and other communal programs. The present volume also answers basic questions about Jews in America; popu-

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* * * * * * jI AMERICAN JEWISH I YEAR BOOK

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•I* >j» AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Oscar Handlin, Chairman Salo W. Baron Solomon F. Bloom Harry G. Friedman Sidney Goldmann Benjamin W. Huebsch Edward C. Mack Jacob R. Marcus Nathan Reich American Jewish Year Book ,t. * t< * * >t< * » >t> >t> * •:• * <> VOLUME 61

1960 Prepared by THE AMERICAN JEWISH COMMITTEE

Editors MORRIS FINE MILTON HIMMELFARB

THE AMERICAN JEWISH COMMITTEE New York

THE JEWISH PUBLICATION SOCIETY OF AMERICA Philadelphia COPYRIGHT, 1960 BY THE AMERICAN JEWISH COMMITTEE AND THE JEWISH PUBLICATION SOCIETY OF AMERICA

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher: except by a reviewer who may quote brief passages in a review to be printed in a magazine or newspaper.

Library of Congress Catalogue Number: 994040

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BY AMERICAN BOOK—STRATFORD PRESS, INC., NEW YORK Preface

p three especially noteworthy articles in this volume are those on Jewish J. education in the United States, the National Jewish Cultural Study, and the Conference on Jewish Material Claims Against Germany: 1953-58. The article on Jewish education, based on the First National Study of Jewish Education, contains a wealth of unprecedented data—on enrollment; size and location of schools; their sponsorship, financing, and coordination; curricula, and related topics. The information on the attitudes of community leaders, parents, and children toward Jewish education is of special interest. The full study is being published by the American Association for Jewish Education in two volumes, of which the first has already appeared. The National Jewish Cultural Study, of which the article in this volume is an analytic summary, grew out of a long-felt concern with the inadequate support given to Jewish cultural and scholarly work in the United States. The YEAR BOOK is pleased to publish this summary not only as a matter of record, in view of the survey's importance, but also because of the valuable information it contains on agencies and programs little known to American Jews. This material will be found most useful if read in conjunction with previous surveys of Jewish culture and scholarship in these volumes, especially "Jewish Scholar- ship in the U.S.," by Ismar Elbogen, and "Jewish Book Collections in the U.S.," by Adolph S. Oko (AJYB, 1943-44 [Vol. 45]). As to the Conference on Jewish Material Claims Against Germany, the importance of a comprehensive treatment of its first five years of work becomes readily apparent when the article in this volume tells us that CJMCAG "distributed almost $50 million for relief and rehabilitation, cultural and educational reconstruction, commemoration and documentation projects, legal-aid programs, and administrative expenditures, including sharing in the cost of the Israeli purchasing mission in Germany. Each year these funds aided over 100,000 individuals and over 200 institutions in 35 countries. To a considerable extent, it was CJMCAG grants to many war-devastated communities in Europe that made continued Jewish communal existence possible." New in these pages also are brief articles about Alaska and Hawaii, the newest states in the Union. The directories and lists appear in much the same form as before. This volume includes a 10-year abridged calendar as well as a condensed monthly calendar covering two years, rather than one— the latter expected to be a permanent feature. To our sorrow, the name of Elliot E. Cohen appears in the Necrology section. Elliot E. Cohen was a devoted friend of this YEAR BOOK and of its editors. As in so many other facets of the intellectual life of the United States and its Jewish community, his influence on the YEAR BOOK was strong [v] and pervasive, if not always immediately palpable. He was a man to whom knowledge, truth, candor, and precision were an almost physical necessity, and no friend of his could help being strengthened in his own loyalty to those values. The editors sustained a great personal and professional loss in his death. We gratefully thank our colleagues for their devoted cooperation: Miss Claire Kelman for her editorial assistance and Mrs. Stella Ettlinger for her technical assistance, including the preparation of the index. Maurice Gold- bloom and Raymond Rosenthal helped in the editing of articles, Moses Jung helped to prepare the Jewish calendars, Mrs. Ruth Gould read proof, Mrs. Lotte Zajac aided in checking references, and Mrs. Estelle Weinstein and Miss Rose Grundstein helped in the typing of manuscripts and index cards.

THE EDITORS

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Contributors

EDGAR BERNSTEIN; assistant editor, BERNARD H. LEVINSON; secretary, South African Jewish Times. Hawaii Jewish Welfare Fund. ARNOLD BLOCHr hon. sec, Zionist MISHA LOUVISH; director of publica- Federation of Australia and New Zea- tions, Israel government press office. land. HERBERT MILLMAN; director of field ALVIN CHENKIN; director, statistical services, community-center division. Na- unit, Council of Jewish Federations and tional Jewish Welfare Board. Welfare Funds. JACOB NEUSNER; instructor, depart- IVA COHEN; assistant librarian, Amer- ment of religion, Columbia University. ican Jewish Committee. E. M. ORLAND; assistant, Institut fur LUCY S. DAWIDOWICZ; researcher, politische Wissenschaft, University of Library of Jewish Information, Amer- Frankfurt. ican Jewish Committee. L£ON POLIAKOV; Ecole Pratique des ILYA DIJOUR; director of research and Hautes Etudes, Paris. statistics, United HIAS Service. BERNARD POSTAL; director of public URIAH Z. ENGELMAN; head, depart- information, National Jewish Welfare ment of research and information, Amer- Board. ican Association for Jewish Education. BORIS SAPIR; director, research depart- S. P. GOLDBERG; director of budget re- ment, American Jewish Joint Distribu- search, Council of Jewish Federations tion Committee. and Welfare Funds. LEONARD SEIDENMAN; director, BENJAMIN HALPERN; research asso- Benelux countries, American Jewish ciate in Israelian studies, Harvard Uni- Joint Distribution Committee. versity. VICTOR SEMAH; director, Institution PHILIP JACOBSON; director, church- de Rehabilitation Professionelle des Is- state division, American Jewish Com- raelites de Grece. mittee. LEON SHAPIRO; assistant director, de- GEORGE KELLMAN; director, investi- partment of cultural and educational gative and fact-finding division, Ameri- reconstruction, Conference on Jewish can Jewish Committee. Material Claims Against Germany. JOSEPH KISSMAN; director of research, MURRAY SHIFF; director, Canadian Jewish Labor Committee. office, United Synagogue of America. JACQUES LAZARUS; director, North SEFTON D. TEMKIN; barrister, jour- African section, World Jewish Congress. nalist. THFnnn«F nrcrrc *• HUGO VALENTIN; visiting professor, IHEODORE LESKES; director, legal Swedish Jewish history, University of division, American Jewish Committee. Gothenburg. [Vii] DAVID ZEFF; senior regional director, TULLIA ZEVI; Rome correspondent, Council of Jewish Federations and Wei- Religious News Service (New York), Jew- fare Funds. ish Telegraphic Agency (New York), and Ma'ariv (Israel).

[ viii ] Table of Contents

PREFACE v CONTRIBUTORS vii UNITED STATES DEMOGRAPHIC DATA Jewish Population in the United States, 1959 Alvin Chenkin 3 Jewish Immigration to the United States, 1958 Ilya Dijour 10 CIVIC AND POLITICAL STATUS Civil Rights Theodore Leskes 13 Church-State Issues Philip Jacobson 29 Anti-Jewish Agitation George Kellman 41 COMMUNAL AFFAIRS Religion Jacob Neusner 49 Jewish Communal Services S. P. Goldberg 61 Jewish Community Centers Herbert Millman 92 United States, Israel, and the Middle East Lucy Dawidowicz 101 Conference on Jewish Material Claims Against Germany: 1953-58 Lucy Dawidowicz 110 Jewish Education Uriah Z. Engelman 127 National Jewish Cultural Study David Zeff 149 NEW STATES Alaska Bernard Postal 165 Hawaii Bernard H. Levinson 170 OTHER COUNTRIES CANADA Murray Shiff 175 LATIN AMERICA Ilya Dijour Introduction 181 Argentina 182 Brazil 185 Uruguay 187 Venezuela 189 Mexico 191 Cuba 193 Dominican Republic 195 WESTERN EUROPE Great Britain Sefton D. Temkin 197 France Leon Poliakov 203 Belgium Leonard Seidenman 211 The Netherlands Leonard Seidenman 214 [ix] Grand Duchy of Luxembourg Leonard Seidenman 216 Greece Victor Semah 217 Scandinavia and Finland Hugo Valentin 223 Italy Tullia Zevi 227 CENTRAL EUROPE West Germany E. M. Orland 231 East Germany E. M. Orland 247 Austria Boris Sapir 248 EASTERN EUROPE Introduction Leon Shapiro 255 Soviet Union Leon Shapiro 257 Poland Leon Shapiro 264 Czechoslovakia 268 Hungary 271 Rumania Joseph Kissman 274 TURKEY 279 ISRAEL Misha Louvish 285 ARAB MIDDLE EAST Ben Halpern 303 IRAN 311 NORTH AFRICA Tunisia 315 Morocco 322 Algeria Jacques Lazarus 329 UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA Edgar Bernstein 338 AUSTRALIA Arnold Bloch 346 WORLD JEWISH POPULATION Leon Shapiro 351 DIRECTORIES, LISTS, NECROLOGY LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 359 NATIONAL JEWISH ORGANIZATIONS United States 361 Canada 382 JEWISH FEDERATIONS, WELFARE FUNDS, COMMUNITY COUNCILS United States 384 Canada 395 JEWISH PERIODICALS United States 396 Canada 402 AMERICAN JEWISH BIBLIOGRAPHY Iva Cohen 403 NECROLOGY: UNITED STATES 415 SUMMARY JEWISH CALENDAR, 5721-30 (1960-70) 422 CONDENSED MONTHLY CALENDAR, 1960-61 (5720-22) 423 REPORT OF JEWISH PUBLICATION SOCIETY OF AMERICA 439 INDEX 453 [X] * •!• <• •!•»'!• •!•»•!• •!• •!• •!• •> >f •!• •!• -t- •!• •!•»•!•»'t' •!• •!• •!• •!• •!• •!• •!• •!' -t- •!• »!• •!• •!• •!• •!• •!• •!• •!• •!• '!• •!• •!• •!• •!• •!• •

UNITED STATES

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Demographic Data

JEWISH POPULATION IN THE UNITED STATES, 1959 rr-«HE current estimate of the Jewish population of the United States is JL 5,367,000. This estimate is based upon the data shown in Table 1, adjusted further for Jewish populations in communities with fewer than 100 Jews, as well as an estimate for the Jewish population in areas not covered through the methods described below. The community estimates were derived as follows: 1. A questionnaire was submitted to the member communities of the Council of Jewish Federations and Welfare Funds. Of these member communities, 178 submitted estimates— 154 in 1959 and 24 in 1958. 2. The files of UJA were reviewed for all other communities. 3. The estimates for New York City and its boroughs were maintained at the previous year's level, a projection from a sample study undertaken in 1952 by the Health Insurance Plan of Greater New York. For suburban communities within the greater New York area—Westchester, Nassau, Suffolk, and Bergen counties—replies to a special questionnaire in 1957 gave the number of Jewish households, which the author multiplied by 3.5 to obtain an estimate of individuals. Table 2 gives the general and the Jewish populations for each state, including Alaska and Hawaii for the first time. If the results of a new population study by the Federation of Jewish Philan- thropies of New York had been followed, the figures for New York City, New York State, and the total American Jewish populations would have been higher by several hundreds of thousands. The asterisked note to Table 1 gives further information. AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

TABLE 1

COMMUNITIES WITH JEWISH POPULATIONS OF 1001 OR MORE (ESTIMATED)

Jewish Jewish Jewish State and City Population State and City Population State and City Population ALABAMA Tula re and Kings St. Petersburg... 2,500 Anniston 150 County 145 Tallahassee 260 Birmingham 4,015 Vallejo 400 Tampa 3,800 Dothan 140 Ventura County.. 745 Gadsden ... 175 GEORGIA Huntsville . 315 COLORADO Albany ... 400 Jasper 125 Colorado Springs. 400 Athens .. - 105 Mobile .... 1,650 Denver 18,000 Atlanta .. 13,000 Montgomery 1,800 Pueblo 375 Augusta . 1,000 Selraa 210 Brunswick 170 Tuscaloosa . 315 CONNECTICUT Columbus . 1,000 Ansonia 500 Dalton .. 200 ALASKA Bridgeport 14,000 Macon ... 800 Anchorage 100 Bristol 250 Savannah 3,800 Colchester 600 Valdosta ., 240 Danbury 1,500 8,200 Danielson 190 Tucson 6,000 Derby-Shelton ... 340 HAWAII Greenwich 875 Honolulu 600 ARKANSAS Hartford 26,000 Blytheville 100 Lebanon 140 IDAHO Ft. Smith 210 Lower Middlesex Boise 120 Helena 175 County 150 Hot Springs 550 Manchester 700 Little Rock 1,200 Meriden 1,600 ILLINOIS Pine Bluff 455 Middletown 1,000 Aurora 400 Southeast Arkansas 180 Milford 800 Bloomington .... 210 Moodus 260 Champaign 450 CALIFORNIA New Britain 2,500 Chicago Metropoli- Alameda and Con- New Canaan 110 tan Area 282,000 tra Costa Coun- New Haven 20,000 Danville 230 ties •.. 20,000 New London 3,000 Decatur 425 Anaheim (incl. in Newtown 265 East St. Louis Santa Ana) Norwalk 4,900 (incl. in So. El.) Bakersfield 915 Norwich 2,500 Elgin 480 Elsinore 450 Putnam 120 Galesburg 160 140 Rockville 560 Harvey- Fresno 1,500 Stamford 7,500 Blue Island 155 Fullerton (incl. in Torrington 300 Jpliet 650 Santa Ana) Wallingford 300 Kankakee 270 100 Waterbury 4,700 Mattoon 125 Long Beach 9,000 Westport 2,450 Peoria 1,850 Los Angeles Metro- Willimantic 400 Quincy 175 politan Area .. 400,000 Winsted 125 Rock Island 2,500 Modesto 275 Woodmont (incl. in Rockf ord 1,050 Oakland (incl. in New Haven) Southern Illinois. 2,500 Alameda and Springfield 1,250 Contra Costa DELAWARE Waukegan 1,365 Counties figure) Wilmington (incl. Ontario-Pomona .. 600 rest of state).. 8,000 INDIANA Palm Springs ... 500 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Anderson 100 1,800 Greater Washing- East Chicago .... 770 Petaluma 600 ton & 80,900 Elkhart 150 225 Evansville 1,350 3,500 FLORIDA Ft. Wayne 1,225 Salinas 300 Clearwater 525 Gary 2,980 San Bernardino .. 1,480 Daytona Beach... 700 Hammond 1,750 San Diego 8,000 Ft. Lauderdale... 1,925 Indiana Harbor San Francisco ... 66,000 Ft. Meyers 525 (incl. in East San Jose 3,600 Ft. Pierce 270 Chicago) San Pedro 500 Gainesville 150 Indianapolis 8,000 600 Hollywood 3,000 Kokomo 105 Santa Barbara ... 400 Jacksonville 5,000 Lafayette 300 Santa Cruz 160 Key West S25 Marion 155 Santa Maria» ... 145 Lakeland 720 Michigan City 650 Santa Monica (incl. Miami 80,000 Muncie 310 Venice, Ocean Orlando 2,150 Shelbyville ...['.'. 150 Park) (incl. in Palm Beach County 4,000 South Bend 3,000 Los Angeles) Pensacola 800 Terre Haute .... 740 Santa Rosa 160 Sarasota 2,100 Vincennes 115 Stockton 1,565 St. Augustine 205 Whiting 225 1 All figures have been rounded to the nearest zero or five. JEWISH POPULATION IN THE UNITED STATES, 1959

TABLE 1 (Cont.)

COMMUNITIES WITH JEWISH POPULATIONS OF 100 OR MORE (ESTIMATED) (Continued) Jewish Jewish Jewish State and City Population State and City Population State and City Population IOWA Gardner 140 MISSOURI Cedar Rapids 350 Gloucester 350 Cape Girardeau. 110 Council Bluffs... 450 Great Earrington. 130 Hannibal 100 Davenport 875 Greenfield 325 Toplin 180 Des Moines 3,200 Haverhill 2,500 Kansas City.... 22,000 Dubuque 310 Holyoke 1,275 Kenneth 175 Fort Dodge 115 Hyannis 125 Springfield .... 210 Marshalltown ... 220 Lawrence 3,000 920 Mason City 145 Leominster 525 St 57,500 Muscatine 120 Lowell 2,000 Ottumwa 215 Lynn 11,000 MONTANA Sioux City 2,200 Maynard 175 Billings 100 Waterloo 450 Medway 175 Butte .. 205 Milford 300 KANSAS Millis 125 NEBRASKA Topeka 210 New Bedford 4,000 Lincoln 950 Wichita 1,100 Newburyport .... 350 North Adams 610 Omaha 7,200 KENTUCKY Northampton .... 350 Ashland ... 175 Peabody 1,500 NEVADA Henderson • 140 Pittsfield 2,300 Las Vegas. 2,000 Hopkinsville 120 Plymouth 200 Reno 420 Lexington .. 1,000 Salem 1,490 Louisville .. 8,500 Southbridge 140 NEW HAMPSHIRE Paducah ... 225 Springfield 12,000 Claremont 245 Taunton 1,200 Concord .. 175 LOUISIANA Ware 105 Dover .... 150 Alexandria 500 Webster 140 Laconia ... 115 Baton Rouge .... 875 Worcester 9,630 Manchester 2,140 Crowley 200 Nashua . • • 350 525 Lafayette 105 MICHIGAN Portsmouth Lake Charles 210 Ann Arbor 210 Monroe 900 Battle Creek 175 HEW JERSEY New Iberia 105 Bay City 700 Alliance 450 New Orleans 10,100 Benton Harbor .. 830 Asbury Park 3,000 Shreveport 2,400 Detroit 89,000 Atlantic City (incl. Flint 3,000 Atlantic County) 10,000 MAINE Grand Rapids.... 1,750 Bayonne 8,500 Aroostock County 120 Iron County .... 160 Belmar 770 Augusta 135 Iron Mountain... 105 Bergenfield-Dumont 3,500 Bangor 1,400 Jackson 200 Boonton 240 Biddeford-Saco .. 280 Kalamazoo 700 Bound Brook 440 Calais 135 Lansing 800 Bradley Beach... 1,400 Lewiston • Auburn. 1,400 Marquette County 175 Bridgeton 600 Portland 3,500 Mt. Clemens 350 Burlington 250 Waterville 110 Muskegon 400 Camden 13,500 Saginaw 440 Carteret 700 MAKYLAHD South Haven 525 Cliffside Park 700 Annapolis 1,000 Cranford 1,750 Baltimore 80,000 Dover 700 Cumberland 500 MINNESOTA Dunellen 140 Easton Area 140 Austin 125 Eastern Union Frederick 400 Duluth 3,000 County 18,000 Hagerstown 350 Hibbing .... 157 Elizabeth (incl. in Hartford County . 490 Mankato .. • 120 Eastern Union Montgomery Minneapolis 20,000 County) County 25,500 St. Paul 10,200 Englewood « 5,250 Pocomoke City... 100 Virginia ... 175 Englishtown .... 260 Prince George Essex County a... 100,000 County 8,700 MISSISSIPPI Fair Lawn 4,000 Salisbury 315 Biloxi-Gulfport 160 Farmingdale .... 800 Clarksdale .... 350 Flemington 1,050 MASSACHUSETTS Cleveland 250 Fort Lee 2,100 Athol 210 Greenville .... 450 Franklin 105 Attleboro ... 120 Greenwood ... 175 Freehold 1,000 Beverly 2,000 Hattiesburg .. 180 Gloucester County • 875 Boston 150,000 Jackson 420 Hackensack 1,500 Brockton 3,500 Meridian ..... 335 Hasbrouck Heights 440 Fall River .. 5,000 Natchez 175 Hightstown 1,575 Fitchburg ... 600 Tupelo 120 Hoboken 1,225 Framingham 3,500 Vicksburg ... 250 Jamesburg 105 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

TABLE 1 (Cont) COMMUNITIES WITH JEWISH POPULATIONS OF 100 OR MORE (ESTIMATED) (Continued)

Jewish Jewish Jewish State and City Population State and City Population State and City Population Jersey City 13,000 NEW YORK Bronx 457,000 Keyport 1,000 Albany 11,000 Brooklyn 865,000 Lake Hiawatha... 875 Amenia 200 Queens 382,000 Lakewood 2,100 Amsterdam 500 Richmond 10,000 Leonia (see Pali- Auburn 250 Newburgh 2,600 sades Park) •Baldwin' 2,625 Niagara Falls ... 1,200 Linden 2,625 Batavia 360 Norwich 175 Long Branch 4,200 *Bay Shore * 3,325 Nyack 275 Lyndhurst 175 Beacon 315 •Oceanside 2,100 Madison 100 Binghamton (incl. Ogdensburg 135 Maywood 600 all Broome Olean 275 Metuchen 1,400 County) 3,500 Oneonta 140 Millville 210 Brewster 150 Oswego 140 Morristown 1,000 •Bronxville •» 4,725 Parksville 140 Mt. Freedom 260 Buffalo 26,000 •Patchogue» 1,750 Mt. Holly 175 Canandaigua 230 Pawling 120 New Brunswick.. 8,500 Catskill 225 •Peekskill t 1,575 New Milford 1,400 *Cedarhurst' 24,500 Plattsburg 330 Newark (incl. in Cohoes 105 •Port Chester 3,100 Essex County) Corning 140 Port Jervis 560 Newton 260 Cortland 200 •Port Washington" 2,100 North Hudson •Dobbs Ferry 1,050 Poughkeepsie .... 4,000 County 9,100 Dunkirk 110 Rochester 20,000 Palisades Park... 1,400 Ellenville 1,100 •Rockville Centre.. 7,350 Paramus (incl. in Elmira 1,565 Rome 525 Paterson) *Elmont 7,000 •Roslynv 10,500 Park Ridge 525 Five Towns (see •Rye 1,050 Passaic 12,000 Cedarhurst) Saratoga Springs. 875 Paterson 15,000 *Floral Park! 1,140 Scarsdale (incl. in Perrineville 225 *Freeport 4,725 White Plains) Perth Amboy .... 5,500 Geneva 300 Schenectady 4,200 Penns Grove .... 105 *Glen Cove * 2,800 Sharon Springs .. 165 Pine Brook 140 Glens Falls 700 South Fallsburg.. 1,100 Plainfield 5,400 Gloversville 1,400 Spring Valley 2,250 Princeton 1,320 •Great Neck l 15,750 Suffern 545 960 •Harrison 1,500 Syracuse 11,000 Red Bank 1,200 Haverstraw 480 "Tarrytown w 1,225 Ridgefield Park.. 360 *Hempsteadm .... 7,500 Troy 2,200 Ridgewood 1,050 Herkimer 180 Utica 3,600 Riverside 170 Highland Falls ... 105 •Valley Stream 10,500 Roselle (incl. Ro- Hornell 100 Walden 140 selle Park) Hudson 770 •Wantagh * 14,000 (incl. in Eastern •Huntington n .... 3,500 Warwick 125 Union County) Islip (see Bay Watertown .. 500 Rutherford 1,000 Shore) White Lake . 355 260 Ithaca 800 •White Plains 12,250 Somerville 1,575 Jamestown 325 Woodbourne 200 South River 800 Kerhonkson 350 Woodridge 300 Stelton 180 Kingston 2,800 Yonkers 23,000 Summit . 1,050 Lake Huntington. 175 Teaneck 10,000 •Larchmont ° 2,450 NORTH CAROLINA Toms River 1,750 Levittown P 5,250 Asheville .... 875 Trenton 10,200 Liberty 620 Charlotte 2,000 Union (incl. in Little Falls 105 Durham 425 Eastern Union Livingston Manor 125 Fayetteville .. 450 County) Loch Sheldrake- Gastonia .... 170 Union City (incl. Hurleyville ... 750 Goldsboro 120 in No. Hudson •Long Beach i 20,025 Greensboro ... 1,320 County) •Lynbrook 3,675 Hendersonville 135 Vineland 3,410 Malone 120 High Point 400 Westfield 2,100 Massena 140 Raleigh 400 Westwood 1,050 •Merrickr 8,400 Wilmington . . 500 Whitesville 290 Middletown 1,800 Winston-Salem 450 Wildwood 600 Monroe 350 Woodbine 280 Monticello 1,200 NORTH DAKOTA Woodbridge 1,500 Mountaindale ... 150 Fargo 700 *Mt. Kisco 525 Grand Forks 140 NEW MEXICO •Mt. Vernon 17,500 Albuquerque .... 1,650 •New Hyde Park. 4,550 OHIO Las Cruces 100 •New Rochelle 14,000 Akron ... 6,500 Los Alamos 120 •New York 2,,018,000 Ashtabula 315 Santa Fe 125 Manhattan .... 304,000 Bellaire . 140 JEWISH POPULATION IN THE UNITED STATES, 1959

TABLE 1 (Cont.) COMMUNITIES WITH JEWISH POPULATIONS OF 100 OR MORE (ESTIMATED) (Continued)

Jewish Jewish Jewish State and City Population State and City Population State and City Population Canton 2,800 Farrell 500 Charleston .. 2,400 Cincinnati 25,000 Glassport 120 Columbia •.. 1,200 Cleveland 88,000 Greensburg 440 Greenville 600 ColumbuClb s 950, 0 Hanover 145 Kingstree-Lake Dayton 9,500 Harrisburg 5,500 City .. . 13(1 East Liverpool.... 7,200 Hazleton 1,450 Orangeburg County 120 Elyria 365 Homestead 600 500 Spartanburg . 220 Hamilton Indiana 130 Sumter 390 Lima 550 Irwin 120 Lorain 450 Jeannette 200 SOUTH DAKOTA Mansfield 1,050 Johnstown 1,800 Sioux Falls 280 310 Marion Kittanning 215 TENNESSEE Middletown 140 Lancaster 2,000 270 Chattanooga 2,450 New Philadelphia. Latrobe 115 Jackson ... 110 Piqua 215 Lebanon 650 225 Knoxville .. 780 Portsmouth Lewistown 225 Memphis 9,100 Sandusky 120 Lock Haven 350 140 Nashville • • 3,000 Springfield Lower Bucks Co. Oak Ridge . 350 Steubenville 490 (incl. Levittown, Toledo 900 New Hope, etc.) 10,000 TEXAS Warren 7,000 Mahonoy City ... 105 Abilene 135 Wooster 800 McKees Rocks .. 100 Amarillo 350 Youngstown 200 McKeesport 2,500 Austin 1,300 5,500 Zanesville Meadville 120 Baytown 140 300 Monessen 250 Beaumont 900 OKLAHOMA Mt. Carmel 110 Breckenridge .... 110 Ardmore 175 Mt. Pleasant 140 Brownsville 280 Muskogee 120 New Castle 800 Corpus Christi ... 1,350 Oklahoma City... 1,900 New Kensington. 640 Corsicanna 210 Oklahoma City Norristown 1,400 Dallas 16,500 Zone 190 North Penn 200 El Paso 3,800 Tulsa 2,270 Oil City 360 Ft. Worth 2,800 Oxford-Kennet Gal vest on 2,000 OREGON Square 130 Harlingen 100 Eugene . 120 Philadelphia Metro- Houston 17,000 Portland 7,900 politan Area .. 331,000 Kilgore 130 Salem .. 210 Philipsburg 105 Laredo 265 Phoenixville 295 Longview 125 PENNSYLVANIA Pittsburgh 47,000 Lubbock 260 Aliquippa 400 Pottstown 680 McAllen 195 Allentown 3,700 Pottsville 1,000 Marshall 105 Altoona 1,100 Punxsutawney 100 North Texas Zone Ambridge 300 Reading 3,400 (Denison, Gaines- Beaver Valley (incl. Sayre 100 ville, Greenville, Lower Beaver Scranton 5,822 Paris, Sherman) 195 Valley) 740 Shamokin 250 Odessa 210 Berwick 200 Sharon 960 Port Arthur 260 Bethlehem 1,000 Shenandoah 280 Rosenberg 120 Bloomsburg 100 Stroudsburg 350 San Angelo 100 Braddock 760 Sunbury 160 San Antonio 6,500 Bradford 450 Tarentum 105 Texarkana 130 Bristol 175 Titusville 120 Tyler 450 Brownsville 240 Uniontown 800 Waco 1,250 Butler 450 Vandergrift-Leach- Wharton 330 California 165 burg 120 Wichita Falls 280 Canonsburg 120 Warren 120 UTAH Carbon County .. 300 Washington 500 Ogden 100 Carbondale 200 West Chester 300 Salt Lake City... Carnegie 270 Wilkes-Barre 5,400 1,450 Chambersburg ... 260 Williamsport .... 850 VERMONT Charleroi 200 York 1,450 Bennington 120 Chester 2,100 Burlington 1,200 Clairton 110 RHODE ISLAND Rutland 350 Coatesville 305 Newport 1,000 St. Albans 100 Connellsyille .... 160 Pawtucket 2,450 St. Johnsbury.... 100 Coraopolis 115 Providence 20,000 Donora 160 Westerly 140 VIRGINIA DuBois 160 Woonsocket 780 Alexandria (incl. Duquesne 200 Falls Church, Easton 2,000 SOUTH CAROLINA Arlington County, Ellwood City 140 Aiken-Bamwell 175 and Urbanized Erie 1,750 Beaufort 130 Fairfax County) 6,400 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

TABLE 1 (Cont.) COMMUNITIES WITH JEWISH POPULATIONS OF 100 OR MORE (ESTIMATED) (Continued)

Jewish Jewish Jewish State and City Population State and City Population State and City Population Arlington (incl. in WASHINGTON WISCONSIN Bremerton 180 Appleton 575 Alexandria) 105 Danville 245 Seattle 10,500 Beloit Spokane 750 Eau Claire 120 Fairfax County and 160 Falls Church Tacoma 650 Fond du Lac Green Bay 500 (incl. in Alex- 620 andria) Kenosha 160 La Crosse 150 Fredericksburg .. 2,200 Hampton 525 WEST VIRGINIA Madison 120 Beckley ... 230 Manitowoc 175 Harnsonburg .... Milwaukee 30,000 Lynchburg 385 BlueHeld- Martinsville 125 Princeton 300 Oshkosh 130 Newport News.. 1,600 Charleston . 1,625 Racine ... 1,050 Norfolk 7,750 Clarksburg 225 Rice Lake 120 Petersburg 610 Fairmont .. 175 Sheboygan 475 Portsmouth 2,000 Huntington 925 Superior .. 525 Richmond 8,500 Morgantown 130 Waukesha 135 Roanoke 800 Parkersburg 100 Wausau .. 250 Staunton 110 Weirton ... 350 Suffolk 130 Wheeling ... 800 WYOMING Winchester 140 Williamston 170 Cheyenne 500 •Includes San Luis Obispo. Islip Terrace, West Islip, Centerport, Greenlawn, Com- •> Greater Washington in- Brentwood. mack. cludes urbanized portions of h Includes Tuckahoe and ° Includes Mamaroneck. Montgomery and Prince unincorporated Eastchester. P Levittown is a develop- George Counties (Md.), and i Includes Hewlett, Wood- ment covering various political Arlington County, Fairfax mere, Lawrence, Inwood subdivisions; it is therefore County (urbanized portion), (Five Towns). duplicated in estimates of Falls Church, and Alexandria J Includes Queens section of nearby towns. (Va.). 11ncludes Lido. c Floral Park. T Includes Englewood Cliffs * Includes Locust Valley, Includes North Merrick. and Tenafly. • Includes Sayville, Bell- a Lattingtown, Oyster Bay, Includes all communities Glen Head, Glenwood Land- port, Bayport. in Essex County and also in- ing, Sea Cliff, Brookville. ' Includes Lake Mohegan, cludes Hillside and Sprire- Montrose. 'Includes Great Neck Vil- u field (Union County); Kearny, lage, Great Neck Plaza, Includes Manhasset, Sands Arlington, Harrison (Hudson Point, Plandome. Thomaston, Russel Gardens, v County); North Arlington Kensington, Great Neck Es- Includes Roslyn Heights, (Bergen County). tates, Harbor Hills, Saddle Roslyn Estates, East Hills, • Includes Clayton, Pauls- Rock, Kenilworth, University Glenn Head, East Williston, boro, Pitman, Swedesboro, Gardens, Kings Point, Lake Brookville, Albertson, Sea WUliamstown, Woodbury, Mt. Cliff, Williston Park. Success. w Royal, Mullicia Hill, West- m Includes North Tarry- ville, Neufield. Includes West and East town. Hempstead. * Includes South Hemp- n * Includes Seaford, North stead. Includes Huntington Sta. Belmore, South Levittown. sr Includes Smithtown, tion, Cold Spring Hills, y Includes Scarsdale, Harri- Brightwaters, East Islip, Islip, Northport, East Northport, son, Hartsdale, Elmsford.

• After including the data for New York City proper and the communities in the surrounding counties of Westchester, Nassau, and Suffolk, the author was generously allowed to see the results of a special study, directed by C. Morris Horowitz and sponsored by the Federation of Jewish Philanthropies of New York. The basic method employed was the "Yom Kippur" technique (AJYB, 1958 [Vol. 59], p. 3, n. 2). The results of that study yielded a much higher figure than the data in this table. Our data were based upon two sources: 1. for New York City, projections from an area sample study conducted in 1952 by the Health Insurance Plan of Greater New York, and 2. for the individual communities in Westchester, Nassau, and Suffolk counties, from questionnaires to individual community leaders in 1957 which produced estimates of the number of households. The author multiplied these by 3.5 to obtain an estimate of individuals. JEWISH POPULATION IN THE UNITED STATES, 1959 9

Because there was not time to assess the factors entering into the differences between the two sets of data, the previous estimates were kept in the table. The table below shows the magnitude of these differences. Since the results of the federation study of the three counties outside of New York cover larger political subdivisions than the community estimates shown in Table 1, the comparison is made by grouping the individual communities under the appropriate counties.

Two ESTIMATES OF THE JEWISH POPULATION OF NEW YORK CITY, LONG ISLAND, AND WESTCHESTER COUNTY Estimates Currently Federation Area Carried in Table 1 Estimates (1958) New York City 2,018,000 2,114,000 Manhattan 304,000 339,000 Bronx 457,000 493,000 Brooklyn 865,000 854,000 Queens 382,000 423,000 Richmond 10,000 6,000 Westchester County 83,500 116,400 Nassau County 183,865 329,100 Suffolk County 8,575 20,100 TOTAL 2,293,940 2,580,600

TABLE 2 HE UNITED STATES BY STATES, 1959 Estimated Estimated Jewish Jewish Total Per Cent State Population Population • of Total Alabama 9,400 3,211,000 059 Alaska 300 211,000 0.14 Arizona 14,700 1,140,000 159 Arkansas 3,500 1,766,000 050 California 524,900 14,337,000 3.66 Colorado 19,300 1,711,000 1.13 Connecticut 99,100 2,316,000 458 Delaware 8,000 454,000 1.76 District of Columbia 40,300 825,000 4.88 Florida 109,800 4,442,000 2.47 Georgia 23,100 3,818,000 0.61 Hawaii 1,000 613,000 0.16 Idaho 300 662,000 0.05 Illinois 297,800 9,889,000 3.01 Indiana 23,600 4381,000 032 Iowa 9,800 2,822,000 035 Kansas 3,400 2,116,000 0.13 Kentucky 10,700 3,080,000 0.35 Louisiana 15,900 3,110,000 031 Maine 8,400 952,000 0.88 Maryland 118,000 2,956,000 3.99 Massachusetts 222,900 4,862,000 438 Michigan 101,800 7,866,000 159 Minnesota 34,400 3375,000 1.02 Mississippi 3,900 2,186,000 0.18 Missouri 81,000 4,271,000 1.90 10 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK TABLE 2 (Cont) JEWISH POPULATION IN THE UNITED STATES BY STATES, 1959 (Continued) Estimated Estimated Jewish Jewish Total Per Cent State Population Population» of Total Montana 600 688,000 0.09 Nebraska 8,900 1,457,000 0.61 Nevada 2,500 267,000 0.94 New Hampshire 4,700 584,000 0.80 New Jersey 314,200 5,749,000 5.47 New Mexico 2,400 842,000 0.29 New York 2,413,500 16,229,000 14.87 North Carolina 11,100 4,549,000 0.24 North Dakota 1,400 650,000 0.22 Ohio 161,600 9,345,000 1.73 Oklahoma 6,300 2,285,000 0.28 Oregon 8,800 1,773,000 050 Pennsylvania 454,000 11,011,000 4.12 Rhode Island 24,400 875,000 2.79 South Carolina 7,200 2,404,000 0.30 South Dakota 900 699,000 0.13 Tennessee 16,800 3,469,000 0.48 Texas 59,500 9,377,000 0.63 Utah 1,600 865,000 0.18 Vermont 2300 372,000 0.67 Virginia 31,100 3,935,000 0.79 Washington 13,200 2,769,000 0.48 West Virginia 5,800 1,969,000 0.29 Wisconsin 38,400 3,938,000 0.98 Wyoming 800 320,000 025 TOTAL 5,367,200 177,571,000» 3.02 • Since the population estimates for the individual states were not issued by the Census Bureau in time for inclusion in this table, the figures shown are for July 1, 1958. To a very slight extent, therefore, the percentages in the third column are overstated. The total United States population figure for September 1, 1959, is used, and includes Hawaii and Alaska. Excluded from the total are members of the armed forces outside the 50 states. Sources: State estimates, Provisional Estimate of the Population of States . . . July 1, 1958, Current Population Reports, Series P-25, No. 189; total United States estimate, Estimates of the Population of the United States . . . September 1, 1959, Current Population Reports, Series P-25, No. 206.

ALVIN CHENKIN

JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES IN 1958 *

URING the fiscal year ending June 30, 1958, Jewish immigration to the D United States decreased in comparison with the previous year—7,160 in 1958, and 10,876 in 1957. The main reasons were the end of the Hungarian emergency and the slowness with which the provisions of Section 15 of Public Law 85-316 were implemented. Those provisions would admit a considerable number of Egyptian and East European refugees outside the quota. Table 1 shows the distribution of Jewish arrivals by area of last residence.

* For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES IN 1958 11 TABLE 1 JEWISH IMMIGRATION BY AREA OF LAST RESIDENCE July 1,1957-June 30,1958 Area of Last Residence Number Europe Western Europe 960 Eastern Europe 613 Total "77 1,573 North and South America 600» North Africa 191 Israel 4,788 Others 8 TOTAL 7,160 • Estimated The largest single group admitted was from Israel. Israel now has the largest concentration of Jews from all countries of the world, and so their past registrations with United States consulates in these various countries are con- tinually coming up for processing by the United States consuls in Israel. Out of the total of 4,788 immigrants from Israel, only 1,681 were Israeli-born, the rest being born elsewhere and admitted under the quotas of their countries of birth. Altogether, there were 3,996 quota and 792 nonquota immigrants from Israel. The second largest group of Jewish immigrants consisted of refugees from Egypt, either directly or from European countries of first asylum (France, Italy, Greece). The number of Egyptian refugees admitted to the United States and assisted by UHS since the end of the Suez crisis in 1956 and up to June 30, 1959, was 951. Table 2 shows their distribution in 26 states and the District of Columbia. TABLE 2 INITIAL SETTLEMENT OF EGYPTIAN REFUGEES IN THE UNITED STATES January 1, 1957, to June 30, 1959 Family Family State Units Persons State Units Persons Alabama 1 2 New York 16 45 Arizona 1 1 (Outside New California 17 56 York City) Colorado 7 29 Ohio 14 39 Connecticut 5 11 Pennsylvania 13 36 District of Columbia... 3 9 Rhode Island 5 12 Florida 9 26 Tennessee . 1 3 Illinois 13 35 Texas 7 28 Indiana 1 1 Washington 5 13 Iowa 1 2 Wisconsin 4 17 Kansas 2 5 Total Outside Louisiana 2 6 493 (52 per Maryland 7 22 New York City. ... 171 cent) Massachusetts 13 30 New York City 167 458 (48 per Michigan 2 6 cent) Minnesota 7 20 Missouri 1 4 TOTAL 338 951 New Jersey 14 35 12 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK A somewhat higher proportion of Egyptian than other Jewish refugees settled outside of New York City. The occupational distribution of 338 persons, either heads of families or single, was as follows: TABLE 3 OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF EGYPTIAN REFUGEES ON ARRIVAL IN THE UNITED STATES January 1, 1957, to June 30,1959 Per Cent Occupation Number of Total Professional, technical, managerial 104 30.8 Clerical and sales 80 23.7 Service 34 10.1 Skilled and semi-skilled industrial workers 16 4.7 Students 15 4.4 Farmers 1 0.3 Occupation not indicated 88 26.0 TOTAL 338 100.0

The very high proportion of professionals, managers, and clerical workers is characteristic of Egyptian Jewish refugees in other countries as well.

ILYA DIJOUR *«*»'V >t> » >1>»'* »*»'I'» * 'M' * * * * » *

Civic and Political Status

CIVIL RIGHTS*

E three major events of the period under review (October 1, 1958, J. through September 30, 1959) were the collapse of "massive resistance" and school closings in the South as the answer to desegregation; the significant additions to state legislation protecting and expanding civil rights, and the hearings and report of the Federal Commission on Civil Rights.

DESEGREGATION

In the fall of 1959, when public schools reopened, the 17 southern and border states and the District of Columbia, which had required racial segregation in their public schools before May 17, 1954, presented substantially the same varied picture as the year before—from West Virginia and Missouri, where desegregation was virtually completed, to Alabama, Georgia, Missis- sippi, and South Carolina, where desegregation had not yet begun. Florida and Virginia parted company with the intransigent states by admitting their first Negro students to formerly all-white schools. Louisiana continued its elementary and secondary schools on a completely segregated basis, despite the breach in its armor at the New Orleans branch of the State University where 417 Negroes were in attendance with some 1,800 whites. Although 1959 was more peaceful than any year since the school desegregation decisions, with very few demonstrations or acts of violence, it was also a year in which the smallest number of additional all-white schools were opened to Negro children.

STATUS OF DESEGREGATION IN THE 17 SOUTHERN AND BORDER STATES AND THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA IN SEPTEMBER 1959 Alabama No desegregation. Arkansas Desegregation in effect in nine school districts. Little Rock's four high schools, closed for a year, reopened almost a month early with token desegregation. Ozark was dropped and Pulaski was added to the list of desegregated districts.

• Civil rights refer to those rights and privileges which are guaranteed by law to each person, regardless of race, religion, color, ancestry, national origin, or place of birth: the right to work, to education, to housing, to the use of public accommodations, health and welfare services and facilities; and the right to live in peace and dignity without discrimination or segregation. They are the rights which government has the duty to defend and expand. 13 14 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK Delaware Twenty-six of 51 biracial school districts were desegregated under the grade-a-year state-wide plan approved by a Federal district court. District of Columbia The sixth year of desegregation opened without incident. Negroes increased slightly to 74.1 per cent of the total student body. Florida Two schools in Dade county with a total enrollment of 777, including 25 Negroes, became the first in Florida to desegregate. One school was in a rapidly changing neighborhood and the other served the Strategic Air Command base. The University of Florida, which admitted its first Negro student to the law school in 1958, admitted a Negro girl to the medical school. Georgia No desegregation. Kentucky Progress, with 123 school districts desegregated of a total of 172 biracial districts. No incidents. Louisiana No desegregation in elementary or high schools. The New Orleans branch of Louisiana State University began its second year of desegregation with 2,220 students, of whom 417 were Negroes. No incidents. Maryland While all 23 of Maryland's biracial school districts were deemed by school authorities to be desegregated "in principle," Negro pupils were actually attending formerly all-white schools in 15 school districts (Baltimore and 14 counties). Mississippi No desegregation. Missouri Little progress since 1958. Pemiscot and New Madrid counties in the southeastern comer continued to hold out against desegregation. North Carolina Token desegregation, continuing in Charlotte, Greensboro, and Winston-Salem, was extended to Durham, Goldsboro, High Point, and Havelock, making a total of 7 districts that had begun desegregation of a total of 174 biracial districts. Oklahoma Desegregation in effect in 188 of 250 biracial districts. Of the state's estimated 40,000 Negro students, 30,000 were considered to be in "integrated situations." South Carolina No desegregation. Tennessee Rutherford County joined Oak Ridge, Clinton, and Nash- ville in starting to desegregate its schools by admitting 16 children of Negro airmen at Stewart Air Force Base to a previously all-white elementary school near Smyrna. Forty- one Negroes were enrolled in the first three grades of nine schools in Nashville, 14 in Clinton high school, and 8 in Memphis State University, the first school to desegregate in that city. Texas No progress. In September 1959, 125 of 722 biracial school districts were listed as desegregated, one more than in CIVIL RIGHTS 15 September 1958. Negroes continued unsuccessfully to seek admission to formerly all-white schools in Dallas, Fort Worth, and Galveston. Virginia Five of a total of 128 biracial school districts made a start toward desegregation. Eighty-six Negro students attended 16 formerly all-white schools in Arlington and Warren counties and in the cities of Alexandria, Char- lottesville, and Norfolk. Prince Edward county abandoned its public schools, refusing to appropriate funds. About 1,500 white children began attending privately-financed schools while 1,700 Negro children had no schools to attend. No incidents. West Virginia Desegregation completed. No incidents.

End of "Massive Resistance" The reporting period opened with nine public schools closed in Front Royal, Charlottesville, and Norfolk, Virginia, to avoid compliance with final Federal court orders directing the admission of Negro children to formerly all-white schools. More than 12,000 elementary- and high-school pupils in Virginia were locked out of school. On January 19, 1959, two court decisions, one by the Supreme Court of Appeals of Virginia and the other by a three- judge Federal district court in Norfolk, swept away the legal foundations of the "massive resistance" movement. The state-court litigation was begun by Attorney General Albertis S. Harrison, Jr., against Comptroller Sidney C. Day, Jr., to determine the validity of a number of related acts passed by the legislature to implement "massive resistance." The laws provided that any public school enrolling both white and colored children was to be closed automatically and removed from the public-school system. All state appropriations for such schools were to be withheld and used, with local school funds, for the payment of tuition grants for the education in nonsectarian private schools of the children locked out of such closed schools. The Supreme Court of Appeals of Virginia held that the state legislature could not constitutionally order the closing of public schools attended by both white and Negro children, nor withhold from such schools the normal appropriations for support and maintenance. The state constitution was interpreted as requiring the commonwealth to "maintain an efficient system of public free schools throughout the State" (italics in original), with local school taxes to be expended by "local school authorities." The provision divesting local school authorities of control of public schools policed by Federal troops or personnel, and vesting such authority in the governor, was held to violate the section of the state constitution giving local school authorities jurisdiction over their schools.1 On the same day, January 19, 1959, a three-judge Federal district court in Norfolk held that Virginia, "having accepted and assumed the responsibility of maintaining and operating public schools," could not "close one or more

1 Harrison v. Day, 106 S.E. 2d 636. 16 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK public schools in the state solely by reason of the assignment to ... that public school of children of different races or colors, and, at the same time, keep other public schools throughout the state open on a segregated basis." Such selective closing of schools under orders to desegregate was held to violate the "equal protection" clause of the 14th amendment to the Federal Constitution.2 The two decisions destroyed the legal basis for "massive resistance" in Virginia. Closed public schools in Norfolk and in Arlington county reopened on February 2, 1959, with children of both races in attendance. A week later Negroes were admitted to three formerly all-white schools in Alexandria. Warren county high school at Front Royal reopened on February 18, 1959, desegregated in principle only. Twenty-one Negro students attended, but not one of the more than a thousand white students who had been enrolled when the school was ordered dosed in September 1958. The white parents' action in keeping their children from this school was hailed as a victory by segregationists. Out-of-state journalists who visited the area, however, found that many parents wished primarily not to interrupt their children's schooling in the middle of the year, since the private schools were thought to be doing a competent job. Whatever the reason for the boycott of the public high school by the white students, it ended in September 1959 when the private schools were closed.

Little Rock Little Rock, Arkansas, was again in the news in May 1959 when three members of the local school board tried to fire 44 teachers for "integrationist tendencies." A recall election was held on May 25, 1959, and the board's three pro-segregation members, despite full support from Governor Orval E. Faubus, were defeated by narrow margins. The number of ballots was nearly double that normally cast at school elections. On June 18, 1959, a three-judge Federal district court ruled unconstitutional two laws passed in 1958 at Governor Faubus's request. The statutes gave the governor power to close and withhold state aid from a public school ordered desegregated. The Federal court noted that the Arkansas Supreme Court had upheld the laws as constitutional,3 but rejected its authority and cited the United States Supreme Court's opinion that violence or threats of violence do not justify a state's use of its police power to deprive citizens of their constitutional rights.4 The statute was voided as an improper exercise of police power and the Little Rock school board was again ordered to proceed with its original plan of desegregation.5 On August 12, 1959, nearly a month before the normal date, Little Rock reopened its high schools, closed for almost a year by order of Governor Faubus. Three Negro students were assigned to Central high school and three to Hall high school. The police dispersed a small segregationist crowd

2 James v. Almond, 170 F. Supp. 331. 3 Garrett v. Faubus, 323 S.W. 2d 877. 4 Cooper v. Aaron, 358 U.S. 1. 5 Aaron v. McKinley, 173 F. Supp. 944. CIVIL RIGHTS 17 that tried to congregate in front of Central, the scene of rioting two years earlier.6 Three dynamite blasts exploded in Little Rock during the night of September 7, 1959. One damaged the local school board office; a second went off beneath a city-owned automobile parked in the driveway of Fire Chief Gann L. Nalley, and the third smashed the front of a building in which Mayor Werner C. Knoop had a private office. Within 17 hours a suspect was arrested, and a few days later five men were charged with the series of crimes. One of the defendants pleaded guilty on September 18 and was sentenced to five years in prison; the other four were awaiting trial.

Alabama's Pupil Placement Upheld On November 24, 1958, the United States Supreme Court affirmed a decision of a Federal district court that Alabama's School Placement Law was not unconstitutional "on its face." The decision was hailed throughout the South "as an indication that the Supreme Court is going to let us handle our own affairs," and the decision did open a door by which the intransigent states could defer compliance with the desegregation decisions. A class action by the parents of four Negro children challenged the constitutionality of the Alabama School Placement Law, enacted in 1955 (and amended in 1957) to frustrate desegregation. That law listed certain educational, psychological, and social criteria to be used by local school authorities in deciding upon the most advantageous assignment of children to schools, neither race nor color being mentioned. Some criteria were conceded to be valid while others were challenged by the petitioners in the lawsuit. Since the lawsuit was started before the Birmingham school authorities had notified the petitioners of the action taken on the request to transfer the Negro children to formerly all-white schools, or of the reasons for such action, the three-judge Federal district court held that the law was not unconstitutional "on its face." The court said: The School Placement Law furnished the legal machinery for an orderly administration of the public schools in a constitutional manner by the admission of qualified pupils upon a basis of individual merit without regard to their race or color. We must presume that it will be so administered. If not, in some future proceeding it is possible that it may be declared unconstitutional in its application.7 An appeal was taken to the United States Supreme Court, which affirmed the district court with a one-sentence per curiam opinion: Motion to affirm is granted and the judgment is affirmed upon the limited grounds on which the District Court rested its decision.8 While the Supreme Court's action did not uphold the constitutionality of any statutory scheme which would enable Alabama or any other state to prevent the desegregation of its public-school system, the decision did emphasize that under pupil-placement statutes, petitioners would have to prove by « ATYB, 1958 (Vol. 59), pp. 45-48. 7 Shuttles-worth v. Birmingham Board of Education, 162 F. Supp. 372, 384. 8 Shuttlesworth v. Birmingham Board of Education, 358 U.S. 101. 18 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK credible evidence that specific Negro children (rather than Negroes as a class) were being excluded from white schools because of their race or color and not because of some ostensibly valid educational, psychological, or sociological reason. Pupil-placement statutes, already enacted in some ten southern states,9 thus became the first dilatory tactic to win at least limited approval from the United States Supreme Court.

ADDITIONS TO STATE LEGISLATION In 1959 four states—Colorado, Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Oregon- passed laws prohibiting discrimination in private housing, the first enacted at the state level. California passed a statute prohibiting discrimination in public, publicly-aided, and redevelopment housing. California and Ohio joined the 14 other states having effective fair employment-practice laws with commission-type enforcement procedures, and Missouri enacted a statute prohibiting discrimination in state employment, but without specific sanctions. Maine joined the 23 other states with civil-rights laws prohibiting discrimination in places of public accommodation, resort, or amusement, and California broadened its civil-rights statute. Connecticut and New Mexico strengthened the powers of their commissions against discrimination. Missouri made its temporary Human Rights Commission a permanent state agency. Washington prohibited discriminatory inquiries in connection with applications for credit. Idaho, California, and Nevada repealed their prohibitions against interracial marriages.

Housing

COLORADO On April 10 Governor Stephen L. R. Nichols signed the Colorado Fair Housing Act of 1959, which prohibited discrimination in all types of housing, private as well as public and publicly-aided, the first state statute of this type to be enacted. Its forerunners were ordinances adopted in New York City in December 1957 and in Pittsburgh in December 1958. The proposal was originally cosponsored by a bipartisan group of 41 representatives, a majority of the 65 members of the House. It passed the House by a vote of 57-3, and the Senate in a somewhat weakened form by a vote of 24-11. Subsequently, the House concurred in the Senate version. The act covered all housing, except "premises maintained by the owner or lessee as the household of his family with or without domestic servants and not more than four boarders or lodgers." Thus, the owner of a one- family house who lived in it with his family was free to dispose of his property by sale or lease without being subject to the ban on discriminatory transfers. The act forbade owners of housing accommodations to refuse to transfer, rent, or lease them to any person because of race, creed, color, sex, national origin, or ancestry. It forbade owners to discriminate on any of these grounds

9 Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Louisiana (held unconstitutional), Mississippi, North Carolina (upheld), South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas. Virginia (held unconstitutional). CIVIL RIGHTS 19 in the terms, conditions, or privileges pertaining to housing or in the furnishing of facilities or services. Finally, it barred owners from making written or oral inquiry or record concerning the race, creed, color, sex, national origin, or ancestry of a person seeking to purchase, rent, or lease. Also banned was printing or publishing notices or advertisements relating to the transfer, rental, or lease of housing which indicated discriminatory preference or limitation. Banks and financial institutions were forbidden to make discriminatory inquiries about persons seeking financial assistance for housing, or to discriminate in the terms, conditions, or privileges of such financial assistance. The act provided for a limited exception for religious or denominational institutions and organizations operating or controlling housing accommodations. Another exception permitted the leasing of premises only to members of one sex, e.g., YMCA and YWCA homes. Enforcement of the act was entrusted to the Colorado Anti-Discrimination Commission, established in 1955 to administer the state laws against discrimination in employment and in places of public accommodation. The procedure was essentially the same as that governing complaints of discrimination under the earlier laws.

MASSACHUSETTS On April 22, 1959, Governor Foster Furculo signed a bill prohibiting racial or religious discrimination in all types of housing, public as well as private. Massachusetts thus became the second state to enact legislation barring discrimination in private housing. The Massachusetts law applied to "multiple dwellings" and to "contiguously located housing." Multiple dwellings were defined as dwellings occupied as the residences of three or more families living independently of each other. Contiguously located housing was defined as housing offered for sale, lease, or rental by a person who owned or controlled ten or more housing accommodations located on land that was contiguous (exclusive of public streets). The measure therefore applied to apartment houses with three or more apartments, and to one- or two-family houses if they were part of a development consisting of at least ten housing units. The new housing law was to be enforced by the Massachusetts State Com- mission Against Discrimination, together with the other laws prohibiting discrimination in employment, places of public accommodation, resort, or amusement, educational institutions, and public, publicly-aided, and redevelopment housing. The enforcement procedures were the same as those previously available in other types of discriminatory conduct.

CONNECTICUT On May 12, 1959, Governor Abraham A. Ribicoff signed a bill to prohibit racial or religious discrimination in all types of housing, thus making Connecticut the third state to enact such legislation. The new law covered any housing accommodation offered for sale or rent that is one of five or more housing accommodations all of which are located on a single parcel 20 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK of land or parcels of land that are contiguous without regard to roads or streets, and all of which any person owns or otherwise controls the sale or rental thereof. The Connecticut law was narrower than the Massachusetts statute, for it covered multiple dwellings only when such dwellings consisted of at least five apartments. It was broader as regards one- and two-family housing developments, since it applied to groups of as few as five such units. As in Colorado and Massachusetts, enforcement of the new housing statute was vested in the state agency—the Connecticut Civil Rights Commission- responsible for enforcing the state's other laws against discrimination.

OREGON When Governor Mark O. Hatfield signed two bills on May 25, 1959, Oregon became the fourth state to prohibit discrimination on grounds of race, color, religion, or national origin in the sale or occupancy of private housing. The first of the two new laws amended the Oregon Law Against Dis- crimination by adding a definition of a "person engaged in the business of selling real property" and defined the term as including anyone selling, leasing, or renting real property as a "business enterprise" or "as an incident to his business enterprise." The new law prohibited all persons "engaged in the business of selling real property" from refusing to sell or rent real property solely because of the race, color, religion, or national origin of the would-be purchaser or lessee. Persons engaged in the business of selling real property were also prohibited from making any other distinctions or restrictions "in the price, terms, conditions or privileges" in connection with the sale, lease, or occupancy of real property. The publication or display of any advertisement indicating a preference, limitation, or discrimination based on race, color, religion, or national origin was prohibited. Real-estate brokers and salesmen were expressly barred from accepting or retaining "a listing of real property . . . with an understanding that a purchaser [or lessee] may be discriminated against . . . solely because of race, color, religion or national origin." Finally, there was the conventional prohibition against aiding, inciting, or coercing others to violate the law. However, the sale or rental of a house by an owner not in the business of selling or renting houses was not covered by the new law, unless the owner retained a real-estate broker, agent, or salesman to find the buyer or lessee or to negotiate the sale or lease. Since the new statute was an amendment to the existing law against discrimination, it was enforced by the existing administrative remedies and procedures. The second new law added a ground for the revocation or suspension of the license of real-estate brokers or salesmen—violation of the Oregon Law Against Discrimination, as amended.

CALIFORNIA On July 8, 1959, Governor Edmund G. Brown signed into law a bill prohibiting discrimination in public, publicly-assisted, or redevelopment housing. CIVIL RIGHTS 21 California thus joined Colorado, Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, and Washington in banning discrimination in housing that received various forms of governmental aid.

OTHER CAMPAIGNS Unsuccessful campaigns to pass or strengthen laws against discrimination in housing were waged in Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Washington. In fact, 1959 saw more activity in the state legislatures on the subject of discrimination in housing than any previous year. Employment

CALIFORNIA On April 16, 1959, Governor Brown signed Assembly Bill 91, which passed the lower house on February 19, 1959, by a 65-14 vote. A Senate amendment excluded farm laborers who lived on the farm where they worked. As amended, the bill passed the Senate on April 8, 1959, by a vote of 30 to 5. Later, the Assembly concurred in the Senate amendments by a 50-9 vote. The statute established a five-member division of fair employment practices in the labor department. The opportunity to seek, obtain, and hold employment without discrimination based on race, religious creed, color, national origin, or ancestry was declared to be "a civil right." Employers of five or more persons, labor organizations, employment agencies, and political subdivisions of the state were prohibited from discriminating in employment. The division was empowered to receive, investigate, and pass upon complaints charging discrimination in employment, to hold hearings, subpoena witnesses, administer oaths, and require the production of books and records relating to any matter under investigation. The division was also empowered to conduct investigations whenever it appeared that an unlawful employment practice might have been committed. Any person claiming to be aggrieved by an unlawful employment practice could file a complaint within a year after the discriminatory act or occurrence. If, after preliminary investigation, there was probable cause to credit the charge of unfair employment practice, an attempt would have to be made to eliminate the practice "by conference, conciliation and persuasion." In case of failure, the division could hold a hearing under the state's Administrative Procedures Act to determine whether an unlawful discriminatory practice had taken place. After the hearing, the division could issue an order requiring the respondent to end his unlawful employment practice "and to take such affirmative action, including (but not limited to) hiring, reinstatement, or upgrading of employees, with or without pay, or restoration to membership in any respondent labor organization, as, in the judgment of the Division, will effectuate" the purposes of the act. The attorney general of the state was also authorized to file complaints charging unlawful discriminatory employment practices. Cease-and-desist orders were reviewable by the courts under the state's Administrative Procedures Act, and the division of fair employment practices 22 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK could apply to the state court for an order enjoining any respondent from violating the division's mandates.

OHIO On April 19, 1959, Governor Michael V. DiSalle signed Senate Bill No. 10, which had passed the Senate on February 18, 1959, by a vote of 25 to 6 and was adopted, with some amendments, by the House on April 15, 1959, by a vote of 98 to 31. In signing the bill, Governor DiSalle commented that it seemed incongruous that in a nation that has prided itself on the achievement of democratic principles of equality, ... in the latter part of the Twentieth Century it is still necessary to adopt legislation guaranteeing to individuals equal opportunities for employment. . . . Judicially administered, this law will not be a tool for persecution but will, in effect, protect and further the mutual objectives of those who believe in the oldest of our traditions- equality before the law and equality in opportunity. The law created a five-member Ohio Civil Rights Commission. Employers of four or more persons, labor organizations, employment agencies, and political subdivisions of the state were prohibited from discriminating in employment on the grounds of race, color, religion, national origin, or ancestry. The commission was authorized to receive, investigate, and pass upon complaints charging discrimination in employment, to make periodic surveys, and to prepare comprehensive educational programs "to eliminate prejudice among the various racial, religious and ethnic groups." It was also authorized to hold hearings, subpoena witnesses, compel their attendance, administer oaths, take testimony, and require the production of books and records relating to any matter under investigation. Following a written charge of discrimination, which could be made by anyone (not necessarily the aggrieved party) or by the commission itself, the commission would initiate a preliminary investigation. If it determined that there was probable cause to credit the charge, the commission would endeavor to eliminate the unfair practice by the informal methods of "conference, conciliation and persuasion." Complaints had to be filed within a year of the discrimination charged. If the commission failed in its efforts, "or if the circumstances warrant, in advance of any such preliminary investigation or endeavors," the commission could issue a notice of hearing to determine whether discrimination had been practiced. If the commission found the respondent guilty of any unlawful discriminatory practice, it could issue a cease-and-desist order directing the respondent to take whatever action might be necessary, including, "but not limited to hiring, reinstatement or upgrading of employees, with or without back pay, admission or restoration to union membership, including a requirement for reports of the manner of compliance." Any complainant, intervener, or respondent aggrieved by a final order of the commission, "including a refusal to issue a complaint," could seek redress in the state court. Likewise, the commission could obtain an enforcement order requiring a respondent to obey its cease-and-desist order. CIVIL RIGHTS 23 Every person subject to the provisions of the law was required to post conspicuously a notice setting forth its major provisions and its administration. The Ohio law, like the Michigan and Rhode Island FEP laws, contained a prohibition against job seekers' specifying their race, religion, color, or national origin in advertisements.

MISSOURI Although Missouri failed to enact an FEP law, Governor James T. Blair did sign into law, on June 8, 1959, a bill prohibiting discrimination in state employment, without criminal sanctions.

OTHER LAWS AND CAMPAIGNS The Connecticut legislature vested authority in the State Civil Rights Commission to issue affirmative relief orders in all cases under its jurisdiction, including employment-discrimination cases. Governor Ribicoff signed the bill, which included a reduction of the statute of limitations from six months to ninety days, on June 2, 1959. New Mexico strengthened its Fair Employment Practice Law by adding criminal sanctions against discrimination if committed by persons expending public funds. Connecticut, Oregon, and Wisconsin joined Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island in prohibiting discrimination because of age. Unsuccessful campaigns to pass or strengthen laws against discrimination in employment were waged in Arizona, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Maine, Nebraska, Nevada, South Dakota, Washington, and Wisconsin.

Public Accommodations

MAINZ On May 8, 1959, Governor Clinton A. Clauson signed a bill to prohibit discrimination because of race, color, religious creed, ancestry, or national origin in places of public accommodation, resort, or amusement. The bill passed the House of Representatives on April 17, 1959, by a vote of 112 to 12 and the Senate unanimously on May 6. While Maine had previously prohibited discriminatory advertising by places of public accommodation, it had not prohibited actual discrimination. The new law defined a place of public accommodation, resort or amusement as any establishment which caters or offers its services, facilities or goods to, or solicits patronage from the members of the general public, including but not limited to any inn, whether conducted for the entertainment, housing or lodging of transient guests, or for the benefit, use or accommodation of those seeking health, recreation or rest, any restaurant, eating house, public conveyance on land or water, bathhouse, barber shop, theater, music hall and any retail store. Violations were criminal offenses punishable by the courts, in the case of first offenders by fines up to $100 or imprisonment up to 30 days, and for subsequent offenses by fines up to $500 or imprisonment up to 30 days. 24 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

CALIFORNIA California broadened its conventional civil-rights statute by making it applicable to all businesses. The new law, signed by Governor Brown on July 14, 1959, also added "religion, ancestry and national origin" to "color and race" as prohibited grounds for discrimination. Two other bills, to authorize suspension or revocation of trade and professional licenses in cases of a persistent course of discriminatory conduct by the licensee and to permit revocation or suspension of alcoholic-beverage licenses for willful or repeated violations of the civil rights law, were killed in the Senate.

OTHER LAWS AND CAMPAIGNS The powers of the Connecticut Civil Rights Commission were broadened to permit it to initiate complaints in cases involving discrimination in places of public accommodation. Kansas amended its civil rights law by eliminating some archaic language ("stage coach") and adding "religion, national origin and ancestry" to "race and color" as prohibited grounds for discrimination. Efforts to pass or strengthen public-accommodation laws were unsuccessful in Arizona, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Missouri, New Mexico, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, Wisconsin, and Wyoming.

Miscellaneous Measures repealing statutory bans on interracial marriages were passed in Idaho, Nevada, and California and signed by Governors Robert E. Smylie, Grant Sawyer, and Brown on March 2, March 16, and April 20, 1959, respectively. On June 2, 1959, Governor LeRoy Collins of Florida signed a bill permitting absentee voting by any person who "on account of the tenets of his religion" could not cast his ballot on Election Day. The Missouri Commission on Civil Rights was made a permanent agency of the state government in June 1959. Questions about race, religion, color, or national origin were outlawed from the credit-application forms of banks, loan and insurance companies, and other financial institutions in Washington state when Governor Albert Rosellini signed H.B. 171 on March 3, 1959. Failing of passage were bills in Illinois to authorize city boards of education to "change or revise existing sub-districts or create new sub-districts in a manner to promote integration and to eliminate the separation of children in public schools because of color, race or nationality"; in Oregon to prohibit discrimination by college fraternities, sororities, student housing cooperatives, or student living organizations, and in Arizona and Iowa to establish commissions on human relations.

FEDERAL CIVIL RIGHTS COMMISSION The Civil Rights Act of 1957, enacted on September 9, 1957, established a six-member Commission on Civil Rights to serve for a period of two years. The commission was authorized to investigate complaints that citizens had CIVIL RIGHTS 25 been denied the right to vote because of race, religion, or national origin; to collect information concerning denials of the "equal protection of the laws," and to evaluate the policies of the Federal government with respect to certain civil rights. Because of delays in appointments and Senate confirmations, it was not until May 14, 1958, that Gordon M. Tiffany, former attorney general of New Hampshire, assumed his duties as staff director*. The first sworn complaint, charging deprivation of voting rights in Gadsden county, Florida, was received on August 14, 1958. The commission immediately ordered a field investigation, and investigations were also conducted in Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, and other parts of Florida. On December 8 and 9, 1958, the commission held its first public hearings in Montgomery, Alabama, as a result of numerous complaints received from several Alabama counties charging unconstitutional interference with the right to vote. Some two dozen Negro witnesses testified that various strata- gems and dilatory tactics of county registrars had deprived them of the right to register and vote. When the public officials were subpoenaed, they refused, on advice of Alabama's Attorney General John Patterson, to produce their voting records or testify. The Civil Rights Commission requested the aid of the Justice Department, which brought a civil action in the Federal district court against a group of county registrars to force them to appear with their records and testify before the commission. An agreement, embodied in the Federal district-court order, was concluded between the Justice Department and the contumacious witnesses, which acknowledged the right of the commission to inspect the registration and voting records in the counties where they were normally kept.10 As a last gesture of defiance, state circuit Judge George C. Wallace, who had impounded the records for an investigation into alleged fraudulent attempts to register, turned them over on January 13, 1959, to grand juries in Barbour and Bullock counties in the hope that such action would prevent the commission from examining the records. The grand juries, however, immediately invited the commission to inspect the records. An attempt by the commission to hold hearings in Shreveport, Louisiana, on July 13, 1959, was frustrated when state Attorney General Jack Gremillion secured a temporary restraining order from Federal district-court Judge Benja- min Dawkins on the ground that the commission, as a Federal executive agency, was subject to the Administrative Procedures Act.11 That act was interpreted by the court as requiring the commission, "as a Federal executive agency," to advise prospective witnesses of any charges that might be brought against them and of the names of the other witnesses who might claim that state or Federal laws had been violated, and to protect the right of cross-examination and confrontation. Since the Civil Rights Commis- sion had not "timely informed" the prospective witnesses of "the matters of fact and law" that would be involved in the hearings, a restraining order was issued. Thus ended the attempts of the Federal Civil Rights Commission to hold public hearings in the South on violations of voting rights. On March 5 and 6, 1959, the commission held a conference in Nashville,

10 In re Wallace, et al., 170 F. Supp. 63. 11 Larche v. Hannah, 176 F. Supp. 791. 26 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK Tennessee, of officials of school systems that had undergone partial or complete desegregation since the Supreme Court's 1954 decision. Its purpose was to compare experiences and exchange information about plans and techniques in states that had taken steps to desegregate their public school systems. Some conclusions reached by the commission as a result of its independent studies and the Nashville conference were these: 1. The ease of adjustment of a school system to desegregation is influenced by many factors, including the relative size and location of the white and Negro population, the extent to which the Negro children are culturally handicapped, segregation practices in other areas of community life, the presence or absence of democratic participation in the planning of the program used or preparation of the community for its acceptance, and the character of the leadership in the community and State. 2. Many factors must be considered and weighed in determining what con- stitutes a prompt and reasonable start toward full compliance and the means by which and the rate at which desegregation should be accomplished. 3. Desegregation by court order has been notably more difficult than desegregation by voluntary action wherein the method and timing have been locally determined. 4. Many school districts in attempting to evolve a desegregation plan have had no established and qualified source to turn to for information and advice. Furthermore, many of these districts have been confused and frustrated by apparent inconsistencies in decisions of lower Federal courts. The Civil Rights Commission held public hearings on discrimination in housing in New York City on February 2 and 3, 1959; in Atlanta, Georgia, on April 10, 1959, and in Chicago, Illinois, on May 5 and 6, 1959. There was general recognition at the New York hearings that discrimination in housing affected non-whites primarily, but there was also testimony by Jewish spokesmen that in many large cities, and in their suburbs as well, there was discrimination against Jews too. The report of the commission commented that while no one attempted to "equate this housing discrimination against Jews with the far more widespread and pressing problem facing Negro Americans," nevertheless "its persistence, despite the educational, cultural, and economic attainments of the Jews involved, is sombre warning that the fears and prejudices at the bottom of discrimination in housing are indeed difficult to fathom and to uproot." The commission also met in executive session in Washington on June 10, 1959, with Norman P. Mason, administrator of the Housing and Home Finance Agency, and with spokesmen for the other Federal agencies and departments with housing responsibilities and programs.

Report of the Commission

On September 9, 1959, the Federal Civil Rights Commission submitted its report. The following were adopted by either unanimous or majority vote of the commission as "recommendations": CIVIL RIGHTS 27

VOTING 1. The Bureau of the Census should be authorized and directed to undertake "a nationwide and territorial compilation of registration and voting statistics which shall include a count of individuals by race, color, and national origin who are registered, and a determination of the extent to which such individuals have voted since the prior decennial census." 2. The Congress should require that all state registration and voting records be deemed "public records," be preserved for a period of five years, and be subject to public inspection, "providing only that all care be taken to preserve the secrecy of the ballot." 3. The Congress should amend the Civil Rights Act of 1957 to prohibit any person, under color of state law, from depriving any individual or group of individuals, without legal justification, of the opportunity to register, vote, and have that vote counted at general, special, or primary elections for Federal officials. 4. The Federal Civil Rights Commission should be empowered to apply directlv to Federal district courts for orders enforcing subpoenas issued by the commission for attendance and testimony of witnesses or for the production of records. 5. Upon receipt of nine or more sworn complaints that people are not being permitted to register by the duly constituted state registration officials, the president should refer the matter to a commission (the Civil Rights Com- mission, if still in existence) for investigation and report. If the facts were as alleged, the president should designate a Federal officer or employee in the area to act as "temporary registrar," administer the state qualification laws, and issue registration certificates to those found qualified to vote for Federal officials. Such temporary Federal registration officials should continue to serve until the president determined that they were no longer needed.

EDUCATION 1. The Civil Rights Commission (if its life were extended) should be authorized to serve as a clearing house "to collect and make available to States and to local communities information concerning programs and procedures used by school districts to comply with the Supreme Court mandate, either voluntarily or by court order, including data as to the known effects of the programs on the quality of education and the cost thereof." The commission should also be authorized to establish an advisory and conciliation service to assist local school officials in developing plans designed to meet "constitutional requirements and local conditions." 2. The office of education of the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, in cooperation with the Bureau of the Census, should conduct an annual school census in the states, the school districts, and individual institutions of higher education to determine the number and race of all students enrolled in public educational institutions in the United States.

HOUSING 1. Appropriate biracial committees or commissions on housing should be established in all cities and states with substantial non-white populations to 28 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK study racial problems in housing, receive and investigate complaints of discrimination, attempt to resolve issues through mediation and conciliation, and make recommendations for further local legislation to safeguard equal opportunity. 2. The president should order all Federal agencies to aim by their policies and practices at achieving the constitutionally required objective of equality of opportunity in all Federally-aided housing. 3. The administrator of the Housing and Home Finance Agency should give high priority to directing the policies and operations of his constituent agencies toward providing equality of opportunity. 4. The Federal Housing Administration and the Veterans Administration should require home builders subject to state or city laws prohibiting discrimination in government-aided housing to affirm in writing their intention to abide by such laws. FHA and VA should establish their own fact-finding machinery to uncover violations of such laws and should withdraw all Fed- eral aid from homebuilders not in compliance with the local statutes. 5. The Public Housing Administration should "take affirmative action to encourage the selection of sites on open land in good areas outside the present centers of racial concentrations. PHA should put the local housing authorities on notice that their proposals will be evaluated in this light." 6. The Urban Renewal Administration should take "positive steps to assure that in the preparation of overall community 'workable programs' for urban renewal, spokesmen for minority groups are in fact included among the citizens whose participation is required." Besides the "recommendations," the report contained "proposals" by Chairman John A. Hannah and by Theodore M. Hesburgh and George M. Johnson going beyond the suggestions incorporated in the recommendations. It also included "statements" by Robert G. Storey, John S. Battle, and Doyle E. Carlton which expressed strong reservations about some of the suggestions advanced by the other members. Although the report and the members of the Civil Rights Commission were attacked vigorously by southern members of Congress as soon as the report was made public, the life of the commission was extended to Novem- ber 9, 1961, by an amendment to the Mutual Security Appropriation Act which passed both houses of the Congress on September 14, 1959.

Pending Litigation Involving the Civil Rights Act Two important Federal cases remained for appellate decision as a result of the activities of the attorney general under the Civil Rights Act of 1957. One, an action brought against the state of Alabama, the Macon County Board of Registrars, and the members of the board as individuals for illegally depriving Negroes of their right to vote, was dismissed on March 6, 1959, by Federal district-court Judge Frank M. Johnson, Jr., on the ground that the Civil Rights Act did not expressly authorize the United States to brine an action against a state. Since the individual members of the board of registrars had resigned, there was no defendant left to sue.12

12 United States v. State of Alabama, et al., 171 F. Supp. 720. CIVIL RIGHTS 29 The second case arose out of a suit by the United States against the registrars of Terrell county, Georgia, for the same offense against Negroes in that area. Federal district-court Judge T. Hoyt Davis on April 16, 1959, dismissed the action and held that the Civil Rights Act of 1957 was unconstitutional. On the theory that the 14th amendment prohibited "state action" while the Civil Rights Act did not expressly limit the persons against whom the attorney general may seek an injunction to state officials, the court held the act unconstitutional notwithstanding the fact that the defendants in this case were state officers.13 Both cases were being appealed by the Department of Justice at the time of writing. THEODORE LESKES

CHURCH-STATE ISSUES

N the period under review (July 1, 1958, to June 30, 1959) the public school I remained a focus of church-state controversy, with such perennial problems as released time, prayer, tax support for church-related institutions, garbed nuns as public-school teachers, and the use of school premises by religious groups. Christmas observance was somewhat less troublesome than in recent years. Other church-state problems included the Sunday-dosing laws, which received their first test in the Federal courts; "humane slaughter" legislation which was adopted in five states, and religious symbols on public property. An attempt to introduce mixed seating in an Orthodox synagogue evoked a significant court ruling. And rumblings of possible religious controversy in the next presidential election were seen in a church-state pronouncement by a prominent Catholic aspirant.

Public Schools

CHRISTMAS OBSERVANCE On December 16, 1958, New York Supreme Court Justice Elbert T. Gallagher dismissed a suit brought by 28 residents of the Ossining school district who had alleged that the erection of a Nativity scene on tie lawn of the public high school violated Federal and state constitutional provisions. (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 35). The court granted that the creche was "undoubtedly a religious symbol," but found that since the display would not appear on school property while school was in session, it could not constitute "teaching" a sectarian religion. (Neither the application of the creche committee nor the resolution of the school board had limited the period during; which the creche could appear on the school lawn. It was only with the institution of the suit that the committee agreed to limit the display to the time

13 United States v. Raines, et al, 172 F. Supp. 552. 30 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK school was in recess.) Immediately following the court's decision the board of education again granted permission to place the Nativity scene on the school grounds. The display was erected after school had recessed for the winter holiday. The school trustees of Levittown, Long Island, touched off an acrimonious dispute when they refused to permit the display of a Nativity scene in a public school. One byproduct of the controversy was the distribution of anonymous hate literature which attempted to link school officials with Com- munism (Long Island Newsday, December 17, 1958). A leaflet was also distributed calling on taxpayers to defend the "birthright of every Christian child to be free to celebrate Christmas to the fullest, in his church, in his home, in his school and in his community. Where the child goes, goes his religion." In New Hyde Park, Long Island, controversy over Christmas in the schools took an unusual turn when the school board adopted a policy forbidding the discussion of Hanukkah in the schools if it interfered with Christmas. When Rabbi Andrew Robins of Temple Emanuel protested against a "brazen and disgraceful insult to our religion" (Newsday, November 26, 1958), school- board president Frank E. Picciano hastened to assure the Jewish community that the board had never intended to adopt a policy forbidding classroom discussion of the Jewish festival during the Christmas season and that the misunderstanding was due to "an unfortunate choice of words" (New York Times, November 29, 1958). In Northport, Long Island, a controversy began when a Christmas play was canceled in an elementary school because it contained the Nativity scene. Pressure was at once brought on the school board to reverse the decision. Rather than succumb to demand for immediate action, the board asked clergymen, presidents of parent-teacher associations, and other community leaders to serve as an advisory committee, and asked for the advice of the state education department. After nearly two months of deliberation, the more than 35 members of the advisory committee presented recommendations which the board adopted with only slight modifications. Among these were included the suggestions that "Nativity plays chosen for presentation in school programs shall be selected with care so as to avoid sectarian or doctrinal content . . ." and that "living tableaux, in association with music, depicting scenes such as the stable in Bethlehem, three kings, and the adoration of the Magi, shall not be prohibited . . ." (Northport Observer, April 30, 1959). In the ensuing school-board election, the religion of the candidates became an important issue. In Norwalk, Connecticut, Superintendent of Schools Harry A. Becker averted what might have become a source of serious community conflict by rescinding a ban on religious plays during the Christmas season in one of his schools. The principal had ordered the ban when several parents had raised questions about their propriety. Becker advised his staff "to go on as in the past in the observance of holidays." He added that "the public schools have always operated on the basis that it is the function of our schools to educate all pupils and to promote understanding and appreciation of others. Programs and courses of study which promote these objectives are not only permitted but encouraged" (Religious News Service, November 12, 1958). CHURCH-STATE ISSUES 31 The controversy over Christmas observances in Valley Stream, Long Island (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 35), was resolved on September 30, 1958, by the school board's adoption of a comprehensive statement of policy for the guidance of teachers and administrators. It provided that, in order to facilitate observance of the Christmas season in a manner that "gives satisfaction to those who wish to observe it without intruding on the religious freedom of others," the observance should recognize the "religious significance of the occasion" but should not "be used to introduce in the public schools the teaching of religious tenets. . . ." The teacher had "to respect the religious rights of every child . . ." and school activities must not "lead to segregating children of different beliefs." The teacher must exercise great discretion, because "choice with regard to participation in any school group is not a free one." Freedom of choice, the statement added, is circumscribed by the child's desire to be part of the group, not to offend the teacher, and to avoid being conspicuous. Wider latitude was allowed to assembly than to classroom programs.

RELEASED TIME In the spring of 1958 Elizabeth D. Hughes, wife of a Unitarian minister, charged in a law suit in Miami county, Ohio, that religious classes were being held weekly during regular school hours in the third and fourth grades of the public school attended by her daughter. She asked the court to issue a permanent injunction restraining the school board from continuing such classes. County Prosecutor James H. DeWeese, as counsel for the board, advised the school authorities to continue the religious classes pending the outcome of the litigation. It was his opinion that no Ohio or United States Supreme Court decision clearly established the illegality of religious classes on public-school premises during regular school hours (Dayton Journal Herald, April 1, 1959). (Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas has said: ". . . McCollum v. Board of Education . . . involved a 'released time' program from Illinois. In that case the classrooms were turned over to the religious instructors. We accordingly held that the program violated the First Amendment which [by reason of the Fourteenth Amendment] prohibits the states from establishing religion or prohibiting its free exercise" [Zorach v. Clauson, 343 U. S. 306, 1951].) On July 1, 1958, a bill to permit released-time religious instruction was defeated in the Wisconsin legislature. A separate bill to allow dismissed time was given first approval, but later in the month it was defeated in the senate. The released-time bill would have allowed pupils to be released at any hour during the school day, while still under the control of school officials; the dismissed-time bill would allow the release of children an hour before the end of the school day, with no further control of the pupils. State Attorney General John E. Reynolds, responding to the legislature's request for a formal opinion on the constitutionality of the measure, expressed "grave doubt as to the validity [under the Wisconsin constitution] of any released-time plan that makes use of a pupil's school time, whether off or on the school property, and which makes use of school regulations to facilitate attendance for religious instruction." 32 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK In March 1959, for the fourth time in recent years, the New Hampshire legislature defeated a released-time bill. State Education Commissioner Charles F. Ritch, Jr., opposed it on the ground that the public schools could not spare the hours for released-time religious instruction. State Representative John Pillsburg of Manchester, one of the sponsors of the bill, noting that the law allowed pupils time off for music instruction, said: "We're just trying to tell you professional educators that religion is just as important as trumpet playing" (Lawrence, Mass., Tribune, February 19, 1959).

MORAL AND SPIRITUAL VALUES The Chicago Parent-Teacher Association went on record in opposition to the policy statement issued in February 1958 by the Church Federation of Greater Chicago (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 36). The federation had contended that "reproducing moral and spiritual values from generation to generation will not likely be successful without the motivation of a deep and abiding faith in God." The association took issue, stating that the "validity of this assumption is questionable and could be disproved by segments of our citizenry who lead entirely secular lives, completely moral and ethical." It went on to say that "no public school system should be used to aid any or all religious faiths or sects in the dissemination of their doctrine . . ." and that "moral and ethical values can be taught by explanation, experience and example, as is now the case, without a religious approach." The Rev. John W. Harms, executive vice-president of the federation, said that the association's action "was probably taken on the basis of a misunderstanding of what the federation really advocates." He said that his group "contends that a policy of so-called neutralism or silence about God in education is actually partisan- ship and has the effect of denying religion's importance in life" (Religious News Service, January 29, 1959).

PRAYER A controversy over the use of the Lord's Prayer in a Long Island public- school system was settled by agreement between a rabbi and a priest—Rabbi Abraham Vossen Goodman of Temple Sinai, Woodmere, and the Rev. Wil- liam Galloway, pastor of Our Lady of Good Counsel Roman Catholic Church, Inwood. In a joint statement they expressed their opposition to sectarian prayers in the public schools, but said that they would not oppose the fourth stanza of "America" or the prayer recommended by the New York State Board of Regents in 1951.1 In April 1959 the school board discontinued the recitation of the Lord's Prayer in favor of the clergymen's recommendation. In another Long Island community, the prayer recommended by the Regents precipitated a law suit. In Herrick, early in 1959, a suit was instituted by five residents of the school district to test the constitutionality of the practice. The school board asked for dismissal of the suit, saying that the children were not compelled to say the prayer. The New York Civil Liberties Union,

IThe fourth stanza of "America" reads: "Our fathers' God to Thee./Author of Liberty/To Thee we sing;/Long may our land be bright/With freedom's holy light:/Protect us by Thy might;/Great God our King." The Regents' prayer is as follows: "Almighty God, we acknowledge our dependence on Thee and we beg Thy blessings upon us, our parents, our teachers and our CHURCH-STATE ISSUES 33 which supported the action, contended that prayer was "the essence of religion and man's only way to communicate with God." On August 24 New York Supreme Court Justice Bernard S. Meyef held that the Regents' prayer did not violate state or Federal constitutional provisions. However, he required the school board to explain that students were free to participate in the exercise or withdraw, and that their parents were to be advised that such a choice was available. He also forbade the schools to comment on student participation or nonparticipation.

USE OF SCHOOL PREMISES BY RELIGIOUS GROUPS Early in 1959 Catholic Bishop Christopher J. Weldon shut down as unsafe an 85-year-old parochial school in Holyoke, Massachusetts. When permission was granted by Mayor Samuel Resnic for the temporary use of available public-school facilities to those parochial-school children who could not be accommodated in other diocesan buildings, there was a sharp protest from the Massachusetts Civil Liberties Union. Its spokesman, the Rev. Gardiner M. Day, rector of Christ Episcopal Church of Cambridge, Massachusetts, said: "It is dear to us that providing housing for a church private school without charge is a violation of the Federal and Massachusetts constitutions" (New York Times, February 14, 1959). Mayor Resnic admitted that there might be a technical violation of law, but said: "I'd do it again. We're just observing Brotherhood Week—and how better?" (Boston Morning Globe, February 14, 1959).

TAX FUNDS FOR PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS There were national, state, and local developments stemming from this issue. On May 4, 1959, in a letter to Senator James E. Murray, chairman of the Senate subcommittee on education, Archbishop Albert G. Meyer of Chicago, chairman of the National Catholic Welfare Conference department of education, urged that all "temporary Federal aid to education" should be fair to parents of children attending nonpublic schools. The archbishop distinguished between temporary and permanent Federal aid: "There is an essential difference between the idea of support and of aid; support is permanent, aid is temporary. Any bill considered by the Senate should carefully distinguish between these choices. Otherwise a bill authorizing a permanent Federal subsidy might well carry in its wake Federal control and permanence which all agree would be harmful to education." Accordingly, Archbishop Meyer supported long-term, low-interest loans for school construction, which he said should include private, nonprofit institutions, adding that "private and public education are partners on the American educational scene and their welfare should be advanced simultaneously. . . ." He opposed a subsidy of teachers' salaries as a "permanent Federal aid to education," which therefore, "as a practical matter, is inherently non-terminable" (Religious News Service, May 11, 1959). On November 4, 1958, in California, a referendum that sought to reinstate a property tax on private, including parochial, schools failed of adoption by an overwhelming vote. The proposal, put on the ballot after some 350,000 34 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK qualifying signatures had been collected, would have made California the only state to tax church-related schools. Organizations backing reinstatement of the property tax included Protestants and Other Americans United for Separation of Church and State, the San Francisco Masonic Grand Lodge, the Northern California-Nevada Methodist Conference, and the San Francisco Presbytery of the Presbyterian church. Opponents included the Roman Cath- olic church, the California diocese of the Episcopal church, a number of Lutheran bodies, the Seventh-Day Adventist church, and the Citizens United Committee Against Taxing Schools. This latter committee included some of the leading rabbis and Jewish laymen in California. Both sides used extensive newspaper and radio advertising as well as billboards and mass meetings to present their views. (A bill providing for tax exemption for private and parochial schools had been passed by the California legislature, signed by the governor in 1951, and approved by referendum in 1952). In March 1959 a group of ministers and other leaders of four Protestant denominations initiated a suit charging that tax funds were used to operate St. Mary's school in Bremond, Texas. St. Mary's had been owned and operated by the parish until 12 years earlier, after which it had been leased to the public-school district for $1 a year and became a public- school unit. It was alleged that St. Mary's was, in fact, a Catholic parochial school, and that the complainants were being "forced to pay taxes for the support of the Catholic church." Among the constitutional violations charged were that tax money was used to provide free textbooks and bus transportation for pupils at St. Mary's; that the school was under the control and supervision of a Catholic church; that a cross was exhibited above the school building; that religious training and indoctrination of a sectarian character were carried on in the school; that teaching nuns wore ecclesiastical garb, and that sectarian books and religious articles were present. School Superintendent J. W. Baker said that he and the school board had agreed to leave crucifixes and religious pictures on the walls because the symbols were not teaching devices and were the property of the building's owners. He also said that the teaching nuns were certified by state educational authorities as public-school teachers, and were permitted to wear their traditional garb because he "could not tell them what they must wear" any more than he could tell any other teacher (Religious News Service, March 9, 1959). The case was scheduled to come to trial in the fall of 1959.

Bus TRANSPORTATION In May 1959 Maine's supreme court, in a 4-to-2 decision, held that the city council of Augusta had exceeded its authority when, in June 1957, it voted funds for bus transportation to parochial schools. However, the court suggested that a "properly worded enabling act" by the legislature could make such community appropriations constitutional (Religious News Service, May 25, 1959). The Augusta ordinance was passed after threats by Roman Catholic parents to transfer 900 children from parochial to public schools unless bus service were provided. The council then appropriated a token sum of f250 as the basis for a legal test (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 38). On March 12, 1959, a congressional hearing heard a controversy over the CHURCH-STATE ISSUES 35 inclusion of private-school pupils in a proposed District of Columbia school- fare subsidy. The spokesman for the Jewish Community Council of Greater Washington, Sanford H. Bolz, said that a Federal subsidy for nonpublic schools would "open a Pandora's box" of sectarian controversy. He was challenged by Rep. Abraham J. Multer (Dem., N. Y.), who saw no valid distinction between private and parochial pupils in tax-supported, cut-rate fares, or school transportation generally. Also appearing in opposition to the grant were C. Emanuel Carlson, executive director of the Baptist Joint Committee on Public Affairs, Melvin Adams, associate secretary of the Religious Liberty Association (Seventh Day Adventists), and C. Stanley Lowell, associate director of Protestants and Other Americans United for Separation of Church and State. The House subcommittee later unanimously voted to table the legislation. When the vote was taken Multer was absent because of illness.

GARBED NUNS AS PUBLIC-SCHOOL TEACHERS In November 1958 a ruling by Ohio's Attorney General William Saxbe, permitting garbed nuns to teach in the public schools provided they did not engage in religious instruction, touched off an acrimonious debate. The Greater Cleveland Ministerial Association asked the state board of education to remove nuns in religious garb from teaching positions in public schools, and there were sermons to the same effect in Protestant churches. Howard Dyer, president of the Watertown school board in rural Washington county, where the four garbed nuns directly affected by the controversy comprised the teaching staff, defended their employment: "There is nothing to indicate this is a parochial school except the nuns' attire," he said, and he insisted that no religious instruction was given during school hours. Herbert A. Rosenthal, chairman of the community-relations committee of the Jewish Community Federation of Cleveland, said in a letter to the Plain Dealer (December 8, 1958) that the Attorney General's ruling was an unfortunate step in the direction of weakening the noble American tradition of separation. We do not, however, believe that this situation reflects the only or the most important violation by religious groups of that tradition in our state. We believe that it would be more constructive for those who are disturbed by the ruling to ask for review of the entire situation in order that public schools can be freed from unfortunate—and in our view—unconstitutional intrusions by any religious faith.

Sunday Closing Laws The Sunday law was again a controversial issue in the courts, several of the legislatures, and many communities across the country. On one side were merchants in suburban shopping centers who demanded freedom from the restraints of the closing laws, and on the other was a combination of forces made up of some Christian clergymen and religious bodies, city merchants, and labor unions which insisted upon strict enforcement and even more stringent statutes. It appeared quite likely that the "blue laws" were headed for a constitutional test in the United States Supreme Court. The closing laws were acted on for the first time by a Federal court—by a 36 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK panel of three judges—in the case of Crown Kosher Super Market v. Gallagher (May 18, 1959; 176 f. supp. 466). Chief counsel for the plaintiffs was Herbert B. Ehrmann. In a 2-to-l decision the court held that the Massachusetts Lord's Day Act violated the Federal constitution because it discriminated against Saturday observers. The majority stated: "What Massachusetts has done in this statute is to furnish special protection to the dominant Christian sects which celebrate Sunday as the Lord's day, without furnishing such protection, in their religious observances, to those Christian sects and to Orthodox and Conservative Jews who observe Saturday as the Sabbath, and to the prejudice of the latter group." Noting that the legislature had amended the law from time to time to exclude specific activities from its scope, thus "apparently yielding to various pressure groups," the court termed these exceptions an "almost unbelievable hodgepodge" of inconsistencies. The Catholic Boston Pilot (May 23, 1959) attacked the decision as a "mocking plea for religious liberty." It urged "religious Christians" to see to it "that the day of rest established by law is not so debased as to discourage Christian worship and to distract from Christian observance," the decision in question being characterized as "just such a debasement." Since lower-court decisions are subject to at least one review, and since decisions by three-judge Federal panels are reviewable only by the United States Supreme Court, it was a virtual certainty that a final test of the constitutionality of the closing laws was at hand. In December 1958 the Supreme Court refused to review appeals from two Ohio Sunday-law convictions "for want of a substantial Federal question." The appeals were filed by Coleman Ullman of Hamilton and William Kidd of Cincinnati, convicted of unlawfully operating supermarkets on Sunday (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], pp. 40-41). In July 1958 Connecticut's Supreme Court of Errors refused to set aside a conviction for the sale of candles on Sunday. Van Cleve Shuster, owner of a china-and-glass store, argued that the statute was discriminatory because it prohibited the sale of candles but permitted the sale of antiques. The court was satisfied that the state was not guilty of an invalid exercise of the police power, since ". . . the recreational and cultural aspects of Sunday are being furthered by permitting such articles [antiques] to be displayed or sold on that day" and ruled that the operation of the statute "rests upon fair distinctions" (Brooklyn Tablet, July 26, 1958). The appellate division of the New York State Supreme Court held by a 3-to-2 vote that the operation of a self-service laundry on Sunday was illegal (Religious News Service, June 16, 1959). Shortly thereafter, however, the same bench found no violation of law when a patron operated a machine in a self-service laundry on Sunday. The court said that "slovenliness is no part of any religion, nor is it conducive to rest. Scripture commends cleanliness" (New York World Telegram & Sun, June 22, 1959). New Jersey's Sunday-dosing law, enacted in May 1958 (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 41), was declared unconstitutional by Superior Court Judge Everett M. Scherer. The court found that the exclusion of Atlantic, Cape May, and Ocean counties from the provision of the law was arbitrary and discriminatory (Newark Evening News, May 8, 1959). In June 1959 Governor Robert B. Meyner signed a bill to remedy this defect in the law, permitting counties to CHURCH-STATE ISSUES 37 hold referendums to close highway discount houses and similar stores on Sunday. Twenty-five hundred signatures were required in each county in order to get the question on the ballot. The new law did not contain exemption provisions for Saturday observers. In July 1959 the Ohio legislature revised its Sunday laws by eliminating a number of antiquated provisions and by codifying and clarifying the law to make explicit exemptions for public transportation, recreation, sports, state and county fairs, and public parks. The law retained the exemption for Saturday observers. The revision of the law followed considerable agitation in many Ohio communities. For example, in Cincinnati city officials were charged with "discriminatory enforcement ... in favor of certain businesses ... to the detriment of others" (Cincinnati Inquirer, April 2, 1959). Finally, in June Oris E. Hamilton, the city's safety director, called a halt to police enforcement of the blue laws, influenced by the criticism of municipal-court judges and their reluctance to punish violators effectively. In February 1959 Governor George D. Clyde of Utah vetoed a Sunday- dosing law because of "possible economic and moral issues involved," stating that Sunday dosing would force some minority groups to work only five days a week while competitors worked six. He also questioned whether Sunday employment prevented church attendance. In December 1958 a measure supported by the Greater Miami Ministerial Association and the Miami Council of Churches, imposing fines and jail sentences for the Sunday operation of businesses, was voted down by the Metropolitan Commission, the city's governing body. In support of the ordinance, church groups had presented the commission with petitions bearing more than 12,000 signatures. In Pontiac, Michigan, the ministerial association circulated petitions in February 1959 to get a proposal on the ballot shutting taverns all day on Sunday, instead of permitting them to open, as theretofore, at 2 P.M., but it failed to obtain enough signatures. An association of bar owners circulated a counter-petition to open bars at noon, and their effort was successful. Humane-slaughter Legislation The revised version of the humane-slaughter law, signed by President Eisen- hower in the summer of 1958, charged the secretary of agriculture with the task of conducting a two-year study of humane methods of slaughtering animals for food (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 43). Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveichik, of Roxbury, Massachusetts, was on the 12-member committee appointed by the secretary. The adoption of the Federal legislation was followed by the introduction of humane-slaughter measures in 16 states—California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Wash- ington, and Wisconsin. Five of the states—California, Minnesota, New Hamp- shire, Washington, and Wisconsin—adopted such laws, which followed rather closely the general intent of the Federal legislation. Some Jewish organizations were apprehensive about possible adverse public- relations consequences of legislation affecting the handling of animals before slaughter, fearing that the exemption of kosher slaughtering from the "hu- 38 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK mane" provisions of the law might be seen as creating a double standard, which could in time endanger shehitah itself. They also recognized that additional state legislation was inevitable. Accordingly, under the joint sponsorship of the Synagogue Council of America and the National Community Relations Ad- visory Council, a study was launched in November 1959 to seek out improved methods of handling animals before shehitah. The inquiry was to be conducted by the Armour Research Foundation of the Illinois Institute of Technology under the general direction of Rabbi Soloveichik. The coordinator of the research program was Rabbi Emanuel Holzer of the Rabbinical Council of America. Religious Symbols on Public Property In November 1958 the Eagles Lodge of Portland, Oregon, offered the city council a gift of a granite pillar of the Ten Commandments. Parks Com- missioner Ormond R. Bean recommended that the council accept the gift and place it in the city's Plaza Block. Rabbi Julius J. Nodel of Temple Beth Israel objected that "the Ten Commandments, God's Law, need no endorsement by any governmental body and engraving them on granite monuments throughout the nation will achieve no good purpose. The Ten Command- ments, to be effective, must be engraved in our hearts." After a meeting with religious leaders, Mayor Terry Schrunk recommended that the city council decline the stone monolith. Finally the Eagles withdrew their offer, and considered the possibility of placement with a private group. Ground was broken for the International Synagogue and Jewish Center at New York's Idlewild Airport (p. 60). This project, sponsored by the New York Board of Rabbis, was to be completed by the end of 1960. Senator Jacob K. Javits, speaking at the ceremony, said that the synagogue would be a "symbol to the world" of religious freedom, particularly when seen near the Our Lady of the Skies Roman Catholic Chapel and a planned Protestant chapel. (Idlewild Airport was owned by New York City and operated under a long- term lease by the Port of New York Authority, a public corporation established by the states of New York and New Jersey.) In March 1959, at the Easter season, a 25-foot illuminated cross, visible for miles by land and sea, was placed on a rise in the Fort Hamilton military installation overlooking New York harbor. Colonel John K. Daly, the post commander, unveiled the cross. Lieutenant Colonel Ernest E. Northern, Jr., the post chaplain, said that it "has a special significance as a guiding and spiritual light for members of the armed forces and their families who ... are uprooted from their homes in the States . . ." (New York Times, March 12, 1959). Mixed Seating in the Synagogue On June 5, 1959, the Michigan Supreme Court held that a minority in an Orthodox Jewish congregation could not be overruled in a matter as basic as the separate seating of women. The controversy had begun several years earlier, with agitation for mixed seating among members of Congregation Beth Tefilas Moses, an Orthodox synagogue in Mt. Clemens, Michigan. When CHURCH-STATE ISSUES 39 the majority of the congregation moved to carry out the proposal, Meyer Davis, Sam Schwartz, and Baruch Litvin, three members of the minority faction, filed an action for an injunction to restrain the majority. At the trial it had been testified that an Orthodox Jew could not worship in a synagogue where there was mixed seating. The defendants had contended that the court was without jurisdiction to adjudicate the dispute because it dealt with doctrinal and ecclesiastical matters, not property rights, and the court sustained the defendants' position. The Michigan supreme court reversed the decision, affirming that the minority had been deprived of their property rights by the majority's action: "The weight of authority in Michi- gan is to the effect that the majority faction of a local congregation or society . . . may not, as against a faithful minority, divert the property . . . to the support of doctrines fundamentally opposed to the characteristic doctrines of the society. . . ." The court found that "plaintiffs would be deprived of their right to the use of their synagogue because as Orthodox Jews they would be prohibited from participation in services where there is mixed seating—in other words, deprived of their use of their property ... by the majority group contrary to law" (356 Mich. 291, 97 NW 2nd, 1959). An earlier case of mixed seating, Katz v. Congregation Chevra Thilim (July 29, 1957), resulted in a permanent injunction against the practice by the civil district court for the parish of New Orleans. An appeal to the Louisiana Supreme Court was pending. Church Attendance as Condition of Parole San Francisco Municipal Court Judge Andrew Jackson Eyman ordered that as a condition for two years' probation, 17-year-old William J. Korpa, who had pleaded guilty to a charge of battery, consult a priest, attend church every Sunday for two years, and be confirmed. Ernest Besig, Northern California director of the Civil Liberties Union, protested that "the state . . . has no right to require support or adherence to any faith as a condition of staying out of jail" (San Francisco Chronicle, July 17, 1959). In reply, Judge Eyman stated: "I have done this several times in the past and I intend to continue. . . ." The Chronicle (July 20, 1959) observed in an editorial that the judge's conditions for probation were "out of line." It added: "Advising a youngster in trouble to go to church is something else, and may be a very good thing for him. But if Judge Eyman can require this youngster to go to his own church, what is to prevent another judge from requiring another man to go to the judge's, not the defendant's church, or requiring atheists to go to church?" Atheist Barred from Public Office Roy R. Torcaso of Wheaton, Maryland, was appointed a notary public but denied his commission by county officials because he refused to express a belief in the Deity. "I would be making a false statement if I did say that I believed in God," said Torcaso. Appealing to Governor J. Millard Tawes, he contended that the denial of his commission violated constitutional guarantees of religious freedom and church-state separation. Governor Tawes referred 40 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK the matter to the attorney general for an opinion. In July 1959 Deputy Attor- ney General Stedinan Prescott, Jr., ruled that a declaration of belief in God was not an oath of office and was required of public officials in Maryland. His ruling cited a passage from the Maryland Declaration of Rights that "no religious test ought ever to be required as a qualification for any office of profit or trust . . . other than a declaration of belief in the existence of God." Senator John F. Kennedy on Separation A preview of the place that religion might have in the presidential election if one of the candidates were a Catholic was provided by the publication of Fletcher Knebel's "Democratic Forecast: A Catholic in 1960" in Look magazine (March 3, 1959). Catholics reacted vigorously to the views attributed to Senator Kennedy (Dem., Mass.), who was quoted as saying: "I believe as a Senator that the separation of church and state is fundamental to our American concept and heritage and should remain so. ... The First Amendment to the Constitution is an infinitely wise one. There can be no question of Federal funds being used for support of parochial or private schools. . . ." These remarks were prefaced with the statement that "whatever one's religion in his private life may be, for the officeholder nothing takes precedence over his oath to uphold the Constitution and all its parts—including the First Amendment and the strict separation of church and state." The Jesuit magazine America (March 7, 1959) took issue with the last re- mark: "Mr. Kennedy doesn't really believe that. No religious man, be he Catholic, Protestant or Jew, holds such an opinion. A man's conscience has a bearing on his public as well as his private life." The liberal Commonweal (March 6, 1959) joined a number of diocesan publications across the country in criticizing the Senator's statement on church-state relations: "Senator Kennedy should have made the elementary point that there is no 'Catholic position' on these matters, that they are not doctrinally religious questions at all, merely points of constitutional interpretation and practical judgment, on which Catholics are perfectly free to disagree and on which they often do disagree. The Senator's declaration that he believes in the separation of Church and State is similarly disquieting. Here again he gave the impression that this was a point at issue between Catholics and non-Catholics and that Catholics might be expected not to believe in it." Christian Amendment For more than a decade there had been offered in the House of Represen- tatives the so-called Christian amendment to the constitution: "This nation devoutly recognizes the authority and law of Jesus Christ, Savior and Ruler of Nations, through whom are bestowed the blessings of Almighty God." Rep. Clifford Mclntire (Rep., Me.) introduced a joint resolution proposing the amendment, and this time it was sponsored by seven members of the House of Representatives, the largest number ever to do so (Religious News Service, April 20, 1959). PHILIP JACOBSON ANTI-JEWISH AGITATION 41

ANTI-JEWISH AGITATION

ONCENTRATING especially on the publication and dissemination of leaflets, C pamphlets, and periodicals, antisemitic propagandists and agitators maintained their operations at approximately the same level as that of the period previously reported (December 1, 1957, to November 30, 1958; AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], pp. 44-62). But in contrast, the year from December 1, 1958, to November 30, 1959, was notable for an abatement of violence involving destruction of property, jeopardy to life, and widespread fear, particularly in the South. Though in the tradition of timeworn canards about "Jewish plots to rule the nation and the world," the themes exploited by agitators generally appeared in modern versions. Agitators variously portrayed Jews as conspiring with Communists to enslave the world, or to subvert and betray the United States; the United Nations was depicted as a sinister device for the attainment of such ends. Often these slanders were varied by depicting Soviet Russia and the Communists as mere tools and dupes of Jewish masters. Tensions over the desegregation of public schools in the South were exploited by charges that "the Jews and Communists" were striving to "mongrelize" the population as part of their plans to control the nation. Pro-Arab diatribes continued to be frequent, usually attacking Israel as the seat of "Jewish and Communist world power." To attract the support of unwary ultraconservatives, hatemongers urged repeal of the income-tax amendment and abolition of welfare legislation. Assaults on projects to fluoridate drinking water and on proposals for legislation relating to mental health exploited the fears of those concerned with health problems. During the period under review there was a tendency to revive and promote the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, "Talmud exposes," spurious reports of sinister conclaves of rabbis, forged letters of famous men of the past, and similar libels.

The South The most effective propaganda tactics continued to be the exploitation of southern tensions over desegregation—an activity which kept pace with the region's mounting troubles with this problem ever since the Supreme Court's decisions of 1954 and 1955 against segregation in the public schools. The volume of hate literature continued to be large, especially in areas where desegregation moves were imminent. This literature was mainly produced in other parts of the country and exported to the South by mail and other means, where it was circulated by local distributors (who received bulk shipments), and by white-supremacy extremists, including the Ku Klux Klan and elements within the Citizens Council movement. General mailing lists were frequently used, though distribution by hand at meetings and demonstrations and surreptitious placement in public areas was also common. As in previous 42 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK years, the screeds of Frank L. Britton (Inglewood, Calif.), Conde McGinley (Union, N. J.) and Gerald L. K. Smith (Glendale, Calif.) were most prominent.

Aftermath of the Synagogue Bombings The shock and community-wide fears generated by the five bombings and three attempted bombings of Jewish religious institutions between November 11, 1957, and October 12, 1958 (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], pp. 44-47) died down by the early part of 1959. Though there were some reports of threats to Jewish persons and institutions during the period under review, no bombings ensued, nor was there the sort of nationwide flood of threats, warnings, and vicious hoaxes which had plagued communities during the preceding year, particularly after the bombing of The Temple in Atlanta on October 12, 1958. There was growing public recognition of the serious threat to law and order in general, as well as to the sanctity of houses of worship. On the day of the Atlanta bombing, President Eisenhower expressed his revulsion and informed the nation that he had requested the Federal Bureau of Investiga- tion (FBI) to render all possible assistance to the Atlanta police.

BRIGHT TRIALS Law-enforcement authorities, a week after the Atlanta bombing, arrested George Michael Bright, Kenneth Chester Griffin, Wallace H. Allen, and Rich- ard and Robert Bowling, all connected with the National States Rights party (NSRP) and associated fanatical racist groups. All were indicted on October 17, 1958. However, at the time of writing only one—Bright—had been brought to trial. The indictment against Robert Bowling was dismissed. Bright's first trial ended in a hung jury on December 10, 1958, the reported vote having stood at 9 to 3 for conviction after three days of deliberation. Reindicted two weeks after the mistrial, Bright was again tried on the same charges, the prosecution foregoing insistence on the death penalty in the event of conviction. After brief deliberation, the jury returned a verdict of acquittal on January 23, 1959. Principal witnesses for the prosecution at both trials were L. E. Rogers, an undercover worker for the FBI, and James DeVore, who had been in jail with Bright while he was awaiting his first trial. Rogers testified that he had attended small, intimate meetings of the NSRP in Atlanta, and described their discussions. DeVore testified that while in jail with Bright the latter had confided to him that he had acted as a lookout when the bomb was being placed. Bright denied this. At the second trial the defense contended that Bright had spent the entire night of the bombing with a woman in her apartment. The woman corrob- orated this, stating that she and Bright had a mutual interest in watching for satellites. At the trials the defense produced such character witnesses as Eldon L. Edwards, Imperial Wizard of the U.S. Klans, Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, and Arthur Cole, Matt Koehl, and Edward Fields, of Tennessee, Wisconsin, and Kentucky respectively, all leaders of the NSRP. Some witnesses used the ANTI-JEWISH AGITATION 43 stand as a rostrum for speeches on "the Jewish conspiracy." In the first trial Bright, availing himself of the Georgia law which allows a defendant to make an unsworn statement, delivered a long racist tirade. At the second trial, however, he briefly stated that he did not hate the Jews or any other group. At the time of writing it was doubtful that the defendants still under indictment would be brought to trial.

National States Rights Party NSRP stepped up its propaganda activities and its attempts to become a clearinghouse of information for hatemongers. Edna Cowan, vice-chairman, of Jeffersonville, Ind., dubbed the defendants "The Atlanta Five," and in the March-April issue of NSRP's publication, The Thunderbolt, wrote that "the Atlanta case was a triumph of concerted effort by the NSRP, together with allied patriotic groups." NSRP continued its efforts (begun during the summer of 1958) to promote "a grass-roots draft" of Rear Admiral John G. Crommelin (USN, ret.) for president on a third-party ticket in 1960. Its national committee met at Knoxville, Tenn., on April 11 to plan a "political offensive." NSRP boasted that it had already made headway with several small right-wing groups in support of the draft. Another feature of the NSRP line was an attack on the FBI and J. Edgar Hoover. By October, The Thunderbolt, bearing an emblem similar to that of the Hitler youth insigne, had improved its printing and format and had launched an "Equipment Fund Appeal" to convert the paper into a semimonthly and increase its circulation.

Ku Klux Klan Though still divided into vying groups, the Klan gave signs of undiminished activity. There were public demonstrations, such as the rally on June 6, 1959, at Plant City, Fla., which included a free chicken dinner attended by 1,500; the rally at Stone Mountain, outside of Atlanta, Ga., on September 26, 1959, attended by approximately the same number, and the Klan parade of some 40 carloads of members outside of Birmingham on July 29, culminating in the burning of crosses in front of the church of a white congregation and two homes. In Alabama the Klan set up welcome signs alongside those of service and civic groups on Federal and state highways at the approaches to Mont- gomery, Birmingham, Tuscaloosa, Selma, Sylacauga, Gadsden, Bessemer, Prattville, Monroeville, and Heflin. When torn down, they were usually quickly replaced. In September 1959 crosses were burned in front of eleven of Birmingham's white schools, apparently to frighten Negroes away. In June 1959 J. B. Stoner of Atlanta, long-time operator in the Christian Anti-Jewish party, and formerly a kleagle in Chattanooga, Tenn., came to Louisville and started the Christian Knights of the Ku Klux Klan. Stoner declared that membership in his Klan was open to Catholics. At the close of the period under review, he had made little progress and had all but abandoned his scheme. The Arkansas Ku Klux Klan, started by A. C. Hightower, a Little Rock 44 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK barber, was also chartered in June. But its authority was quickly challenged by R. E. Davis of Dallas, Texas, who claimed jurisdiction over the region. Grand Dragon Hightower announced that his klan would "practice cross- burning," but when trouble began brewing in Little Rock over desegregation, he quickly resigned, on August 11, explaining that he did not want to be held legally responsible for the acts of klansmen over whom he had no control. J. R. English, an elderly accountant, became the group's legal resident agent, though denying that he himself was a member. The largest group in the movement remained Eldon L. Edwards' U.S. Klans, Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, with headquarters at Atlanta, Ga. The smallest was the Aryan Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, the one-man operation of Horace Sherman Miller of Waco, Texas, who made up for lack of membership by the abundance and variety of photo-offset antisemitic and anti- Catholic leaflets published under his organizational imprint and circulated throughout the nation and abroad. White Citizens Councils Composed of autonomous local groups (generally calling themselves Citizens Councils), the WCCs continued to be active, though actual membership and participation appeared to rise and fall in response to the imminence of desegregation moves in any given area. Estimates of the total membership in the movement ranged between 300,000 and 500,000. As in previous years, individual units might be well within the bounds of respectability, or else they might be outright lunatic-fringe groups. The latter type capitalized on the distribution of antisemitic literature. In October 1959 the antisemitic and pro-Klan Georgia Tribune, edited and published by "Parson Jack" Johnston at Columbus, Ga., announced that the Citizens Councils of Georgia was being formed, and that Johnston had been designated as its executive director. It was claimed that one unit had been formed at Atlanta, and that the organization's initial goal was a council in each of the state's ten congressional districts. The fanatic Seaboard White Citizens Council continued to be active in the Washington, D.C., and northern Virginia area, despite the absence of its leader, Frederick John Kasper, who, on July 23, 1959, began serving a six- month sentence on a conviction arising out of the Clinton, Tenn., desegregation disturbances in 1956. This was the second sentence he served in this connection. After his scheduled release in December, another six-month sentence awaited him because of his part in the disorders during the 1957 school- desegregation crisis at Nashville, Tenn. In September J. B. Stoner, failing to attract support in Louisville, Ky., for his new klan project, joined forces with Florida White Citizens Council leader Fred B. Hockett in an unsuccessful endeavor to mobilize opposition to the desegregation of the Orchard Villa school in Miami. Little Rock While the demonstration against the reintegration of Little Rock's Central high school on August 12, 1959, was quelled by effective police action, per- ANTI-JEWISH AGITATION 45 sisting tensions were marked by three bombings within an hour on September 7 (see p. 17). Bombs blasted the school board's offices, the mayor's private business office, and the fire chief's car. Five men were arrested on September 10, charged with destroying public property with explosives. Among them was E. A. Lauderdale, Sr., a segregationist leader, who on November 28 was convicted after trial, the jury recommending a three-year jail term. Another defendant, J. D. Sims, pleaded guilty and was sentenced to five years; still another, Jesse Raymond Perry, was convicted on October 28, receiving a three-year sentence. Antisemitic literature appeared during the tensions, and prominent among the items was "A Message to Little Rock" by Frank L. Britton, appealing to the people to "defeat this Jewish plot to mongrelize your schools."

John G. Crommelin Running for mayor of Montgomery in the Alabama Democratic primaries against two other opponents on March 16, John G. Crommelin, an active antisemitic propagandist and distributor of the products of other hatemongers, polled 1,760 votes out of a total of 17,330. His platform was found to have been mailed to localities in other states. Toward the beginning of this document was the following clause: Whereas, the key to segregation of the races and the ultimate survival of the Christian White Race is a thorough understanding by White Christian voters of the Communist-Jewish conspiracy. . . . In the 1958 gubernatorial primaries Crommelin had run twelfth among 14 candidates, with 2,200 out of 618,000 votes, less than half of one per cent of the state-wide total. A year later, in the 1959 mayoralty primaries, he got ten per cent of the vote. Crommelin's name was listed as a stockholder of the Christian Educational Association of Union, N. J., which publishes Conde McGinley's rabidly antisemitic Common Sense, in that publication's sworn statement of ownership in its issue of October 1. A similar listing of Crommelin had appeared in the issue of November 1, 1957.

George Lincoln Rockwell George Lincoln Rockwell conducted his Nazi-style propaganda operations at Arlington, Va., under the name of World Union of Free Enterprise Na- tional Socialists (WUFENS). For this activity he used the house and press purchased for him in 1958 by wealthy Nordic supremacist Harold Noel Arrowsmith, Jr., of Baltimore, Md. (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 47). As commander of WUFENS, Rockwell published a swastika-emblazoned program which declared that "Adolph Hitler was the gift of an inscrutable Providence to a world on the brink of a Jewish-Bolshevik catastrophe." Other points included proposals to establish "an International Jewish Control Authority" and the trial and execution of "all Jews proved to have taken part in Marxist or Zionist plots of treason. . . ." Meetings of small groups of uniformed 46 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK youth were frequently held at WUFENS headquarters, causing community friction. In April a display of Nazi symbols, visible from the outside of his house, attracted a demonstration of protest by the neighborhood's youths. Rockwell's aims in promoting his blatant variety of Nazism were described as follows during the summer in a fund-raising appeal bearing the name of Floyd Fleming: Commander Rockwell said. . . . "We'll aggravate them so bad . . . that they will lose their tempers as Jews always do in their arrogance and go too far in attacking us. We'll attack them! But we will do it legally and peace- fully but so arrogantly that they will have to notice us and print something about us in their giant propaganda machinery. . . ." Neo-Nazi Youth Activities Indications of a trend on the part of some maladjusted teenagers to violent, Hitlerite expression appeared in widely separated parts of the country. In April a group of high-school boys was found to be operating as a "Nazi Regime of America" in a suburb of Paterson, N. J. In May four Cleveland high-school students, members of a secret group, "Fourth Reich," were arrested. In June leaders of a "Nazism Club" in Visalia, Calif., were appre- hended. Discovery of these groups—between whom no relationship was established—came in New Jersey as the result of investigation of a threatening letter; in Ohio because of crank calls and malicious mischief; and in Cali- fornia because of the theft of Nazi war mementoes from a private collection. In each of these situations the members used Nazi titles, slogans, insignia, and equipment. Some of them were reported to be highly intelligent. Virtually all of the leaders and activists were disciplined by the courts as juvenile delinquents. In all cases prompt action was taken by local school, county, and municipal law-enforcement authorities, who also received FBI cooperation. In August, 18-year-old Richard V. Smith, Jr., living away from home and described by police as "an avid follower of the Nazi doctrines of Adolph Hitler," confessed to having set fire to a private art museum in Columbus, Ga., and to having painted swastikas on two synagogues in that city. He was sentenced to six to ten years for arson. In October a "Nazi storm troop" of high-school youths at Alexandria, Va., was uncovered when police investigated the fire-bombing and antisemitic defacement of the home of that city's vice mayor and his wife, a juvenile- court judge, both non-Jews. Three boys, 14, 17, and 18 years old, were arrested. The youngest pleaded guilty to arson charges on October 14, while the other two, at the time of writing, were awaiting grand-jury action.

Pro-Arab Propaganda Anti-Jewish activists maintained a volume of pro-Arab propaganda comparable to that of the preceding period, equating Communism with Zionism and in that context leveling conspiracy charges against American Jews and ANTI-JEWISH AGITATION 47 Jewish groups. Fund-raising appeals for Israel were characterized as sinister; dual-loyalty charges were frequent, as were depictions of alleged Jewish cruelty toward the Arabs. A lead article in the January 15 issue of Conde McGinley's openly antisemitic Common Sense was ascribed to "Sami Hadawi, Assistant Director, The Palestine Refugee Office."

Economic and Social Issues Mingling his bigotry with ultraconservative themes, Merwin K. Hart, president of the National Economic Council, in the March 15 issue of his Eco- nomic Council Letter "answered" columnist Joseph Alsop's denunciation of the Protocols as a forgery, stating: One would suppose that the important thing about the Protocols is not their possible lack of authenticity, but rather whether they are a prophecy as to something that is now being fulfilled. And most informed Americans would consider them a very accurate prophecy indeed. Another of Hart's targets was the authenticity of The Diary of Anne Frank (issue of April 15). The National Planning Conference, at its convention in Minneapolis on May 13, warned that organized hatemongers were playing on fears of Com- munism, integration and "one-world government" in efforts to defeat plans for consolidating obsolete governmental units into unified metropolitan systems. Cited by the NPC as furthering the campaign were, among others, Frederick John Kasper and Don Bell, an antisemitic publicist of Palm Beach, Fla. The latter's pamphlet, Terrible 1313, published in early 1959, contained reprints of issues of Upton Close's newsletter Closer Up, attacking the consolidation plans as a conspiracy of international bankers.

Periodicals Hate literature was actively and widely published and distributed, to approximately the same extent as during the preceding period. That the quality of paper and printing in most instances was good and that such publications as The Thunderbolt and Elizabeth Dilling's Bulletin showed improvement indicated increased support. Leaders in volume and circulation continued to be Britton's slick-paper, multicolored American Nationalist and cheaply produced one-sheet leaflets, which were most in evidence in the South; Conde McGinley's Common Sense (Union, N.J.), which again (January 15) evoked the New Jersey Assembly's "abhorrence" of the publication and its editor, "who disseminate their scandalous and scurrilous literature throughout the country from this State, thereby bringing discredit to our great State"; and Gerald L. K. Smith's Cross and the Flag, as well as his advertising circulars, which were in themselves antisemitic sheets. Smith and McGinley advertised the largest stock of antisemitic items. The latter's list, headed "Patriotic Books and Literature" included the Protocols, Robert H. Williams' Know Your Enemy, John O. Beaty's Iron Curtain Over America, George W. Armstrong's Third Zionist War, Elizabeth Dilling's Plot Against Christianity, and 48 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK Key to Freedom, a large broadside published by McGinley. Also featured was Louis Marschalko's book, The World Conquerors (London, 1958), which, translated from Hungarian, is a compendium of antisemitic canards from ancient times to the present. Another book advertised by McGinley was Beasts of the Apocalypse, by Olivia Marie O'Grady (Benicia, Calif., 1959). Representative items not previously mentioned in this review included Lyrl Van Hyning's Women's Voice (Chicago), a monthly written in a frantic tone, reiterating the more virulent antisemitic canards and quotations; The Revere (Hinsdale, 111.), published by F. Allen Mann under the name of Christian Patriots Crusade, which often attacked the FBI; The Point (Still River, Mass.), well written by Leonard E. Feeney, excommunicated priest, whose followers held hate meetings on Boston Common for over five yean until he and they removed to their new location in February 1958, and The Kingdom Digest (Rev. J. A. Lovell, Dallas), an "interpretation" of the Scrip- tures in antisemitic terms which also held that the Anglo-Saxons are the true Israelites. The Truth Seeker (New York), originally an old-line freethought monthly, in December headlined the feature article by its editor, Charles Smith, "Jew-led Levelers Plan to Suppress Racial Truth." New York industrialist Russell Maguire continued to fill his monthly magazine, the American Mercury, with a heavy dosage of antisemitism, supplemented by thousands of reprints of such articles. The lead article of the September issue, "The World-wide Betrayal," was described as "A Chronology of the Zionist Master Plan for World Domination," and contained summaries of many vicious canards. A regular feature of the magazine, "Do You Know?" frequently contained lines such as these: Soviet Russia and South Africa, the world's two greatest gold-producing countries, are controlled by the Zionists [August]. The well-organized and highly financed forces of world-wide Zionism could have destroyed Communism at any time during the last 20 years. They are militant against the Nazis, but soft against Communists [September].

GEORGE KELLMAN Communal Affairs

RELIGION * Theology N the period under review, from mid-1958 to mid-1959, there were strong I signs of theological concern and seriousness about the Jewish faith. Among these were an address on revelation before the (Reform) Central Con- ference of American Rabbis (CCAR); an essay on The Philosophy of Purpose, inaugurating a new series of "Studies in Torah Judaism" published by the Orthodox Yeshiva University, and an anthology of the writings of Abraham Joshua Heschel, a leading American Jewish theologian teaching at the Conservative seminary. All stressed the compelling relevance of Judaism for contemporary man. In June 1959, at the Bretton Woods, N. H., meeting of CCAR, Jakob J. Petuchowski of HUC-JIR, Cincinnati, read a paper on "The Concept of Revelation in Reform Judaism." Judaism traditionally regarded its message as having been divinely revealed on Sinai, and revelation was held to be cardinal in Jewish faith. In the 18th century, in accordance with the dominant spirit of rationalism, Moses Mendelsohn dissented: I ... do not believe that the powers of human reason are insufficient to lead to those eternal verities which are indispensable to human bliss, and that God would have had to reveal such truths in a supernatural way. Reform Judaism agreed with this view, holding revelation to be a process rather than an event. Even for Leo Baeck, who had a very positive attitude toward tradition, revelation was "revolution," an evolutionary progress toward truth, a gradual ascent to heights of human insight. Petuchowski questioned this evolutionary conception of revelation. He distinguished between gillui Shekhinah, "the manifestation of the Divine Presence," which Reformers have generally credited, and Torah min ha- shamayim, "the Torah as emanating from God," which many had been unable to accept. Especially under the influence of modern Bible scholarship, Re- formers abandoned the belief that Moses wrote the Torah. Petuchowski argued that disbelief in the authorship of Moses did not necessarily require disbelief in the Torah as divine revelation. He was critical of the tendency "to consider the theological problem of Revelation as settled (and settled negatively) by the critical investigation into our literary history." Petuchowski cited the covenant in the time of Ezra: There are no thunders and lightnings here. . . . There is just an assembly of the whole people proclaiming, "We also lay upon ourselves mitzvot." ' For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. 49 50 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK But they did so in response to a soul-stirring religious experience. It was one of those moments in Jewish history when God had revealed Himself to Israel. And he concludes: There is a sense in which the Torah, with all of our much-vaunted knowledge about its literary composition, can be regarded by us as a document of Divine Revelation. Literary history cannot solve the questions asked by Theology; and the question as to the fact of Revelation is a theological question. . . . Revelation, as Judaism has always understood it, is of a two- fold nature. It can be gillui Shekhinah, awareness of the Presence of God experienced by the individual; and it can be Torah min ha-shamayim, an awareness on the part of the people as a whole of the mighty acts of God in a specific historical situation—an awareness "caught" . . . and enshrined for future generations in both the narrative and legislative passages of the Torah We [Reformers] have made a contribution ... by stressing, on the basis of our scientific studies of both Bible and Talmud, that Revelation is progressive. Yet somewhere along the line ... we have lost sight of the fact of Revelation itself. That is why so much of our discussion about guides and codes and practice takes place in thin air. . . . The recovery of the revelatory occasion and idea is that basis on which alone our delib- erations on guides and practice can be meaningful. . . . Petuchowski thus focused discussion at the CCAR convention on the central question in Judaism. In Jewish faith a man lives in several dimensions—with God, through revelation; with Israel, through the historical community of Jewry, and with Torah, through the daily study, worship, and ritual observance ordained by the prophets and sages of Israel. It was to this third dimension that President Samuel Belkin of Yeshiva University addressed himself in his The Philosophy of Purpose. He regards Jewish living as purposeful living: In order properly to understand Judaism it is important to distinguish between two different approaches to a consideration of man and the world. One we may call a philosophy of reason; the other, a philosophy of purpose. The first is the approach of the pure rationalist; the second is the traditional Jewish attitude. . . . The purposeful philosopher ... is concerned not with the origins and causes of creation, but with its meaning for man ... he considers those things which are already in existence. He attempts to define their meaning for man and to divine the purpose which is fulfilled by their proper utilization. . . . As to the mitzvot ma'asiyot, the active commandments of Judaism, Belkin asserts: The fulfillment of the mitzvot is ... the Jewish concept of communion with God, and by abstaining from eating the forbidden foods, man obeys the will of God He reviews rabbinic and traditional contemplation of various Jewish mitzvot, in each instance attempting to show the purposeful character they exhibit, and he concludes: RELIGION 51 Some of the Jewish philosophers . . . strove to uncover the religious and moral motives and purposes of the Torah. Fundamental to this method of interpreting the Torah is the belief that in addition to the literal meaning of the Torah, which requires observance of mitzvot in compliance with the will of God, there is often a hidden meaning, a deeper purpose. . . . The purposeful interpretation of the Torah never conflicts with the literal meaning of the Torah, it simply seeks to uncover just a little more, to discover a deeper level of meaning. . . . Abraham J. Heschel of JTS has long been concerned with every dimension of Jewish faith. His writings, in Yiddish, Hebrew, German, and English, have discussed the perennial questions in Judaism, and he has succeeded, in the opinion of many, in helping to recover for the modern Jew the reality of Jewish experience with God, Israel, and Torah. He has stated the problem of religion in uniquely Jewish terms, while dealing with man's knowledge of God, man's response to Biblical faith, ethics, and ritual, and man's outlook in an age of crisis and anxiety. During the period under study, Fritz A. Roth- schild, of the department of religion at Pennsylvania State University, presented an anthology of Heschel's work—Between Man and God: An Interpretation of Judaism from the Writings of Abraham J. Heschel (New York, 1959)— selecting writings on five major themes and introducing them with an extended study of Heschel's thought, explaining both the sources and the ultimate concern of Heschel's philosophy of Judaism. In a scholarly and complex essay, Rothschild clarified many of the difficult concepts to be found in Heschel's work:

Heschel defines religion as "an answer to man's ultimate questions." Such ultimate questions arise under the impact of the elemental forces of reality confronting man. Religion originates in a living situation. As an answer, religion becomes not only false but meaningless and irrelevant as soon as the question by which it is evoked no longer reflects a challenge. To recover an understanding of religion, one must go beyond the phenomena of religion to that which necessitates religion in one's life: the total situation of man. Only by turning to the reality in which man encounters the significance of ultimate questions and in which he experiences those aspects of life which point to answers can we hope to gain a true understanding of religion. "The inquiry must proceed ... by delving into the consciousness of man as well as by delving into the teachings and attitudes of the religious tradition." . . . The Bible, which is neither a catechism nor a treatise in dogmatic theology but the classic record of man's encounter with God, is the primary document to which we have to turn. . . . But unless the voice which speaks from the pages of Scripture also addresses each person in the experiences of his own life, there is little possibility that the words of the ancient prophets will disclose their meaning. . . . By correlating the message of the Biblical and post-Biblical religious literature of Israel with the consciousness of modern individual man, Heschel breathes new life into the ancient documents of the tradition, and by exhibiting their uniqueness, discovers their relevance. . . .

And Rothschild concludes: God and man in their interrelation are the theme of Heschel's philosophy of religion. . . . His various writings exhibit a sustained philosophical 52 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK analysis which can be understood in terms of a set of basic categories and concepts.... Expansion of the Synagogue The synagogue continued to follow the Jews into America's suburbs. In many places its presence signified the beginning of Jewish religious life three centuries after America's colonization. In Harrison, N. Y., Stratford, Conn., and many other places, new congregations were formed, or began their building programs, or engaged their first rabbi, or in other ways took meaningful first steps in founding their communities. There was frequent generous assistance by non-Jews in founding these synagogues. Thus The New York Times (April 6, 1959) reported: Congregations have sprung up in firehouses, banks, and even Protestant churches. . . . The congregation in Harrison was organized as a Con- servative temple, with an assist from a Protestant Episcopal minister. . . ." Indeed, sociologists have been quick to point out the element of conformity. Protestants "go" to church and Roman Catholics "go" to Mass, and Jews are expected to "go" somewhere too. And they do. Since 1946, according to the Times report, the Reform movement has founded 16 congregations in northern New Jersey, 4 in Rockland county, 6 in Westchester, and 31 in Long Island. Since 1947 the Conservative movement has gained 16 in New Jersey, 19 in Rockland and Westchester, and 33 in Long Island. Since 1949, according to a Yeshiva University estimate, 35 new Orthodox synagogues have been established in the suburbs of New York City. Outside the New York area growth has been equally impressive. The national organizations claim 660 Conservative, 575 Reform, and 1,500 Orthodox synagogues. The movement to the suburbs and even farther out is not limited, moreover, to the conventional synagogues. It was announced that a group of Satmar hasidim planned to move from the Williamsburg section of Brooklyn, N. Y., to Franklin, N. J., where it would build a village for 500 families, including a synagogue, school, mikweh, bakery, and shops. The local reaction was cautious, but friendly. The Franklin tax assessor commented (New York Times, June 27, 1959): "Local authorities have only vague reports of the plans, but it's a free country, where members of any sect can worship as they please." The Seminaries To train a "learned ministry" has been a purpose of education in America since the founding of Harvard College. With the virtual cessation of immigration from European centers of Jewish learning, the importance of America's yeshivot (Talmudical academies) and rabbinical seminaries has been greatly enhanced.

YESHIVA UNIVERSITY Yeshiva University opened its 72nd academic year in September 1959 with more than 3,500 students, the largest enrollment in its history. Yeshiva's RELIGION 53 program was unique, offering an integrated Jewish and liberal education to its undergraduates. At the Yeshiva College, the Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary, the Teachers' Institute for Men, and the Stern College for Women (as well as the university's three high schools), students received an intensive education in Hebrew, Bible, Talmud, and other fundamental disciplines of Jewish learning. In October 1958, on the occasion of Samuel Belkin's 15th year as president of the university, friends of the institution presented $1,000,000 in gifts. The university spent a record {1,000,000 in scholarship aid for 2,600 undergraduates during the 1958-59 academic year, which represented 25 per cent of the total operating budget. In November 1958 Hyman B. Grinstein was appointed director of the Teachers' Institute for Men. A member of the faculty since 1944, Grinstein continued as professor of American Jewish history. He was the author of a history of the New York Jewish community, and was registrar of the Institute as well.

HEBREW UNION COLLEGE-JEWISH INSTITUTE OF RELIGION In February 1959 HUC-JIR established a new center of learning, the Frank L. Weil Institute of Advanced Studies in Religion and the Humanities. Nelson Glueck, president of HUC-JIR, explained: The Weil Institute will afford to scholars of various disciplines the opportunity for an objective and impartial investigation of problems central to religion as they relate to ... history, philosophy, theology, literature, art, and the like. The program included six to eight fellowships, the first group to be appointed in 1960-61, as well as colloquia and publications. The center will be on the Cincinnati campus, with regional seminars in New York and Los Angeles as well. Fritz Bamberger of New York was chairman of the board, and Samuel Sandmel, provost of HUC-JIR, was secretary. In March 1959 the American Jewish Archives of HUC-JIR celebrated its tenth anniversary. Founded in 1949 by Jacob R. Marcus, the Archives have provided a center for the deposit of documents in American Jewish history, complete library and research facilities, a periodical and special publications in American Jewish history, and research services for scholars throughout the world. Marcus, its founder and director, was honored by a publication of two volumes of his and others' writings—Jacob Rader Marcus, American Jewry: Documents, Eighteenth Century (Cincinnati, 1958) and Essays in American Jewish History (Cincinnati, 1958). Marcus's Adolph S. Ochs Chair of Jewish History, established in 1946, was renamed the Ochs Chair of American Jewish History "to recognize," as Glueck explained, "American Jewish history as a scientific discipline in its own right. Marcus, a pioneer in the field, contributed greatly to its development and acceptance. . . ."

JEWISH THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY OF AMERICA JTS celebrated the 50th anniversary of the founding of its Teachers' Institute in June 1959. Mordecai M. Kaplan, professor of philosophies of religion at the Seminary, founded the Institute and was its first dean. He 54 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK delivered the commemorative address at the 65th annual Seminary commence- ment in June 1959, at which leading Jewish educators, alumni of the Institute, received honorary degrees. Kaplan urged rabbis and Jewish teachers to reinterpret their traditional educational role to enable them "to serve as guides for the perplexed." He deplored the Jewish leader "who potters around with all kinds of activities except that of guiding the perplexed in his community," and added, The failure to guide the perplexed contributes to the apathy which is corroding Jewish life. And the teacher who does not try to convince the parents of the children he teaches that they must prove to their children their own devotion to Judaism is involuntarily fostering in the children a resentment against Judaism. At the 1959 Universal Brotherhood dinner of the Seminary, in May 1959, Mrs. Franklin D. Roosevelt and A. Whitney Griswold, president of Yale University, were honored. Mrs. Roosevelt was praised "for her brave and free voice for liberal ideas, for traveling tirelessly as a messenger of peace, and as an eloquent prophetess of brotherhood." Griswold was cited as "an eloquent spokesman for higher learning," and as "a gentle and earnest teacher who preaches the good cause of humane studies to preserve the university as the exchange place for free ideas." At the annual dinner, Bernard Mandelbaum, newly-appointed provost of JTS, criticized what he called "the world-wide lack of brotherhood and compassion." He questioned the genuineness of commitments frequently made on behalf of the world's underprivileged, and called for a rededication to the principles and ideals of brotherhood in daily life. In July 1958 JTS held a special convocation in Jerusalem to mark the laying of the cornerstone of its American student center at the Hebrew Uni- versity. The center, which will house JTS teachers and students during their studies in Jerusalem, is now under construction. The project was praised by Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion, who said: The Jewish Theological Seminary is doing something new and of great importance by establishing in Israel a center for its students, and giving them one year's study here. It is a step of particular importance because it comes from the United States. The Jews of America are steadily becoming assimilated, and it is already difficult to imagine a sharper difference than that between Jewish life in Israel and that of Jews in the United States. In October 1958, at a weekend seminar on Talmudic ethics, part of the program of the Lehman Institute of Ethics founded by JTS in the summer of 1958, 200 business and professional leaders, scholars, and rabbis gathered to discuss ethical problems in business life. Sir Arthur Goodhart, master of University College, Oxford, told the convocation that the greatest danger today is not from hydrogen bombs but from increasing denial of basic Biblical principles in international and national affairs. These principles are that law should be obeyed because of moral obligation rather than fear of punishment, that law binds all men, and that duties go with rights. RELIGION 55

At the same time, Theodore R. McKeldin, then governor of Maryland, depicted a "rising failure to obey law and to support ideal justice." He said The barbarian ... is escaping the restraint of law. All civilized men have been shocked . . . and disheartened by the outbreaks of racial violence following the Supreme Court's decisions in the school segregation cases. Violence seems to be carrying over into the religious field. . . . Hate is mobile, and can be easily diverted. . . . Judaism is emerging as a powerful and effective spiritual force, and the dynamiting of synagogues is thus a left-handed tribute to its rising importance.

National Religious Organizations The national institutions of Orthodoxy, Conservatism, and Reform made special efforts to advance ethical living and the study of Torah.

UNION OF AMERICAN HEBREW CONGREGATIONS AND CENTRAL CONFERENCE OF AMERICAN RABBIS The clergyman of the year, selected in June 1959 by an interfaith committee of 500 on behalf of the Religious Heritage of America, Inc., was Maurice N. Eisendrath, president of UAHC. Asked why he placed so much emphasis on such social issues as world peace, civil rights, and the population explosion, Eisendrath replied, "That's religion! The heart of religion concerns itself with man's relation to man." In accordance with Eisendrath's definition, the Reform movement during this period laid special emphasis on ethics and social action. In April 1959 Eisendrath sent a message to ask the Reform movement to start a program of education and debate on the question of capital punishment. "Capital punishment serves no purpose ... It does not deter crime, and it has led to the execution of some innocent persons . . ." In May 1959 UAHC likewise urged the appointment of a presidential committee to recommend a "complete program for the elimination of discrimination in Federal housing and urban-renewal programs." It also appealed to American Jews to work with other religious groups in giving moral and financial support toward solving the Arab-refugee problem in the Middle East. I. Cyrus Gordon, chairman of the Commission on Social Action of Reform Judaism, called upon synagogue groups in December 1958 to apply the ethical principles of our religious heritage to study and act on one of the grave moral problems of our own time. . . . Israel's moral obligation will only be met when the refugees receive adequate financial compensation for the losses they have suffered. Eisendrath issued an appeal to the million Reform Jews in America "to apply the precepts and practices of prophetic Jewish faith in combating all forms of injustice and bigotry." These appeals were reinforced by the active program evolved by the rabbis of 25 congregations throughout the United States, as announced in June 1959, at the Bretton Woods, N. H., meeting of CCAR by Roland B. Gittelsohn of Temple Israel, Boston, Mass. These Reform congregations, with their rabbis, conducted research and discussion to determine "whether successful business methods can co-exist with the ethical principles of religion." 56 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK Gittelsohn said that the seminars would weigh with brutal honesty such questions as the following: What are the principal problems and dilemmas faced in the business world? What are the most common violations and corruptions of ethical values in doing business? Is it possible to achieve a moderate measure of success without sacrificing ideals? Can unethical competitive tactics be met by ethical methods? Seminars were held in Chicago and Boston. In July 1958 CCAR proposed a "master plan of religious instruction to offset the threat of overconcentration on scientific studies." The plan, announced by Emanuel Gamoran, included study of needs and goals of adult education, teacher training, lay leadership in religious instruction, and recruitment of qualified religious-education directors. Gamoran said: The threat of the nuclear age is forcing civilization to raise a population of scientists, mathematicians, and technicians. Unless this knowledge is under- girded by a moral and spiritual sensitivity that is aware of the lofty humane purposes of the democratic civilization in which we live, we are in danger of rearing a generation of robots. . . . Unless men and women are given a sense of identification with their religion we will be faced with a population ready to go but without the knowledge of where they are going. In June 1959 Eugene Borowitz was named director of the department of education of UAHC, to guide the youth and adult-educational programs in the Reform movement in accordance with Gamoran's plan, and Chaim Israel Essrog was appointed director of a new UAHC department of adult education. UAHC published a large number of books, pamphlets, filmstrips, and other aids to adult education and the study of ethical values and ideals. The commission on Jewish education of UAHC and CCAR issued in 1958-59 a new outline-curriculum for the Jewish religious school, edited by Borowitz. Its aims were summarized by Solomon B. Freehof as follows: It is our duty in the education of adults and children to establish a firm conviction of God's presence, His beneficent governance of the universe, His infinity yet His nearness to every searching heart. This is the ultimate aim of all our education, and the test of its effectiveness. The convictions of faith must be translated into principles of action. The devotion of worship in public services and in private prayer, the life of righteous action towards our fellow man and hopefulness and courage in the enterprise of living, all these are the moods we must engender as consequence of the faith in God the Eternal Included in the major publications for adult education of UAHC were the following: The Book of Job (New York, 1958), a commentary in the UAHC Jewish Commentary for Bible Readers series, by Solomon B. Freehof; God and Man in Judaism (New York, 1958), a summary of the basic tenets of Judaism, by Leo Baeck; Understanding Judaism (New York, 1958), a basic account of Judaism addressed to the uninformed, by Daniel L. Davis, and Our Religion and Our Neighbors (New York, 1959), by Milton G. Miller and Sylvan D. Schwartzman, a text in comparative religion. RELIGION 57

UNITED SYNAGOGUE OF AMERICA AND RABBINICAL ASSEMBLY OF AMERICA In 1957 the National Academy for Adult Jewish Studies of the United Synagogue assisted in organizing a New York committee on adult education. This committee first surveyed the 130 constituent congregations, to find out exactly what adult-education programs were being carried on. A city-wide conference on the findings was held in New York in January 1958. Jack J. Cohen, of the Society for the Advancement of Judaism, analyzing the survey, concluded: We find that adult Jewish education has taken second place to the major concern of congregants and rabbis: the building program. . . . We ought none the less not lose sight of the fact that we are at the outset of something rather than at the culminating point or on the downgrade of a movement.

Ben Zion Bokser discussed "the text and the commentary—a philosophy for adult education," or the great-books approach to adult education. Myron M. Fenster set out purposes for adult Jewish education, emphasizing the need to provide an orientation in Judaism, "where the sacred texts, where the great books will become . . . sacred living documents." The Academy published a number of books, study guides, and other aids to adult education. Mordecai Waxman edited a volume of essays on Conservative Judaism, Tradition and Change (New York, 1958); Evelyn Garfiel's Service of the Heart: A Guide to the Jewish Prayer Book (New York, 1958), with a companion study guide by Seymour Siegel, became a popular text in adult courses in many congregations; and The Jewish Dietary Laws: Their Meaning for Our Time (New York, 1959) by Samuel H. Dresner, and A Guide to Observance (New York, 1959) by Seymour Siegel, a pamphlet, were issued by the United Synagogue as well. The "Frontiers of Faith" kinescopes on such themes as holidays and festivals, Biblical and rabbinic literature, and the legacy of Judaism were used in many synagogues as audio-visual aids in adult study. In March 1959 JTS and the Rabbinical Assembly of America (RA) established a marriage-counseling service offering psychiatric and religious counseling to couples referred to it by rabbis throughout the country. Announcing the plan, Louis Finkelstein, chancellor of JTS, commented: The new marriage-counseling service will protect the divine element that exists in every true marriage. And through the cooperation of skilled psychiatrists, it will enable the parties to the marriage to find fulfillment within the contract they have entered into before God and man. In 1955 JTS and RA had established a joint bet din (rabbinical court) to give religious counseling, and the marriage-counseling service represented an expansion of the original program. The head of the department of psychiatry at JTS, Mortimer Ostow, explained that the psychiatrists in the program would not give direct marriage counseling. "They will offer their services to the rabbis to determine when family discord is caused by illness. Where it is not, the cases will be turned over to the clergymen." 58 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK RA meanwhile continued to consider fundamental theological questions. David W. Silverman, reporting to RA's convention in May 1959 said: It is the great hope of our time that the precision and suppleness of modern thought may arouse conceptual reforms that will renew and clarify man's relation to God. A ... drive toward the dissolution of Jewish theology has now been reversed, and an era of religious discovery which has been heralded by an increasing ferment in theology may be upon us. At the same meeting Mordecai M. Kaplan asserted that Jewish life in America is only skin deep. Jewish life is social, rather than spiritual. . . . One half of Jewish identity is the product of Gentile exclusive- ness and the other half is the product of Jewish association. He urged a series of "religious imperatives" which American Jews must follow so that Jewish life would "recover its spiritual character"—the rehabilitation of Israel as the spiritual homeland of the Jewish people, organic Jew- ish communities, better knowledge of Hebrew, and revitalization of Jewish Sabbath and festival observance. Since 1955 the national planning committee of JTS had published messages appropriate to the holy days of the Jewish calendar. In September 1959 these messages were published in The Birthday of the World, by Moshe Davis and Victor Ratner (New York, 1959), with illustrations by Marc Chagall. The messages expounded a central moral theme for each holiday and highlighted the rhythm of ideas and the sequence of religious and ethical experiences that were at once annual and perennial events in the calendar.

UNION OF ORTHODOX JEWISH CONGREGATIONS AND RABBINICAL COUNCIL OF AMERICA The continuing emphasis on ethics in Orthodox Jewish synagogues was an integral part of the normal program of Torah education, according to Norman Lamm, editor of RCA's journal, Tradition. In a private communication in August 1959, Lamm cited the various adult groups and classes, meeting in synagogues and homes, where emphasis was on the study of ethics when the text was primarily non-halakhic, such as Moses Hayyim Luzzatto's Mesillat Yesharim ("Path of the Upright," 1740). The Ethics of the Fathers was studied in most orthodox synagogues every Sabbath from Passover to Rosh ha-Shanah. There were also special musar (ethics) classes in the various yeshivot. (The study of classical ethical texts as a regular part of the curriculum had been characteristic of the Lithuanian yeshivot, the hasidic schools concentrating upon mystical classics which contain much profound ethical material.) In addition, formal courses in ethics were offered at Yeshiva University, where Leo Jung has been teaching the subject for many years. In 1959 the yortsayt lecture by Joseph B. Soloveitchik of Yeshiva University, an annual event, centered on the ethical and metaphysical aspects of the meaning of man in Judaism. Soloveitchik expounded the consequences of the ancient metaphor of man as a sefer Torah (Torah scroll) for Jewish law and philosophy. Finally, articles on ethical problems were published in Orthodox periodicals, e.g., "Jewish Ethics and Self-psychology," by Morris Gross, in Tradition, Vol. 1, No. 2, Spring 1959. RELIGION 59 Besides the educational activity of the Orthodox synagogues, the Yeshiva University department of adult education provided direction in curriculum and program materials for adult courses throughout the United States. Last year it issued syllabi on the prayer book, the Bible, Hebrew, and other subjects. Sidney B. Hoenig, its director, outlined the aims of Yeshiva's adult education program in June 1959 as follows: to stimulate Jewish adult studies by assisting congregations in the organi- 2ation, development, and effective administration of Synagogue Adult Institutes; to provide guidance ... in the evaluation of courses; to provide . . . teaching materials; to establish and maintain uniform standards of study for all affiliated synagogue adult institutes, and to lend Yeshiva University's prestige to the congregational adult education program through central registration of students . . . and through the granting by Yeshiva University of a certificate of achievement to those who successfully complete the prescribed course of study. During the period under review RCA established a central rabbinic court to deal with the domestic-relations problems of Orthodox Jews. The court will serve, according to Emanuel B. Rackman, president of RCA, as a clearing house within the Orthodox Jewish community for rendering decisions in the areas of marriage, divorce, family status, and mixed marriages. . . . While Judaism insists on compliance with all requirements of the civil law, there is the added requirement of specific religious procedures which must be followed by members of the Jewish faith. . . . Moses I. Feuerstein, president of UOJC, hoped that the court "will become an increasingly important factor in Orthodox Jewish communal life in our country." RCA also decided to inaugurate "a comprehensive program for promotion of Orthodox Judaism among college youth in this country. . . ." Rackman said in July 1958 that the program would be designed to capture the imagina- tion and loyalty of Jewish youths "who are groping for the answer to the ultimates in life," and continued: The association of Orthodox Judaism with only rituals and worship is a grave injustice to the totality of Judaism and its universal outlook. We must make the American Jewish community aware of this ancestral heritage which is so rich and edifying. . . . In October 1958 UOJC honored Patrick J. Ryan, chief of army chaplains, for "his outstanding contributions to the spirit of religiosity, tolerance, and brotherhood in the armed forces." Ryan facilitated religious observance by Orthodox Jewish personnel at all army installations, and, UOJC commented, "servicemen of the Jewish faith were encouraged and enabled to observe the precepts of their religion in a manner previously unequaled in the military establishment."

THE SYNAGOGUE COUNCIL OF AMERICA Marc H. Tanenbaum, executive director of SCA, was named in Novem- ber 1958 by President Eisenhower as vice chairman of the National Commit- 60 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK tee for the White House Conference on Children and Youth, to be held in 1960. SCA coordinated American Jewish response to many religious and ethical questions during the period in question. For example, the cooperative effort of the National Council of Churches, the National Catholic Welfare Con- ference, and SCA mobilized support among their constituencies for America's foreign-aid and trade program in the spring of 1959. SCA likewise coordinated American Jewish representation at nonpartisan conferences in Washington on the subject. Abraham J. Feldman, a past SCA president, was appointed a member of the board of the United States Committee for Refugees. Bernard Lander was appointed to the 12-member advisory committee on public assistance of the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare. Maurice N. Eisendrath represented SCA in testifying at a congressional hearing on foreign aid.

NEW YORK BOARD OF RABBIS In April 1959 the New York Board of Rabbis announced plans for an international synagogue and Jewish center at New York International Air- port at Idlewild, N. Y., (see p. 38). The center, to cost $250,000, is to com- plement a Roman Catholic chapel in use and a Protestant chapel under construction. The synagogue will contain a meditation room, a library, and a sanctuary for public and private worship. Conversion The Jewish Information Society was founded in Chicago in June 1959 to propagate the Jewish faith. The society, composed of prominent laymen and rabbis of Orthodox, Reform, and Conservative congregations, provided information, through lectures, books, and personal consultation, on the Jewish view of God, man, and the world.

A review of the annual events in the Jewish religious year cannot fail to note the perennial events embodied in die sacred calendar. During 1958-59 Jewry in America and throughout the world marked its sacred moments: a year of Sabbaths, a cycle of festivals, the Days of Awe, designated fast days, Hanukkah, and Purim. The religious calendar at once comprehended and realized the totality of Judaism; these are therefore the events that mattered most in Judaism during 1958-59. All the rest of the year's happenings were part of a continuing process, the beginnings of which one may trace some years back, the successful conclusion of which one may hope to see in years to come. JACOB NEUSNER JEWISH COMMUNAL SERVICES 61

JEWISH COMMUNAL SERVICES: PROGRAMS AND FINANCES*

ims report summarizes the major developments in each of the areas of TJewish communal service. It is concerned with programs and with financial resources for the maintenance of programs. The years 1957 and 1958 have been interpreted in this report to refer to the fiscal periods most closely approximating the calendar years. A basic two- year comparison is presented, except where a five-year comparison is needed to indicate the magnitude of the changes taking place. The consumer-price index rose by about eight per cent between 1954 and 1958, with all of the rise taking place in the last three years. Jewish communal services encompass programs to meet health, welfare, recreational, community-relations, cultural, religious, and educational needs in the United States, and to provide aid to Jews overseas. Four forms of structure have evolved in the American Jewish community to finance and provide these services: 1. the federation, for local health and welfare services; 2. the welfare fund, for national and overseas programs and local refugee, Jewish-education, and community-relations programs; 3. community councils, for community-relations and other services, and 4. the national or overseas agency, for fund raising or functional operations. Federations, welfare funds, and community councils have tended to merge over the years, and are unified in all but a few cities. The merged agencies are known by a variety of names. Jewish federations and welfare funds organize annual fund-raising campaigns. They distribute the proceeds to local, national, and overseas Jewish services by allocations based on a review of budgets and programs. Federations and welfare funds associated in the Council of Jewish Federa- tions and Welfare Funds (CJFWF) conduct their activities in communities inhabited by 92 per cent of the total Jewish population and supported by an estimated total of over a million contributors.1 The dispersion of the remaining Jewish population in thousands of small cities has prevented the creation of year-round communal structures. Local committees are organized for fund- raising purposes in hundreds of these small and scattered areas, but the loose structure frequently results in skipping campaigns in some years. UJA is the major beneficiary of such campaigns. Each federation or welfare fund is autonomous and determines for itself its specific structure and scope of activity. All include the same core group of activities and agencies, but they vary in the extent of coverage. The objective of welfare funds is to combine fund-raising activity for needs which are accepted as broad Jewish responsibilities, rather than to monopolize all financing. Some agencies continue separate fund raising, frequently by arrangement and cooperation with welfare funds.

* A longer version of this study is to be published by the Council of Jewish Federations and Welfare Funds; for meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. 1 Washington, D.C., is the only major city whose federation does not belong to CJFWF. 62 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

Fund Raising by Central Jewish Community Organizations Over $1,900 million was raised by central Jewish community organizations in the 14 years from 1946 through 1959. In 1945, the last year before the post-war emergency period, a total of §57 million had been raised. The rises and falls in campaign results since 1945 reflected, in part, varia- tions in response to the changing situation overseas. The rise in 1946 to present-day levels reflected the opportunities to aid Jewish displaced persons; the peak in 1948 was a response to opportunities for aiding mass immigration to the newly proclaimed State of Israel; the downward curve to 1955 coincided with reduced immigration to Israel, and the rise above 1955 reflected concern with increased immigration from Eastern Europe, North Africa, and Egypt. The UJA special funds since 1956 have been major factors in attaining increases in recent years. The stimulus of emergency overseas problems was also reflected in rises in sales of Bonds for Israel. Welfare funds raised $123 million in 1958 and §138 million in 1957 (Table 1). Incomplete results for 1959 indicated a rise of 6.6 per cent2 over 1958. If the New York City and remaining campaigns followed this trend, 1959 results might exceed the 1956 level of $130 million. Almost all of the increased campaign yields since 1956 were channeled to UJA, to supplement its basic share of proceeds from welfare-fund campaigns, with moderate changes for other beneficiaries. Flexibility in distribution of funds depended on the extent of earmarking of funds by contributors and specific agreement between the welfare fund and UJA in each community. Out of 122 campaigns reporting their 1959 results, with an average increase of 6.6 per cent over 1958, 30 campaigns showed a decline and 31 campaigns an increase of less than the average 6.6 per cent. The remaining 61 campaigns had greater increases. The smallest average increase was in cities with Jewish populations under 5,000.

Independent Campaigns Nine nonlocal appeals are included almost universally by welfare funds.3 Fourteen other agencies are included by half or more of all welfare funds, and other agencies by fewer welfare funds. The general practice is that a beneficiary agency must waive independent fund raising in localities where it receives an allocation from the welfare fund, unless specific arrangements to the contrary are made with the welfare fund. Welfare funds tend to exclude efforts considered to be the responsibility of limited groups or special interests. In 1958 some 70 agencies raised $50.1 million independently, compared with $46.4 million in 1957. Since the New York UJA includes only National UJA, AJCongress, JWB, and UHS, other nonlocal agencies raise funds independently in New York

2 Based on results of 122 campaigns which had accounted for about 90 per cent of the funds raised outside of New York City. 3 United Jewish Appeal, Joxnt Defense Appeal, National Jewish Welfare Board, University- Techmon Joint Maintenance Appeal, America-Israel Cultural Foundation, B'nai B'rith National Youth Service Appeal, United HIAS Service, American Jewish Congress, American Association for Jewish Education. JEWISH COMMUNAL SERVICES 63 City. While no accurate estimates are available regarding the totals raised in New York City, partial information suggests that at least a third of the $50.1 million raised independently in 1958 was secured there. This is the ratio which generally prevails in fund raising as between New York City and the rest of the country. Substantial independent fund raising is conducted by national Jewish hospitals; by institutions of higher learning, in part for capital needs (Hebrew University, Technion, Brandeis University, Einstein Medical School); by national congregational associations, and by membership groups (Hadassah, ORT, B'nai B'rith, National Council of Jewish Women, and Pioneer Women). Restricted independent fund raising for local agencies, generally arranged by agreement with federations, provides smaller sums for operating purposes. Local hospitals, family agencies, child-care agencies, and homes for the aged raised a total of $5.5 million independently in 1958. Contribution income of local community centers was at least $0.2 million. Such supplementary contributions are about three per cent of the total receipts of these local agencies, with the major share of their contributed income derived from Jewish federations and from community chests. Distribution of Funds The first major shift in distribution of the proceeds of welfare-fund campaigns in several years occurred in 1956 as a result of special allocations for the UJA Special Survival Fund, designed to augment the regular allocations for UJA. The total UJA share of net funds budgeted 4 rose from 58 per cent in 1955 to 65 per cent in 1957 and then dropped to 60 per'cent in 1958 (Table 3). On the basis of preliminary 1959 campaign receipts, a rise in the UJA share of funds was indicated for 1959. Allocations to overseas agencies other than UJA and national agencies fell by 1.5 per cent in 1958. Overseas agencies other than UJA shared a decrease of 2.5 per cent in allocations in 1958. Allocations to local refugee care, sometimes considered an extension of overseas programs on the domestic scene, continued to decline, falling sharply by more than 20 per cent in 1958. Allocations to national domestic agencies declined by less than one per cent in 1958. Allocations for religious and health agencies accounted for the decline; total allocations for community-relations and national service agencies were relatively stationary, while there was a slight rise in allocations for cultural agencies. Local services received for operating purposes about $30.6 million in 1958, compared with $30.2 million in 1957.5 The increases were shared by all local services, except health services. Although income for Jewish local services from community chests continued to rise in 1958, the costs of services eligible for chest support (health, family and child care, recreation, and aged care) rose to an even greater extent. Reports from 93 cities in 1958 showed that allocations by Jewish federations and by community chests rose 1.5 and 2.7 per cent respectively. There was a downward movement in allocations for local capital purposes 4 After provision for local administrative costs and normal shrinkage of pledges. 5 Excluding local refugee care, classified as overseas. 64 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK in 1958, but such allocations did not exceed 1.3 per cent of the total. Where communities could not absorb a separate local capital-fund drive because of campaign periods for regular funds, special funds, Israel bonds, community chest, and special drives of nonlocal agencies, there was a tendency to try to obtain allocations for local capital funds from the proceeds of the welfare- fund drive. In some cases these provisions were for mortgage payments for structures erected before total funds required for construction were available. A larger share of funds was allocated for local programs in cities with Jewish population of 40,000 and over than in cities below that population range. This reflected mainly allocations for Jewish hospitals in the larger cities. The most common local services in all sizes of communities were community centers and Jewish education. Smaller cities provided a larger share of their funds for all local services to these programs than larger cities, with their higher hospital costs. This pattern of fund distribution results from the review of budgets by federations and welfare funds. Funds raised independently depend on the effectiveness of campaign techniques, attractiveness of the appeal, and success in raising funds in New York City. These two patterns differ markedly (as shown in Table 4). Welfare funds provided most of the funds for UJA and national service agencies, while independent campaigns provided most of the funds for other overseas campaigns and health, cultural, and religious agencies.

Aid to Israel Aid to Israel by Jews in the United States is channeled through UJA and other overseas agencies and through the Bonds for Israel. United States governmental assistance and German reparations are the other major external sources of aid to Israel. All these sources of foreign currency supplement Israel's own earnings abroad. American sources provided about $175 million, or almost 29 per cent of Israel's total foreign-currency income of $608 million, for the fiscal year ending March 30, 1959. Together with reparations, these sources provided 43 per cent of total foreign-currency income. Israel's own earnings come largely from exports of goods and services, foreign investments, and private transfers. To the extent that income from these sources rises and is not offset by rises in imports, government expenditures, and new borrowing, the need for American funds, including philanthropy, is lessened. Exports from Israel reached $139 million in 1958, or 33 per cent of imports of $421 million.6 In 1957 exports had been $141 million and imports $432 million. The annual trade deficits have ranged from $224 million to $335 million since the creation of the State of Israel, with the 1958 deficit at $282 million.

PHILANTHROPIC PROGRAMS Philanthropic funds continue to be an important source of income for Israel. While the basic use of these funds is for welfare programs, the ex-

6 Bank of Israel, Annual Report, 1958. JEWISH COMMUNAL SERVICES 65 change of dollars for pounds is helpful in making available foreign currency. Over a billion dollars was remitted to Israel by Jewish organizations from 1946 through 1958.r American Jewish philanthropic agencies reporting to CJFWF had available for overseas purposes about $82 million in 1958, compared with almost $98 million in 1957. About 80 per cent of the $82 million was for Israel purposes. Total immigration rose to about 55,000 in 1956 and 71,000 in 1957, but fell to about 26,000 in 1958. Immigration in the first eight months of 1959 was 18,200.

BOND SALES The three-year flotation period of the Israel Independence Bond Issue ended in May 1954 with reported sales of $145.5 million, of which $3.6 million in bonds was converted within the ensuing year (and $5.6 million subsequently) into the Israel Development Issue, which was floated in May 1954. From 1952 through November 1953 a total of $30.5 million in bonds was transmitted to UJA in payment of pledges. By the end of 1958 outstanding bonds of the first issue totaled $108.9 million.8 Sales of the second bond issue (Israel Development Issue) began in May 1955, and a third issue was initiated in March 1959. Total bond sales for all issues were reported at almost $420 million by the beginning of January 1959.9 Bond sales in the United States totaled $43 million in 1959, a rise of 14 per cent over the 1958 total of $37.5 million. Worldwide sales in 1959 were $52.3 million. Bond revenue was utilized in 1959 as follows: agriculture, 33 per cent; industry, 25 per cent; housing and construction, 31 per cent; transportation, 7 per cent, and a general reserve, 4 per cent.

REPARATIONS FUNDS Next to earnings from exports, foreign-currency income for individual restitution payments and other personal remittances constituted the largest single source of foreign currency for Israel in 1958-59. These totaled $101 million in 1958-59, compared with $75 million in the preceding year. Payments from Germany under the reparations agreement yielded $87 million in 1958-59. In January 1959 CJMCAG made the sixth yearly allocation of funds put at its disposal by Israel from reparations payments. Of §10.1 million allocated for relief of victims of the Nazis outside of Israel, $7.2 million was granted for relief and rehabilitation, mainly through JDC. In addition, welfare programs in the United Kingdom, Czechoslovakia, and South America received about $237,000. There were also grants for cultural and educational reconstruction in Europe and the United States totaling about $1.8 million, including about $135,000 for transplanted yeshivot and $250,000 for cultural agencies in the United States. About $10 to $11 million annually has gone for relief programs in Israel, mostly through the Jewish Agency.

7 United States Department of Commerce, Foreign Commerce Weekly, June 17. 1957 for 1946-1956; plus 1957 and 1958 estimates. 8 Development Corporation of Israel Prospectus, February 5, 1959. 9 About $80 million worth of bonds had been redeemed by the end of 1959, (including use of bonds to pay UJA pledges). 66 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK CJMCAG provided an additional allocation of $450,000 to UHS for 1959 migration aid to victims of the Nazis (pp. 110-27).

Other Overseas Agencies American Jewish financial support for needs in Israel and in other overseas areas is provided mainly through welfare-fund allocations to UJA and about a dozen other overseas agencies. Of all funds distributed in 1958 by welfare funds for overseas purposes, 95 per cent went to UJA. Other overseas agencies raised the bulk of their funds independently. Of a total $82- million income of all overseas agencies in 1958, some $20.5 million was raised outside the welfare funds. The largest of these independent activities, accounting for §17.0 million, were Hadassah, which raised §7.4 million through membership activities; the building and special-fund drives of Hebrew University and Technion, which raised $4.1 million; the drives of National Committee for Labor Israel and Pioneer Women, for welfare activities by Histadrut in Israel, which raised $2.9 million, and the JNF campaign for traditional income, which raised $2.6 million.

UNITED JEWISH APPEAL UJA is a partnership of the United Israel Appeal (UIA) and JDC for joint fund raising. Over 90 per cent of UJA income is from welfare funds, the remainder coining from hundreds of small nonfederated communities. UJA does not operate any service programs directly. These are conducted through the agencies which share in its proceeds: UIA, JDC, New York Association for New Americans (NYANA), and, partially, UHS. The distribution of UJA funds in 1958 was in accordance with a formula which has remained unchanged since 1951 and is effective through 1963. This provides that, after deduction of campaign expenses and allocations to NYANA, UIA is to receive 67 per cent and JDC 33 per cent of the first $55 million raised each year. Beyond $55 million, UIA is to receive 87.5 per cent and JDC 12.5 per cent. There is also a provision for renegotiation of 10 per cent of the funds for each year "in the event that some unusual emergency arises." UJA initiated a drive for a Special Survival Fund as part of its 1956 campaign, designed to augment its regular drive. By January 1960 cash payments of $17.1 million had been received. The major purpose of the special fund was to finance the mass immigration of North African Jews to Israel, and JDC waived its right to share in the proceeds. For 1957 UJA again sought a special fund, the Emergency Rescue Fund, for the migration to Israel of Hungarian Jews who had fled after October 1956; for Polish Jews and repatriates from Russia who were being permitted to migrate to Israel by the Polish government; for Egyptian Jews who had been expropriated by the Nasser government in the wake of the Sinai expedi- tion in 1956, and for North African Jews, who were continuing to leave for Israel individually. By January 1960 cash payments of $23.6 million had been received, and it appeared that outstanding pledges for the Emergency Rescue Fund would be an additional $1.3 million. JEWISH COMMUNAL SERVICES 67

The distribution of proceeds of the 1957 Emergency Rescue Fund was determined on the basis of the actual experience of UIA, JDC, NYANA, and UHS in dealing with the problems of Egyptian, Hungarian, Polish, and North African Jews. Distribution of about $2.9 million for these purposes was made to JDC, NYANA, and UHS. UIA receives the major portion of the Emergency Rescue Fund. A third special fund was sought by UJA in 1958. Pledges of $13 million were listed at the end of 1959, against which $10.6 million in cash payments had been received. The shares of JDC, NYANA, and UHS in the 1958 special UJA fund totaled §1.2 million at the end of 1958. A fourth special fund was again sought by UJA in 1959, with indications of increased pledges. A fifth special fund was to be sought in 1960. The share of UJA in all welfare-fund allocations had been 60 per cent in 1953 and 57-58 per cent in the following two years. As a result of the special fund, the share was about 64 per cent in 1956 and 1957, and 60 per cent in 1958. The increase in 1959 special-fund pledges appeared to indicate that this might rise moderately. Regular cash receipts of UJA were $55 million in 1955, the last year before the initiation of "special" funds. They decreased in the subsequent four years, but the addition of special funds more than offset this decrease. UJA borrowing of $64.8 million through welfare funds in 1954 resulted in an equivalent credit in Israeli pounds for the Jewish Agency's use in carrying out its welfare activities in Israel—immigration, absorption, and land settlement. The foreign currency made available to the Israeli government in the exchange transaction allowed the government to change short-term to medium- or long-term debts. Major new borrowing took place in 1954, 1956, and 1958. Where local communities repaid loan installments and interest, UJA credited such amounts against their allocations. Such repayments were considered as UIA income on account of its share of UJA proceeds in lieu of cash. Amounts outstanding at the end of each year and new borrowing during each year are shown below (in millions):

LOANS OUTSTANDING NEW BORROWING Date Amount Year Amount 12/31/55 $39.1 1955 $ 6.8 12/31/56 57.8 1956 43.6 12/31/57 45.0 1957 13.6 12/31/58 49.9 1958 36.1

In 1958 UJA's provision of cash to UIA was made after deducting credits of about §27.7 million for payments of principal and interest on loans. On a pledge basis, UJA income was $82 million in 1957 and $70 million in 1958 for all funds. The 1959 total was expected to be somewhere between. UJA has sought advance agreements with welfare funds on the UJA share of campaigns. As a general rule, it seeks to secure all income raised in special funds and at least the same percentage of regular funds that it previously received. 68 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

UNITED ISRAEL APPEAL UJA funds destined for the Jewish Agency for Israel are channeled through UIA, which acts as the fund-raising agency in the United States for the Keren ha-Yesod (Palestine Foundation Fund). UIA conducts a program designed to stimulate interest in Israel and in the activities of the Jewish Agency for Israel through motion pictures, brochures, a monthly magazine, and other media. Until 1958, at the direction of the Jewish Agency, UIA allocated about $2.1 million annually for constructive enterprises of the Mizrahi Palestine Fund, Agudath Israel and Po'ale Agudath Israel, the World Confederation of Gen- eral Zionists, and the United Zionist Revisionists. Since 1958 the Jewish Agency has handled these allocations directly. Each of the recipients waived its rights to raise funds independently in the United States for its projects in Israel and thus reduced the number of campaigns for Israel previously conducted. Some of the recipients, and others, have entered into similar arrangements affecting Keren ha-Yesod campaigns in other countries. Labor Zionist groups do not secure allocations from the Jewish Agency, but conduct a campaign for the National Committee for Labor Israel, which supports the settlement and welfare activities of the Histadrut. JNF, under the UJA agreement, is permitted to raise $1,800,000 annually for traditional collections in the United States, after deduction of expenses not exceeding $300,000; in addition, JNF receives in Israel, directly from the Jewish Agency, about $3 million annually. Total UIA receipts in 1958 were $68 million, including $31.6 million in new loans. In 1955 UIA receipts were $36.6 million.

JEWISH AGENCY FOR ISRAEL The sources of Jewish Agency income are primarily welfare-fund allocations and bank loans channeled through UJA, UIA, and Keren ha-Yesod; the major share of Keren ha-Yesod receipts in Jewish communities outside the United States; counterpart income flowing from the German reparations agreement; participation of the Israel government in the costs of agricultural settlement, and earmarked contributions for Youth Aliyah. About 80 per cent of contributions came from the United States. Contributions in 1957-58 covered about a third of expenditures, with remaining income (mainly reparations, loans and advances, and government grants) covering the rest The Jewish Agency received I£200.8 million and spent I£200.0 million in the year ending September 30, 1958 (including loans made totaling I£93 million, and loans repaid exceeding I£19 million).10 The largest block of Jewish Agency expenditures in 1957-58, 33 per cent, continued to be for agricultural settlement—founding new settlements, irrigation projects, citriculture, equipment, seed, instruction, supplementary employment, and long-term loans. Some 482 villages, most of them founded since 1948, received Jewish Agency assistance, with 59 villages in the stage of final consolidation.

10 The official rate of exchange is I£ 1 = $.55, but not all funds were in dollars. A special rate (l£ 1 = $.66) prevailed for the exchange of institutional funds before April, 1958 but the official rate has since applied to the exchange of institutional funds. JEWISH COMMUNAL SERVICES 69 Costs of permanent immigrant housing, which had been 20 per cent in 1956-57, declined to 17 per cent in 1957-58. Immigration, transportation, and initial reception of immigrants, which had accounted for 14 per cent of expenditures in 1956-57, decreased to 8 per cent in 1957-58. Since the number arriving in Israel in 1957-58 was 22,000, compared with about 81,000 in the previous year, costs dropped from I£32.5 million to I£16.3 million. For 1957-58 preliminary data indicated the arrival of about 23,000 immigrants in Israel. A new movement of immigrants from Rumania began in the autumn of 1958 and ended early in 1959. Im- migration from October 1958 through May 1959 totaled 26,000. Youth Aliyah programs for the maintenance and education of immigrant youth (aged 6-17) cost I£11.5 million in 1957-58. Hadassah and other Zionist women's organizations in the United States and Canada continued to provide about one-third of these costs, with the major share borne by the Jewish Agency. In 1956-57, for the first time, the Jewish Agency shared with government departments the costs for immigrant services such as education, health, and social welfare. It allocated I£5 million for those services in 1956-57 and I£14.5 million in 1957-58. Other Jewish Agency expenditures included grants for institutions of higher learning in Israel (Weizmann Institute, Hebrew University, and Technion), work with youth, Jewish secular and religious studies outside Israel, organization and information activities, and general administrative expenses.

AMERICAN JEWISH JOINT DISTRIBUTION COMMITTEE JDC maintains a world-wide program of aid to Jews. It assisted over 200,000 persons in 1958, including about 40,000 in Israel, 57,000 in Europe, 100,000 in Moslem areas, and about 4,400 in other areas. JDC has two major sources of income: UJA and CJMCAG. In 1958 JDC had cash receipts of $22.8 million, of which $14.0 million was from UJA, $7.1 million from CJMCAG and from other types of restitution income, and $0.2 million from campaigns abroad. These receipts were down $5.3 million from $28.1 million in 1957. JDC spent $25.5 million in 1958, compared with $27.8 million in 1957. The Malben services to sick, aged, and handicapped immigrants in Israel continued to account for the largest single share of JDC's appropriations: $10.6 million, or 40 per cent of the 1958 total. An additional $0.7 million went to aid 132 yeshivot and other traditional institutions in Israel. At the end of 1957 Malben was aiding 6,362 persons in institutions, but in 1958 it instituted a policy of avoiding institutionalization wherever possible, the able- bodied aged being given one-room apartments of their own. A social-work school in Israel, with an enrollment of 68 students, was opened in 1958 in cooperation with the Hebrew University and the welfare ministry. JDC has agreed to provide $500,000 over a five-year period for this project, designed to provide more and better-trained welfare workers in Israel. Relief, health, and educational programs in Moslem countries, mainly North Africa, have expanded since 1955, and JDC appropriated $4.0 million in 70 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK 1958 for work in those fields. JDC aid is channeled through such agencies as OSE, in health; Alliance Israelite Universelle, Otzar ha-Torah, and Luba- vitcher schools in education, and ORT in vocational training. JDC provided relief to about 15,000 Rumanian Jewish emigrants in Austria in 1958 and early 1959, and also aided Hungarian, Polish, and Egyptian refugees. JDC offices, reopened in Poland in October 1957, conducted an assistance program for Polish Jews, including over 12,000 repatriates from Russia who were helped at the end of 1958. JDC also provided aid to Jews in other European countries in 1958. CJMCAG funds were used to assist Jewish communities to reorganize their communal life and institutions, including health and welfare agencies, synagogues, and centers.

ORT Vocational training is provided by ORT in Europe, some Moslem countries, and Israel. Vocational education in Israel is also conducted as part of the programs of Histadrut, Hadassah, Youth Aliyah, and Technion, and by the Israel government and municipalities. The expenditures of the World ORT Union were $5.4 million in 1958 and $4.8 million in 1957. In 1958 ORT trained 33,905: 8,264 in Israel, 8,342 in Moslem countries, and 17,277 in Europe. In 1957 it had trained 25,546. American Jewish support of the ORT program is channeled in two ways: through the JDC grant made possible by JDC's participation in UJA, and through membership contributions. In 1958 the JDC grant to ORT was $1.6 million, and the Women's American ORT raised $0.8 million.

NEW YORK ASSOCIATION FOR NEW AMERICANS Because about two-thirds of the Jewish immigrants arriving in the United States remain in New York City, support of NYANA is considered to be a national responsibility and NYANA is a direct beneficiary of UJA. Jewish immigration to the United States in 1958 was estimated at 6,000, 3,900 in New York City. UJA grants to NYANA declined to $870,000 in 1958, from $1,291,000 in 1957, when there had been a sizeable Hungarian immigration.

OTHER OVERSEAS AGENCIES UJA received almost all its income from welfare funds and joint community appeals, but 14 other overseas agencies received a smaller share of their total contributions from these sources. The University-Technion Joint Maintenance Appeal was supported only by welfare funds. The non-UJA agencies which received the highest proportion of their contributions from welfare funds in 1958 were the Federated Council of Israel Institutions, 87 per cent; UHS, 53 per cent, and the America-Israel Cultural Foundation, 26 per cent. Hadassah, Pioneer Women, and National Council of Jewish Women have traditionally raised most of their funds through membership activities; the National Committee for Labor Israel has long preferred a policy of raising JEWISH COMMUNAL SERVICES 71 funds independently in the largest communities, where its membership strength is centered, while seeking welfare-fund allocations in smaller and medium-sized communities; the American Friends of the Hebrew University and American Technion Society have raised their building funds independently, while seeking maintenance support from welfare funds. Almost all of these agencies were authorized to conduct campaigns for Israel by the Jewish Agency Committee for Control and Authorization of Campaignsn under conditions set by that committee to educate the contributing public to the primacy of UJA and to avoid a multiplicity of campaigns, particularly those with questionable validity or urgency. Fourteen non-UJA overseas drives yielded §21.5 million in 1957 and $22.8 million in 1958. By far the largest was Hadassah's, which raised $9 million in 1958. Hadas- sah's major projects are for medical services and Youth Aliyah. Hadassah's contribution to Youth Aliyah has been over $2 million annually, other women's groups in the United States and overseas providing smaller, supplementary funds. Youth Aliyah children cared for in 1957-58 were about 16,500. The Israeli institutions of higher education (Weizmann Institute, Hebrew University, and Technion) had American income of about $6.4 million in 1958, mainly in contributions, compared with $5.0 million in 1957. In addition, all three institutions received grants from the Jewish Agency, a UJA beneficiary, and from the government of Israel. Weizmann Institute income in the United States is derived from an annual fund-raising dinner and from an investment program. Hebrew University and Technion received $634,000 from welfare funds in 1958 and $654,000 in 1957. The rise in proceeds from their independent campaigns for building funds and special funds was pronounced, from $2.8 million in 1957 to $4.0 million in 1958. The maintenance appeals of the two institutions were merged, but their capital-fund drives were conducted separately. Both institutions have had marked enrollment increases in recent years, with about 5,000 students at Hebrew University and about 2,800 at Technion in 1959. Increased enrollment, additional branches of study, the in- accessibility of Mt. Scopus, and the inadequacy of a 45-year old Technion plant motivated the building-fund efforts. Hebrew University includes schools of humanities, social sciences, social work, physical sciences, agriculture, law, medicine, dentistry, and pharmacy. Technion includes schools in various branches of engineering, architecture, and industrial sciences, as well as a technical high school. The Tel Aviv School of Law and Economies was merged with Hebrew University in 1959. In 1957-58 Bar-Han University, founded in 1955, had a student enrollment of 172 in four faculties: Jewish studies, natural science and mathematics, social science, and language and literature. Its fund raising in the United States has been restricted to Mizrahi members and friends.

ll Authorized agencies in 1958 and 1959 were the American Committee for Weizmann Institute of Science (annual fund-raising dinner only); American Friends of the Hebrew University America-Israel Cultural Foundation; American Red Mogen Dovid for Israel (membership campaign only; no application to welfare funds); American Technion Society; Federated Council of Israel Institutions; Hadassah; JNF (traditional collections only; no application to welfare funds); Mizrahi Women's Organization (no application to welfare funds)- Pioneer Women- Women's League for Israel (New York area). ' 72 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK The type of religious school which comes to the attention of the American Jewish contributor most frequently is the yeshivah. There were 7,000 students in attendance in 1958 at 149 Israeli yeshivot,12 many of which have no age limits. They are loosely termed traditional institutions because their roots are in the traditional Jewish religious life of Eastern Europe. Many of the yeshivot receive support from JDC ($596,000 in 1958). Some receive support from the Federated Council of Israel Insitutions ($127,000 in 1958), but a great number also seek funds separately in the United States through col- lectors (meshullahim—emissaries) and mail appeals. There are no comprehensive records of these appeals. Cultural programs in Israel were supported by the America-Israel Cultural Foundation ($1,077,000 in 1958), which included 32 Israeli agencies in its appeal. In 1958 UHS assisted 6,979 Jewish migrants (including 1,954 to the United States), compared with 17,794 in 1957. Of the agencies with limited overseas programs, the National Council of Jewish Women provides social-work scholarships and helps the education department of the Hebrew University, and the Jewish Labor Committee (JLC) aids political and labor refugees in Europe and in Israel. Some domestic community-relations agencies have programs to protect Jews overseas: the American Jewish Committee, the AJCongress (through WJC), and JLC.

National Agencies Domestic agencies reflect the continuing needs of American Jews for fostering good community relations, health care, education, youth programs, culture, and the like. The task of serving needs is divided between national and local agencies, particularly in community relations, education, health, and vocational guidance. A number of national agencies act as channels for intercommunity exchange of experience and furnish program resources for local agencies in specific fields of service: JWB, for community centers; the American Association for Jewish Education (AAJE), for bureaus of Jewish education; the National Community Relations Advisory Council (NCRAC), for local community- relations councils; UHS, for refugee agencies, and the Jewish Occupational Council, for vocational-service agencies. The federations and welfare funds link local, national, and overseas services by centralized fund raising, review of agency programs in the process of budgeting funds, and planning—and sometimes operating—local services. The national agency which serves the federations and welfare funds is the Council of Jewish Federations and Welfare Funds (CJFWF).

COMMUNITY-RELATIONS AGENCIES Modem community-relations agencies trace their origins back to the turn of the century. The Kishinev pogroms are associated with the origin of the American Jewish Committee, preparation for the Paris peace conference after 12 Israel Government Year Book S719 (1958), p. 387. JEWISH COMMUNAL SERVICES 73 World War I with the origin of the AJCongress, and the rise of Hitlerism with the origin of the JLC. These three agencies continue to maintain active programs designed to aid Jews in other countries suffering from civil disabili- ties, but their major present emphasis is on improving domestic group relations. All of the five major national Jewish community-relations agencies serve a membership—the American Jewish Committee, AJCongress, and Jewish War Veterans (JWV) directly, the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) and JLC indirectly (B'nai B'rith and trade unions, respectively). They conduct cultural programs and issue publications of interest to circles wider than their own membership. The American Jewish Committee and ADL conduct activities which utilize mass media (radio, TV, movies, press, magazines, etc.), as well as programs for special-interest groups (interfaith and intercultural education, business and industry, labor, veterans, farmers, youth, minority groups, etc.). Both maintain networks of regional offices as two-way channels for the integration of their national and local programs. The other three agencies have more specialized approaches: AJCongress, legal and legislative activities; JLC, work with labor unions, and JWV, work with veterans' groups. Interfaith activities are conducted by congregational associations, although the major portion of their programs are centered on aid to affiliated congregations. The American Jewish Committee and ADL raise most of their funds through the Joint Defense Appeal (JDA) and share equally in its income. NCRAC serves as the coordinating and clearance agency for the AJCon- gress, JLC, JWV, and the three congregational associations, and 47 local and regional community-relations councils. Each year it develops a joint program plan outlining the major tasks recommended to its member agencies. The JDA agencies consult with one another and meet informally with other agencies from time to time on specific problems. NCRAC, AJCongress, JLC, and JWV participate in the cooperative budget review of the Large City Budgeting Conference (LCBC), a grouping of welfare funds in the 23 largest cities. In 1958 the five operating agencies and NCRAC received less than $6.82 million, a rise of less than one per cent over income of more than $6.77 million in 1957. Five years earlier, in 1953, the five agencies had income of $5.7 million.

NATIONAL HEALTH AGENCIES National Jewish hospitals came into existence before many of the present local Jewish hospitals were organized. Subsequent improvement in the health of Jews and recent medical advances in tuberculosis therapy led tuberculosis hospitals to concern themselves with heart, cancer, adult asthma, and research- This was reflected in changes of name: the Jewish Consumptives' and Ex-Patients' Relief Association became the City of Hope, the Jewish Con- sumptives' Relief Society became the American Medical Center at Denver, and the National Home for Jewish Children became the Jewish National 74 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK Home for Asthmatic Children. Despite these shifts, tuberculosis still continued to represent the major ailment treated, as measured by days of care. The five hospitals in this field had 833 beds and provided 248,665 days' care in 1958. Although all Jewish hospitals have a nonsectarian admissions policy, the proportion of service to non-Jewish patients was higher in the national than in the local hospitals (an average of some 82 per cent for three of the national tuberculosis hospitals, compared with 60 per cent in local Jewish hospitals, in 1958). Most fund raising by these agencies is now conducted outside of the welfare funds, and welfare-fund support has dwindled from year to year. In 1958 these agencies experienced a further reduction in income from welfare funds, to less than two per cent of total income. In contrast, most of the agencies have raised increased funds independently. This parallels the experience of nonsectarian health campaigns (cancer, heart, polio). Income of the six agencies in 1958 was $9.8 million, with two (City of Hope and National Jewish Hospital) raising almost 80 per cent of the total. Both agencies were conducting campaigns for building funds as well as for current operations. The Albert Einstein Medical School, of Yeshiva University, began functioning in 1955. The Chicago Medical School, although under nonsectarian auspices, has a preponderantly Jewish student body and seeks support from Jewish sources.

NATIONAL SERVICE AGENCIES Five national coordinating and consultatives organizations serve local agencies in the fields of Jewish community centers, programs for the armed forces, Jewish education, religion, and vocational guidance. JWB is the oldest and by far the largest. In 1958 it received $1,266,000 out of a total of $1,522,000 for the five agencies. (In 1953, five years earlier, total income for the agencies was $1,412,000.) JWB is the national association of Jewish centers, but it also conducts a program of services to Jews in the armed forces, participates in nonsectarian United Service Organization programs, and sponsors a number of Jewish cultural projects. AAJE serves local communities with studies in educational trends, stimula- tion of student enrollment, recruitment and placement of teachers, and pedagogic materials. In 1959 it released the findings of a major national study of Jewish education (pp. 127-49). The Jewish Occupational Council serves local Jewish vocational-service bureaus; 13 the National Conference of Jewish Communal Service is a forum for professional workers in all fields of Jewish communal service, and the Synagogue Council of America represents its affiliated Orthodox, Conserva- tive, and Reform rabbinical and congregational associations.

CULTURAL AGENCIES The cultural field is served by many small agencies. Fifteen agencies had income of $12.8 million in 1958, compared with $11.2 million in 1957; Bran- is B'nai B'rith Vocational Service serves its affiliates in 12 cities. JEWISH COMMUNAL SERVICES 75 deis University accounted for 60 per cent, B'nai B'rith National Youth Service Appeal for 19 per cent, and the Zionist Organization of America for 8 per cent. The remaining 12 agencies received §1.6 million in 1958. Four are institutions of higher learning: Brandeis University (liberal arts), National Agricultural College, Dropsie College (graduate studies in Semi- tics), and Jewish Teachers' Seminary and People's University.14 A graduate school of social work on the doctoral level was initiated by Brandeis Uni- versity in 1959. Research and scholarly publication are conducted by YlVO-Institute for Jewish Research, the Conference on Jewish Relations, the American Academy for Jewish Research, the American Biblical Encyclopedia Society, Historia Judaica, the American Jewish Historical Society, American Jewish Archives, the American Jewish History Center and the Jewish Museum of the Jewish Theological Seminary, Histadruth Ivrith, and Bitzaron. The Jewish Publica- tion Society of America specializes in books of Jewish interest, and Dropsie College also publishes the Jewish Quarterly Review. Reference annuals include the AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK, published jointly by the American Jewish Committee and the Jewish Publication Society, the Yearbook of Jewish Social Service, published by CJFWF, and the JWB Year Book. Annual reports on activities are issued by other agencies, ranging from mimeographed reports to bound volumes. Among magazines of general Jewish interest are Commentary, published by the American Jewish Committee; Congress bi-Weekly and Judaism, a quarterly, by AJCongress, and Midstream, a quarterly, by the Jewish Agency through the Herzl Institute. Many agencies issue magazines which frequently contain articles of broad interest as well as material addressed to their own constituencies. B'nai B'rith National Youth Service Appeal (BBNYSA: Hillel, B'nai B'rith Youth Organization, and B'nai B'rith Vocational Service), Brandeis Youth Foundation, and Jewish Chautauqua Society emphasize youth and college activities. BBNYSA agencies conduct local operations, coordinated regionally and nationally. CJFWF initiated a study of national Jewish cultural programs in June 1958 to establish an inventory of existing programs, evaluate them, analyze the adequacy of their financing, and assess unmet needs. For the study and its recommendations, see pp. 149-64.

RELIGIOUS AGENCIES The work of religious agencies is largely in elementary Jewish education; training of rabbis, cantors, Jewish educators, shohatim, and other religious functionaries; service to congregations, and efforts to reach the unaffiliated. The three religious wings have their own rabbinical associations and their congregational associations with national associations of sisterhoods, men's clubs, and youth groups. Nationally, they attempt to help in the organization of new congregations and publish ritual and educational materials. There is

14 Gratz College in Philadelphia and the College of Jewish Studies of Chicago are financed locally. 76 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK far more centralization in the Reform and Conservative groups than in Orthodoxy, which has many yeshivot and at least three rabbinical associations. The major seminaries rely primarily on associated congregations for their financial support, sometimes through per capita arrangements, but they also receive some welfare-fund support. They generally campaign independently in larger cities and in cities where welfare funds believe that all such programs should be an exclusively congregational responsibility. Where the student body is centered in a particular city, welfare-fund support may be sought for the cost of non-resident students; or an alumnus serving a pulpit in another city may attempt to enlist welfare-fund support. The Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion (HUC-JIR) prepares religious functionaries for Reform Judaism, the Jewish Theological Seminary of America (JTS) for Conservative Judaism, and Yeshiva University and several smaller institutions for Orthodox Judaism. Most Orthodox yeshivot are in New York City, but there are also the Jewish University of America (formerly Hebrew Theological College) near Chicago, the Rabbinical College of Telshe in Cleveland, the Ner Israel Rabbinical College in Balti- more, and the Chachmey Lublin Theological Seminary in Detroit. The fostering and coordination of religious day schools is a major function of the Mizrachi National Council for Torah Education, the United Luba- vitcher Yeshivoth, the National Council of Beth Jacob Schools, and Torah Umesorah. All but Torah Umesorah concentrate on serving a particular network of Orthodox all-day schools. Some of the programs conducted by the major seminaries involve interfaith activities designed to promote better understanding between Jews and Christians. Yeshiva University includes a theological seminary, a school for Jewish educators, a liberal-arts college, a medical school, and a graduate school of social work. Twenty-one national religious agencies received dose to $18.9 million in 1958, compared with more than $16.3 million in 1957. Yeshiva University and Einstein Medical School received 70 per cent of the increase, and JTS and the combined campaign of UAHC-HUC-JIR most of the remaining increases.

Financing Local Services Jewish federations supplied about $32.9 million in 1958 ($33.0 million in. 1957) to local Jewish services in health, family and child care, refugee aid, Jewish centers, Jewish education, care of the aged, vocational services, and community relations. Federations were the major source of contributed income for local Jewish agencies. Nonsectarian community chests15 provided an additional estimated $14.4 million, usually through Jewish federations, but sometimes directly to local Jewish service agencies. Community chests generally restrict their support to agencies in health, family and child care, and care of the aged, and to Jewish centers. A substantial share of contributed communal income even in these fields comes from Jewish federations; in addition, federations have the

15 Including Greater New York Fund and NYC United Hospital Fund. JEWISH COMMUNAL SERVICES 77 exclusive responsibility for refugee care, Jewish education, and community relations. Available data for 93 communities for 1958 and 1957 show how central communal funds (income from federations and chests) were distributed among various fields of local service (Table 5). Federations continued to provide roughly three-fifths and community chests two-fifths of central communal funds received by local agencies in these communities.16 The rise in funds in 1958 was 2.0 per cent, with Jewish federations increasing their 1957 grants 1.5 per cent and community chests 2.7 per cent. Allocations by Jewish federations for local services dropped absolutely before 1955, but have risen since then; the ratio of the federations' to chests' contributions has been relatively stable since 1955 (Table 6). In 1958 there were rises of 2.3 to 11.8 per cent in central communal grants for family and child-care services, recreation, Jewish education, aged care, and employment and guidance services. Health services declined 1.3 per cent. These rises were largely offset by a decline of 23.8 per cent in grants for refugee care, generally administered in conjunction with family agencies, with shared central costs. The largest centers of Jewish population have the most highly developed and most varied local services. This is reflected in the costs per capita for various sizes of population (central communal grants divided by Jewish population). The grant per capita for local services in cities with a Jewish population over 5,000 was between $12 and $14, while in cities with a Jewish population under 5,000 it was about $11. However, if health costs were eliminated, the large Jewish communities would show a lower expenditure per capita for local needs than the small communities; local-hospital and similar costs are high in large Jewish communities and virtually nonexistent in small ones. The major sources of funds for local service agencies, after central funds, are public funds and payments for service by users. These have risen more than community funds. From 1953 to 1958, 26 general hospitals received increases of $35 million in patients' fees and $1.8 million in public funds, while grants from central community funds rose $1.1 million. Homes for the aged doubled their income from service payments (from $5.9 million to $11.5 million). Family agencies also doubled their income from service payments (from $143,000 to $295,000). Child-care agencies increased their income from service payments 50 per cent ($452,000 to $686,000), while income from tax funds rose over 70 per cent (from $1,024,000 to $1,782,000)." An analysis of allocations for local services by 78 communities between 1954 and 1958 indicates significant changes (Tables 6, 6A). Chest grants rose more sharply than federation grants: 19 per cent, compared with 7 per cent. The federation share of allocations was about 58 per cent in 1955-58, compared with 61 per cent in 1954. IS A study of allocations in 93 cities for 1958 indicated that in 69 cities where there was chest support for Jewish services, chests provided 65 per cent of central communal grants for eligible Jewish services, while Jewish federations provided 35 per cent. In 20 cities, where no chest support was received, Jewish federations budgeted a higher proportion of their funds for local Jewish services (37.4 per cent) than in 73 cities where such support was received (28.2 per cent). 17 Statistics cited in this paragraph are for comparable agencies for which data were available in both years. They io not include all agencies in the respective fields. 78 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK The sharpest rise was in federation allocations for aged care and employment services—33 per cent since 1954. Allocations for recreational services rose 25 per cent, and for family service, child care, Jewish education, and community relations, 17 to 20 per cent. While grants for health services were only 2 per cent lower in 1958 than in 1954, grants for refugee care fell 53 per cent. S. P. GOLDBERG

TABLE 1 AMOUNTS RAISED IN LOCAL CENTRAL COMMUNITY CAMPAIGNS, 1945-58 (Estimates in thousands of dollars) New York Other Year Total* City Cities 1945 $ 71,161 $ 36,222b $ 34,940 c 1946 131,421 44,273 87,148 1947 156,589 50,227 106,362 1948 200,721 65,157 135,564 1949 170,330 63,368 b 106,962 1950 142,192 50,205 91,987 1951 136,035 48,187 87,848 1952 121,173 43,076 78,097 1953 115266 39,746 75320 1954 107,548 37,994 69354 1955 * 110,095 40,500 69,595 1956 d 130,493 47,884 82,609 1957 d 138,078 48,197 (33,000 NY UJA) (15,197 Fed) 89,881 1958 123,328 44,969 (28,078 NY UJA) (16,891 Fed) 78,359 TOTAL, 1946-58. $1,783,269 $623,783 $1,159,486 a Excludes amounts raised annually in smaller cities having no welfare funds but includes multiple-city gifts, which are duplications as between New York City and the rest of the country. b Includes capital-fund campaigns of the Federation of Jewish Philanthropies of New York: $14,264,000 in 1945 and $11,000,000 in 1949. c The campaign results for the years 1945-47 and 1949-56 in the column headed "Other Cities" are based upon projections of the amounts raised by 234 welfare funds in 1948. These were the CJFWF members in that year plus certain large non-members (e.g. Washington, D.C.) and some smaller welfare funds which had been CJFWF members in the period just preceding 1948. For 1957 and 1958, an actual summation was made of campaign results of the cities in the 1948 base-year list. There is some discontinuity between the two sets of figures. The 1957 result reported last year (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 86) was a projection from the 1948 base year and was two per cent higher than the 1957 figure carried above, based upon actual enumeration of individual results. d Includes special UJA appeals. JEWISH COMMUNAL SERVICES 79

TABLE 2 SALES OF ISRAEL BONDS, 1951-59 (in thousands of dollars) Total Sales Sales Year Cash Sales in U.S. Abroad 1951 (May 1-Dec. 31) $ 52,647 $ 52,647 $ - 1952 47,521 47,521 - 1953 36,861 32,000 4,861 1954 37,247 31,000 6,247 1955 42,301 36,000 6,301 1956 54,089 45,287 8,802 1957 49,335 40,201 9,134 1958 46,236 37,493 8,743 1959 52,265 42,488 9,777 TOTAL $418,502 $364,637 $53,865 TABLE 3 DISTRIBUTION TO FIELDS OF SERVICE OF FUNDS RAISED BY CENTRAL COMMUNITY CAMPAIGNS, 1957 AND 1958 a (Estimates in thousands of dollars) Total New York City b Other Cities 1958 1957 1958 1957 1958 1957 TOTAL AMOUNT BUDGETED C $99,671 $115,658 $31,299 $36,122 $68,371 $79336 Per Cent 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Overseas and Refugee 63,139 79,210 17,853 22,630 45,285 56380 United Jewish Appeal.. 59,356 74,986 17,500 22,250 41,856 52,736 Per Cent 59.6 64.8 55.9 61.6 61.2 66.3 Other Overseas Agencies 2,870 3,005 353 380 2317 2,625 Per Cent 2.9 2.6 1.1 1.1 3.7 3.3 Local Refugee Care.... 913 1,219 - - 913 1,219 Per Cent 0.9 1.1 - - 1.3 13 National Agencies 4,488 4,633 706 760 3,782 3,873 Per Cent 43 4.0 2.3 2.1 53 4.9 Community Relations .. 2,580 2,641 353 380 2,227 2,261 Per Cent 2.6 2.3 1.1 1.1 3.3 2.9 Health and Welfare... 73 92 - — 73 92 Per Cent 0.1 0.1 - - 0.1 0.1 Cultural 396 388 - - 396 388 Per Cent 0.4 0.3 - - 0.6 0.5 Religious 311 343 - - 311 343 Per Cent 03 0.3 - - 03 0.4 Service 1,128 1,169 353 380 775 789 Per Cent 1.1 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.0 Local Operating Needs... 30,650 30,196 12,740 12,732 17,910 17,464 Per Cent 30.8 26.1 40.7 35.2 26.2 22.0 Local Capital Needs 1,365 1,614 - - 1,365 1,614 Per Cent 1.3 1.4 — — 2.0 2.0 a Based upon 242 communities; 19S current CJFWF members and 47 smaller cities not CJFWF members but included in the base group of communities used in 1948, when this statistical series was started. b Figures for New York include New York UJA and Federation of Jewish Philanthropies. Local refugee costs in New York City are borne by NYANA, a direct beneficiary of UJA nationally. Most overseas and domestic agencies normally included in welfare funds in other cities conduct their own campaigns in New York. New York UJA included the following beneficiaries (in addition to National UJA): American Jewish Congress, United HIAS Service, and National Jewish Welfare Board. Data for New York UJA based on estimates of distribution of 1958 and 1957 campaign proceeds, regardless of year in which cash was received. c The difference between totals budgeted and totals raised represents "shrinkage" allowance for nonpayment of pledges, campaign and administrative expenses, elimination of duplicating multiple-city gifts, and contingency or other reserves. 80 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

TABLE 3A: DISTRIBUTION TO FIELDS OF SERVICE OF FUNDS RAISED BY Total Under 5,000 1958 1957 1958 1957 TOTAL AMOUNT BUDGETED b $68,371,111 $79,536,418 $8,842207 $10,423,737 Per Cent 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Overseas and Refugee Needs 45,285,348 56380,373 7,049,314 8,490,051 United Jewish Appeal.. 41,855,970 52,736,442 6,699,574 8,098,542 PerCent 61.2 66.3 75.8 77.7 Other Overseas 2,516,827 2,624,608 327,386 333,714 Per Cent 3.7 3J 3.7 32 Local Refugee Care... 912,551 1,219,323 22,354 57,795 Per Cent 13 1.5 0.3 0.6 National Agencies 3,781,822 3,872,846 522,617 550,041 Community Relations .. 2226,968 2,260,571 209,035 223,288 Per cent 3.3 2.9 2.4 2.1 Health and Welfare.... 72323 91,971 32,544 37243 Per Cent 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.4 Cultural 396,018 388,023 76,119 68,470 Per Cent 0.6 03 0.9 0.7 Religious 311,023 342,940 129,655 140,179 Per cent 03 0.4 13 13 Service Agencies 775290 789,341 75264 80,861 Per Cent 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8 Local Operating Needs... 17,909,996 17,464,301 1,197,826 1278,739 Per Cent 26.2 22.0 133 122 Local Capital Needs 1,365274 1,614237 71,112 103281 Per Cent 2.0 2.0 0.8 1.0 a The difference between totals budgeted for beneficiaries and gross budgeted for all purposes represents "shrinkage" allowance for nonpayment of pledges, campaign and administrative expenses, and contingency or other reserves. What a community may budget for all purposes (gross budget) and totals raised may also differ to the extent that the budgeted amounts may include funds on hand from previous campaigns (reserves, etc.). JEWISH COMMUNAL SERVICES 81

CENTRAL COMMUNITY CAMPAIGNS 5,000-15,000 15,000-40,000 40,000 and Over 1958 1957 1958 1957 1958 1957

$10,864,012 $13,030,072 $10,042,423 $11,287,461 $38,622,469 $44,795,148 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

7.668,778 9,719,136 7,350,214 8,489,024 23,217,042 29,882,162 7,041,824 8,987,944 6,744,913 7,833,551 21,369,659 27,816,405 64.8 69.0 612 69.4 55.3 62.1 506,058 550,388 459,943 466,565 1523,440 1,273,941 4.7 45 4.6 4.1 3.2 2.8 120,896 180,804 145,358 188,908 623,943 791,816 1.1 1.4 1.4 1.7 1.6 1.8 772,692 817,845 549,724 578,405 1,936,789 1,926355 409,012 427,633 339,139 352,406 1,269,782 1557544 3.8 33 3.4 3.1 3.3 2.8 24,309 32,107 11,920 17,746 3,750 4,875 05 02 0.1 0.1 72^92 76,716 44,335 42,217 203,172 200,620 0.7 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 132,706 142,368 38,248 44,303 10,414 16,090 15 1.1 0.4 0.4 134,273 139,021 116,082 121,733 449,671 447,726 12 1.1 12 1.1 12 1.0 2,061,650 2,034,840 1,896,233 1,913,601 12,754587 12,237,121 19.0 15.6 18.9 17.0 33.0 27.3 358,063 455,689 246,248 306,431 689,851 748,836 33 35 2.4 2.7 1.8 1.7 b Includes undistributed amounts: 1938 1957 Total $28,625 $4,660

Under 5,000 1,335 1,623 5,000- 15,000 2,790 2,563 15,000-40,000 40,000 and over 24,500 474 82 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

TABLE 4 DISTRIBUTION OF CONTRIBUTED FUNDS IN 1958 TO NATIONAL AND OVERSEAS FIELDS (Estimates in thousands of dollars)» By Wei- Through fare funds Inde- Field of and Joint Per pendent Per Per Service Appeals* Cent Campaigns Cent Total Cent Overseas United Jewish Appeal $55,754 87.1 - - $55,754 49.0 Other Overseas 2,894 4.5 $20,465 40.9 23359 20.5 National Community Relations 2,911 4.6 3,061 6.1 5,972 5.2 Health and Welfare. 150 02 7,675 153 7,825 6.8 Cultural 640 1.0 7,779 15.6 8,419 7.4 Religious 458 0.7 11,026 22.1 11,484 10.0 National Service .... 1,197 1.9 94 02 1,291 1.1 TOTAL 64,004 100.0 50,100 100.0 114,104 100.0 » This table is based on cash received in each year (Tables 7 and 8). It therefore differs from Table 3, which is based on allocations by welfare funds only, regardless of year of cash receipt. b Includes joint appeals in smaller, unfederated communities. JEWISH COMMUNAL SERVICES 83

TABLE 5 DISTRIBUTION OF FEDERATION ALLOCATIONS (INCLUDING CHEST FUNDS) FOR LOCAL SERVICES IN 93 COMMUNITIES, 1957, 1958 1957 1958 Percentage Amount Per Cent Amount Per Cent Change Health $7,009,849 24.2 $6,921,388 235 —1.3 Family, Child Services. 6,291,306 21.8 6,564,280 22.2 + 4.3 Recreation, Culture .. 6355,688 22.7 6,888,669 23.3 + 5.1 Aged Care 2,074,654 7.2 2,213,241 7.5 + 6.7 Employment and Guid- ance 901,514 3.1 1,007,449 3.4 +11.8 Jewish Education .... 3,372,936 11.7 3,449,622 11.7 +2.3 Refugee Care 1,075,343 3.7 820,002 2.8 —23.8 Community Relations. 717,473 2.5 722,716 2.5 + 0.7 Other 530,509 1.8 525,194 1.8 —1.0 Chest to Federation Local Administration 403,462» 1.4 391,075» 1.3 — 3.1 TOTAL $28,932,734 100.0 $29,503,636 100.0 + 2.0

Provided by Federations 17,002,894 58.8 17550,510 58.5 + 15 Provided by Chests... 11,929,840 41.2 12,253,126 b 415 + 2.7 b a Administrative costs of federations are not apportioned between local and nonlocal programs. Total administrative costs reported for these 93 cities were $7,318,134 in 1957 and $7,582,608 in 1958, including the amounts shown above for the portion supplied by chests for administration of local services. b Of the net increase of $323,286 in chest allocations, one community increased its chest allocation to local services $223,000, or 69 per cent of the total net increase for the 93 communities included in this table. Without this community, total amount provided by chests for 92 communities increased 0.8 per cent. 84 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

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TABLE 7: RECEIPTS OF NATIONAL JEWISH AGENCIES FOR OVERSEAS PROGRAMS

Federations & Welfare Funded)

United Jewish Appeal & Beneficiary Agencies United Jewish Appeal(b) $55,75^,275 $73,030,khj American Jewish Joint Distribution Comm.(c) United Israel Appeal(c) Jewish National Fund(d) New York Association for New Americans(c) ORT - Women's Division(c) - -_ Total UJA and Beneficiaries $55,75^,275 $73,030,1^7

Other Overseas Agencies American Comm. for Weizmann Inst. of Science(e) $ - $ American Red Mogen Dovid University-Technion Joint Maintenance Appeal 631*, 127) 653,608) American Friends of Hebrew University* ) ) American Technion Socity America-Israel Cultural Foundation 280,188 286,1*99 Ezras Torah Fund(f) 9,310 9,667 Federated Council of Israel Institutions 110,939 10^,412 Hadassah(g) 600,000 600,000 Junior Hadassah (g) 500 National Committee for Labor Israel 311,971* 329,61*1 Rational Council of Jewish Women(g) 30,000 30,000 Pioneer Women(g) 21,000 20,500 United Hias Service(f,i) 896.136 898,206 Sub-Total $ 2,893,67l* $ 2,933,033

TOTAL OVERSEAS $58,61*7,9^9 $75,963,1*80 a Including joint community appeals. b Cash received in each calendar year; pledges for each campaign year are higher. c Excludes income from UJA, campaigns abroad, and intergovernmental agencies, and JDC reparations income of $7,101,400 in 1958 and $8,541,000 in 1957; also excludes the dollar equivalent of about $11 million annually (exclusive of advances) for the Jewish Agency. d Traditional collections in U.S., exclusive of Jewish Agency grants to JNF in Israel. e Excludes contributions and earnings of investment fund. Welfare-fund receipts less than $400. JEWISH COMMUNAL SERVICES 87

FROM FEDERATIONS AND WELFARE FUNDS AND FROM OTHER DOMESTIC SOURCES, 1958 AND 1957 Other Contributions Other Income Tot a 1 1950 1957 1958 1957 1950 1957

$ $ — $ $55,75^,275 $73,030,447 10,000 - • 10,000 _ 9,010 3,913 9,010 3,913 2,590,066 2,526,280 - 2,590,066 2,526,280 _ 7,781 10,956 7,781 10,956 783,2^7 706,257 27,652 28,874 810,899 735,131 $ 3,373,313 $ 3,242,537 $ 44,443 $ 43,743 $59,172,031 $76,316,727

$ 9^3,948 $ 310,022 $ 246,8l»5 $ 133,528 $ 1,190,793 $ ^3,550 246,164 264,364 16,090 8,391* 262,254 272,758 276 71 634,403 653,679 2,586,684 1,^31,555 357,470 782,773 2,944,154 2,214,328 1,424,715 1,375,091 221,909 24,337 1,646,624 1,399,428 794,246 699,823 2,561 - 1,076,995 986,322 150,296 144,658 2,057 2,550 161,663 156,875 16,3^9 31,507 - 127,288 135,919 7,361,538 7,122,203 .»1,073,386 1,303,931 9,034,924 9,026,134 (g) 13,532 (g) 2,445 (g) 16,477 1,780,080 1,889,975 2,092,054 2,219,616 ^96,9^9 470,114 203,798 208,463 730,747 708,577 1,123,666 1,252,607 52,470 53,325 1,197,136 1,326,432 166,804 179,203 640,816 864,546 1,703,756 1,941,955 $17,091,715 $15,184,725 $2,817,402 $3,384,292 $22,802,791 $21,502,050

|$20,U65,628 $18,427,262 $2,861,845 $3,U28,035 $81,974,822 $97,818,777 t Excludes grants from other organizations. s Welfare-fund income estimated by CJFWF; amounts raised for JNF are excluded. Ha- dassah other income includes membership dues, shekels, and Zionist Youth funds. In 1958 Junior Hadassah is included in Hadassah, and data are for nine months, because of change in fiscal period. i Excludes overseas income and income from CJMCAG, but includes UHS income from N.YVUJA of $312,000 in 1958 and $298,000 in 1957. * Includes medical-school campaign in 1958. 88 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

TABLE 8: RECEIPTS OF NATIONAL JEWISH AGENCIES FOR DOMESTIC PROGRAMS

Federations & Welfare Funds 1953 1957 Community Relations Agencies Joint Defenss Appeal $1,719,549) $1,773,771) American Jewish Committee(a) ) ) Anti-Defamation League(a) ) ) American Jewish Congress-World Jewish Congress(b) 706,907 748,600 Jewish Labor Committee(b) 215,829 203,261 Jewish War Veterans of the U.S. 126,198(c) 151,522(c) National Community Relations Advisory Council 142,101 130,094 Sub-Total(d) $2,910,584 $3,007,248

Health and Welfare Agencies American Msdical Center at Denver (JCRS) 18,357 $ 20,436 "City of Hope"(e) 15,962 19,025 Ex-Patients Sanitarium for TB 5,817 6,742 Leo H. Levi Memorial Hospital 53,741 60,464 Jewish National Home for Asthmatic Children 11,147 11,704 Rational Jewish Hospital(f) 45,150 54,149 Sub-Total $ 150,174 $ 172,520

Rational Service Agencies American Association for Jewish Education 87,188 $ 80,255 Jewish Occupational Council(g) 10,031 10,359 National Conference of Jewish Commmal Service 8,619 8,165 Rational Jewish Welfare Board 1,080,196 1,079,395 Synagogue Council of America 10,994 8,662 Sub-Total $1,197,028 $1,186,836

Cultural Agencies American Academy for Jewish Research(h) $ 3,585 $ 3,205 American Jewish Historical Society 6,910 6,145 Bitzaron 2,180 2,182 B'nai B'rith National Touth Service Appeal(i) 440,738 446,890 Brandeis University 11,000 6,000 Conference on Jewish Social Studies 2,275 2,340 Dropsie College 42,820 4l,75O Hiexadruth Ivrith(j) 18,785 18,599 Jewish Braille Inetltute(k) 6,525 5,628 Jewish Chautauqua Society(l) 8,732 8,431 Jewish Publication Society 12,683 12,398 Jewish Teachers Seminary & Peoples University(j) 6,670 6,646 National Agricultural College(m) 7,785 8,823 Tivo Institute for Jewish Research(b,h) 36,033 35,124 Zionist Organization of America(b,j) 33,OOO(p) 33tOOO(p)l

Sub-Total $ 639,721 $ 637,161 JEWISH COMMUNAL SERVICES 89

FROM FEDERATIONS AND WELFARE FUNDS AND FROM OTHER DOMESTIC SOURCES, 1958 AND 1957 Other Contributions Other Income Total 195B 1957 1955 1957 $1,995,708 $1,955,555 - $ $ 3,715,257 $ 3,729,326 615,178 421,550 331,304 320,653 946,482 742,203 249,013 250,007 13,000 156,951* 262,013 1*06,961 43,000 300,098 235,233 1,007,005 1,026,833 50,572 449,557 444,175 183,156 207,993 32,921 1 11,784 9,496 150,972 126,237 288,95 * 287,255 6,025 6,025 (27,440) (30,252) 175.566 166,371 $3,060,864 $2,893,626 $ 845,946 $ 871,998 $ 6,817,394 $ 6,772,872

$ 653,272 $ 605,300 $ 62,789 $ 68,864 $ 734,418 $ 694,600 3,650,51*1* 3,569,014 1,041,063 1,519,150 4 ,707,569 5,107, 189 138,065 7,338 11,564 153,594 156, 371 213,704 233,451 145,349 113,874 412,794 407, 789 679,984 608,561 1*5,51*8 25,216 736,679 645,481 ,093,819 2,750, g,337,15l* 2,250,420 711,515 445,889 3 458 $7,675,097 $7,404,811 $2,013,602 $2,184,557 $ 9,838,873 $ 9,761,888

6,679 $ 62,456 $ 22,471 $ 14,672 $ 156,338 $ 157,383 1,1*75 1,400 414 11,920 11,759 7,509 6,779 19,812 22,916 35,940 37,860 - - 186,053 179,424 1,266,249 1,258,819 8,309 24,752 2,510 6.576 51,813 39.990 $ 93,972 $ 95,387 $ 231,260 $ 223,588 $ 1,522,260 $ 1,505,811

$ 15,072 $ 8,170 9,180 $ 8,799 27,837 20,174 4,792 2,397 17,931* 17,104 29,636 25,646 10,004 8,716 15,11*9 14,780 27,333 25,678 1,873,590 1,714,283 88,389 77,034 2,402,717 2,238,207 5,000,962 4,273,618 2,786,865 1,941,852 7,798,827 6,221,470 8,446 7,105 4,474 3,302 15,195 12,747 83,092 77,323 42,533 46,044 168,445 165,117 75,602 54,703 85,446 75,061 179,833 11*8,363 36,042 12,687 131,1*35 54,046 173,105 177,111* 158,230 7,563 26,824 193,409 193,485 2,067 27,320 316,791 313,391 353,109 5l*,3&8 51,306 4,792 8,159 331,541 65,850 66,111 375,351 364,518 373,31*1 94,120 95,160 383,136 345,058 393,390 590.848 597.706 130,153 130,284 968,906 1,024,096 $7,779,141 $6,907,763 $4,358,002 $3,626,009 $12,776,864 $11,170,933 90 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

TABLE 8: RECEIPTS OF NATIONAL JEWISH AGENCIES FOR DOMESTIC PROGRAMS (Continued) Federations & Welfare Funds i95a !25J Religious Agencies Beth Joseph Rabbinical Seminary(h) $ 1,653 $ 1,963 Beth Medresh Govoha 2,978 2,934 Chofetz Chaim of Radun Yeahlva 1,274 1,991 Combined Campaign HUC-JIR-UAHC 132,414) 133,860) Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion(l,n) Union of American Hebrew Congregations(l, Jewish Theological Seminary(l) 116,145 113,335 Jewish University of America(HTC) (f) 30,810 28,119 Mesifta Tifereth Jerusalem(o) 6,961 5,871 Mirrer Yeshiva Central Institute(h) 3,000(p) 3,0O0(P) Mizrachi Hapoel Hamizrachi National Counci-1l1 for Torah Education 1,917 2,210 National Council of Beth Jacob Schools 2,765 3,237 Ner Israel Rabbinical College 7,827 7,793 Rabbi Chaim Berlin Yeehiva 6,498 5,315 Rabbinical Seminary of America 4,100 5,110 Theological Seminary Yeahivath Chachmey Lublin(q) 2,750 1,520 Torah Uaeeorah 3,875 3,839 Torah Vodaath Yeshiva 22,21*6 21,716 Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations 3,325 3,041 United Lubavitcher Yeshivoth 7,708 7,733 Yeshiva Farm Settlement 2,200 2,690 Yeshiva University (including Medical School(r) 97,983 95,701

Sub-Total $ 458,429 $ 450, 978

TOTAL DOMESTIC $ 5,355,936 $ 5.454,743 TOTAL OVERSEAS AND DOMESTIC $64,003,885 $81,418, 223

a Excludes income from JDA and $1,811,750 in five-year pledges to building fund of Amer- ican Jewish Committee received in 1957 and 1958. For 1957 includes in ADL other income bequest of $137,446. ADL 1958 figuresar e preliminary. b Excludes overseas income. 0 In 1957 received $16,700 advance allocations applicable to 1958. d Excludes other income of NCRAC from national agencies, to avoid double counting. e Includes $493,502 in other income (public funds) in 1957 and $121,239 in 1958. f Includes building fund. g In 1958 excludes $2,300 in advance receipts applicable to year ending June 30, 1959. Includes localTVS allocations for both years, h Excludes grants from CJMCAG. 1 Excludes ADL grants to avoid double counting and $21,597 Jewish Agency allocation in 1957 for use in Israel. JEWISH COMMUNAL SERVICES 91

FROM FEDERATIONS AND WELFARE FUNDS AND FROM OTHER DOMESTIC SOURCES, 1958 AND 1957 'Other Contributions Other Income T 0 t a l " 195o 1957 195o 1957 195o 1957 5^,251 !* 55,*8O $ 1,595 $ 1,*32 $ 57,*99 $ 58,875 239,879 189,526 - 21*2,857 192,1*60 70,386 5*,307 30,66* *5,91O 102,32* 102,208 1,929,298 1,787,**5 - - 2,061,712 1,921,305 281»,5VT 230,290 973,386 578,512 1,257,933 808,802 136,288 88,080 150,1*02 1*0,833 286,690 228,913 1,778,772 1,975,357 969,81*8 567,796 2,861*,765 2,656,1*88 621,059 707,036 52,708 69,065 704,577 80l*,220 lU6,06l 13*,65* 62,907 5*,591 215,929 195,116 150,703 161,262 8,510 9,235 162,213 173,^97 22,5U8 26,985 3,786 2,989 28,251 32,18* 65,37* 7*,0*0 *8,535 *6,717 116,67* 123,99* 203,959 190,381 65,9*6 57,293 277,732 255,1*67 133,75* 136,208 109,802 9*,986 250,051* 236,509 11*6,122 11U, 392 89,232 64,1*1*9 21*1,1*51* 183,951 62,11*8 68,628 5,35* 6,023 70,252 76,171 75,513 73,052 15,35* 22,827 9*,7*2 99,718 1*82,590 572,918 191,289 179,686 696,125 77*,320 73,17* 79,202 302,976 260,117 379,*75 3*2,360 336,011 3l*2,10l* 50,1*03 1*1,1*10 39*,122 391,21*7 100,1*51 103,792 6,773 5,576 109,*2U 112,058 , 3,910,781 3,526,aiu 1*,26U,77* 2,,937,822 8,273,538 560,36* ,$11,025,669 $10,691,980 $ 7,*0*,2U1* $5,,187,269 $ 18,888,3^2 $ 16,330,227

$29,63*,7*3 $27,993,567 $1*,853,05* $12,.093,*21 $*9,6*3,733 $ *5r5*1,731 ($50,099,771 $*6,*20,829 $17,71*,899 $15,521,*56 $131,818,555 $1*3,360,508

i Excludes grants by national agencies to avoid double counting. For Histadruth Ivrith excludes capital funds. k Includes restricted building-fund grant. 1 Includes all funds except interfund transfers. m Excludes expansion-fund income of $25,265 in 1957 and $14,786 in 1958 and restricted bequests. n Income from combined campaign sbown under that heading. 0 Comparison is between calendar 1956 and fiscal 1957-58 because of change in fiscal year. p CJFWF estimates. Q. Contributions in kind included in both years. r Yeshiva University includes all maintenance income received, including medical-school income, as well as income for capital purposes of the medical school. 92 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

JEWISH COMMUNITY CENTERS

TEWISH community centers have been part of the American scene since 1854. I Originally set up as social and cultural organizations for older youth and known as Young Men's Hebrew Associations or Young Men's Hebrew Liter- ary Associations, they were established in communities across the country under a variety of designations, including YM and YWHAs, Jewish educational alliances, Jewish settlement houses, and Jewish community centers. In the first decades of the 20th century one of their major aims was to help Jewish immigrants adapt to American life. Later the focus shifted to providing for the recreational and cultural interests of Jews of all ages, and most of the organizations accordingly adopted the name of Jewish community center. Some retained or even reverted to the designation of YM and YWHA in order to distinguish themselves from synagogue centers, which also often took the name of Jewish center or Jewish community center. The National Jewish Welfare Board (JWB) is the national association of Jewish community centers and YM and YWHAs. In 1959, 337 such agencies and their branches held direct affiliation with JWB, which also served Ca- nadian centers through an arrangement with the Canadian Jewish Congress. In 1959 JWB served 181 Jewish community centers and Ys holding full constituent membership in JWB, 41 branches of constituent centers, 105 associate and provisional members (mainly synagogue centers), 39 resident-country camps, 58 country-day camps located apart from centers, and 13 Canadian centers—a total of 437 separate facilities. The center movement experienced its greatest growth after World War II, reflected in a substantial increase in membership, construction of new facilities, expansion of services, rise in budgets, and increase in professional personnel. The postwar period was also a time of self-examination for the centers and for JWB. Center philosophy was clarified in a Statement of Principles on Jewish Center Purposes adopted in 1948, following a survey directed by Oscar I. Janowsky for a commission headed by Salo W. Baron. The statement denned the functions of the Jewish community center as (a) an agency of Jewish identification, (b) the common meeting ground for Jews regardless of doctrinal, ritual, political, or social views, (c) an instrument for furthering the democratic way of life, and (d) a means of helping the individual Jew to participate in the life of the total community. While emphasizing the responsibility of the center in fulfilling its Jewish purposes, the statement also affirmed that participation in Jewish community centers should be open to all (AJYB, 1956 [Vol. 57], pp. 263-64). During this period a number of individual centers also reviewed their purposes and programs and tried to determine community needs as the population changed and families moved from established neighborhoods into the suburbs. Membership and Program In 1958 membership in Jewish community centers reached a high of more than 600,000, having grown steadily since 1947, when an enrollment of JEWISH COMMUNITY CENTERS 93 458,000 was recorded. Boys and girls under 14 years of age were about a third of the membership, nearly a half were adults 25 years of age and older, and the remainder were between 14 and 25 years old. Males made up slightly more than half of the total membership. Most of the centers followed the national policy of welcoming non-Jews. In a special study completed in 1959, seven out of every eight centers reported non-Jewish membership, the percentage ranging from less than 1 to more than 25, with an average of 5. Non-Jews participated in a wide variety of center activities, especially physical education, recreation, and formal classes. Although centers had varying policies on enrolling individual and family members, the trend toward family memberships that began shortly after the war continued in 1958-59, particularly in agencies with new facilities. Most of these required families to join as a unit and permitted individual affiliation only for single adults. Their reasons were both programmatic (an emphasis on programming for all members of the family) and financial (the view that a family should contribute to the support of the center when one or all members of the family used it). All centers provided partial or total scholarships to those who could not afford the established fee. In 1957 an average of 3 out of every 100 members received such consideration. The proportion requiring scholarships was greater in centers in the larger cities.

CENTER PROGRAMMING The principal method employed in the center program is known as social group work, an aspect of social work which seeks to help the individual achieve personality growth through experiences as a group member. It also seeks to help the group as a whole enhance its social understanding and responsibility. Most of the executive and key program positions in centers were filled by men and women trained in this discipline at schools of social work. In addition, centers employed persons trained in pre-school education, health and physical education, adult education, and other fields. More than half of the center members participated in group activities and classes. In 1957 an aggregate of more than 16,000 groups was reported, including clubs, formal and informal classes, nursery schools, adult organizations, golden-age clubs, and gymnasium classes, but excluding day-camp and resident-camp groups. The average center had about 155 groups. The larger the membership of a center, the greater the number of groups. There were more than 4,000—a quarter of all groups—clubs for children, youth, and young adults, of which in turn a fifth were units of national organizations such as B'nai B'rith and Young Judaea and the remainder were center-sponsored. Next in numbers came physical-education classes, which made up 22 per cent of the total, and classes (conversational Hebrew, world affairs, Jewish history, etc.) and special-interest groups (drama, crafts, photography, arts, etc.), which made up a fifth. The remaining groups were nursery-school classes, adult organizations, older-adult clubs, and councils and committees. Besides the 55 per cent of the enrolled members who participated in such groups, another 25 per cent took part in other types of program, including 94 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK lectures, concerts, young-adult and adult social gatherings, mass activities for children (holiday celebrations, movies, entertainments, etc.), and indoor and outdoor swimming. The remaining fifth used the recreation and game rooms (table tennis, bowling, billiards, checkers, chess, etc.), libraries, and lounges of the centers.

SABBATH PROGRAMMING The center field, through JWB, periodically reviewed its position in respect to the opening or closing of center facilities on the Sabbath. In 1958 the policy that had been in effect for the previous decade was reaffirmed. This stated: JWB recommends that on the Sabbath, Jewish festivals and Jewish holy days Jewish centers shall conduct only such activities as are in consonance with the dignity and traditions of these days. Where no special programs can be maintained, the Jewish center shall be closed on the Sabbath, Jewish festivals and Jewish holy days. A survey conducted in 1958 indicated that more than three-quarters of the centers remained closed on the Sabbath. Half of the other centers reported special 'oneg shabbat programs, including discussions, singing, and story tell- ing. Fourteen centers reported that they opened their indoor or outdoor swimming facilities on Saturday afternoons and made their health clubs available. Other types of program reported included hikes and trips, library, picnics, formal classes, and music. Almost invariably, centers that opened on the Sabbath did so only on Saturday afternoon, except for religious services in the morning. Fourteen centers reported that they either made their facilities available to synagogues for religious services or conducted these themselves.

FRATERNITIES AND SORORITIES Because Jewish centers greatly emphasized guidance to youth groups, centers in a number of cities took an interest in helping high-school fraternities and sororities. Relatively few in number and involving a small proportion of all Jewish high-school students, these societies, like their non-Jewish coun- terparts, were generally frowned upon or actually banned by the school authorities, for cause. The problem frequently posed by such groups was described as follows to the Midwest section of JWB in October 1958. These groups usually met without adult guidance. Occasionally a former member, an alumnus, would act as advisor. . . . They met in private homes, rotating meetings in the homes of members with large enough rooms or cellars. . . . Programs consisted exclusively of planning and having social affairs, rush affairs, dances, etc. There were no cultural programs or organized discussions. The groups were Jewish only in that the membership was Jewish. ... In some boys' groups pornographic movies were shown at stags. Prospective members were "rushed" . . . one or two negative votes excluded a prospective member. . . . Pledges [prospective members] were treated as lower-class members with little or no rights. . . . Disciplining consisted of JEWISH COMMUNITY CENTERS 95 pledges being required to undertake difficult, humiliating or time-consum- ing tasks, or in some boys' groups of actual beating with large wooden paddles. The proceedings of the workshop on "The Role of the Jewish Community Center in Relation to Fraternities and Sororities," published by the Midwest section of JWB in 1958, described the work of centers in St. Louis, Chicago (Young Men's Jewish Council), and Toledo in developing a relationship with such groups and moving them toward the acceptance of more constructive goals and of guidance by mature leaders. Other experiences were reported in JWB's Jewish Community Center Program Aids (AJYB, 1958 [Vol. 59], p. 192). Work with such groups of young people and their parents was more and more being viewed as an important responsibility of centers, besides the normal program for teen-agers.

SUMMER PROGRAMS Resident and day camping continued to be major aspects of the centers' summer programs. In addition, a growing number used their indoor and outdoor facilities for teen-age, young-adult, and family activities, and some ex- perimented with new types of activity, such as travel programs in this country and overseas. Seventy resident camps conducted by Jewish community centers, JWB sections, or other Jewish communal auspices were listed in an annual directory issued by JWB. Of 30 of these that were studied, 24 were coeducational, most were open for 8 or 9 weeks, and all principally served school-age children. Some had special periods for families, adult males, or older adults after the regular camp season. Several camps were specially developed for older adults. All but a few reported arrangements for children of families unable to pay the regular fees, with 24 per cent of all campers receiving full or partial help of this kind. Day camps, either in centers or on country sites, were conducted by all but a few centers in 1958-59. These summer projects began in the 1930's, rose sharply in number between 1945 and 1949, and continued to expand in each succeeding year. Use of suburban or country sites, within an hour's bus ride from the city, continued to increase, with more than 60 such sites owned or used by centers in 1958, compared with 47 in 1955. Day camps principally served children from 4 to 12. The range of the enrollment in the center day camp in 1958 was from fewer than 50 to more than 400, more than half of the camps reporting enrollments of 155 or more.

TEEN-AGE TRAVEL The rising use of travel in programming for teen-agers included a European trip for older teen-agers to meet center youth of other countries, conducted by JWB; a trailer-travel program conducted by the Columbus Jewish community center; a joint program for Los Angeles and Oakland center members, and a series of two-week bicycle tours sponsored by the New York YM and YWHA. Several camps also conducted special trips for teen-agers. 96 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

OLDER-ADULT PROGRAMS AND CONFERENCES Responding to the needs of a growing population of the elderly, more and more centers offered programs for men and women 60 years old and over. At least 135 centers provided services to such groups—frequently in collaboration with local units of the National Council of Jewish Women—as compared with 82 centers in 1952 and 3 centers in 1943 (AJYB, 1958 [Vol. 59], pp. 193- 94). At regional conferences of older adults, conducted in the western states and in New Jersey by the JWB sections and the centers in those areas, hundreds of participants discussed improved community services and the role of the older citizen in society. JWB conducted a special institute on how the needs of the elderly could be served by the center program.

CONFERENCES AND INSTITUTES National conferences and institutes conducted in 1958-59 reflected other program concerns as well—Public Affairs Programming in the Jewish Com- munity Center, spring 1958; Achieving Jewish Values Through the Center Program, fall 1959; Family Programming in the Jewish Community Center, winter 1958, and Health and Physical Education, fall 1959.

COMMUNITY SURVEYS Jewish communities continued to survey their needs for leisure-time services in the wake of growing populations and increased suburbanization, generally under the joint auspices of Jewish community centers and Jewish federations and often in the form of self-studies carried out with the assistance of JWB. Twenty-five such surveys were made between 1954 and 1957, 9 surveys were completed in 1958, and 15 or more studies were under way in 1959. A survey of leisure-time needs by the Jewish federation of Minneapolis led to the merger of three agencies into the Jewish Community Center of Greater Minneapolis. A 1958 study in Washington, D.C., led to replanning services to the capital city and its suburbs. Studies in Bridgeport, Conn., Elizabeth, N.J., and Chattanooga, Tenn., established a need to relocate the centers in those cities, and campaigns were under way in 1959 for funds for the new buildings. Other cities where studies were completed in 1958 included Phoenix, Ariz., Paterson, N.J., Albany, N.Y., and Columbus and Toledo, Ohio. Studies were under way in 1959 in San Francisco, Calif., Waterbury, Conn., Miami, Fla., Holyoke, Mass., Poughkeepsie and Troy, N.Y., Canton and Dayton, Ohio, Reading, Pa., and El Paso and Fort Worth, Texas, among other cities.

Finances, Facilities, and Personnel Expenditures for center operations, which had increased annually since 1945, approached $22,000,000 in 1959, compared with $18,700,000 in 1957 and $7,200,000 in 1945. Part of the increase since the end of World War II was due to the depreciated value of the dollar. Increased services accounted for the rest, since this was a period of significant expansion. Salaries for professional, clerical, and maintenance personnel continued to represent about two-thirds of all center expenditures in 1958. The remaining costs JEWISH COMMUNITY CENTERS 97 were divided among nonsalary administrative expenditures (insurance, printing, postage, etc.), expenditures for program services and materials, and such maintenance costs as fuel, electricity, and repair and replacement. As in previous years, the principal sources of income were dues, fees for special services such as day camps, nursery schools and classes, and subsidies from central fund-raising bodies such as community chests and Jewish welfare funds. Income from dues and fees provided an average of about 55 per cent of the support in 1958, in contrast to 46 per cent in 1951, continuing a trend several years old.

NEW FACILITIES Before World War II most Jewish community centers and YM-YWHAs were in or near the center of cities. The postwar trend, continuing in 1958-59, was to relocate centers in the suburban areas where Jews were moving. New center buildings, in most cases replacing old ones, were opened in Birming- ham, Ala., Tucson, Ariz., Greater Los Angeles, Oakland, and San Diego, Calif., Indianapolis, Ind., Detroit, Mich., Newark, N.J., Washington Heights and the Bronx, New York City, Allentown, Harrisburg, and Pittsburgh, Pa., San Antonio, Texas, Salt Lake City, Utah, Richmond, Va., and Windsor and Ottawa, Ont. A swimming-pool wing was added to the East New York YM- YWHA in Brooklyn, N.Y., and the Washington, D.C., center remodeled its building. The new facilities generally included meeting rooms, activity rooms, lounges, workshops, indoor and outdoor nursery-school facilities, an audi- torium with a stage and dressing rooms, gymnasium facilities, including lock- ers and showers, one or more kitchens, and offices. Since most of the new centers were on large plots, outdoor recreation and parking were not hin- dered, as they had been in consequence of the post-World War I practice of building on small tracts. In many buildings there were massage, steam-room, and exercise facilities. Most had indoor pools, some had outdoor pools, and a few had both. Some centers included space for federation, welfare-fund, or other offices and for Hebrew schools, generally conducted as a separate operation. The smaller buildings cost $300,000 to $750,000, but several exceeded §1,000,000. The new Detroit Jewish community center cost approximately $3,000,000. Construction or planning were under way in a number of cities, including Bridgeport, Conn., Chicago, 111., Baltimore, Md., Kansas City and St. Louis, Mo., Elizabeth and New Brunswick, N.J., Albany and Staten Island, N.Y., Dallas, Texas, Vancouver, B.C., and Toronto, Ont.

PERSONNEL Approximately 1,600 full-time professional workers served on the staffs of centers in the United States and Canada in 1959, an increase of 100 over 1957 and 300 over 1954. In July 1959, 209 vacancies were listed with the JWB bureau of personnel and training, an even larger number than existed at the same time in 1957. Most of the unfilled positions were for posts requiring training in social group work, such as program director, division head, or program assistant. Over 100 of these were for beginning jobs as program 98 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK assistants or group workers. There were also vacancies for personnel trained in nursery education, adult education, and health and physical education. Recruitment efforts increased. National, regional, and local scholarship and fellowship funds were established by the JWB presidents' club (an association of past and present center presidents), regional sections of JWB, and groups of centers or individual centers. Centers also offered work-and-study arrangements to students. A total of 103 financial grants were made to 90 different Jewish students engaged in graduate study in schools of social work in a 12-month period in 1957-58. An organized program was undertaken by JWB to interest high-school and college students, club leaders, and camp counselors in center work as a career. As a result, in 1958-59 there was a 50-per cent increase in Jewish group-work students enrolled in schools of social work over the average of the previous five years. Salaries for professional workers continued to rise in 1958-59. In 1958 salaries for all workers, professional and nonprofessional, rose an average of 8.5 per cent over the previous year. In-service training programs for experienced center staffs conducted by JWB dealt with methods of achieving Jewish objectives through the center program and with improvement of professional skills. There were orientation courses for beginners on the nature of the Jewish community, the structure, function, and philosophy of the Jewish community center, and methods used in the center.

JWB JWB continued to carry out its basic functions as the service instrument for Jewish community centers, YM and YWHAs, and similar agencies, and as the agency providing for the recreational, welfare, and religious needs of Jewish men and women in the armed forces and veterans' facilities. It also sponsored the National Jewish Book Council and the Jewish Music Council of America. These councils promoted the annual Jewish book month and Jewish music festival and published materials on Jewish literature and music.

SERVICES TO CENTERS Help to centers was given through consultation in the communities by field secretaries and special consultants, regional and national conferences and training programs, services by national departments and bureaus, and publications. In 1958 the field secretaries based in the eight geographical sections of JWB made one or more visits to 274 different communities to consult with and advise center boards and staffs and to assist in the planning of new center programs. The field secretaries also arranged regional youth conferences, board institutes, staff-training programs, and intercenter athletic tourneys. Annual conventions sponsored by the sections attracted 200 and 300 people on the average, with attendance at the New Jersey section's conference reaching 500 in 1958 and 1959. JWB provided staff assistance for institutes of executives and of health and physical-education workers. Other national conferences and special consultations dealt with programming for the elderly, family programming, and JEWISH COMMUNITY CENTERS 99 enriching Jewish values in the centers. JWB helped centers and other organizations to plan and carry out adult-educational and cultural programs through its nonprofit Jewish Center Lecture Bureau, which arranged 1,333 bookings of lecturers and artists in 1958. JWB provided architectural consultation to 51 communities in 1958. It also gave specialized help in health and physical education, art programs, administration, surveys, and research. It published a year book and directory, with articles on center membership and participation, finances, personnel, and program. Other major publications in 1958-59 included the quarterly Jewish Community Center Program Aids, a manual for center board members, criteria for evaluating work with the elderly, and the monthly JWB Circle, containing articles on center work and other phases of JWB activity.

SERVICES TO JEWS IN THE ARMED FORCES AND VETERANS' FACILITIES JWB served Jewish men and women in the armed forces and in veterans' facilities. It continued as the Jewish community's representative in the United Service Organization (USO), a joint morale and welfare undertaking of six national voluntary agencies on behalf of the armed forces.1 Recruitment and endorsement of Jewish chaplains for the army, navy, and air forces remained the responsibility of the JWB commission on Jewish chaplaincy. Eighty-four full-time chaplains were on duty in 1958, 26 of whom served overseas. Two hundred and sixty-five part-time chaplains, appointed by the commission, conducted services and performed rabbinical duties in domestic military installations and Veterans Administration (VA) hospitals. Special efforts were made to facilitate the observance of religious holidays by Jewish personnel in the military service and veterans' facilities. Passover sedarim were held in 214 places in this country and overseas in 1958, and arrangements were made for home hospitality for servicemen stationed near Jewish communities. For the sedarim overseas, JWB supplied matzot, wine, and Passover foods. In addition, the women's-organizations division of JWB, representing nine national women's groups,2 distributed 5,000 "solo seders" (individual packages of Passover food) to servicemen in isolated areas. Similar provision was made for services on Rosh ha-Shanah and Yom Kippur. Record- ings of the Kol Nidre service were made available to chaplains, and prayer books and holiday foods were distributed. The JWB women, serving through 76 local committees, gathered and distributed recreational supplies, gifts, and materials requested by chaplains. They also served 110 domestic and 43 overseas areas in 1958. Volunteers conducted various recreational and assistance programs at VA hospitals. JWB operated 28 USO-JWB clubs and area programs in this country and overseas in 1958. Altogether, 610 domestic areas were served by the staff and by 263 local armed-services committees by means of social, recreational, religious, and cultural activities.

1 National Catholic Community Service, Young Men's Christian Association, Young Women's Christian Association, Salvation Army, National Traveler's Aid Association, and JWB. 2 Hadassah, National Bureau of Federated Jewish Women's Organizations, National Council of Jewish Women, National Women's League of the United Synagogue, National Federation of Temple Sisterhoods, United Order of True Sisters, Women's Branch of the Union of Orthodox Congregations of America, Women's Division of the American Jewish Congress, and the Jewish community centers' women's groups. 100 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

SUPPORT AND LEADERSHIP JWB was financed principally by allocations from Jewish welfare funds, including the Greater New York UJA. In 1958 it received about $1,100,000 from these sources, towards a total budget of $1,350,000. Solomon Litt of New York City was elected president, succeeding Lloyd W. Dinkelspiel of San Francisco, who died in May 1959.

National Association of Jewish Center Workers When the National Association of Jewish Center Workers (NAJCW), composed of full-time professional workers in Jewish community centers and youth-serving organizations, celebrated its 40th anniversary in 1959, it had nearly 600 members. It held its annual conference in May 1959, in Pittsburgh, Pa., in conjunction with the National Conference of Jewish Communal Service (NCJCS). Members also took part in regional meetings and institutes. Special committees dealt with such matters as the distinguishing characteristics of group-work practice in agencies under Jewish auspices, professional preparation for center work, research in programming for teen-agers, supervision of volunteers and part-time workers, and recruitment and scholarship assistance for students. The regular NAJCW journal, the Jewish Center Worker, was incorporated in the spring of 1957 into the Journal of Jewish Communal Service, published quarterly by NCJCS.

World Federation of YMHAs In 1959 the World Federation of YMHAs and Jewish Community Centers, organized in 1946, had affiliates in 17 countries: Association for Jewish Youth, Great Britain; Australian Federation of YM-YWHAs; Bet ha-No'ar ha-'Ivri (YM and YWHA), Jerusalem, Israel; Centre des Jeunes de France; Centro Israelita de la Republica Dominicana; Centro Sociale, Rome, Italy; Comite* Central Israelita de Bolivia; Conseil Central des Communaute's Juives de Grece; JWB; Kouroch Sport Club, Teheran, Iran; National Council of YM and YWHAs, Canada; Scandinavian Jewish Youth Federation (Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden), and Sociedad Hebraica Argentina, Buenos Aires. The World Federation served centers and other Jewish youth organizations in 28 countries through program materials and consultative services. Its international guest card allowed center members traveling abroad to receive the hospitality of centers in the countries they visited. It conducted an international "airmail athletic meet" in which 31 Jewish community centers and youth organizations in Canada, England, Israel, Mexico, and the United States participated. Three of its European affiliates, the (British) Association for Jewish Youth, Centre des Jeunes de France, and the Scandinavian Jewish Youth Federation, conducted joint activities in the summer of 1959, including athletic contests in Paris and participation in a summer-camp program near Stockholm. As part of its training program for center workers, the World Federation supervised the studies of a youth worker of the Sociedad Hebraica Argentina, who was the recipient of a two-year scholarship from the National Council THE UNITED STATES, ISRAEL, AND THE MIDDLE EAST 101 of Jewish Women, and of another from the Brady Boys' Club of London, who came to the United States for an intensive study of Jewish community- center work. It provided a scholarship for a student at the Paul Baerwald School of Social Work in Jerusalem. The World Federation aided in the support of the YM-YWHA (Bet ha- No'ar ha-'Ivri) of Jerusalem and stimulated fund raising for it through activities in centers and communities in the United States. It published Ys of the World and Jerusalem Y Lights. HERBERT MILLMAN

THE UNITED STATES, ISRAEL, AND THE MIDDLE EAST * rr-*HE year from October 1, 1958, through September 30, 1959, was the X. most tranquil the Middle East had experienced since 1947. None of the persistent problems had been settled, but the relative calm provided a welcome respite from tensions that had continuously been threatening world peace. They had reached a climax in the early summer of 1958, with armed rebellion in Lebanon, revolution in Iraq, and the dispatch of American troops to Lebanon and British troops to Jordan (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], pp. 113-15). After the establishment of the United Nations Observation Group in Lebanon (UNOGIL) and with the return of stable conditions in Lebanon and normal relations among the Arab countries, American and British troops gradually withdrew. Late in November UNOGIL began to dismiss its personnel and on December 9, 1958, officially ceased its operation. That the crisis in the summer of 1958 did not lead to war but rather heralded the calmest year in over a decade of Middle Eastern eruptions was in no small part the effect of America's forthright intervention. In a news conference on November 7, 1958, Secretary of State John Foster Dulles said that the dispatch of American and British troops had led to two significant accomplishments: reassurance to small countries that if they felt im- periled they could get help, and stabilization in the Middle East. United States Relations with Arab Countries The United States continued to maintain friendly relations with Jordan and Lebanon. Its relations with Iraq and the United Arab Republic (UAR; Egypt and Syria) were little more than formal.

JORDAN In March 1959 King Hussein of Jordan visited the United States. He was given a warm welcome in Washington by President Dwight D. Eisen- hower and Acting Secretary of State Christian A. Herter. Though King Hussein's visit was "informal," he and Jordanian Premier Samir al-Rifai had conversations with United States officials about American military and economic aid for Jordan.

• For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. 102 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK Special economic assistance to Jordan in the fiscal year ending June 30, 1959, amounted to $43,230,000. Jordan also received military aid. Under the provisions of Title II of Public Law 480 (Agricultural Trade Develop- ment and Assistance Act), Jordan received 10,000 tons of wheat and 20,000 tons of livestock feed in January to help meet shortages resulting from drought. On June 5, 1959, Jordan signed an agreement under which the Development Loan Fund would lend the Transjordan Electric Power Com- pany $1.2 million to expand and renovate its electric power system at Amman, repayable in Jordan currency in ten years. Technical-cooperation assistance amounted to $1.9 million.

LEBANON In December 1958 Lebanon announced acceptance of a straight grant from the United States of $10 million in economic aid, later increased to $12.5 million. It was understood that these funds were to help improve economic conditions that had deteriorated during the political and military upheaval earlier that year. Lebanon also received military assistance. Technical-cooperation funds came to $1.25 million. UAR From the summer of 1955, when Egypt concluded an agreement to purchase arms from Russia, relations between the United States and Egypt (after February 1958, UAR) were unsettled. One event after another kept those relations cool and uncertain: America's abrupt rejection of the Aswan Dam project; Egypt's nationalization of the Suez Canal; the Sinai- Suez action by the British, French, and Israelis; Soviet-Syrian rapprochement; the Egyptian-Syrian federation; Egyptian threats against the integrity of Jordan and Lebanon, and Egypt's continuing friendly relations with Russia. Egypt had for years sought to exercise hegemony over the Arab world, with Iraq, under its pro-Western King Faisal and Premier Nuri as-Sa'id, contesting Egypt's ambition. But after the revolution in Iraq and the acces- sion of an Iraqi government that was to some extent Communist-infiltrated, the positions of Iraq and the UAR were reversed, while their rivalry persisted. As Iraq showed signs of falling more and more under Communist influence, UAR President Gamal Abdel Nasser showed signs of turning away from it. The UAR began to curb the activities of its Communist parties and to look more critically not only at its economic agreements with Russia but also at Russia's motives and interest in the Middle East. (Nevertheless, in October 1958 the UAR signed an agreement with Russia for a loan of 400 million rubles to start the Aswan Dam.) As the United States was trying to assess its policy toward the competing governments of Iraq and the UAR, the Israel government considered possible shifts in American policy that would affect Israel too. In December 1958 the Israeli cabinet discussed renewed attempts by the United States to seek Nasser's friendship. A New York Times dispatch from Jerusalem on January 25, 1959, reported that Israel had begun a diplomatic offensive to show the Western nations that the UAR could not be trusted. It also reported THE UNITED STATES, ISRAEL, AND THE MIDDLE EAST 103 that Washington and London has assured the Israelis that a rapprochement with the UAR would not be at Israel's expense. The United States took a tentative step toward improving its relations with Nasser when it signed an agreement on December 24, 1958, to sell the UAR 200,000 tons of wheat and 100,000 tons of flour, valued at §25 million and payable in Egyption currency, under the provisions of Title I, Public Law 480. On July 2, 1959, the State Department announced resumption of the agreement on technical assistance and economic aid between the United States and the UAR, which had been suspended since Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal in 1956. On July 3 the United States embassy in Cairo gave details of this aid program, totaling $8,418,000: over §6 million in development funds frozen since 1956, SI.7 million for land reclamation, and §630,000 for technical assistance. At the end of July 1959 the UAR signed an agreement to buy 29,400,000 tons of wheat and flour under the provisions of Title I, Public Law 480. The importance of American aid to the UAR was stressed by Cosmo Ansara, president of the National Association of Federations of Syrian and Lebanese American Clubs, whose members described themselves as Americans of Arab descent. In August 1959, at the end of a 13-day touring convention dosing in Cairo, Ansara said the United States must give the UAR economic help or risk "driving" it into the arms of Russia. In February 1959, with a final British-UAR settlement of the financial disputes arising from the nationalization of the Suez Canal (see p. 307), the UAR sought a loan to enlarge the canal from the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, known as the World Bank. In view of the UAR's continued refusal to permit Israeli shipping through the canal (the most recent case being the detention of the Danish freighter Inge Toft at Port Said on May 21, 1959) pro-Israel senators and representatives urged the State Department in August 1959 not to approve the loan unless the United States could obtain firm guarantees of free transit for Israeli shipping. Assist- ant Secretary of State William B. Macomber, Jr., replying on September 8 to the congressmen on behalf of Secretary Herter, wrote: The Government of the United States firmly supports the principle of freedom of transit through the Suez Canal as an international waterway. You may be assured that whenever occasion permits we continue to avail ourselves of opportunities for setting forth our views in this regard in various appropriate international agencies, including the World Bank.

IRAQ In December 1958 the State Department sent Assistant Secretary William M. Rountree on a fact-finding tour to the United States embassies in the Middle East. Upon his arrival in Baghdad on December 15, Rountree was greeted by mobs of several thousand Iraqis, hurling stones and howling anti-American slogans. The next day he conferred with Premier Abdul Karim Kassim. It was not known to what extent the demonstration had been Communist-inspired, nor was it clear to what extent Kassim's government was infiltrated or influenced by the Communists. 104 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK The apparent vacillations of Kassim between Communism and Arab nationalism left open the possibility that Iraq might stay in the Western camp. On March 24, 1959 (see p. 306), Premier Kassim announced Iraq's formal withdrawal from the Baghdad Pact "in order not to provide pact members with a cause for interference in our internal affairs." On May 30 Iraq sent a note to the United States terminating three agreements, adding that the abrogation was not an unfriendly act: the military assistance agreement of 1954, a supplement to it signed in 1955, and a 1957 economic- assistance agreement. The economic-assistance agreement had been designed to improve telecommunications and had been part of a project to link the Baghdad Pact countries more closely.

BAGHDAD PACT The sixth session of the ministerial council of the Baghdad Pact was held at Karachi, Pakistan, in January 1959. Iraq, though still technically a member, had already indicated withdrawal and did not attend. The remaining four members—Iran, Pakistan, Turkey, and Great Britain—and the United States, which had membership only in committees, discussed problems involving the security and economic development of the Middle East. In its final communique^ the ministerial council declared that "the threat of direct and indirect aggression had not diminished and should be combatted by all possible legitimate means including action by the United Nations." It also "noted with concern that international Communism continued its efforts to dominate the Pact area." The council then concluded that "the necessity to strengthen collective security was as great as ever." Many observers believed that Iraq's withdrawal from the Baghdad Pact would not vitally affect its military or economic effectiveness. (After Iraq's withdrawal, the name of the pact was changed to Central Treaty Organiza- tion-CENTO.)

United States Relations with Israel

The relative quiet in the Middle East was reflected also in American- Israeli relations. On September 3, 1958, the State Department announced that the United States had recently sold a small amount of arms to Israel. But during hearings by the Senate Foreign Relations Committee in May and June 1959 on pending mutual-security legislation, Assistant Secretary of State Rountree said that the State Department had "not considered the extension of military assistance to Israel." Secretary of State Dulles's death on May 24, 1959, evoked tributes from Israeli leaders. Premier David Ben-Gurion described him as a "loyal and devoted friend of Israel." Ambassador Abba Eban said that during their conversations in February "the sympathy between our two countries again found eloquent expression from him." With Dulles's death, Edward B. Lawson's retirement as United States ambassador to Israel, and Abba Eban's resignation as Israeli ambassador to the United States, the men who had shaped American-Israeli relations THE UNITED STATES, ISRAEL, AND THE MIDDLE EAST 105 in recent years were replaced. On June 4, 1959, Ogden R. Reid, 33-year-old former president and editor of the New York Herald Tribune, was confirmed by the Senate as United States ambassador to Israel, and on July 2 he presented his credentials to Israeli President Isaac Ben-Zvi in a formal ceremony in Jerusalem. Avraham Harman, formerly Israeli consul general in New York and a member of the Jewish Agency's executive, succeeded Eban as Israeli ambassador to the United States, presenting his credentials to President Eisenhower on September 14.

BORDER SECURITY The United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) continued to guard the border between Israel and the Egyptian-held Gaza Strip and the international border in the Sinai desert. Quiet prevailed along these borders, together with the usually quiet Israeli-Lebanese border and the presently quiet Israeli- Jordanian border. Two incidents occurred on the Israeli-Syrian border, one in December 1958 and another in January 1959. Both times Israel brought complaints against Syria in the Security Council of the UN. A third incident had occurred in Egyptian territory early in February; the Egyptian-Israeli Mixed Armistice Commission (with Israel absent) on February 7 condemned Israel in this case for a "brutal act of aggression." The Security Council did not act on either of Israel's complaints against Syria. Henry Cabot Lodge, United States representative in the Security Council, expressed the general view when he said, on January 30, 1959, that "the United States believes that with proper use of the United Nations machinery which exists in the area most of such cases could be decided there." He meant the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization and the Mixed Armistice Commissions.

ECONOMIC AID Total American aid to Israel for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1959, amounted to $52.4 million. These funds included $38.3 million for the purchase of agricultural surplus commodities (Title I, Public Law 480), $5 million from the United States Development Loan Fund to help finance the expansion of small private enterprises in Israel, $1.6 million in technical assistance, and $7.5 million in special development-assistance grants. During the hearings on the Mutual Security Act, the members of the House Foreign Affairs Committee learned that the State Department and the International Cooperation Administration had eliminated Israel from the group of nations to receive special-assistance grants. The reason given was the marked improvement in Israel's economic situation. The decision to limit America's aid to Israel to the sale of surplus commodities and possible loans from the Development Fund evoked a formal protest from Eban and an outcry among pro-Israel congressmen. In its report, issued June 5, 1959, the House Committee on Foreign Affairs expressed its "opinion that special assistance to Israel should be continued at the current level." The report further stated that "administration witnesses assured the committee of their willingness to give effect to the committee's views." 106 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

Aramco On November 10, 1958, the New York State Commission Against Dis- crimination (SCAD), acting on a complaint brought by the American Jewish Congress in 1956, dismissed a complaint that the Arabian American Oil Company (Aramco) did not employ Jews at its installations in Saudi Arabia. Elmer A. Carter, who rendered the decision after consultations with the State Department, held that considerations of American foreign policy made it necessary for SCAD to grant Aramco a "bona fi.de occupational qualification" exemption from the state fair-employment law. On March 26 Carter, who had in the meanwhile become SCAD chairman, reaffirmed his earlier ruling. The American Jewish Congress then appealed SCAD's ruling. On July 15 Justice Henry Epstein of the state Supreme Court reversed SCAD's ruling. Justice Epstein declared that if Aramco could not comply with the state law, it should "go elsewhere to serve your Arab masters." Public consideration of this case prompted Senator Wayne Morse (Dem., Ore.) on July 8, 1959, to introduce a surprise amendment to the Mutual Security Act against American aid to countries that discriminated against Americans for reasons of race or religion. Senator Morse's action was strongly endorsed by CCAR and the civil-rights committee of the AFL-CIO in Massachusetts. The amendment was defeated by a vote of 47 to 43. On August 12 Senators Jacob K. Javits, Kenneth B. Keating (both Rep., N.Y.) and 21 other senators urged the Senate Committee on Appropriations to add to the mutual-security bill a statement expressing Congress's opposition to extending American aid to countries discriminating against Americans on grounds of race or religion. The statement was adopted, reading as follows: Sec. 115. It is the sense of Congress that any attempt by foreign nations to create distinctions because of their race or religion among American citizens in the granting of personal or commercial access or any other rights otherwise available to United States citizens generally is repugnant to our principles, and in all negotiations between the United States and any foreign state arising as a result of funds appropriated under this Act these principles shall be applied as the President may determine. It remained as part of the appropriations bill passed by Congress on Sep- tember 15. The statement was merely a record of opinion and not an expression of policy in force. Arab League Boycott The Arab League boycott against Israel and firms dealing with Israel continued to engage the attention of the Presidents' Club. That group issued a statement on December 8, 1958, charging that the Brown & Williamson Tobacco Corporation and its parent company, British-American Tobacco, had yielded to the Arab boycott because they feared their investments and markets in Arab countries would be jeopardized. In reply to an inquiry by Senator Hubert H. Humphrey (Dem., Minn.) as chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Near Eastern subcommittee, the State Department wrote on February 10, 1959: THE UNITED STATES, ISRAEL, AND THE MIDDLE EAST 107 We do not recognize it [the boycott] and have protested to the Arab governments their discriminating practices which affect United States firms and citizens. The government and its representatives abroad will continue to emphasize to the Arab governments, as occasion permits, that there should be no discrimination against American firms because they carry on business relations with Israel.

Arab Refugees On October 27, 1958, Senator Bourke B. Hickenlooper, United States representative to the General Assembly of the UN, pledged on behalf of the United States $18 million for the relief program of the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) and $5 million for its rehabilitation program. In addition, Senator Hickenlooper said that since the United States is interested primarily "in a definitive solution of the refugee problem," up to §3.75 million would be pledged for any resettlement or repatriation activities initiated during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1959. (This sum remained unexpended, for lack of a program as specified.) On November 10, 1958, during debate in the Special Political Committee of the UN on the annual report of the director of UNRWA, George McGregor Harrison, United States representative to the General Assembly, expressed concern that no progress toward a solution of the Arab refugee problem had been made since the issue first came before the UN ten years earlier. While UNRWA had conducted its relief program efficiently and inexpensively, the United States did not believe it desirable to continue UNRWA beyond the expiration of its mandate in mid-1960. Having contributed two-thirds of the world's §300 million to help the Arab refugees, the United States felt that some better system must be found that would help to make the refugees self-supporting. To this end the United States, with the Netherlands, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom, proposed a resolution in the General Assembly on December 10, 1958, requesting the UN's secretary general to continue his special efforts to secure the additional financial assistance needed for UNRWA's current year and asking UNRWA's director "to plan and carry out projects capable of supporting substantial numbers of refugees." The resolution was adopted on December 12 by a show-of-hands vote of 57 to 0, with 20 abstentions. On June 15, 1959, UN Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjold submitted for consideration by the forthcoming 14th session of the General Assembly his proposals for continued UN assistance to the Arab refugees. They consisted of the central recommendation to continue UNRWA under a broadly conceived plan of regional economic development, and a number of improvements over UNRWA's current practices. On September 14, 1959, a day before the opening of the 14th session of the General Assembly, Assistant Secretary of State Francis O. Wilcox expressed the United States government's view: "While we regard favorably certain elements of Mr. Hammarskjold's plan, we are concerned that it seems not to go far enough in providing the means by which adequate progress toward an ultimate solution could be made." On January 27, 1959, Hammarskjold announced the appointment of John 108 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK H. Davis, of the United States, as director of UNRWA to succeed Henry R. Labouisse. The promulgation of World Refugee Year, beginning in June 1959, prompted some organizations to give further attention to the problem of the Arab refugees. The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace published We Strangers and Afraid, a brochure by Elfan Rees, which discussed problems of refugees all over the world, including the nearly one million surrounding Israel. The American Jewish Congress issued a pamphlet, The Arab Refugees, and the Public Affairs Institute issued The Middle East and the Refugees, both of which recommended resettlement of the refugees in Arab countries, with Israel to pay compensation. UAHC published a pamphlet by Rabbi Balfour Brickner, As Driven Sands: The Arab Refugees, which called on American Jews to contribute morally and financially toward solving the Arab-refugee problem. American Jews and Israel At the beginning of 1959 Max F. Baer and Irving Canter issued a report on a study they had conducted, in cooperation with the American Zionist Council, on the attitudes toward Israel of Jewish adolescents. Over 1,100 boys and girls of the B'nai B'rith Youth Organization, with an average age just over 16, took part in the survey. About 90 per cent had had some Jewish education. More than two-thirds of their fathers were in professional or managerial occupations or owned their own businesses and 61 per cent of their fathers had incomes over $7,500. These young people expressed very positive attitudes towards Israel: 76 per cent felt that the creation of Israel was the most "wonderful" event in all of Jewish history or a most "hopeful" development of the postwar period. About 84 per cent indicated a considerable degree of unhappiness over the possibility that Israel might be destroyed. Over 70 per cent recognized ties of peoplehood and religion between American Jews and Israelis. Yet less than one per cent felt that American Jewish youth should settle permanently in Israel. Furthermore, 94 per cent rejected two classical Zionist concepts: that antisemitism is inevitable everywhere and Jews can be safe only in Israel, and that a Jew can live as a complete Jew only in Israel. The attitudes toward Israel were quite similar to those of the Jewish adults and their adolescent children in Riverton, an Eastern-seaboard community which the American Jewish Committee had studied in 1952. The survey also showed that the B'nai B'rith youth were poorly informed about American Jewish fund raising for Israel, about Israel itself, and about Zionism. On May 25, 1959, B'nai B'rith, for the first time in its 116-year-old history, held its triennial convention outside the United States, in Jerusalem. The four-day convention, attended by 1,300 delegates, mostly from the United States, was addressed by Premier Ben-Gurion, President Isaac Ben-Zvi, Nahum Goldmann, and many other dignitaries. But the keynote address of outgoing B'nai B'rith President Philip M. Klutznick attracted the greatest attention. Klutznick stressed that most Jews would continue to live in lands other than Israel and that the Jewish heritage and Judaism were "not coinci- dental with Israel as a state." THE UNITED STATES, ISRAEL, AND THE MIDDLE EAST 109 One leading Israeli had earlier expressed similar views. Addressing the American Jewish Committee in New York City on April 18, 1959, Abba Eban said: I do not believe that the concept of every Jewish community outside Israel passing inexorably to doom or decline can be the basis of a covenant of trust between Israel and the Jewish people. Inevitable antisemitism is no longer the basic premise of Israel's hopes of advancement. He hoped for a world in which a growing Israel will live side by side with an American Jewish community which will also grow forever stronger, not only in its inherent vigor, but also in the resilience and vitality of its Jewish consciousness and institutions. In May 1959 Farband-Labor Zionist Order President Meyer L. Brown told his organization a special information office in Israel was needed to give the Israelis a true understanding of Jewish life in America. A complaint that the Israeli government had failed to establish a firm bridge between Israelis and American Jews was made by ZOA President Abraham A. Redelheim in June 1959 in Tel Aviv. At the annual Hadassah convention in September 1959 in St. Louis, President Miriam K. Freund expressed Hadassah's view "that each Jewish community has the right to build a strongly-rooted Jewish life in the land of their political allegiance" and that Israel and Jewish communities all over the world were "distinct and separate entities."

THE PRESIDENTS' CONFERENCE The informal group of presidents of 16 Zionist and non-Zionist American Jewish organizations and the Jewish Agency, which the Jewish Agency had organized in 1954 and which had been known as the Presidents' Club, was formally constituted in the first half of 1959 as the Presidents' Conference, with Philip M. Klutznick as its president and Yehuda Hellman as executive director. In June 1959 Nahum Goldmann, president of WZO and formerly head of the Presidents' Club, announced that the Presidents' Conference had been invited to become an advisory council for the Jewish Agency's executive. He said the Conference had already agreed to act as an ad hoc committee for the UJA campaign.

ZIONIST GENERAL COUNCIL The Zionist General Council, meeting in Jerusalem in June 1959, took up several questions affecting American Jews. One of its decisions, giving Ameri- can Jews greater representation at Zionist congresses than in the past, was to distribute mandates for the forthcoming congress as follows: 38 per cent for Israel, 29 per cent for the United States, and 33 per cent for the rest of the world. This formula was generally regarded as the first step toward abolishing the double shekel (double representation) for Israel and giving Zionists outside of Israel a larger proportion of mandates. The council also authorized Nahum Goldmann to negotiate with non- Zionist organizations that accepted principles of the Zionist movement about 110 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOR their admission to WZO. Only Mizrahi-ha-Po'el ha-Mizrahi and Mapam ab- stained from voting on this proposal, all other groups voting for it. It was believed that Mizrahi's strong opposition was due to fear that the (Con- servative) United Synagogue of America might join WZO, thus weakening its own position. (Early in July the National Council of Young Israel was also invited to consider the possibility of joining.) General Zionists, particularly members of ZOA, had gone along with the majority decision but were unenthusiastic because they felt that it tended to overemphasize the importance of pro-Israel but non-Zionist groups. This was also the attitude of most of the British Zionists at the meeting, but they too supported the proposal since it was generally understood to apply only to the United States. The proposal was adopted, despite widespread doubt and opposition, in the hope that admission of non-Zionist groups to WZO would enhance its prestige inside Israel and out. LUCY S. DAWIDOWICZ

THE CONFERENCE ON JEWISH MATERIAL CLAIMS AGAINST GERMANY: 1953-58 *

N 1952 the Federal Republic of Germany negotiated agreements to pay as I collective indemnity in redress of Nazi wrongs §715 million to the government of Israel and $107 million to the Conference on Jewish Material Claims Against Germany (CJMCAG), a group of 22 major Jewish organizations from all parts of the world (AJYB, 1953 [Vol. 54], pp. 471-85). In addition, Germany promised to take steps to extend and improve its legislation on individual indemnification of victims of the Nazis and restitution of their property. In order to discharge its functions under the terms of the agreement with Germany, CJMCAG, organized in October 1951, was incorporated in 1952. Until 1957 it was governed by a board of directors of 44, with two representatives from each of the 22 member organizations—Agudath Israel World Organization, Alliance Israelite Universelle, American Jewish Committee, American Jewish Congress, American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, American Zionist Council, Anglo-Jewish Association, B'nai B'rith, Board of Deputies of British Jews, British Section of the World Jewish Congress, Canadian Jewish Congress, Central British Fund, Conseil Reprdsentatif des Juifs de France, Council for the Protection of the Rights and Interests of Jews from Germany, Delegaci6n de Asociaciones Israelitas Argentinas (DAIA), Executive Council of Australian Jewry, Jewish Agency for Palestine (changed to the Jewish Agency for Israel in 1958), Jewish Labor Committee, South African Jewish Board of Deputies, Synagogue Council of America, World Jewish Congress, and Zentralrat der Juden in Deutschland. In 1957 the World Union for Progressive Judaism was admitted to membership, with two seats on the board of directors, to represent a movement in Jewish life previously unrepresented on the board. From the beginning CJMCAG's president was • For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. CONFERENCE ON JEWISH MATERIAL CLAIMS 111 Nahum Goldmann, its senior vice president Jacob Blaustein, and its treasurer Moses A. Leavitt. The 15-member executive committee included the president, the senior vice president, the treasurer, and 7 vice presidents. After 1959 the executive committee consisted of 23 members. CJMCAG had two functions under terms of the agreement with Germany. Under Protocol 1, it was empowered to seek enactment of better and more extensive laws in Germany to indemnify victims of Nazism and pay restitution for their property. Under Protocol 2, it distributed the funds it received for the relief, rehabilitation, and resettlement of Jewish victims of Nazi persecution living outside of Israel. In addition, under the terms of its agreement with Israel, CJMCAG participated with the Jewish Agency in dis- tributing funds for the relief, rehabilitation, and resettlement of refugees and newcomers in Israel, amounting to 18.3 per cent of West Germany's payment to Israel. The agreements with West Germany were signed on September 10, 1952, by Chancellor Konrad Adenauer for the Federal Republic of Germany, For- eign Minister Moses Sharett for Israel, and Nahum Goldmann for CJMCAG. But the Bundestag delayed ratification until March 18, 1953, largely because of the threat of an Arab boycott. Immediately upon ratification, CJMCAG began to press forward its legislative activity. The funds for the relief and rehabilitation program were to be channeled through the Israel government, which had to convert the goods received from West Germany into cash for payment to CJMCAG. Because of the German delay in ratifying the agreement and the time lag in cash payment by Israel, CJMCAG's relief and rehabilitation program did not begin until 1954.

RELIEF, REHABILITATION, AND CULTURAL RECONSTRUCTION According to Protocol 2 of the agreement between CJMCAG and the Federal Republic of Germany, CJMCAG was to use the funds received from Germany for the relief, rehabilitation, and resettlement of Jewish victims of Nazi persecution living outside of Israel at the time the agreement was signed, according to the urgency of their need. Responsibility for determining the urgency of need rested with CJMCAG. From the start, high priority was given to the Jewish communities which suffered most from the Nazi occupation or which were disproportionately burdened with large numbers of refugees from Nazism. Hence the Jewish communities on the European continent were the recipients of over nine- tenths of CJMCAG funds for relief, rehabilitation, and resettlement, and over half the funds for cultural and educational reconstruction. Principles Governing Allocations During the first year of its operations CJMCAG established a series of principles governing allocations and procedures for dealing with applications for funds. Funds could be allocated for projects providing aid to victims of Nazism undertaken either by CJMCAG itself or by established organizations. CJMCAG specified as follows the types of projects eligible for funds: 1. For the relief, rehabilitation, and resettlement of Jewish victims of Nazi persecution residing outside of Israel at the time the agreement was 112 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK signed, according to the urgency of their need. Included within this category are: a) Individual relief, medical assistance, grants and loans for medical, social and economic rehabilitation, vocational training and emigration and resettlement assistance. b) The construction, equipment, renovation, repair and maintenance of Jewish communal and social welfare institutions. c) Legal aid to needy Jewish claimants to assist them in obtaining compensation and the recovery of assets under indemnification and restitution laws. 2. For the rehabilitation of Jewish Nazi victims in the spheres of Jewish culture and education; for the rehabilitation of Jewish cultural, educational, and religious life which had suffered from Nazi persecution; for the salvage, restoration and preservation of Jewish cultural, historical treasures and values destroyed or damaged by Nazi persecution. CJMCAG stressed that allocations from its funds could not be granted to replace local fund raising or to relieve organizations or communities of responsibilities they had borne before CJMCAG. It expressed its desire to give special consideration to requests for one-time grants where local organizations were providing a substantial proportion of the cost of the projects and expanding or improving existing facilities. This statement of principles governing allocations was approved by CJMCAG's executive committee on September 28, 1955. By 1956, the third year of its operations, CJMCAG was able to define more specifically some of its policies in cultural and educational reconstruction. Since applications for grants then exceeded the funds available many times over, CJMCAG decided that elementary- and secondary-education allocations would be granted primarily to communities that had been under Nazi occupation or whose Jewish population consisted of 50 per cent or more of victims of the Nazis (the so-called Swedish formula). CJMCAG felt that primary and secondary Jewish education was an essential local responsibility and that grants should be extended only where the impact of the occupation or the overwhelming influx of refugees had affected the community's financial ability. This policy was upheld by the board of directors at its meeting in Rome, January 25-26, 1958. At that meeting the board established a study committee to review the policies and priorities under which CJMCAG had been operating. The committee, consisting of six members of the executive committee and two of the board of directors, submitted its report to the board of directors' meeting in London, October 11-12, 1958. The study committee's 35 recommendations were essentially a reaflirmation of CJMCAG's previous policies and priorities in allocating funds. All recommendations except one were adopted unanimously by the study committee. The exception was the paragraph restricting CJMCAG grants for elementary and secondary education to countries that had been under Nazi occupation or were eligible under the Swedish formula, with which a minority of the study committee disagreed. The board of directors also disagreed on this question. In general the board supported the study committee's view that "the principles governing the allocation of Conference funds for the relief and rehabilitation and cul- CONFERENCE ON JEWISH MATERIAL CLAIMS 113 tural and educational reconstruction for Jewish victims of Nazi persecution are sound and should be retained." A compromise was reached between those who sought to expand CJMCAG aid to education and those who felt that basic relief needs were CJMCAG's paramount concern. CJMCAG agreed to give consideration for capital grants to primary and secondary schools in other countries as well, "but only with due regard for the basic principles and other commitments of the Conference and the urgent needs in other fields." CJMCAG also established standard procedures for dealing with applications. All projects were subject to examination by CJMCAG-designated rap- porteurs and committees of experts. Their findings were submitted to the executive committee, which, after study, made recommendations about grants. These recommendations, affirmative or negative, were to be transmitted to the applicant organization, which might submit additional information. The executive committee then reviewed requests for reconsideration of its original recommendations. Its final recommendations were submitted to the board of directors, together with those requests for reconsideration which the executive committee had not approved. The board of directors made all final decisions. Scope of Allocations In the first five years of its existence CJMCAG distributed almost $50 million for relief and rehabilitation, cultural and educational reconstruction, commemoration and documentation projects, legal-aid programs, and administrative expenditures, including sharing in the cost of the Israeli purchasing mission in Germany. Each year these funds aided over 100,000 individuals and over 200 institutions in 35 countries. To a considerable extent, it was CJMCAG grants to many war-devastated communities in Europe that made continued Jewish communal existence possible. TABLE 1 ALLOCATIONS, BY MAJOR CATEGORIES, 1954-58 General relief and rehabilitation $37,323,687 Cultural and educational reconstruction 6,130,405 Commemoration and documentation projects 1,867,750 Legal-aid programs 2,695,000 Administration, related expenditures, Israeli purchasing mission 1,712,920 Other allocations 97,446 TOTAL $49,827,208 Geographic Distribution Jewish communities in Europe received over 90 per cent of CJMCAG allocations for relief and rehabilitation and more than half its allocations for cultural and educational reconstruction (Table 2). France, with a Jewish population of about 350,000, was the country that received the largest share of allocations, nearly one-third of the European total. The Jewish communities of Germany, Italy, Belgium, and Austria received the next largest allocations. In cultural reconstruction the largest allocations, about 30 per cent, went 114 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK to the United States, because many European Jewish institutions had been transplanted to America. TABLE 2 ALLOCATIONS FOR RELIEF, REHABILITATION, AND CULTURAL RECONSTRUCTION, BY COUNTRIES, 1954-58 (excluding nongeographic allocations) Relief and Cultural Country Rehabilitation» Reconstruction Total Europe $25,506,611 $2,412,495 $27,919,106 Austria 2,300,748» 2,300,748 Belgium 2,587,926 230,407 2,818,333 Czechoslovakia = 47,185 47,185 Denmark 48,093 48,093 France 8,264,767 816,360 9,081,127 Germany 4,967,788 178,993 5,146,781 Greece 543,466 46,800 590,266 Holland 293,923 210,231 504,154 Hungaryd 36,000 36,000 Italy 3,157,060 167,574 3,324,634 Luxembourg 14,200 1,800 16,000 Norway 143,959 7,334 151,293 Polandd 739,822 739,822 Portugal 101,346 101,346 Spain 142,527 142,527 Sweden 848,908 125,960 974,868 Switzerland 575,322 19,916 595,238 United Kingdom 279,540 532,954 812,494 Yugoslavia 450,031 38,166 488,197 Latin America 1,478,239 284322 1,762,761 Argentina 77,581 173,808 251,389 Bolivia 46,040 16,000 62,040 Brazil 784,261 6,469 790,730 Chile 65,400 40,000 105,400 Colombia 15,000 15,000 Dominican Republic 105,554 105,554 Ecuador 28,571 10,000 38,571 Guatemala • 1,500 1,500 Haiti 17,480 17,480 Paraguay' 10,000 10,000 Peru' 15,789 15,789 Uruguay 311,063 38,245 349,308 Canada 71,500* 71300 United States 1,389,164* 1,389,164 Australia 873,807 119,020 992,827 Chinae 24,368 24,368 Philippines 75,231 75,231 Rhodesia 15,000 15,000 TOTAL 527,973,256 $4,276,701 $32,249,957 a For many countries, figures in this column are larger than actual CJMCAG allocations since the amounts include funds spent by JDC from other income. b Includes $754,206 for emergency aid to Hungarian refugees, 19S6-S8. c Program begun in 1958. d Program begun in 1957. • Program only in 1954. f Capital construction. B Excluding grants to transplanted yeshivot. CONFERENCE ON JEWISH MATERIAL CLAIMS 115

RELIEF AND REHABILITATION, 1954-58 Of the nearly $50 million that CJMCAG spent in the five years ending December 31, 1958, over $37 million—almost 75 per cent—was allocated for a worldwide program of relief and rehabilitation: social welfare (cash relief, relief in kind, medical aid, care of the aged, child care), individual rehabilitation (loan funds, vocational training, migration aid, resettlement and integration), and communal rehabilitation (community and youth centers, synagogues and related religious institutions). About nine-tenths of the funds for this extensive program were administered by JDC, which, in turn, allocated a considerable portion of such funds to established communal and social-welfare agencies. JDC also contributed a substantial share of its income from other sources toward the joint CJMCAG/JDC program. The balance of CJMCAG's relief and rehabilitation budget was spent on direct grants to other functional institutions, including the United HIAS Service (UHS), and on several programs which CJMCAG conducted directly.

TABLE 3 CJMCAG-JDC ALLOCATIONS FOR RELIEF AND REHABILITATION, 1954-58 General relief $20200,000 Medical aid 1,620,000 Care of the aged 2,120,000 Child care and youth aid 3,380,000 Migration 4,260,000 Resettlement and integration 1,200,000 Loan funds 1,430,000 Vocational training (ORT) 1,500,000 Communal rehabilitation 1,600,000 Social and functional services 1,456,000 Other welfare 300,000 TOTAL §39,066,000

GENERAL RELIEF General relief, on which $20,200,000-over half CJMCAG-JDC allocations for relief and rehabilitation—was spent, was the gravest welfare responsibility of CJMCAG and its beneficiary institutions. (General relief comprises cash relief, varying from full subsistence down to supplementary aid for persons with submarginal incomes, relief in transit, and relief in kind—clothing, fuel, medicines, Passover supplies.) In 1954 and 1955 many recipients of general relief were displaced persons in Austria, France, Germany, and Italy. When these were resettled overseas or integrated in European communities, CJMCAG faced the pressing needs in 1956-57 of 20,000 Jewish refugees from Hungary, and thousands of other newcomers and repatriates from East Euro- pean countries. CJMCAG-JDC funds also helped to lessen hardships arising from the low levels of public assistance in countries like Italy and Greece, where the Jewish communities themselves were scarcely in a position to extend relief to their needy. After a 1957 survey of cash-relief beneficiaries in Austria, France, Germany, 116 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK and Italy, JDC found that two-thirds of the beneficiaries were hard-core cases requiring aid on a permanent basis. Advancing age and illness among many refugees were expected to continue to swell the welfare rosters for years to come. CJMCAG itself administered three special aid programs. A fund was established to help needy former Jewish community leaders and their widows. Another was set up to aid refugee rabbis, mostly resettled in the United States, Canada, and Great Britain, where, for reasons of age, illness, and difficulties in adjustment, they were unable to find suitable employment. A third fund was created to help rehabilitate persons physically handicapped as a result of Nazi atrocities. These three programs, costing $1,265,327, aided over 500 persons and their families in various parts of the world.

MEDICAL AID CJMCAG-JDC spent $1,620,000 between 1954 and 1958 for medical aid, a comparatively small amount, especially since chronic illness was the most frequent cause of long-term dependency among relief beneficiaries in Europe; many local governments contributed various medical services. In 1958 over 9,000 persons in 17 lands benefited from CJMCAG's medical program. Direct medical assistance absorbed about 87 per cent of such allocations. About $219,000, or 13 per cent, consisted of capital grants to improve and expand eight medical installations in Austria, France, Holland, Italy, Brazil, and Uruguay.

CARE OF THE AGED Because of the disproportionate numbers of aged among the Jewish victims of the Nazis and the inadequate and substandard facilities for their care, CJMCAG and JDC spent over $1,300,000, about 60 per cent of its total allocations of $2,120,000 for the care of the aged, on capital grants for 35 institutions in Europe and 13 in Latin America and Australia. The balance of the funds was used to maintain about 1,500 elderly people annually in existing institutions. In most communities local institutions and public bodies bore about half the cost of construction, renovation, repair, and equipment, and in a number of countries local and national governments also contributed. Most upkeep costs were paid by the local communities. CJMCAG met the difference in capital costs and contributed to maintenance costs.

CHILD CARE AND YOUTH AID Of the $3,380,000 allocated by CJMCAG and JDC for child care and youth aid, over 80 per cent was spent for children in various institutions: breakfasts and school lunches, counseling and psychological consultation, vocational guidance and training, upkeep of kindergartens, nurseries, and baby clinics, shelters and homes, and summer-vacation camps. Sixty-seven summer camps operated by Jewish communal organizations, which some 7,000 refugee young- sters from all over Europe attended, provided opportunities for physical improvement and participation in Jewish cultural and educational programs. CJMCAG funds provided about a fourth of the cost of the camps' upkeep, the rest being met by governments, local communities, and fees. CONFERENCE ON JEWISH MATERIAL CLAIMS 117 About $645,000, somewhat less than 20 per cent of the allocations for child care, was spent on capital grants for 68 institutions: 26 children's and youth homes, 19 kindergartens, and 23 summer camps. Funds were used mainly for expansion, renovation, repair, and equipment. MIGRATION CJMCAG-JDC allocations of $4,260,000 for emigration from Europe were channeled through UHS. Over 37,000 persons were helped to migrate to Canada, the United States, Australia, and Latin America. In 1957 and 1958 Hungarian refugees accounted for most of the movement out of Europe. At the dose of 1958 UHS had over 7,200 applications for emigration from victims of the Nazis in Europe.

RESETTLEMENT AND INTEGRATION CJMCAG-JDC spent $1,200,000 to aid 3,000 persons to resettle and become self-supporting. For the most part these were displaced persons who had to be resettled and helped economically after the closing in April 1956 of Camp Foehrenwald, the last DP camp in Germany. Similar aid was extended to more recent emigrants from Eastern Europe.

LOAN FUNDS Between 1954 and 1958 CJMCAG-JDC allocated $1,430,000 to 27 communal Jewish loan institutions in Europe, Australia, and Latin America, which enabled them to extend 12,500 low-interest loans for productive purposes—finding living quarters, establishing businesses, buying equipment, and obtaining working and investment capital. A JDC survey of the effectiveness of loans issued with the help of CJMCAG-JDC grants, completed early in 1958, showed that 68 per cent of the loans granted before 1957 were successful in providing the borrowers with a means of livelihood, 12 per cent were successful in part, 15 per cent were not yet assessable, and 5 per cent were failures. Over 85 per cent of the loans were issued in Europe, the balance being divided between Latin America and Australia. VOCATIONAL TRAINING Most of the $1,500,000 allocated by CJMCAG-JDC for vocational training went to ORT and was a significant share of the cost of ORT's program for victims of the Nazis in France, Italy, Germany, Belgium, and Austria, with the heaviest expenditures in France. Between 1954 and 1957 an annual average of 8,000 victims of the Nazis received ORT vocational training, and in 1958 the number rose to 13,000.

COMMUNAL REHABILITATION CJMCAG was also concerned with the communal, cultural, and educational needs of the Jewish survivors. Allocations of $1,600,000 from CJMCAG-JDC funds were made for these purposes. Community and youth centers, mostly on the European continent, assumed great importance in the program of communal rehabilitation. Capital grants amounting to over $1,000,000 were 118 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK allocated from CJMCAG-JDC funds for 55 such centers in 16 countries, local funds supplementing CJMCAG grants and local communities undertaking responsibility for the centers' operating budgets. The communities and CJMCAG had high expectations that these community and youth centers— frequently including facilities for schools and synagogues—would help to revive Jewish communal life in Europe. The budget for communal rehabilitation also included allocations of nearly a quarter of a million dollars for the renovation and repair of 31 religious institutions in 9 countries.

SPECIAL SERVICES CJMCAG-JDC allocated $1,456,000 to JDC and other functional agencies in various countries that provided trained social workers, nurses, medical and legal advisers, and various other specialists and technicians required for the variety of programs conducted with the aid of CJMCAG funds.

Cultural Reconstruction From the start CJMCAG considered spending a small percentage of the funds at its disposal for programs and institutions serving the educational and cultural needs of Jewish victims of Nazi persecution and the restoration of cultural treasures destroyed by the Nazis. In December 1953 the executive committee appointed a special advisory committee to consider the scope, principles, and procedures of CJMCAG allocations for culture and education. Salo Wittmayer Baron, Miller professor of Jewish history at Columbia University, headed the committee. In view of the pressing need of its funds for relief and rehabilitation, CJMCAG decided to allocate only 10 per cent of its expected income for cultural projects. The cultural advisory committee felt that this was too small and unanimously urged 15 per cent. The committee worked out a formula for the distribution of such funds, suggesting that 40 per cent be allocated for education (institutional aid as well as scholarships and fellowships), 40 per cent for research and publication, and 20 per cent for salvage. All the Euro- pean members of the committee disagreed with this formula, holding that education of the young was the overriding cultural concern in countries formerly under1 Nazi occupation. They urged 50 per cent for education and 30 per cent for research and publication. In practice the two positions were reconciled; in Europe a greater percentage of the allocations went for education, and in the American hemisphere more was spent for research and publication than for education. Though CJMCAG was concerned with the reconstruction of Jewish culture and education, its contractual obligations limited its allocations to the particular benefit of victims of the Nazis. The principles governing allocations for relief and rehabilitation were applied to culture and education as well, with two additions: (1) allocations made to educational institutions were to be made on behalf of victims of Nazi persecution, and (2) cultural projects receiving CJMCAG funds were to make maximum use of the talents of Jewish scholars, writers, and artists who had suffered under Nazism. From the start, CONFERENCE ON JEWISH MATERIAL CLAIMS 119 then, CJMCAG's allocations for cultural reconstruction were circumscribed by its obligations and pressing needs for relief and rehabilitation. From 1954 through 1958 CJMCAG spent $6,130,405, nearly 13 per cent of its expenditures, on cultural reconstruction. About 85 per cent of such allocations went to applicant organizations—schools, yeshivot, seminaries, and libraries. The balance was spent on programs conducted by CJMCAG itself: scholarships, fellowships, and research grants.

TABLE 4 ALLOCATIONS FOR CULTURAL RECONSTRUCTION, 1954-58 Function Amount Per Cent Education $2,717,892 44.3 Elementary and secondary day schools 946,429 Supplementary and summer schools 531,433 Teachers' institutes 244,246 Yeshivot and rabbinical schools 995,784 Adult education 303,519 5.0 Research and publication 1,496,558 24.4 General literature 901,158 Religious literature 540,310 Textbooks and children's literature 55,090 Salvage and documentation 646,223 10.5 Salvage * 242,837 Documentationb 403,386 Direct CJMCAG programs 965,000 15.7 Fellowships and scholarships 685,000 University chairs in Jewish studies 75,000 Rabbinical research 205,000 OtherTOTA L $6,130,401,2153 100.0.10

• Restoration of libraries, archives, and historical monuments. b This amount includes only a portion of CJMCAG allocations for documentation. The rest appears under the "commemoration and documentation" budget, which CJMCAG recorded separately for technical reasons (p. 121).

EDUCATION CJMCAG spent §2,717,892 for educational reconstruction. About 19,000 children attending Jewish day and supplementary schools in eight European countries, the United Kingdom, six Latin American countries, Canada, and Australia were the beneficiaries of the nearly $1.5 million granted to these schools. Forty-two transplanted yeshivot and six rabbinical seminaries, with an estimated student body of over 1,900, of whom about 1,100 were victims of the Nazis, received nearly $1 million under the education budget. Since half of the institutions of religious learning had been transplanted to the 120 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK United States and Canada, about 60 per cent of the allocations for yeshivot was spent in these countries. On the other hand, nearly three-quarters of the expenditures for schools was for Europe. Almost 40 per cent of the allocations for education were capital investments designed to repair, expand, and renovate the schools and seminaries. Grants for teacher training were given not only for normal activities but also for special programs to help overcome the serious shortage of trained teachers.

ADULT EDUCATION A relatively small allocation of $303,519 was given for adult education over a five-year period, over 80 per cent being spent in Europe. This new program, based largely on American experience, was intended to strengthen Jewish communal and cultural life. Activities consisted of lecture tours, pastoral visits, concerts of Jewish music, and mobile libraries.

RESEARCH AND PUBLICATION CJMCAG allocated $1,496,558 for research and publication projects, excluding projects on the "commemoration and documentation" budget. The program was channeled through existing institutions, which assumed full responsibility for accepting applications from individuals. But CJMCAG screened applications from institutions seeking to undertake research and publication projects. Among these institutions were Centre de Documentation Juive Contemporaine, Paris; Union of Orthodox Hebrew Congregations, London; Nederlands-Israelietisch Kerkgenootschap, Amsterdam; Congress for Jewish Culture, Histadruth Ivrith, Research Institute of Religious Literature, Chabad Research Center, New York; Uni6n Central Israelita Polaca, Buenos Aires, and Leo Baeck Institute, with research centers in Jerusalem, London, and New York. About two-thirds of CJMCAG's allocations for research and publication were spent in the United States. Many projects were still in progress when this report was written. At the end of 1958, 145 books, their research and publication made possible by CJMCAG assistance, had already been published, in Dutch, English, French, German, Hebrew, Hungarian, Italian, and Yiddish. Their subject matters were belles lettres, the Catastrophe, children's literature and textbooks, Judaica, religion, and social research and historical studies.

SALVAGE AND DOCUMENTATION Allocations of $646,223 were made for the restoration of Jewish libraries and research and documentation centers that had been looted by the Nazis and for documentation projects within the special competence of such libraries and centers. These included major Jewish libraries in Europe and the renowned library of the Yiddish Scientific Institute-YIVO (changed to YIVO Institute for Jewish Research in 1955) in New York. Part of the YIVO library in Vilna which the Nazis had removed to Germany was recovered by the United States army after the war and returned to YIVO in New York. Well over half of CJMCAG's salvage and documentation grants went to YIVO for salvage of mutilated books and archival items, replacements, CONFERENCE ON JEWISH MATERIAL CLAIMS 121 classification, and cataloguing. Smaller grants for similar purposes went to the Wiener Library in London, the library of the Alliance Israelite Universelle, the Centre de Documentation Juive in Paris, the Sephardic community of Amsterdam (for repair of the historic Portuguese synagogue), the Union of Italian Jewish Communities in Rome, and some other institutions.

DIRECT CONFERENCE PROGRAMS CJMCAG conducted three direct programs of assistance: (1) scholarships and fellowships, (2) rabbinical research, and (3) grants for university chairs in Jewish studies. Their cost was $965,000. Beneficiaries of these programs were restricted to Jewish students, scholars, artists, and rabbis who were victims of Nazi persecution and who were working or preparing themselves for work in a field of Jewish interest. A total of 893 grants was made for scholarships and fellowships from 1954 through 1958, as follows: 275 undergraduate scholarships (mainly for students at Jewish teacher-training institutions), 265 graduate scholarships (mainly in Jewish social studies, history, and education), and 353 fellowships (Jewish sociological, historical, and religious research, and the arts). The amount of these grants was $685,000. For rabbinical research a total of $205,000 was given in 223 grants to 103 rabbis engaged in individual projects and 120 rabbis in group projects. An advisory committee helped CJMCAG to evaluate the projects and approve their selection. The comparatively small sum of $75,000 over a five-year period was spent on partial grants for university chairs in Jewish studies at Harvard, Johns Hopkins, Temple, and Yeshiva universities, Dropsie College, the New School for Social Research, and the Free University of West Berlin.

Commemoration and Documentation of the Catastrophe In the five years from 1954 through 1958 CJMCAG spent $1,867,750 on commemoration and documentation, excluding $403,386 for documentation under the cultural budget (Table 4). (Some projects to which allocations were made from the commemoration-and-documentation budget were not essentially different from some which received grants under the cultural budget.) The greater proportion of funds in the commemoration budget, including both capital grants and regular programs, was allocated to the Yad wa-Shem [Isaiah 56:5, "a monument and a memorial"] Remembrance Authority in Israel. Yad wa-Shem was established in 1953 when the Keneset passed the Martyrs' and Heroes' Commemoration (Yad wa-Shem) Law. Under its provisions, Yad wa-Shem undertook to perpetuate the memory of the Jewish martyrs of the Catastrophe, their sufferings and heroism, and the communities and institutions which the Nazis destroyed. It was authorized to collect materials and documents, do research and publication on the Catastrophe, and establish memorial projects. A semigovernmental agency, Yad wa-Shem concluded an agreement with CJMCAG in 1954, according to which CJMCAG agreed to cover half of Yad 122 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK wa-Shem's regular and capital-investment budgets. The Israel government was to contribute two-thirds of the remaining half (33 per cent) and the Jewish Agency one-third (17 per cent). Between 1954 and 1958 Yad wa-Shem received §1,361,750, over 70 per cent of the funds allocated for commemoration and documentation. Slightly more than half of its budget was spent on capital investments.

TABLE 5 ALLOCATIONS TO YAD WA-SHEM, 1954-58 Regular Year Budget Capital Investment Total 1954 $ 65,950 $145,800 $ 211,750 1955 122,167 227,833 350,000 1956 141,667 193,333 335,000 1957 170,000 170,000 1958 170,000 125,000 295,000 TOTAL $669,784 $691,966 $1,361,750

The capital grants, which were continuing as this was written, went for the construction of a commemoration center on 150 acres on Har ha-Zikkaron (Mount of Remembrance) in Jerusalem. The Israel government donated part of the land, Yad wa-Shem purchased an additional tract, and in addition the Jerusalem municipality set aside a substantial area. The main structure, completed in 1957, was a three-story building containing a library, archives, exhibition halls, and facilities for research, study, and microfilming. A memorial and a synagogue were still under construction. Road building, installation of water, tree planting, and landscaping for a memorial park were nearing completion. The grants made from the regular budget were spent for salvage, documentation, and research. Yad wa-Shem acquired what was believed to be the largest collection of published and unpublished materials relating to the Catastrophe. It had a library of 25,000 books and periodicals on the subject, German government records, Nazi documents, and a microfilm of the archival records of the former International Tracing Service in Arolsen, including official Gestapo lists of concentration-camp inmates. (The Israel foreign ministry made a special grant to cover one-third of the costs involved in obtaining this microfilm.) In 1954 Yad wa-Shem concluded an agreement with YIVO establishing exchange procedures for sharing documentation and cooperating on several bibliographical and research projects. Besides the bibliographical work, which was largely concentrated at YIVO in New York, Yad wa-Shem undertook the preparation of historical monographs on Jewish communities destroyed by the Nazis. It published three volumes of studies, each appearing in Hebrew and English, and some monographs. In 1957 and 1958 YIVO received a total of $189,500 from CJMCAG for research and documentation conducted jointly with Yad wa-Shem. (For technical reasons the $225,000 YIVO received from 1954 to 1956 for these projects was charged to CJMCAG's cultural budget.) YIVO concentrated on a large- CONFERENCE ON JEWISH MATERIAL CLAIMS 123 scale bibliography of the Catastrophe and a descriptive catalogue of its archival and eyewitness collections. CJMCAG spent §16,500 to coordinate research and documentation by Yad wa-Shem, YIVO, the Wiener Library in London, and the Centre de Docu- mentation Juive in Paris. In addition to supporting the construction of the Yad wa-Shem Memorial in Jerusalem, CJMCAG gave $300,000 toward the construction of the Tomb of the Unknown Jewish Martyr (Le Tombeau du Martyr Juif Inconnu) in Paris. Completed in 1956, it was built upon a plot of land presented by the municipality of Paris. The crypt contained a symbolic tomb for the Unknown Jewish Martyr, upon which rested a horizontally placed Star of David cut in black marble. A four-story building, containing a library, archives, museum, and research facilities for the Centre de Documentation Juive, was part of the memorial. Allocations Within Israel The agreement of September 1952 between CJMCAG and Israel governed the expenditure of 18.3 per cent of the funds being paid by the Federal Republic of Germany. Such funds were to be allocated by CJMCAG, in agreement with the Israel government, to organizations in Israel. The Israel government designated the Jewish Agency as its representative, and the Agency took the responsibility of screening applications and preparing recommendations. In the five years between 1954 and 1958, CJMCAG allocated I£98,220,870 for projects within Israel, over 90 per cent of which went to the Agency's own extensive programs of absorption and settlement. The rest was allocated to organizations aiding refugee rabbis and aged refugees, and to ORT, OSE, Alliance Israelite Universelle, Hebrew University, Technion, and yeshivot for vocational, medical, and educational programs.

TABLE 6 ALLOCATIONS WITHIN ISRAEL, 1954-58 (in Israeli pounds) Year To Jewish Agency To Others Total 1954 18384,158 835,000 19,419,158 1955 18,319,094 1,482,000 19,801,094 1956 16,946399 1,626,000 18,572,599 1957 15,956,923 1,744370 17,701,293 1958 • 20,028,226 2,698,500 22,726,726 TOTAL 89,835,000 8,385,870 98,220,870 • Includes also the first 3 months of 1959.

LEGISLATIVE PROGRAM Upon ratification by the Bundestag of the agreements with Israel and CJMCAG in March 1953, CJMCAG set up a liaison office in Bonn and a legal committee on which the Council for the Protection of the Rights and Interests of Jews from Germany and the Zentralrat der Juden in Deutschland were represented. This committee analyzed the bill drafted by the West 124 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK German finance ministry that was intended to improve, standardize, and supersede previous state and zonal legislation for indemnifying victims of Nazism. CJMCAG's committee met frequently with German officials, parliament and cabinet members, and leading party representatives in an effort to improve the bill procedurally and substantively. Since delays threatened the bill's passage in the short time before final adjournment of the Bundestag, CJMCAG's legal committee urged passage in the hope that future amendments would improve the bill. On July 29, 1953, the last day of the Bundestag session, the Federal Indemnification Law was adopted, to go into effect on October 1. (For a statement of the law's improvements and shortcomings, see AJYB, 1954 [Vol. 55], pp. 252-53.) CJMCAG's legal committee then began to consider what amendments and regulations for implementations were needed, as well as restitution legislation, to which the Federal German Republic had obligated itself in Protocol 1. But despite the energetic efforts of CJMCAG's legal committee in Germany no significant progress was made by the legislature in improving the Federal Indemnification Law. For well over a year after its passage the law was practically a dead letter. The only exception to what was generally believed to be the Federal Republic's "cold sabotage" of the indemnification and restitution program was its agreement to advance pension payments to former German rabbis and other former Jewish communal officials and their widows. To pre-screen applications, upon request of the German authorities, CJMCAG set up a pensions advisory board, which studied over 4,000 applications by December 31, 1958. Total pension payments in this category amounted to about §21 million. The board was expected to conclude its operation at the end of 1959. West Germany's failure to amend the Federal Indemnification Law, to speed up delays and untangle bureaucratic red tape in processing cases, and to prepare adequate restitution legislation were reviewed by CJMCAG's board of directors in Paris on February 6, 1955. In a formal resolution the board conveyed its serious concern to Chancellor Konrad Adenauer. In reply to Nahum Goldmann, who had transmitted the board's protest, Adenauer expressed regret for the delays, pointed to past accomplishments, and said that a working committee, consisting of representatives of federal agencies, state compensation authorities, and party representatives, had been formed to draft amendments, which he hoped would be enacted before the legislature's summer recess. On February 23, 1955, the Bundestag heard a debate on the government's failure to provide the implementing executive orders needed for the operation of the Federal Indemnification Law. As a result a 17-member parliamentary committee was appointed to deal with all bills on restitution and indemnification. But except for some comparatively minor regulations issued by the Bonn government, no progress was made in enacting restitution or improved indemnification laws for another 16 months. Finally, on June 29, 1956, the Bonn parliament adopted a considerably revised Federal Indemnification Law which rectified many flaws in the 1953 law, added new categories of beneficiaries, and extended certain payments. But the new law, in turn, contained certain shortcomings to which CJMCAG's legal committee again turned its attention (AJYB, 1957 [Vol. 58], pp. 286-87). One administrative problem was CONFERENCE ON JEWISH MATERIAL CLAIMS 125 insufficient staff in governmental indemnification offices in Germany, which CJMCAG sought to have enlarged. In 1957 CJMCAG scored two successes. On February 6, 1957, after two years of negotiations, CJMCAG and the I.G. Farben company reached an agreement whereby I.G. Farben would provide a sum not exceeding DM 27 million (somewhat less than $6.5 million) for surviving Jews who had been slave laborers in the I.G. Farben synthetic-rubber factory near Auschwitz. An additional DM 3 million was to be made available to non-Jews who could prove they were compulsory laborers in the factory. CJMCAG set up a special body, the Compensation Treuhand G. m.b.H. at Frankfort, to handle Jewish claims. The second legislative achievement was the enactment, on July 19, 1957, of a Federal Restitution Law to compensate victims of Nazism whose movable property, identifiable but no longer in existence, had been confiscated by the Nazis. CJMCAG's primary legislative concern then turned to implementation of the Federal Indemnification Law. Processing of the claims was hampered by bureaucratic and formalistic methods. Elderly claimants did not always live to see their applications settled, and at the end of 1959 it seemed likely that thousands of claims might fail to reach adjudication by March 31, 1963, the statutory deadline for the indemnification program. The serious lags in handling indemnification claims and the exaggerated reports in the German press of the cost of this program were the subjects of a survey by a special CJMCAG study mission in Germany from October 7 to November 7, 1957. The mission recommended that the federal government advance funds to the states to meet payments where necessary, that uniform procedures should be applied in all states, and that the indemnification committee of the Bundestag should see that the law was carried out both in letter and in spirit. By December 31, 1958, 2,542,233 claims had been filed, and payments under the Federal Indemnification Law came to $1,115,404,000. In addition, indemnification payments by the states before the enactment of the federal law amounted to DM 730,542,000 ($173,938,571). Table 7 shows the number of filed, disposed of, and pending, by states. TABLE 7 NUMBER OF CLAIMS FILED, DISPOSED OF, AND PENDING, BY STATES, DECEMBER 31,1958 Claims Claims Claims State Filed Disposed of Pending Baden-Wuerttemberg 115,748 46,960 68,788 Bavaria 324,442 102,249 222,193 Berlin 415,634 102,773 312,861 Bremen 13,425 4,793 8,632 Hamburg 102,355 23,408 78 947 Hesse 198,625 69335 12930 Lower Saxony 171321 57,719 113 602 North Rhine-Westphalia 602,316 157,760 444,556 Rhineland-Palatinate 567,337 71,520 495^817 Schleswig-Holstein 31,030 19,235 11,795 TOTAL 2,542,233 655,752 1,886,481 126 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

LEGAL AID The United Restitution Organization (URO) was the legal-aid arm of CJMCAG, assisting needy Jewish victims of Nazism in filing and following through on claims for indemnification or restitution. Originally established in 1948, at the suggestion of the Council of Jews from Germany, by JDC, the Jewish Agency, and the Central British Fund, and financed by them, URO became the financial responsibility of CJMCAG in 1954. With the passage of the first Federal Indemnification Law in 1953, URO's program expanded. Its staff grew from 350 in 1953 to over 1,100 in 1958, and from operation in Germany and five countries of major Jewish settlement to operation in 15 countries. By December 31, 1958, URO still had 212,074 claims pending for 123,339 claimants. Of these, 1,787 were claims for the restitution of identifiable property, 17,556 monetary claims under the Federal Restitution Law, 188,109 claims for indemnification, and the rest in other categories. Re- coveries by URO from 1954 to 1958 for the benefit of its clients amounted to $146,000,000. In the four years after CJMCAG began to finance its operations, URO received §2,679,000, as follows: 1954, $800,000 ($133,000 of which was a refund of expenditures for the last nine months of 1953); 1955, $829,000; 1956, $400,000, and 1957, $650,000. CJMCAG also paid $16,000 to the Fond zur Hilfeleistung an politisch Verfolgte. . . . (Austrian Assistance Fund), commonly called Hilfsfond, to help provide legal aid to needy claimants in Austria.

Impact and Problems The programs supported by CJMCAG had a tremendous impact on Jewish communal life all over the world. On the European continent, particularly France, Jewish communal organizations engaged in joint planning and intensified their concern for Jewish communal activities beyond their immediate institutional purposes. With the help of JDC, acting on behalf of CJMCAG, European Jewish communal organizations planned for the future, against the day when CJMCAG allocations would cease. In the spring of 1958 JDC sponsored a conference for European organizations on techniques in fund raising to help them increase their income as Jewish communal life became more stable. In the Jewish community in Great Britain, CJMCAG allocations—or the lack of them—created some open dissension and bitterness among the organizations themselves and between them and CJMCAG. At first CJMCAG made some grants for elementary and secondary day schools in Britain, mostly for capital investment, so that these schools would meet government standards and be eligible for government aid. At that time, the Zionist Federation complained that its schools were being slighted in comparison with the Orthodox, especially Agudath Israel, schools. Agudah institutions felt that they were treated less fairly than institutions elsewhere. But both groups objected when CJMCAG subsequently decided to subsidize elementary and secondary schools only in countries that had been occupied by the Nazis or that had a Jewish population of which at least a half were JEWISH EDUCATION 127 victims of Nazi persecution. (In 1958 CJMCAG made some grants to day schools in England.) Between 1954 and 1958 applications for grants amounted to more than three times the funds actually available. Applicant organizations included, among many others, some American Jewish welfare organizations receiving allocations from welfare funds and federations. Such applications were rejected. The board of directors felt that the CJMCAG could not undertake support of general welfare programs in the United States, thereby relieving local institutions of their responsibilities. There were special problems about cultural reconstruction, where eligibility was based not on competence or merit alone but also on the applicant's being a victim of Nazism. In some CJMCAG-supported cultural programs this limitation made itself felt. But the most serious problem of CJMCAG and its beneficiaries was the eventual cessation of its income from Germany. It was expected at the end of 1959 that the CJMCAG program would cease by the end of 1965 if German payments continued at the same rate. No one could judge how dependent Jewish communities, particularly in Europe, were on CJMCAG, and how far they would be able to assume their own responsibilities for general welfare, education, and culture. In October 1958 the board of directors approved a recommendation by the study committee to study the problems connected with the eventual termination of CJMCAG's activities.

LUCY S. DAWIDOWICZ

JEWISH EDUCATION *

pE First National Study of Jewish Education,1 reported to the Fourth _L National Conference on Jewish Education on June 3, 1959, describing Jewish education in America, recording its achievements and failures, giving statistical data, and analyzing its many problems—organizational, curricular, and methodological. This article is based on the materials developed for that study.

Growth of Enrollment Enrollment in Jewish schools has increased faster in the past half century than the Jewish population. Sporadic estimates of enrollment were made in the first four decades of this century. Regular, organized gathering of data began in 1945, with the organization of an AAJE research department. School censuses were carried

* For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. 1 The study was carried out by the Commission for the Study of Jewish Education in the United States, sponsored by the American Association for Jewish Education (AAJE). The commission's chairmen have been Oscar I. Janowsky and Milton R. Konvitz. The director of the study is Uriah Z. Engelman. The first part of the report, Jewish Education in the United States, Vol. I, by Alexander M. Dushkin and Uriah Z. Engelman, was published by AAJE in New York in 1959. 128 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK out almost annually thereafter, digests of the findings being published in this YEAR BOOK. At the beginning of the century Charles S. Bernheimer estimated the attendance at Jewish schools, including private hadarim, at 45,000,2 the total Jewish population being about a million. In the fall of 1958 a national census of Jewish schools, undertaken by the author for the study, recorded an enrollment of 553,600; the Jewish population that year was estimated at 5,260,000 (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 18). School enrollment has thus multiplied by twelve since the beginning of this century, while the Jewish population has multiplied by a little more than five. The American Jewish population at the beginning of this century, consisting so largely of immigrants without families or with families still in Europe, had a below-average proportion of children, but even so, the rise in the enrollment-population ratio is highly significant. The growth of the Jewish population, therefore, accounted for only part of the rise in school enrollments. The rest of it may be ascribed largely to the interest of previously uinterested Jews in Jewish education for their children. This in turn reflects the new interest in religious education among Americans generally, as manifested by increased enrollment in the religious schools of all denominations (AJYB, 1958 [Vol. 59], p. 126).

ONE-DAY-A-WEEK AND WEEKDAY ENROLLMENTS During the past decade the enrollment in both Sunday and weekday schools—the latter embracing afternoon and all-day schools—has risen year by year. Sunday-school enrollment rose 106.5 per cent, from 120,896 pupils in 1948 to 249,662 in 1958; and weekday-school enrollment 156.5 per cent, from 118,502 in 1948 to 303,938 in 1958 (Table 1). The combined enrollment increased 131.2 per cent. The proportionately larger increase in weekday enrollment was probably due in large measure to the intensification of Jewish educational activity by all Jewish religious groups. The Reform congregations mostly sponsor one-day-a-week (Sunday or Sabbath) schools. The Conservative congregations have been limiting Sunday- school enrollment to the primary department (kindergarten and the first two grades) and requiring older children to attend the weekday-afternoon schools; of the total Conservative enrollment, nearly 60 per cent attended the more-than-one-day-a-week schools. The Orthodox have over 80 per cent of their enrollment in this type of school.

RATIO OF ENROLLMENT TO JEWISH POPULATION In the fall of 1958, as we have seen, about 553,600 children were enrolled in elementary and secondary Jewish schools of all types, and the Jewish population was about 5,260,000 (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 18). The ratio was therefore 10.5 per cent. The enrollment in American elementary and secondary schools was 39,344,000 (U.S. Office of Education, Enrollment, Teachers

» AJYB, 1900-01 (Vol. 2), pp. 505-06. See also "America," Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol 1 p 502- AJYB, 1914-15 (VoL 16), pp. 90-127; Samson Benderly, Jewish Exponent, January 17 1908 •' and also Jewish Education, January-March 1935, pp. 5-8, 33. January u, i*uo, JEWISH EDUCATION 129

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ENROLLMENT-POPULATION RATIOS IN DIFFERENT AREAS The enrollment-population ratios were different in the different geographic zones of the country. It was highest in the West South Central (18.7 per cent) and Mountain (17.7 per cent) zones, where the Jewish population was relatively small and widely distributed. It was lowest in the Pacific (7.3 per cent) and Middle Atlantic (7.5 per cent) zones, where the Jewish population was relatively large and was concentrated in great cities like Los Angeles and New York. In the other geographic zones the enrollment-population ratios were as follows: West North Central, 14.1 per cent; East South Central, 14.0 per cent; South Atlantic, 13.6 per cent, and New England, 10.9 per cent. The data thus pointed to an inverse relationship between the size of the Jewish population in a geographic zone and its urban concentration, on the one hand, and the enrollment-population ratio, on the other. This inverse relationship also manifested itself when enrollment was studied in relation to size of Jewish community. The two largest Jewish communities, New York and Los Angeles, had the lowest enrollment-population ratios, 7.1 per cent and 6.8 per cent respectively. The small communities, of fewer than 10,000 Jews, recorded enrollment-population ratios of 16 per cent and more. This interesting relationship invited a more rigorous statistical analysis than the available population data allowed (AJYB, 1958 [Vol. 59], p. 128).

3 See also Ben B. Seligman and Aaron Antonovski "Some Aspects of Jewish Demography" in Mar- shall Sklare, ed.. The Jews: Social Patterns of an American Grovp (Glencoe, 111., 1958), p 54~ JEWISH EDUCATION 131

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ENROLLMENT Of the total enrollment of 553.600 in 1958, 261,287 (47.1 per cent) attended weekday-afternoon schools two or more days per week, 249,662 (45.1 per cent) one-day-a-week schools, and 42,651 (7.8 per cent) day ("parochial") schools. A major characteristic both of the Sunday and weekday-afternoon enrollment was that it was predominantly in schools under congregational auspices. Of the Sunday-school enrollment only 4.4 per cent attended schools under noncongregational auspices and of the weekday-afternoon enrollment, 4.2 per cent, while 98 per cent of the day-school enrollment was in schools conducted by noncongregational associations (Table 2). Only very recently have some of the larger and wealthier congregations begun to think about establishing their own day schools.

TABLE 2

DISTRIBUTION OF ENROLLMENT BY CONGREGATIONAL OR OTHER AUSPICES AND TYPE OF SCHOOL One Day Weekday a Week Afternoon Day Total Per Per Per Per Number Cent Number Cent Number Cent Number Cent Congregational 238,801 95.6 250,373 95.8 862 2.0 Other 490,036 88.5 (including intercongregational) 10,861 4.4 10,914 42 41,789 98.0 63,564 11.5 TOTAL 249,662 100.0 261,287 100.0 42,651 100.0 553,600 100.0

DISTRIBUTION OF ENROLLMENT BY ORIENTATION The proportion of the total enrollment under Conservative auspices was less than 40 per cent; Reform, less than 30 per cent; Orthodox, more than 20 per cent; Yiddishist, slightly more than 1 per cent, and other or multiple, more than 10 per cent. About the same distribution prevailed for weekday- afternoon enrollment taken separately. However, in one-day-a-week enrollment the Reform group predominated. Almost half of the one-day-a-week children were in schools under Reform auspices; Conservative, a little less than 35 per cent; Orthodox, less than 10 per cent; Yiddishist, 6 per cent, and other or multiple, nearly 7 per cent. Of the day-school enrollment, the Orthodox had slightly more than 95 per cent; Conservative, more than 3 per cent; Yiddish and other, more than 1 per cent, and Reform, none (Table 3).

DISTRIBUTION OF ENROLLMENT WITHIN EACH ORIENTATION About 60 per cent of the Conservative enrollment was in weekday-afternoon schools, more than 20 per cent of the Reform enrollment and nearly 80 per cent of the Yiddishist and noncongregational enrollment. Of the Reform enrollment close to 80 per cent was in Sunday (i.e., one-day) schools, of the Conservative enrollment, 40 per cent, and of the Orthodox, about 20 132 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

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OUBO.O JEWISH EDUCATION 133 per cent. Of the Orthodox enrollment, more than a third was in day schools, but of the Conservative enrollment, less than 1 per cent (Table 4).

TABLE 4 DISTRIBUTION OF ENROLLMENT BY TYPE OF SCHOOL WITHIN EACH ORIENTATION (Per Cent) Other or Multiple Ortho- Conserv- Yid- (Noncon- Combined dox ative Reform dishist gregational) Total Weekday afternoon 45.5 59.4 20.9 76.9 71.3 475 Day 34.7 0.6 22 1.1 7.7 One day a week 19.8 40.0 79.1 20.9 27.6 45.1 TOTAL 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

DISTRIBUTION OF ENROLLMENT BY LEVEL AND SEX Of every ten children in Jewish schools, six were boys and four were girls. At the primary (kindergarten and first two grades) and high-school levels more than half were boys; at the elementary level more than three- fifths were boys.

TABLE 5 ENROLLMENT BY LEVEL AND SEX Level Boys Girls Total Per Per Per Number Cent Number Cent Number Cent Primary Kindergarten 13,082 3.9 10,718 5.0 23,800 4.3 (55.0) (45.0) (100) Grades 1 and 2 17,362 5.1 16,002 7.4 33,364 5.9 (52.0) (48.0) (100) Total (Primary) .... 30,444 i!5 26,720 12A 57,164 105 Per cent (533) (46.7) (100) Elementary 285,085 84.4 168,745 78.2 453,830 82.1 (62.8) (375) (100) High School 22,464 6.6 20,142 9.4 42,606 7.7 (52.7) (47.3) (100) TOTAL 337,993 100.0 215,607 Iob~O 553,600 100.0 PER CENT (61.0) (39.0) (100) Only in Sunday (one-day-a-week) high school was there a larger proportion of girls than boys, probably because in many Sunday schools the confirmation class, which usually has a larger proportion of girls, is part of the high- school department. 134 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

TABLE 6 DISTRIBUTION OF ENROLLMENT BY LEVEL, TYPE OF SCHOOL, AND SEX One Day a Week Level Boys Girls Total Per Per Per Number Cent Number Cent Number Cent Primary Kindergarten 6,552 5.2 5,989 4.8 12,541 5.0 (52.1) (47.9) (100) Grades 1 and 2 15,840 12.5 15,013 12.1 30,853 12.4 (51.1) (48.9) (100) Total (Primary) .... 22,392 17.7 21,002 16.9 43,394 17.4 Per cent (51.4) (48.6) (100) Elementary 94,736 75.2 91,406 73.9 186,142 745 (50.8) (49.2) (100) High School 8,914 7.1 11,335 9.2 20,249 8.1 (44.6) (55.4) (100) TOTAL ' 126,042 100.0 123,743 100.0 249,785 100.0 PER CENT (505) (49.5) (100) Weekday Afternoon and Day Primary Kindergarten 6,530 3.1 4,729 5.1 11,259 3.7 (58.0) (42.0) (100) Grades 1 and 2 1,522 0.7 989 1.1 2311 0.8 (60.8) (394) (100) Total (Primary) .... 8,052 3.8 5,718 "^2 13,770 T.5 Per cent (58.5) (41.5) (100) Elementary 190,349 89.9 77,339 84 3 267,688 88.1 (71.1) (28.9) (100) High School 13350 6.3 8,807 9.5 22,357 7.4 (60.6) (39.4) (100) TOTAL 211,951 100.0 91,864 100.0 303,815 lOoTo PER CENT (69.7) (30.3) (100)

The predominance of boys in the weekday-school enrollment was especially revealing when analyzed by orientation.

TABLE 7 WEEKDAY-SCHOOL ENROLLMENT BY SEX AND ORIENTATION (Per Cent) Boys Girls Orthodox 69.3 30.7 Conservative 66.8 33.2 Reform 71.3 28.7 Yiddishist 44.9 55.1 JEWISH EDUCATION 135 The varying proportions of boys and girls in the different types of Jewish schools seemed to reflect the attitudes of the parents to their children's Jewish educational needs. In weekday Orthodox and Conservative schools, which emphasize Hebrew and synagogue worship, boys were more than two-thirds of the enrollment; in the Sunday school, which emphasizes non-Hebraic Jew- ish material, there was a much higher ratio of girls. Reform weekday schools have a high ratio of boys because those schools emphasize the teaching of the Hebrew parts of the Reform liturgy, while Yiddish schools have a relatively low ratio of boys because they stress the cultural rather than the religious. These are historic attitudes. Boys have always been assigned a major role in carrying on the tradition of Hebrew learning and ritual. Girls have largely been exempt from these requirements, as also from participating actively in congregational or other communal affairs. This historic attitude to the Jewish education of girls persists in America today, even though the contemporary American woman, unlike her past European counterpart, has not only assumed active leadership in the Jewish community, but is also largely charged with the responsibility for the Jewish quality of family life. The study found that today women are more than 40 per cent of the lay directors and professional executive officers of all types of Jewish organizations, including congregations.

Number and Size of Schools

NUMBER In 1958 the entire Jewish educational system consisted of an estimated 3,367 schools, more than a quarter being in New York City.

TABLE 8

NUMBER AND TYPES OF SCHOOLS Estimated Number of Jewish Weekday One Day Schools Afternoon a Week Day Total Num- Per Num- Per Num.- Per Num- Per her Cent ber Cent ber Cent ber Cent New York City 438 24.9 365 26.3 136 63.6 939 27.9 Rest of country 1,322 75.1 1,028 73.7 78 36.4 2,428 72.1 TOTAL 1,760 100.0 1,393 100.0 214 100.0 3,367 100.0

SIZE In most cities the study found a large number of small schools, especially afternoon schools. In Los Angeles and Miami half of the weekday schools had fewer than 50 children, and in New York City half of the weekday schools had fewer than 100 children. Table 9 is based on data for 30 communities, not including New York City. New York City had almost two-thirds of all the day schools in the country. 136 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

TABLE 9 DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOOLS IN 30 COMMUNITIES » BY SIZE OF ENROLLMENT Primary and Elementary Weekday Afternoon One Day a Week Number of Proportion of Proportion of Proportion of Proportion of Pupils Schools Enrollment Schools Enrollment Per Per Per Per Cent Cent Cent Cent Fewer than 26 14.7 22 7.4 0.6 26-50 24.1 9.0 11.0 25 51-75 13.5 8.2 9.2 32 76-100 10.0 8.7 13.6 6.4 101-125 13.5 15.0 11.0 6.9 126-150 5.3 6.9 7.4 5.7 151-175 4.1 6.4 5.5 4.4 176-200 2.9 5.3 55 5.8 201-225 1.8 3.6 3.1 3.6 226-250 12 1.4 1.8 2.4 251-300 12 3.0 7.4 112 301-350 35 11.1 43 7.6 351-400 12 4.3 2.4 5.2 401-500 0.6 2.4 3.7 9.1 501-600 1.8 9.0 12 3.8 601-800 0.6 3.5 4.9 18.7 Over 801 — — 0.6 2.9 TOTAL 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 High School Fewer than 26 52.9 19.8 605 20.4 26-50 17.6 17.3 18.6 13.6 51-75 11.9 22.0 6.9 11.3 76-100 17.6 40.9 101-125 — 4.7 13.3 126-150 23 8.2 151-175 2.3 9.9 176-200 — — 4.7 23.3 TOTAL 10O0 100.0 100.0 100.0 a Akron, O., Albany, Ga., Annapolis, Md., Ansonia, Conn., Atlanta, Ga., Bayshore, N. Y., Belleville N. J., Binghamton, N. Y., Buffalo, N. Y., Camden, N. J., Cleveland, 0., Detroit, Mich., Elmira, N. Y., Harvey, 111., Kearney, N. J.» Larchmont, N. Y., Los Angeles, Calif., Meriden, Conn., Metuchen N. J., Miami, Fla., Omaha, Neb., Plainfield, N. J., Rochester, N. Y., Savannah, Ga., Schenectady, N. Y., Steubenville, O., Tulsa, Okla., Washington, D. C, Waukeegan, 111., Willimantic, Conn.

Of weekday-afternoon primary and elementary schools, therefore, the 62.3 per cent with 100 or fewer pupils accounted for only 28.1 per cent of the enrollment, while the 7.7 per cent with 301 or more pupils accounted for 30.3 per cent of the enrollment. On the high-school level most of the weekday- afternoon schools had fewer than 26 children. The disproportion was less marked in the one-day schools. The 41.2 per cent of primary-and-elementary one-day schools with 100 students or fewer accounted for 12.7 per cent of the enrollment, while the 17.1 per cent with JEWISH EDUCATION 137 301 or more students accounted for 47.3 per cent of the enrollment. But 60.5 per cent of Sunday high-school departments had fewer than 26 students, and 25.5 per cent had between 26 and 75.

The Effects of Fragmentation The many handicaps under which the small schools operated made their effective management almost impossible. By sheer weight of numbers, the small and ineffective schools—a majority of all the Jewish schools in the United States—lowered Jewish educational standards. Since a student body of at least 200 to 250 has been shown by experience to be necessary for adequate classification and management, almost nine-tenths of the weekday schools and almost three-quarters of the one-day-a-week schools were too small. The small schools, with rare exceptions, were found to be poorly staffed. They cannot afford to engage professional teachers. And where, infrequently, the small school's budget does provide for a professional teacher or principal, the position usually remains unfilled. Professional teachers and principals are reluctant to accept positions in small schools, which do not offer security, status, or opportunity for economic or professional advancement. Besides, the severe shortage of qualified teachers of Jewish subjects makes it impossible to staff the thousands of small schools adequately, even if they could afford professional salary scales.

GRADING Proper grading of children, essential for good teaching and good learning, was almost universally absent in the small schools. Children of 7 or 8 were often found in the same class with children of 11 and 12. This meant that the children of any one grade in the Jewish school were often distributed over five and more public-school grades. For instance, the second grade of a Jewish school in community "W" had 23 pupils, distributed in the public school as follows: fourth grade, 1; fifth, 3; sixth, 2; seventh, 5; eighth, 10; ninth, 1, and tenth, 1. The practice of most small schools was to place all beginners at the start of the year in the same class, without regard to age or aptitude. Such schools were usually in no position to organize parallel classes, nor could their small staffs give remedial teaching to children retarded by illness or other causes. Few of the smaller schools had special teachers for arts and crafts, singing, or dramatics, essential for teaching the aesthetic aspects of Jewish life and culture. Finally, the small schools, like most other Jewish schools, were independent and often competitive institutions, relying on the limited resources of the sponsoring congregations or organizations for all their needs. Only in a few communities could the small school expect some aid from a central educational agency, and the study found that even with such aid, the smaller schools could not overcome their inherent difficulties. The recommended solution was either to merge small schools into consolidated intercongregational schools with community participation, as was 138 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK later done in Savannah, Ga., or to organize community-sponsored schools on an area basis, as in Detroit. In recommending consolidation of the small schools, the study was in accord with the experience of American public education. Consolidation of small public schools has become the strongest single practical means for improving education in areas with a low population density. Several communities reacted positively. In Miami, as in Buffalo, Cleveland, Los Angeles, and Rochester, a special committee has been appointed to effect the consolidation of small schools. The Savannah community, as was noted above, put its schools under intercongregational-community auspices. The study also had an impact on communities not part of its geographic sample. The New Haven Jewish Community Council has initiated conferences on consolidation with the smaller schools. In New Brunswick, N. J., a local study, carried out in 1959 independently of the national study but citing it, recommended the consolidation of the four small weekday-afternoon schools. STRAIN ON RESOURCES In most communities the multiplication of Jewish schools, especially weekday schools, has made for excessive demands on necessarily limited resources of money and lay and professional manpower. Every school has tended to function as an independent and self-sufficient body in curriculum, standards, financing, and staffing. In the communities studied there were clearly too many independent, separate school boards in relation to the number of schools. Even the weekday and Sunday schools sponsored by the same organization did not always have one board. In Miami 55 Sunday and weekday schools had 31 boards, in Washington, 48 Sunday and weekday schools had 29 boards, and in Buffalo 17 weekday and Sunday schools had 10 boards. On the other hand, the community system of weekday-afternoon schools in Cleveland, Detroit, and Minneapolis and the intercongregational-community system in Louisville, St. Paul, Savannah, and several other places had single, community-wide boards.

Coordination The tendency in Jewish communal services has been to eliminate duplication. In Jewish education great efforts have been made in the past three or four decades to do the same, but without great success. At the time of the study there were 40 communities—small, intermediate, and large—with bureaus of Jewish education belonging to the local Jewish federation or community council (AJYB, 1958 [Vol. 59], pp. 135-36). All had a common objective—to coordinate the many separate, varyingly efficient schools in an orderly, graded, supervised system of Jewish education from kindergarten to high school for all Jewish children. The bureaus have made significant gains in coordination, but they are all deeply conscious of failure to achieve an even more basic objective—the establishment of principles and standards. Several bureaus have tried to develop unified, though not neces- JEWISH EDUCATION 139 sarily uniform, curricula, to serve the common needs of children with parents of different religious orientations. The purpose of such common curricula is not to achieve uniformity in the content or interpretation of subject matter, customs, beliefs, or values, but rather to assure a common core of objectives and subject matter and the attainment of certain levels of accomplishment for each grade. A major obstacle has been the individualistic independence of each school, a function of the individualistic independence—and often competitiveness— of the sponsoring congregation. Rabbis interviewed for the study tended to assume that any congregation, in order to nourish, had to have its own school, and that it was impossible to work out a common program of studies on which congregations of different orientations could agree. The study did not support either assumption. In Des Moines, Detroit, Lawrence, Minneapolis, St. Paul, Savannah, and several other communities, Orthodox and Conservative (and sometimes Reform) weekday-afternoon schools had been consolidated. From interviews with rabbis and laymen on the boards of such school systems, it was clear that the congregations in their communities had not suffered as a result. A characteristic summary of experience with consolidation, by a rabbi, was as follows: By integrating our school into the community system, our congregation has been freed of the financial and the many administrative duties and responsibilities that usually go with maintaining a weekday-afternoon school. At the same time we feel assured that the educational needs of our members' children will be met in a competent manner. Consolidation has allowed us to concentrate our resources, spiritual and material, on building up the synagogue. Ideological difference as a deterrent to coordinating and consolidating schools was a serious problem everywhere, yet the study found that the communities with community or intercongregational-community schools have also made strong efforts to develop intercongregational and interorientational programs. Broadly, the curriculum of the consolidated schools provides for a common core of subjects and objectives acceptable to all. The subject matter and the spirit of instruction stress the common Jewish religious, historical, and cultural heritage. Children attend special classes, services, assemblies, ceremonies, Bar (and Bat) Mitzvah, and confirmations either in their own congregations or in the consolidated-school building. The study showed that the congregational schools, though conducted under separate auspices, do not teach separatist, sectarian doctrine. Of course the sampling excluded the extreme fringes of both Orthodoxy and Reform, which by their very nature could not and would not participate in cooperative education programs; but these are a small minority. For nearly all other congregations, ideology was not a great obstacle to communication and to cooperation in matters of Jewish education. That what we may call sectarianism did not prevail is shown by the following: 1. The official curricula of the three major Jewish religious groups4

i The (Conservative) United Synagogue of America, the (Reform) Union of American Hebrew Congregations, and the Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations. 140 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK show a basic community of ideas, aims, and principles. 2. The aims of individual schools in various sections of the country, like those of the national bodies, differed little. All seemed to be founded on the common ground of Jewish realities in America and only vaguely reflected the particular orientations of the sponsoring congregations. 3. Specific objectives seemed to be similarly interchangeable. 4. In many communities, congregations of different orientations have developed common educational programs (see above). 5. The 24 central Hebrew high schools and 9 central higher schools of Jewish studies operated by bureaus of Jewish education were attended by graduates of elementary schools of various orientations. 6. Of 1,561 community leaders in the national sample who were asked what determined their choice of a Jewish school for their children, only 9.7 per cent gave as a reason the school's ideological orientation and 26.9 per cent gave family background and synagogue affiliation. Almost two-thirds, therefore, apparently chose their children's Jewish school for reasons that had nothing to do with its orientation. 7. A study of the classroom atmosphere by trained, experienced educators in 50 classes of 28 schools selected at random was carried out in Los Angeles, Miami, and Washington, to determine, among other things, what general and what Jewish values were stressed. It was found that teachers emphasize general humanistic and Jewish values, without reference to the particular orientation of the sponsoring congregation. All this seemed to show that sectarianism was not yet a decisive characteristic of the Jewish schools, at least to such a degree as to prevent them from cooperating in developing consolidated school systems.

Operations, Plant, and Transportation It cost over $60 million in 1959 to operate the Jewish schools, exclusive of capital expenditures and repairs. More than half of this cost was met by tuition fees, either directly or through congregational dues.

TABLE 10 COST OF OPERATING JEWISH SCHOOLS Instructional * Costs Enrollment Per Pupil Per Per Amount Cent Number Cent Amount Weekday-afternoon and one-day-a-week $33,875,657 663 510,949 923 $ 6655 Day 17,202,808 33.7 42,651 7.7 40333 $51,078,465 10O0 553,600 10O0 $ 92.21 a Noninstructional costs (building, maintenance, transportation, other) were estimated at $10 million.

Despite the many new and modern Jewish school buildings erected since the war, almost every community faced the problem of adequate housing for its growing enrollment. JEWISH EDUCATION 141 A study of school buildings in 22 sample communities exclusive of New York City found that fewer than three out of five were considered by their school authorities to be adequate. In New York City, some years earlier, it had been found that "over half of the Jewish school buildings were too high, too old, and poorly located, and over a third were converted stores, dwellings and the like." In many communities schools were still housed in shacks, rented rooms, or in large rooms subdivided into classrooms by thin sliding partitions. Buildings recently erected in many communities had become inadequate because of failure to provide for anticipated enrollment growth. A major community enterprise, requiring the expenditures of large sums of communal money, was thus frustrated for lack of planning and consultation.

TRANSPORTATION The shift of the Jewish population from the older parts of the cities to the suburbs has brought in its train the problem of getting the children to and from the Jewish schools. In Los Angeles, of the 15 schools for which information was available only one small school was within walking distance of all the pupils, and in 11 schools more than half of the children had to depend upon vehicular transportation. There were similar findings in most of the other communities of the geographic sample. A private car (or car pool) brought four out of every five children to Sunday school, and more than one out of every three children to weekday school. Public transportation played a relatively minor part either for the Jewish or for the public school.

TABLE 11 TRANSPORTATION OF CHILDREN IN 27 SAMPLE COMMUNITIES Public Weekday One Day a Week Total School Per Per Per Per Number Cent Number Cent Number Cent Cent Walk 738 21.9 405 9.2 1,143 14.7 45.6 Public transportation 462 13.7 239 5.4 701 9.0 11.6 School bus or taxi 565 16.8 168 3.8 733 9.5 15.0 Private car 1,223 36.4 3,516 79.5 4,739 60.8 20.3 Bicycle 377 11.2 94 2.1 471 6.0 75 TOTAL 3,365 100.0 4,422 10O0 7,787 10O0 100X) No Answer 1,377 892 2.269 TOTAL 4,742 5,314 10,056

Aims The study attempted to find out what parents, leaders, and teachers have in mind when they talk or think of Jewish education and its aims. Close to 8,000 men and women in 33 cities of the geographic sample either were interviewed or were asked to complete questionnaires. The interview guide and the questionnaire each included more than 100 questions. The surveyors, 142 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK in offering their analysis of the open-ended interview material and of the structured-questionnaire responses, were aware of the difficulty that the respondents, as nonspecialists, found in defining aims and objectives, of the difficulty of interpretation, and of the danger of forcing them into rigid categories.

PARENTS' INTERVIEWS Close to 2,000 parents in 20 communities of the geographic sample, chosen at random, were interviewed in their homes. One set of open-ended questions in the interview guide was: "What are your aims in sending your child to a Jewish school? What do you expect your child to get out of it?" The 2,000 parents gave almost 3,000 answers to this question. Those answers were then classified under four heads, corresponding to the elements of any complete statement of the aims of Jewish education: 1. identification and belonging; 2. knowledge; 3. beliefs, appreciations, values, and attitudes, and 4. practice and participation. A detailed analysis—taking account of sex, age, nativity, occupation, civic and religious affiliation, Jewish and general educational background, Jewish home environment, type of child's Jewish school, and many other factors—will be presented in the second volume of the study report.

TABLE 12

PARENTS' AIMS IN SENDING CHILDREN TO JEWISH SCHOOLS Responses Per Cent Belonging, Identification Desire for and pride in belonging 131 4.5 Identification with people, community 24 0.8 Identification with congregation (synagogue, temple) 88 3.0 Identification with Israel, desire to aid * — —

Knowledge Bible 42 1.4 History and contemporary life 330 11.3 Customs and holidays 180 6.2 Hebrew language, literature, classic and modern sources .... 411 14.1 Yiddish language, literature 10 0.3 Religion, Judaism, ethics 508 17.3 Jewish cultural background 504 17.2 Jewish contributions to civilization, to U. S.» — — 1,985 67.8 Beliefs, Values, Appreciations, Attitudes Understanding and appreciation of Judaism (religion) 13 0.4 Ethics, morals, commitments 16 0J> Jewish heritage 151 5 2 Character, personality 147 51 Jewish music and art» _ _

327 11.2 JEWISH EDUCATION 143

Responses Per Cent Practices, Participation Jewish living, association, leadership 191 6.5 Participation in Jewish causes, activities» — — Ritual observances, including Bar (Bat) Mitzvah, confirmation 142 4.9 Worship 40 1.4 General community service, citizenship» — — 373 TOTAL 2,928 100.0 a Not explicitly mentioned, but possibly implicit.

Over two-thirds of the interviewed parents, therefore, emphasized Jewish knowledge; about 1 in 8 practices and participation; a little more than 1 in 10 beliefs, values, appreciations, and attitudes, and 1 in 12 belonging and identification. What kind of knowledge was not very clear to most parents, for over a third of the responses were rather vague and general. Analysis showed that it was meant to include religion, Hebrew, and history. It was also likely that the parents who stated their aims in such general terms as "religion, Judaism," or "Jewish cultural background," or "Jewish knowledge," meant these to include the Bible and customs and ceremonies. That parents regard knowledge as the major aim of Jewish education was borne out by two other studies. In one, parents were asked "whether they liked the Jewish education of their children, and if so what they liked particularly." Their responses followed the same pattern; almost two-thirds "liked particularly" that their children should acquire "Jewish knowledge"; more than a fifth emphasized various beliefs and values; more than an eighth mentioned practices and participation, and 1 in 40 mentioned identification and belonging. In the second study parents were asked whether and how they would want their children's Jewish education to differ from their own. Of the parents who wanted their children's Jewish education to differ from their own, 8 out of 10 emphasized the need for more Jewish knowledge.

ATTITUDE OF LEADERS For community leaders knowledge was the major objective of the Jewish school. In 19 communities, 1,561 leaders (men and women on the boards of community councils, federations, B'nai B'rith, schools, congregations, etc.) were given a questionnaire which contained, among other questions, a list of 42 possible aims and functions of Jewish education. They were then asked to mark these "indispensable," "important but not indispensable," "desirable," and "no opinion on desirability." The leaders recorded 28,394 responses under the two most positive categories, "indispensable" and "important but not indispensable." In order to allow for proper comparison with the opinions of parents, these responses were later classified under the four categories of Table 12. 144 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

TABLE 13

LEADERS' SELECTION OF "INDISPENSABLE" AND "IMPORTANT BUT NOT INDISPENSABLE" AIMS OF JEWISH EDUCATION Responses Per Cent Identification and Belonging Desire for and pride in belonging» — — Identification with people, community 2,047 12, Identification with congregation (synagogue, temple) 970 3.4 Identification with Israel, desire to aid 821 2.9 3,838 13.5 Knowledge Bible 1,504 52 History and contemporary life 2,259 8.0 Customs and holidays * — — Hebrew language, literature, classic and modern sources .... 2,176 7.7 Yiddish language, literature 956 3.4 Religion, Judaism, ethics 2,277 8.0 Jewish cultural background» — — Jewish contributions to civilization, to U. S 2,771 9.8 11,943 42U Beliefs, Values, Appreciations, and Attitudes Understanding and appreciation of Judaism (religion) .... 1,900 6.7 Ethics, morals, commitmentsa — — Jewish heritage« — — Character, personality 5,003 17.6 Jewish music and art 692 2.4 7,595 267 Practice, Participation Jewish living, association, leadership 820 2.9 Participation in Jewish causes, activities 905 $2 Ritual observances, including Bar (Bat) Mitzvah, confirmation 2373 8.4 Worship» — — General community service, citizenship 920 $2 5,018 VL1 TOTAL 28,394 100.0 * Not explicitly mentioned, but possibly implicit.

More than 2 out of every 5 responses in the two most favored categories, therefore, related to knowledge. As with the parental interviews, the proportion favoring knowledge of the Bible was probably underestimated. More than a quarter of the highly favorable responses emphasized beliefs, values, appreciations, and attitudes; less than a fifth, practices and participation, and more than an eighth, identification and belonging.

What the Schools Teach What one learns in a Jewish school and how much one learns depend on the number of years and the number of hours per week of the school's program. JEWISH EDUCATION 145

TABLE 14

NUMBER OF YEARS OF PROGRAMS OF STUDIES IN 18 COMMUNITIES » (Per Cent) Years Weekday Afternoon Sunday 2 18.4 10.8 3 8.2 1.6 4 27.9 10.3 5 29.2 3.2 6 16.3 17.3 7 — 10.3 8 — 16.2 9 — 14.6 10 7.0 11 6.5 12 — 22 10O0 100.0 » Not including New York City.

By the standards of the American public school, the weekday elementary Jewish school is a stunted institution. The average Sunday-school program is longer in number of years, but the Sunday school's average number of hours of instruction per week is less than half of the weekday-afternoon school's. The one-day schools with two-year programs were probably in the main congregational schools offering kindergarten and the first two grades on Sundays, while requiring older children to attend the weekday-afternoon school.

Course of Studies

HEBREW LANGUAGE Hebraic subjects—Bible, especially Pentateuch, the Hebrew prayer books (siddur and mahazor), the Hebrew parts of the Reform prayer book, and Hebrew literature—were a basic part of the curriculum of the weekday school, and some knowledge of the Hebrew language was an obvious prerequisite. How much time did the Jewish school devote to the linguistic preparation of the child for his study of Hebraic subjects? In 290 schools, in 18 sample communities exclusive of New York City, weekday-afternoon schools scheduled the teaching of Hebrew for 1 to 6 years, an average of 3.8 years; and from less than an hour to four hours per week, an average of \yz hours per week. Consequently the average weekday-afternoon pupil, during his entire Jewish elementary-school career, studied He- brew for about 240 hours. This is roughly equivalent to less than a year and a half of foreign-language instruction for five hours a week during the school year. Actually, many teachers reported that they were not teaching Hebrew even in the grades where the syllabus called for it. Of the one-day schools, 8 out of 10 scheduled the teaching of Hebrew— 146 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK almost a half as a required subject, and a little more than 3 out of 10 as an optional one. A fifth of the Sunday schools did not schedule it at all. PRAYER Prayer was taught in all weekday-schools, save for the rare secular school, and in all one-day-a-week schools. About five-sixths of the weekday schools introduced the study of the siddur in the first year and continued it in all the subsequent years. Slightly less than an eighth of the schools introduced reading of the siddur in the second year, and 1 in 20 introduced it in the third year. BIBLE Since linguistic preparation for the study of the Bible was utterly inadequate, Bible study in most schools was a tedious vocabulary exercise. This was undoubtedly the main reason why weekday-afternoon and Sunday-school children rated the study of Bible low. A national sample of over 10,000 children in the higher elementary grades were asked to indicate, among 20 standard subjects and activities, which they "liked or enjoyed," which they were "interested in a little," and which they "would like to drop or never have had." More than half of the weekday-school children and 7 out of 10 of the one-day-a-week school children had a negative attitude to the study of the Bible. Only in about two-fifths of the 290 weekday-afternoon schools in the 18 sample communities whose programs extended from two to six years was the Bible, mainly the Pentateuch, taught, and then in abbreviated form. Of the schools with programs of four and more years, more than half taught the Bible. In New York City, at least 3 of every 10 congregational schools did not succeed in introducing the Bible even in the highest grade. In schools teaching the Bible, 1 in 10 introduced the Pentateuch in the second year, almost three-quarters in the third year, a little more than an eighth in the fourth year, and 1 in 25 in the fifth year. Since more than half of the weekday-afternoon schools were for four years or less, the time devoted to the study of the Bible was quite limited. In short, more than half of the weekday-afternoon schools did not teach the Bible at all. In the remaining weekday-afternoon schools it was supposed to be taught for an average of 2i/£ years, about 1% hours per week, for an aggregate of 160 hours. This was the equivalent of a year of literature study in a public- school language course. The Bible in English in Sunday schools did not fare much better. Bible study, as distinguished from Bible tales and biblical history, was reported by only 3 out of 10 in the schools in the survey. This meant that in 7 out of every 10 one-day-a-week schools the children did not read the Bible text either in Hebrew or English. In those one-day-a-week schools in which Bible study was offered, more than a quarter taught Bible 2 years; more than a quarter, 3 years; about 1 in 7, 4 years, and about a fifth, 5 years. HISTORY Jewish history was a major subject, taught in all the one-day-a-week schools and about 85 per cent of the weekday schools. In the one-day schools included JEWISH EDUCATION 147 in our sample, more than a seventh began the formal teaching of history by graded texts in the fourth year, a little more than three-fifths in the fifth year, and almost a quarter in the sixth year. In the higher grades of the one- day-a-week schools the emphasis was on American Jewish history, Israel, and the world Jewish community. Though 8 out of every 10 weekday-afternoon schools scheduled the teaching of history, very little time and planning were devoted to it. Almost half of the weekday-afternoon schools taught only Bible tales, mostly orally, without texts, three-eighths taught it with graded texts, and very few taught history in Hebrew. CUSTOMS AND CEREMONIES All Jewish schools of all types taught customs and ceremonies. Seven- eighths began teaching the subject in the first grade and two-thirds continued it in all grades. In the great majority of schools it was taught in connection with an approaching holiday, without texts, orally, the result being a yearly repetition of the major facts concerning the holiday. Only in a few schools was the subject taught on an ascending scale from grade to grade. This probably explained why children of the higher grades ranked the study of customs and ceremonies very low. Of the over 10,000 children in the higher grades who were asked ta rate their school studies and activities, more than half of the Sunday-school pupils and almost half of the weekday-school pupils gave a low rating to the study of customs and ceremonies. ISRAEL Of more than a thousand reports by teachers, only 48 mentioned Israel as a special subject of study. It may be assumed that Israel was taught, even though not directly, in connection with other studies, assemblies, and current events.

LIBRARIES Of the 290 schools in 18 sample communities, only a little more than a quarter completed library questionnaires. Of the reporting schools, 7 out of 10 had some sort of library, but only a third of these were housed in special library rooms. It can be assumed that the schools which failed to report on their libraries either had none or had poor facilities. Only one library reported having a special music room, and 1 in 8 had music corners. Only 1 in 20 of the reporting school libraries had full-time librarians, and a third had part-time librarians. Over two-fifths of the librarians never participated in staff meetings. Only a quarter of the libraries had special budgets for buying books, though educators are agreed that a library is indispensable for good teaching.

Children's Attitudes The study endeavored to find out what the children thought—whether they would freely choose to go to the supplementary Jewish school, whether they minded the inconvenience of attending, and how they felt about a number of 148 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK other matters. The questionnaire, besides having 62 structured questions, had an open-ended question which asked the children who found their Jewish school either harder or easier than their public school to explain. The questions permitted the children to record not only differences in the direction of their feelings, but also differences in intensity of feeling, and for many questions about the Jewish school a control question about the public school was asked. The study reached 11,152 children 11 years old or older in elementary Jewish schools, weekday or Sunday, in 27 communities. The questionnaire was given to entire classes. Absentees were not followed up. Ninety-three and three-tenths per cent of the afternoon-school children and 93 per cent of the Sunday-school children felt the need of a Jewish religious education. Almost identical proportions of the children recognized the need of Protestant and Catholic education for Protestant and Catholic children. Over 65 per cent of the weekday and almost 63 per cent of the Sunday-school children said they "like" or "like very much" their Jewish school. An additional 20.7 per cent "like it little," and 13.9 per cent disliked it. A much higher proportion of the same children, 91.6 per cent, said they "like" or "like very much" their public school. A good proportion of the children would choose to attend of their own free will a weekday school (61.5 per cent) or a Sunday school (56.9 per cent). For the public school it was significantly larger, 89.5 per cent. Since attendance at a weekday-afternoon school obviously limits a child's free time, parents and teachers have generally assumed this to have a negative influence on the child's attitude to his Jewish school. To test the assumption, the children were asked whether going to the Jewish school interfered with other things they would like to do, and if so, how much they minded the interference. As was expected, 78.5 per cent of the weekday-school children said that their Jewish school interfered with things they would like to do after public school. But only 30.6 per cent minded it "very much"; 45.5 per cent minded "not so much, sometimes"; 0.3 per cent did not mind at all; 19.9 felt no interference, and 0.7 failed to answer. Significantly, the proportion of children who said that their Jewish school interfered with other free-time activities was more than six times as high as the proportion of children who expressed dislike for their Jewish school. This disparity suggests that most children recognize, without great resentment, that attending an afternoon school must involve some inconvenience. The Jewish-school teachers were liked by 72.7 per cent of the weekday- school children and 79.3 per cent of the Sunday-school children. The public- school teachers were liked by 84.4 per cent. Eighty-five and seven-tenths per cent of the children made "many" friends in the public school, as against 64.4 per cent in the weekday school and 63.7 per cent in the Sunday school. The frequency of "like" and "like very much" for the weekday schools was larger in every community than the frequency of "like" and "like very much" for the one-day-a-week schools, and the frequency of "like" and "like very much" for both was substantially lower than for the public school. In other words, of the three schools the children attended, the public school was the most favored, followed in order by the weekday and by the Sunday school. The preference for weekday over Sunday school was all the more noteworthy NATIONAL JEWISH CULTURAL STUDY 149 because the weekday school made heavier demands on the child's time and energy. The children were discriminating in their likes and dislikes. Only 37.8 per cent of the weekday-school children and 29.7 per cent of the Sunday- school children liked all the subjects, but 79.1 per cent of the weekday-school children and 80.5 per cent of the Sunday-school children liked some of the subjects. Fifty-three and eight-tenths per cent of the weekday-school children and 25.1 per cent of the Sunday-school children found studying in the Jewish school harder than in the public school. Relatively few children who experienced greater difficulty in studying in the weekday school than in the public school ascribed it to fatigue arising out of attending two schools, or to dislike of the Jewish school, or to the Jewish school's interference with after-school activities. Together, all these reasons accounted for only about 15 per cent of the responses. Eighty-five per cent of the children considered the weekday school harder because they found it difficult to learn the Hebrew language and Hebraic subjects. Children should normally find no special difficulty in studying Hebrew, or any other subject, if they are properly motivated for its study, if the study materials are well-graded, and if the teaching methods give the children a feeling of adequacy. But in most of the Jewish schools in the sample cities, the subject matter was not adequately graded, teachers were unqualified, and their methodology was unimaginative and dull.

In sum, the children's attitude to their Jewish schools was gratifyingly favorable. They approved of religious education for Jewish, Protestant, and Catholic children. They would attend a Jewish school if they had freedom of choice. They recognized without resentment that attending a Jewish school interferes with play after public school. All these favorable responses suggest the hypothesis that in the American culture and its Jewish subculture there are compatible, if not mutually strengthening, elements that motivate the children toward accepting the need of attending a Jewish school. If this hypothesis is confirmed, it will be of great significance for the development of Jewish education. URIAH Z. ENGELMAN

NATIONAL JEWISH CULTURAL STUDY *

N 1954 the Large City Budgeting Conference (LCBC; see. p. 73) accepted I the recommendation of a subcommittee to undertake a survey of Jewish scholarship and culture in the United States. Having decided that the survey should be broadly sponsored, LCBC referred the recommendation to the Council of Jewish Federations and Welfare Funds (CJFWF). In 1957 CJFWF decided to sponsor a national Jewish cultural study. The memorandum that * For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. 150 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK was then approved noted that nationally, cultural programs "are conducted by a number of small organizations, severely limited in scope and finances . . . in specialized fields with little continuing relation to one another. . . . The needs which they are trying to meet . . . and the impact of the organizations have never been assessed in any total view. Such an assessment has been long overdue." As the study was originally conceived, it was to include libraries, archives, scholarship, publication, literature, training personnel for adult Jewish education, and channels for information on Jewish affairs, but limitations of time and money narrowed the objectives. Jewish education was excluded, being studied intensively elsewhere (pp. 127-49); rabbinics, adult education, local cultural activities, and the programs of large, national membership organizations were also excluded. It was decided that the primary focus should be on archives, scholarship, research, and publication, with a side glance at Jewish studies in secular institutions of higher learning. To gather this information two committees were appointed: A general committee, under the chairmanship of Julian Freeman of Indianapolis, with 33 members drawn largely from among lay and professional community leaders, and a technical advisory committee, under the chairmanship of Judah J. Shapiro, consisting of 33 experts. Sidney Z. Vincent of Cleveland was named study director. The committees emphasized that the study was to be only a first step in a continuing process and hoped that it would serve as a stimulant for comparable studies in the excluded fields. It was to be field-centered rather than agency-centered, and its purpose was to determine the condition of each of the fields under study, to assess unmet needs and projected plans, and to make recommendations for strengthening Jewish culture and scholarship.

FINDINGS The following report on the study is based on Vincent's draft material. Generous portions have been reproduced, partly in summary. 1. The agencies included in the study have made and are continuing to make valuable contributions to Jewish scholarship and culture. 2. The agencies are inadequately financed. 3. The salaries of practitioners are substantially lower, on the average, than those of other Jewish "civil servants." 4. There is a significant lack of communication among agencies and persons in the same field. There is a similar lack of communication between the cultural field generally and the Jewish communities. 5. Relatively little is known in the community about the achievements and goals of cultural agencies, and virtually no interpretive machinery to disseminate such information exists. 6. Most of the cultural agencies' representatives interviewed by Vincent expressed an interest in coordinating their separate efforts and creating appropriate machinery to that end. 7. The prospects of such coordination are enhanced by the waning of ideological differences. Even where such differences persist, they are not an insurmountable barrier to cooperation. NATIONAL JEWISH CULTURAL STUDY 151

Archives Archives—historic records and documents—are indispensable tools of the scholar and a living link in Jewish continuity, but Jewish scholarly work is severely hampered by their present condition. The following three agencies have as a basic purpose the development of American Jewish archives: the American Jewish Historical Society (AJHS); the American Jewish Archives (AJA), under the Hebrew Union College- Jewish Institute of Religion (HUC-JIR), and the American Jewish History Center (AJHC) of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America (JTS). They have somewhat different archival objectives, yet in the development of their resources there is some degree of overlapping. 1. AJHS is by far the oldest, having been organized in 1892. While it seems at first to have been devoted to demonstrating the contribution of Jews to America, it now sees its primary responsibility as the professional gathering of basic resources for American Jewish history. It has a collection of 16,000 documents, manuscripts, pictures, and similar materials. In common with other collections of American Jewish materials, its usefulness for the researcher is limited by a lack of catalogues and other guides. In the 1930's AJHS's collection of the papers of the Sheftall family of Georgia during the Revolutionary period was catalogued as part of a WPA project. Cataloguing other parts of AJHS's invaluable materials would also be highly useful to scholars and researchers. AJHS has 1,700 members and is governed by an executive committee. It considers itself as the principal resource for non-Jewish institutions seeking material on American Jewish history. American historical projects initiated by the Library of Congress or universities—for example, gathering the papers of Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin—usually result in invitations to AJHS to provide pertinent Jewish material. Among its important projects is its "Studies in American Jewish History" series, for which three volumes have been prepared. Another series is "American Jewish Communal History," consisting of the histories of the Jewish communities of Rochester, N. Y., (The Jewish Community in Rochester: 1843-1925, by Stuart E. Rosenberg [New York, 1954]) and Utica, N. Y., (The Jewish Community of Utica, New York: 1847- 1948, by S. Joshua Kohn [New York, 1959]) and another volume called Records of the Earliest Jewish Community in the New World [Recife, Brazil], by Arnold Wiznitzer (New York, 1954). In addition, a number of other volumes have been prepared or are in process. AJHS also publishes the quarterly Publication of the American Jewish Historical Society. AJHS has recently appointed an executive director to head a staff that until now consisted only of a librarian-editor and a secretary. Of AJHS's annual income of something less than §30,000, more than half comes from membership dues and less than a quarter from welfare funds. 2. AJA was founded in 1947 by HUC-JIR. Its principal emphasis is on "near print"—periodicals, clippings, brochures, pamphlets, and correspondence—that throws light on Jewish history in the Western Hemisphere, particularly the United States. It has acquired two million pages of such material through vigorous solicitation. AJA was organized because of concern over the continu- 152 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK ing destruction of irreplaceable material. Cataloguing is prompt. AJA has an extensive photo-duplication department. Under the direction of the Adolph S. Ochs professor of American Jewish history at HUC-JIR, AJA looks to the establishment of an academic center for American Jewish history that will create the basic tools required—indices, biographies, bibliographies, and a dictionary of American Jewish history. A major current project is the preparation of an American Jewish genealogy, with a full listing of every Jewish family in America to 1840. Another is a full index of the first American Jewish periodical, The Occident, from 1843 to 1868. The hope is that other important periodicals may be similarly indexed. Two of the most fruitful sources of material have been synagogues and the obituary columns of newspapers. AJA estimates that it obtained 90 per cent of its materials by letters to the survivors of persons whose deaths were reported in the New York Times. Also, many rabbis trained by AJA's director at HUC-JIR have been made aware of the importance of gathering materials in their synagogues and communities. It was from an AJA collection that the Louis Marshall papers (Louis Marshall: Champion of Liberty [2 volumes], ed. Charles Reznikoff [Philadelphia, 1957] were published. AJA functions as a department of HUC-JIR, has no separate board of trustees or membership, and receives 85 per cent of its budget from HUC-JIR. A projected archives building will have the necessary temperature controls and fireproofing, which are lacking almost everywhere else. The agency is well staffed, with five full-time and eleven part-time professional employees, besides secretarial and photo-duplication personnel. 3. AJHC of JTS is the most recent of the three. Its major functions are the preparation and encouragement of histories of American Jewish communities, with particular attention to the interaction of Jewish and general American history. As a result, a close working relationship has been established with general historians. AJHC has undertaken to build up archives from general and Jewish sources, which are preserved, catalogued, and made available to researchers. It also has microfilms for the preservation of important records, with reproductions on over 50,000 cards. All costs, except the services of its director and co-director, are met by contributions from private funds.

OTHER ARCHIVAL AGENCIES There are other, not principally archival, Jewish agencies that have historic American Jewish records of great value. The YIVO Institute for Jewish Research, although mostly concerned with European archives, has also gathered valuable American Jewish records and material relating to Jewish immigration to the United States. YIVO has an outstanding collection of overseas material, including photographs, paintings, and the correspondence of Yiddish and Hebrew writers. Its 180,000 books and other materials contain extensive records of Europe's obliterated Jewish communities. YIVO has also gathered records of lands- manshaften and Jewish labor movements, both here and in Europe. Though not archival agencies, CJFWF and JWB have accumulated records of substantial importance as central service agencies for the Jewish com- NATIONAL JEWISH CULTURAL STUDY 153 munities of the United States and Canada. CJFWF has valuable material dating back to 1915, including catalogued community reports and studies since 1935, dealing with health and welfare problems, community organization, Jewish education, and social planning, besides numerous surveys, including about 20 population studies. JWB has also conducted numerous surveys, and its files likewise contain valuable Jewish communal data. The American Association for Jewish Education has records on Jewish education, including a number of surveys in local communities. The American Jewish Committee has an extensive archive that includes research data on prejudice and on attitudes toward Jews and materials on the status of Jews abroad and efforts on their behalf; the American Jewish Congress has files on civil rights and civil liberties; the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith has material on antisemitism; the Herzl Foundation is assembling archival records dealing with the history of Zionism in this country; UHS has records of Jewish immigration. The national bodies of the three organized branches of Judaism in America have much material on religious developments. To this list must be added archival resources under non-Jewish auspices such as the Library of Congress, the National Archives, the New York Public Library, the Judaica departments of some universities, and the general archival and historical societies.

RECOMMENDATIONS When American Jewish archives are viewed as a whole, it is apparent that while the achievement has been considerable, serious gaps exist. In the absence of a planned approach to the gathering of material, many unduplicated documents have been irretrievably lost. The emphasis on 18th- and 19th-century archives has resulted in less interest in the probably more significant developments of our own century. No careful standards exist to help communities and national agencies decide what shall be gathered and preserved. Even when agencies are aware of the value of records, in the absence of a central archival clearing house it is hard for them to determine where such records should be sent. Serious shortages of space and the largely uncatalogued condition of most American Jewish archives lessen their usefulness. Several well-indexed and well-catalogued projects—e.g., AJA's indexing of The Occident and AJHS's cataloguing of the Sheftall papers—underscore the magnitude of the work that remains to be done. A general cataloguing might perhaps be prohibitively costly, but the preparation of guides that can make valuable collections known for the first time to scholars exploring the American Jewish experience is both necessary and feasible. The findings and recommendations for the archival field were as follows: 1. Too frequently archives were found to be, at best, mere passive reposi- tories for documents and records. The agencies were urged to adopt a policy of seeking out material actively. 2. Because local and national organizations are frequently unaware of the importance of their historical materials, records of priceless value to the Jewish scholar have been lost or destroyed. It was recommended that librarians or other competent members of the staffs of such agencies should be given the responsibility of preserving records. 154 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK 3. Local and national institutions should be provided with guides explaining what kind of records should be preserved. 4. Scholars and researchers frequently do not know where to find material. They need indices and catalogues of the material already available. 5. As a longer-range objective, more developed tools of scholarship, which would include biographies, bibliographies, and dictionaries of American Jewish history, must be developed. 6. An expanded archives program requires the recruitment and training of additional personnel, which in turn requires a definition of criteria. 7. Many archives are kept in places which are unprotected against fire and humidity. Especially for the most valuable items, an adequately protected central repository should be considered. 8. Archives should be made available not only to historians but also to the interested public. Greater popular use can be fostered by bulletins, exhibits, publications, and conferences. 9. Insufficient communication has resulted in the archival agencies' having little awareness of each other's plans and programs. A system of coordination and clearance is recommended. 10. A central instrument should be established, to the following ends: (a) coordination and clearance; (b) denning the content of a training program for personnel; (c) interpreting the importance of archival activity; (d) working out procedures for exchange of material among agencies and for protecting the work of scholars engaged in research; (e) jointly examining the advantages and disadvantages of possible specialization among the agencies, and (f) creating some kind of central repository for certain types of archives required by the Jewish community as a whole.

Scholarship and Research This phase of the study was concerned with evaluating the present condition of Jewish scholarship and the resources for training scholars, and with considering the total scholarly product.

RABBINICAL SEMINARIES Any estimate of contemporary Jewish scholarship should logically begin with the seminaries of the three major American Jewish religious groupings. Historically, Jewish scholarship in America received its initial impetus from the seminaries. 1. Only with the arrival of Isaac Mayer Wise in 1846, and the publication of some of his biblical and theological studies, were the first steps taken. In 1873, under Wise's leadership, the Union of American Hebrew Congregations was formed "to establish and support a scholastic institute, and the library appertaining thereto, for the education of rabbis, preachers and teachers of religion." The Hebrew Union College, founded by Wise in 1875 in Cincin- nati, became the first training and (later) research school of Jewish learning in the new world. HUC's faculty has included many distinguished and productive Jewish scholars, mostly from Europe. The Jewish Institute of Religion, founded by Stephen S. Wise in 1922, NATIONAL JEWISH CULTURAL STUDY 155 also acquired a faculty composed largely of scholars from Europe, who have added significantly to American Jewish scholarship. JIR was merged with HUC in 1950. 2. The Jewish Theological Seminary of America has also had a great share in American scholarship. Established in 1887, it was reorganized in 1902, when it brought from England the renowned Solomon Schechter to be its president. Schechter attracted to his faculty a number of illustrious scholars, who founded an enduring JTS tradition. More was accomplished for Jewish learning in the decade after Schechter's arrival than in all the previous years of American Jewish history, according to Ismar Elbogen's assessment of Amer- ican Jewish scholarship (AJYB, 1943-44 [Vol. 45], pp. 47-65). 3. The first effort at combining a traditional talmudical academy with a modern academic course of study was represented by the addition to the Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary, founded in 1886, of the Teachers Institute in 1917 and the Yeshiva College in 1928. Its faculty now includes a number of distinguished Jewish scholars. In 1949 HUC-JIR began awarding Ph.D. degrees. Yeshiva established its Bernard Revel graduate school in 1945 and awarded its first Ph.D. in 1958. Only in 1959 did JTS establish its Lehman Institute of Talmudic Ethics to train its own scholars.

While part of these rather belated developments may have been stimulated by the availability of funds in prosperity, the recognition that scholars could no longer be imported from Europe was a much more basic determinant. Both to recruit for their own faculties and to provide personnel for other institutions, these American institutions now have to train scholars. The number graduated each year is still small. HUC-JIR has about one Ph.D. a year, Yeshiva is only now beginning to award the degree, and the JTS program is still limited to the Talmud. It should be pointed out, however, that a number of men who have been trained to be rabbis have chosen scholarship as a career. Moreover, the seminaries grant earned doctorates in Hebrew letters (D.H.L.), mostly to men in the active rabbinate.

OTHER INSTITUTIONS Another major source of Jewish scholars has been Dropsie College, which awards the Ph.D. to about four graduates annually. From its inception in 1907, Dropsie's faculty has added greatly to Jewish learning in the United States. Several other institutions, not studied in detail in Vincent's report—notably the Hebrew Teachers College in Boston and the College of Jewish Studies in Chicago—also have scholarly faculties. Finally, certain universities confer advanced degrees in Jewish studies, although very few train men specifically for the Jewish field. Jewish social research must be distinguished from Judaic scholarship. Although three Jewish graduate schools in social work and communal service have been organized during the past 30 years, only Yeshiva's school of social work, established in 1957, is at present in existence. There is no other training facility for specifically Jewish social research, though some institutions are 156 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK planning for it. Dropsie has expressed interest in establishing a graduate department in American Jewish history; YIVO hopes ultimately to conduct a training school in the social sciences similar to what it used to have in Eastern Europe; Yeshiva is interested in expanding its work in "Jewish sociology," and in recent years both HUC-JIR and JTS have expanded their programs in American Jewish history. There are four Jewish agencies that consider themselves to be primarily research institutions: Dropsie, the American Academy for Jewish Research, the Conference on Jewish Social Studies, and YIVO. 1. Dropsie was founded in Philadelphia for "the promotion of and instruction in the Hebrew and cognate languages and their respective literatures, and in the Rabbinical learning and literature." In 1943 a school of education and in 1948 an institute for Israel and the Middle East were added. The faculty consists of eight full-time professors and eight part-time faculty members. The considerable contribution of Dropsie to Jewish scholarship includes the Apocrypha series and the Jewish Quarterly Review. Dropsie has awarded 131 Ph.D. degrees to scholars and to teachers and administrators. It has 14 fellows and about 125 students, and plans to establish a department of American Jewish history and a graduate school of Jewish communal service. Governed by a board of trustees, the majority from the Philadelphia area where the college is located, the college also conducts a New York extension program. Approximately 25 per cent of its 1958 income was from welfare funds. 2. The American Academy for Jewish Research, founded in 1920 "to foster and promote the cause of Jewish learning and research," has four major functions: (a) aid is given to several older scholars, with no other sources of income, to carry on scholarly research, and grants are made to promising younger men; (b) its annual Proceedings include but are not limited to the scholarly papers read at the yearly meeting; (c) through the Epstein Fund additional publications, largely of classical Jewish texts, are made possible; (d) a forum for lectures and discussions, at which the fellows can meet more regularly, is planned. The inner core of the academy consists of fellows with an established reputation, and 260 members pay dues. The academy is a completely voluntary organization, with only one paid clerical employee. With space and maintenance provided gratis by JTS, the entire budget is less than $28,000 a year. It has no plans for expanding and apparently seeks only to carry on its program of Jewish scholarship in a dignified and consciously modest form. Most of its budget is obtained from individual sources, with welfare funds contributing less than 13 per cent. 3. The Conference on Jewish Social Studies is to Jewish social research more or less what the American Academy for Jewish Research is to Judaic scholarship. Both are scholarly; both publish; both operate on severely limited budgets, the conference's 1958 income being $15,000; and both are without the paid services of a professional administrator. The conference was organized in 1933 "to promote, by means of scientific research, a better understanding of the position of Jews in the modern world." Besides its quarterly Jewish Social Studies the conference has also published a Bibliography of Jewish NATIONAL JEWISH CULTURAL STUDY 157 Social Studies, 1938-39, ed. Salo W. Baron (New York, 1941) and other studies and monographs. During its earlier years the conference conducted population studies and at various times sponsored or participated in conferences on Jewish demography and sociology. With enough funds, it would like to study Jewish population movements. It also wants to stimulate research into two other topics, equally crucial to the understanding of contemporary Jewish life—Jewish attitudes to Israel and Jewish political behavior. 4. YIVO (from the Hebrew-character initials of the Yiddish Yidishe Visen- shaftlikhe Institut—Yiddish [or Jewish] scientific [i.e., research] institute) was founded in Vilna, Poland, in 1925 to obtain "maximum scientific objec- tivity in the field of Jewish scholarship and simultaneously to maintain the closest possible contact with the culture of the Jewish people, draw its inspiration from it, serve its needs and further its development." The American section of YIVO was established in 1925, and in 1940, after the Nazi conquest of Poland, the American section assumed full responsibility for the organization. Its ambitious statement of purposes included promoting research; training Jewish researchers; maintaining a library, archives, and other resources to stimulate study and research in such fields as Jewish literature, language, history, and sociology; establishing fellowships and prizes for excellence in research, and publications in Yiddish and other languages. In recent years the organization has put particular stress on the European roots of American Jewish life. Where it once used Yiddish exclusively, YIVO now uses English as well. Among its current services are annual scholarly conferences in New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles; the sponsorship of "circles" of scholars about five times a year to discuss history, folklore, and sociology; yearly essay contests; a consultative service to scholars, institutions, landsmanskaften, and communities; furnishing microfilmed and photostated documents to research organizations, libraries, and universities in this country and abroad, and publication in its field of interest, including, since 1940, 25 volumes of Yivo Bleter and 11 volumes of the Yivo Annual of Jewish Social Science. Besides secretarial help, YIVO has a professional staff of seven, who, despite their impressive scholarly qualifications, are paid remarkably little. It has an international membership of about 7,000. Its board of directors, largely from New York, consists of 126, and the executive committee of 15, members. Branches and committees of YIVO function in a number of countries under the direction of the New York headquarters. Of its 1958 budget of $130,000, about 28 per cent came from welfare funds.

ACHIEVEMENTS AND PLANS Despite the Jewish community's lack of support of scholarship and research, some of the achievements have been notable. A major contribution is the revised edition of the Bible now being prepared by a number of outstanding scholars for the Jewish Publication Society. Two other projects, initiated by JTS and Dropsie College, respectively, involve the Talmud and Apocrypha. In another kind of research, the American Jewish Committee's "Studies in Prejudice"—Anti-Semitism and Emotional Disorder, by Nathan W. Ackerman and Marie Jahoda (New York, 1950); The Authoritarian Personality, by 158 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK T. W. Adorno, et al. (New York, 1950); Dynamics of Prejudice, by Bruno Bettelheim and Morris Janowitz (New York, 1950); Prophets of Deceit, by Leo Lowenthal and Norbert Gutennan (New York, 1949), and Rehearsal for Destruction, by Paul W. Massing (New York, 1949)—have had a decisive impact on contemporary social science. Besides such group projects, important contributions to Jewish scholarship continue to be made by individual scholars. But there are massive projects unrealized. Although there have been some population surveys of individual communities, the need for a national demographic study has yet to be met. There is also a need for critical editions of basic texts—e.g., the Mishnah and Maimonides; a new edition of the Jewish Encyclopedia, now almost 60 years old; the completion of a projected documentary American Jewish history, and contemporary studies of die interplay between the Jewish community and the general society. Most agencies have a heavy backlog of projects they would like to initiate, and the members of the technical advisory committee generally agreed that a central instrument would be helpful in determining priorities. It was also thought that joint machinery might facilitate the relationships of American Jewish scholars with their colleagues abroad. JEWISH SCHOLARSHIP AS A CAREER For a number of reasons the Jewish field has had greater difficulty than general research in attracting qualified young men and women. First of all, in the general field financial resources are available to help them through their graduate training; moreover, upon receiving their Ph.D. degrees they usually have a choice of teaching positions in colleges, a good stop-gap during the time they are establishing their reputations. Secondly, they immediately become members of an established profession with all the prestige that that connotes and with journals of relatively wide circulation ready to publish their papers. Thirdly, they do not have to master additional bodies of Jewish knowledge over and above the requirements of the general disciplines. For the young man who starts out with a specific interest in Jewish learning, the rewards of the rabbinate are manifest earlier and are more substantial. Unfortunately the pressing demands of the rabbinate rarely provide him with enough time to develop fully as a scholar. Still, while Jewish scholarship is never likely to compete numerically either with the rabbinate or with general scholarship, some suggestions are offered to increase the numbers of Jewish scholars. These proposals include: 1. graduate fellowships comparable with those offered in the general field, which, because of the absence of the usual undergraduate schools, should cover a period of about ten years; 2. increased opportunities for employment; 3. increased opportunities for research and publication, and 4. in general, an organized effort to secure the community's encouragement and support. Jewish Studies in American Secular Institutions of Higher Learning Interest in Hebrew and the Bible is deeply rooted in the history of American institutions of higher learning. There are many colleges and universities NATIONAL JEWISH CULTURAL STUDY 159 which offer courses in Bible, Jewish history and literature, and Hebrew. About 21 secular institutions offer full programs in Jewish studies. Thirteen of them, at the undergraduate level, provide enough courses for a major or minor in the field. The other eight universities—Brandeis, Columbia, Harvard, Iowa, Johns Hopkins, New York, Pennsylvania, and Yale—offer comprehensive graduate studies in Jewish and Semitic studies. They train significant numbers of Jewish scholars and altogether award about ten Ph.D.'s annually. As centers for Jewish scholarship and research, these institutions account for an important part of all the work in this field. The Columbia professor and the Harvard professor emeritus, scholars of international stature, have trained many outstanding students, and have made historic contributions to Jewish learning. In almost all the secular institutions providing full programs in Jewish studies, the tendency has been towards a broadening of such programs.

Publications An inventory of present publishing resources can appropriately begin with the Jewish Publication Society (JPS), which was established in its present form in 1888 in Philadelphia, where it remains. Its purpose has been defined as "the publishing and distribution of books essential to the transmission of the Jewish cultural heritage." It distributes annually about 140,000 volumes, but, unlike the general book clubs, it does not offer its 10,000 members books that are primarily entertaining. Rather, it publishes books which it believes contribute to the creative continuity of Jewish life. Illustrative of the many significant and lasting works JPS has published since its founding are the multivolumed History of the Jews, by Heinrich Graetz, and Legends of the Jews, by Louis Ginzberg, as well as the standard Jewish translation of the Bible into English (The Holy Scriptures, 1917). Two new projects, representing an expansion of policy, are a series for children 11 to 15 years old and paperback reprints of earlier hardback editions. JPS has begun a revised version of the Bible, to be completed in the sixties. Foundation help is being sought for the publication of a number of desirable works for which money is not now available. JPS would also like to undertake a cooperative 25-volume Jewish history, a history of Jewish art, and a new edition of the old Jewish Encyclopedia. JPS is governed by a board of trustees of 29. There is also a publication committee of some 50 scholars and laymen who function through a number of specialized subcommittees. Its staff consists of two full-time professionals— the editor and the executive director—and 16 clerical and semiprofessional workers. It intends to try harder in the future to get money from the welfare funds, its present income from this source being only four per cent of its budget. The commercial publishing houses include Bloch, Behrman House, the Hebrew Publishing Company—publishing mainly prayer books—and Shilo, which publishes Hebrew texts for use in Hebrew schools. There has also been increased interest on the part of general publishing houses in books of Jewish interest, no longer limited to a Jewish audience. 160 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

YIDDISH AND HEBREW Several organizations publish in Hebrew and Yiddish. The Congress for Jewish Culture (CJC), through its Central Yiddish Culture Organization (CYCO), is a major publisher in Yiddish. CJC was 6rst organized in 1948 by representatives of the Ahdut ha-'Avodah-Po'ale Zion, the Bund, Farband- Labor Zionist Order, Jewish Labor Committee, Labor Zionist Organization, Workmen's Circle, Yiddish Pen Club, and the Yiddish Writers Union, as well as individual writers and educators. CJC seeks to publish the works of martyred Jewish writers as a legacy for the future, reprint works of Yiddish literature destroyed by the Nazis, assist in the publication of works of Jewish writers and scholars in Yiddish, and strengthen Jewish education in Yiddish and Yiddish-Hebrew schools. It is essentially a federation of the founding organizations. Besides its headquarters in New York, it maintains offices in Boston and Chicago. The organization publishes a monthly literary magazine, Zukunft, that has its own editorial and administrative board but reflects the general aims of the parent body. A similarly separate administrative unit, CYCO, distributes Yiddish books to subscribers, who pay yearly dues for four volumes. Since its founding, CJC has published works of major importance, including Dubnow's ten-volume World History of the Jewish People in Yid- dish, and 11 volumes of works by Yiddish novelists and poets. With approximately $300,000 from CJMCAG, CJC is undertaking the publication of a six- volume Lexicon of the Yiddish Literature and Press, a project employing between eight and twelve research workers that will include a broad range of Jewish writers of the past 150 years; an Encyclopedia of Jewish Education, in four volumes; fiction and poetry by Jewish survivors of concentration camps, and 15 monographs dealing with Jewish cultural and social life in Europe in the first half of this century. CJC, which also carries on programs in education, music, and art, has an annual budget which during the past four years has ranged between $106,000 and $123,000. Besides seeking support from foundations and organizations, it conducts campaigns in a number of cities. Its support by welfare funds is negligible, only 0.2 per cent of its income coming from this source. It has a number of part-time staff members working on special projects, but its full- time professional staff numbers only five. As with YIVO, the salaries of these well-trained and experienced scholars are unusually low. Ogen Publications is sponsored by the Histadruth Ivrith (Hebrew Language and Cultural Association). Histadruth Ivrith was founded in 1916 in New York and has for its principal objective the publication of Hebrew works by American authors—belles lettres, history, and the like. It also seeks to stimulate a creative interest in Hebrew. About 200 branches or circles in this country, each with about 100 members, meet periodically to discuss matters of common interest. Histadruth Ivrith publishes the only Hebrew weekly in the United States, Ha-doar; it also publishes the biweekly Ha-doar la-no'ar, a newspaper for young people, designed for use in Hebrew classes. Besides carrying on its present program of publications, services to youth, a series of Hebrew courses, and a Hebrew academy (established in 1956 to bring Hebrew scholars to- NATIONAL JEWISH CULTURAL STUDY 161 gether twice yearly for conferences), Histadruth Ivrith would like to create a Hebrew paper with a limited vocabulary that can be read by the entire family, and a children's paper in Hebrew that would be entertaining as well as instructive. Of its 1958 income of $218,000, less than 10 per cent came from welfare funds.

OTHER PUBLISHERS Besides the publishing houses mentioned above there are many other sources of Jewish books and periodicals. The Theodor Herzl Foundation (established in 1954 by the Jewish Agency for Israel and the American Zion- ist Council as a center for Zionist adult education) sponsors the Herzl Press, which during the past several years has published five books dealing with various topics of Zionist interest. A series of eight more books in the same general area of interest has been projected. The Jewish Reconstructionist Foundation, an outgrowth of the philosophy and activities of Mordecai M. Kaplan and his Society for the Advancement of Judaism, sponsors the Reconstructionist Press, which has published approximately 25 titles, besides prayer books. The seminaries and Dropsie sponsor the publication of a substantial number of scholarly books, quarterlies, and annuals. HUC-JIR, convinced that the printing of scholarly work has little meaning unless adequate provision is also made for their circulation and distribution, has worked out a contractual relationship with a private firm, which sees to production, publicity, and distribution while HUC selects and edits, free of technical and administrative burdens. Finally, many national organizations and local agencies occasionally sponsor books of considerable merit, too numerous to be mentioned in detail here. The AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK is prepared by the American Jewish Com- mittee and published cooperatively with JPS. The American Jewish Commit- tee's monthly Commentary and the Herzl Foundation's quarterly Midstream are the outstanding quality magazines, Commentary especially having made a significant impact on American culture. The Reconstructionist, the American Jewish Congress's Judaism, and the Labor Zionist Organization's Jewish Frontier would also figure on any list, however selective, of leading American Jewish periodicals. Finally, mention must be made of the Hebrew monthly Bitzaron and of the scholarly annuals and quarterlies, Hebrew Union College Annual, Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research, Publi- cation of the American Jewish Historical Society, Jewish Quarterly Review, and Historia Judaica.

PROBLEMS Jewish publishers agree on some of the obstacles to producing work of high quality. Unsolicited manuscripts rarely merit publication, and valuable work can be obtained only if commissioned in advance. Good work, once written is readily printed; the real problem is to stimulate such writing, and this requires capital. Increased attention must be paid to distribution and circulation in order to insure a broader base of readers and to keep losses (inevitable 162 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK in the publication of scholarly and intellectual work) at a minimum. Finally, since the deferred nature of returns from investments in publishing means that funds are tied up and unavailable for new publishing ventures, one solution might be the establishment of a central revolving fund.

Financing It is virtually impossible to draw any meaningful fiscal comparisons among the agencies described, because they fall into two dissimilar categories. Some are independent agencies, while others are departments or activities of agencies that are not primarily concerned with research or scholarship. In the latter group, there is frequently no clear budgetary separating out of activities related to scholarship. About the independent agencies, however, some general observations can be made. They operate on sharply limited budgets, their low salary levels being one obvious index of their financially cramped condition. Still another clue can be found in the long lists of projected plans that remain unrealized because of inadequate income. Most of the institutions that are affiliated with organizations not primarily in scholarship and research get their support from their sponsoring bodies, which, in turn, are largely financed, directly or indirectly, by welfare funds or by their members. The amount allocated to scholarship and research is an administrative decision made by each sponsoring organization. The financing of the independent agencies, however, is not comparably stable. The bulk of their income is from membership dues, independent fund raising, foundations, individual gifts, and sales. The degree of support from welfare funds ranges from a high of about 25 per cent to a low of less than 1 per cent. Most of the independent agencies receive allocations from a fairly large number of welfare funds, but these are usually little more than token gifts. While there was general agreement that better public relations would lead to considerably more money from welfare funds, some of the major projects under consideration by the agencies will require financing by foundations and bequests. Several agencies have been receiving funds from CJMCAG, and the cessation of income from this source will pose severe problems. Unless other sources of income are found, their programs will have to be sharply curtailed, or possibly terminated altogether.

Recommendations On September 20, 1959, the board of directors of CJFWF approved the study report, together with two principal recommendations. The first recommendation was to establish a national foundation for Jew- ish culture, in order to 1. provide a central "address for the total Jewish cultural enterprise in America"; 2. provide the means for the joint explora- tion of problems, goals, and relationships; 3. help to interpret objectives and needs to the Jewish communities; 4. attract funds from individuals and foundations, as a supplement to the funds raised from welfare funds and members by each of the agencies; 5. deal with needs not at present met by any of the NATIONAL JEWISH CULTURAL STUDY 163 agencies, especially where cooperative action is required, and 6. establish a system of scholarships and grants-in-aid to individual scholars. The foundation would be expected to report annually on developments in the field and on the work of the individual agencies. It would be governed by a board of directors of 36 members widely representative of all sections and viewpoints of the Jewish community, and would reflect the thinking of both the cultural agencies and the Jewish communities. The second recommendation was a council of Jewish cultural agencies, consisting of representatives of the agencies engaged in Jewish scholarship, research, archives, and publication. Its functions would include clearance and coordination among the agencies, furthering an exchange of ideas, consideration of projects requiring the sponsorship of one or more of the agencies, and setting up priorities arrived at jointly. It would serve the foundation by submitting to it recommendations meriting its support, although the foundation would be free to reach its own decisions and to deal with requests addressed to it independently.

ACTION TAKEN Acceptance of these recommendations, in the view of the study committee, would help to dramatize the need for more generous support for Jewish scholarship and make possible more effective planning and interagency cooperation. The agencies would remain autonomous and responsible for their own programs and raising their own funds from welfare funds and memberships. (Most of the agencies felt strongly about maintaining their own identity.) CJFWF was urged to carry out the recommendations and to meet costs during an initial period of perhaps three years. It was further strongly recommended that an adequate staff of high quality be engaged in order to insure the successful launching of the foundation. Finally, it was suggested that with the development of an effective foundation it might be possible to initiate a study of additional fields, such as adult education, literature, and information on Jewish affairs. In November 1959 the General Assembly of CJFWF in San Frandsco adopted the following resolution: This Assembly is profoundly impressed with the historic importance of the National Jewish Cultural Study recently completed under the auspices of the Council of Jewish Federations and Welfare Funds. The findings and recommendations on Jewish scholarship, research, publications, archives, and related fields offer an unprecedented opportunity for major progress in American Jewish cultural development. All of American Jewry, Amer- ica generally, and Jewish life throughout the world will be the beneficiaries. We warmly commend the committees and the staff responsible for this exceptional achievement. They have rendered an outstanding service. We express our deep gratitude likewise to the foundations, federations, and individuals whose generous support made the study possible. We, the delegates of this Assembly, strongly endorse the action of the Board of Directors in approving the survey report, and look to the expedi- tious implementation of the recommendations by the Council as called for in the report. 164 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK Immediately thereafter CJFWF President Irving Kane appointed an organizing committee to set up the Council of Jewish Cultural Agencies and the National Foundation for Jewish Culture. Julian Freeman was appointed chairman of the organizing committee and Judah J. Shapiro was appointed consultant to the National Foundation for Jewish Culture. The first meeting of the Council of Jewish Cultural Agencies was scheduled to take place in New York City at the end of February 1960.

DAVID ZEFF New States

ALASKA *

Jewish Population and its History

LASKA, the largest and second youngest state, had the smallest and most A widely dispersed Jewish population of any of the fifty states. Of the estimated 300 to 400 civilian Jewish residents, more than half lived in the two largest cities, Anchorage and Fairbanks, which were adjacent to the larger military bases. But there were also one or more Jewish families in Juneau, Sitka, Nome, Seward, Tiekel, Skagway, Ketchikan, Cordova, Hoonah, Haines, Palmer, Fox, Dillingham, Beth El, Valdez, and Petersburg. Jewish military personnel in Alaska outnumbered civilian Jews by nearly two to one. Before 1940 there were hardly more than 100 Jews in Alaska. Widely scattered from the Panhandle in the south to the Seward Peninsula facing Siberia in the northwest, the handful of merchants, government employees, engineers, canners, fishermen, and scientists had no organized Jewish community or religious life of any kind. Yet they gave enthusiastic support to the plan proposed in 1938 by Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes to settle Jewish refugees from Nazi Europe in Alaska. When Alaska became a cornerstone of American defense during World War II and the subsequent cold war, the Jewish residents of Alaska acquitted themselves magnificently in helping to organize religious and hospitality programs for the hundreds of Jews who arrived after 1941 with the American troops and civilian construction workers. Robert Bloom of Fairbanks and Jacob Gottstein of Anchorage and their wives made their homes headquarters for all Jewish military and civilian personnel. The Blooms, who came to Alaska at the turn of the century, were hosts at the first public seder in Alaska, held in the Fairbanks Masonic hall in 1942 with the aid of supplies flown in by JWB. Jewish army chaplains who arrived in 1943 were the first rabbis to officiate in Alaska. After World War II there were two accretions to the Jewish population. One came from demobilized servicemen and civilian personnel assigned to military installations who decided to try their luck in Alaska, and from a few Jewish professional men who came as government employees working on technical projects and in schools. One of the latter was Isaac Knoll, the only licensed and practicing Jewish physician in Alaska, in Sitka since 1947. The second group was the so-called 59ers, young Americans who headed for Alaska after statehood. Ronald Jacobowitz of Detroit headed the first party of home- steaders to reach Alaska after it was admitted to the Union in June 1958.

* For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. 165 166 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK One of Alaska's first two senators was Ernest Gruening, scion of an old New York Jewish family, but he was said not to regard himself as a Jew. As territorial governor from 1939 to 1953 he did much to prepare Alaska for statehood. On the eve of statehood Zachary Loussac, who came to Alaska in 1907, gave Anchorage its public-library building, which was named for him. A former mayor, he had been voted Alaska's outstanding citizen in 1946. Samuel Applebaum, a Chicagoan who had lived in Alaska since 1898, operated mines in Flat and Otter Creek. He lived in a town he named Beth El, about 190 miles away from Mount Applebaum. The only residents of Tiekel, a town near Valdez, were George Loewe and his wife, who for 14 years had operated a road house for trappers and fishermen. Other prominent Alaskan Jews were Herbert Greenberg, who built Alaska's first radio station in 1922; Edward Seidenverg, mayor of Nome in the 1930s; William Gross, who opened the first movie houses in the territory in the early 1900s; Isador Bayles, a merchant in Anchorage; Nathan I. Gerson of Fair- banks; Rex Swartz, a physician, who served as mayor of Nome before World War II, and the Goldstein family of Juneau. Robert Goldstein and his wife, who came to Juneau in 1885 from Cali- fornia, were probably the first permanent Jewish settlers in Alaska. Eight Goldstein children were raised in Juneau. Charles, the eldest, was the city's leading merchant for 50 years and headed the local JWB committee. His brother Isadore served six years as mayor and established Evergreen Bowl, the first children's playground in Alaska. Another pioneer was Solomon Ripinski, a Polish Jew, who established a government school at Chilkat in the 1880s. The town of Haines grew up around a general store he opened on the Chilkat Peninsula. The 3,400-foot Mount Ripinski, in the St. Elias range, is his memorial. A leading advocate of Alaskan home rule, he was a delegate to the Skagway convention for Alaskan representation in the Congress of the United States. The Goldsteins and Ripinski were among the Jews who came to Alaska between 1897 and 1900, the period of the Klondike gold rush and the subsequent mineral discoveries around Nome. The Jews who stayed on after the gold fields petered out tried to create a semblance of Jewish living around 1905, when a short-lived congregation was established in Fairbanks under the leadership of Robert Bloom. In 1907 it acquired the Fairbanks Jewish cemetery, the only Jewish burial ground in Alaska. It had only six graves, because most Jews who died in Alaska were buried elsewhere.

Community Activity By the end of the war JWB committees in Fairbanks, Anchorage, and Ketchikan had become the foci of a flourishing Jewish community life. Re- ligious services for military personnel were attended by Jewish civilians who for the first time could send their children to a religious school. After 1950 the USO-JWB worker and the Jewish chaplain assigned to the Alaskan Air Command helped to stimulate civilian Jewish activity throughout Alaska, their services and programs for military personnel at Fairbanks and Anchor- age and at the remotest air fields and radar and weather stations being open ALASKA 167 to Jewish civilians as well. For Passover and Rosh ha-Shanah Jewish civilians flew into Anchorage, and the scattered Jewish residents began to feel like a community. In 1942 the wife of a Jewish chaplain founded a Hadassah chapter in Anchorage. In the same year the foundation was laid for a permanent Jewish community council in Fairbanks and Anchorage.

RELIGION AND EDUCATION In the second half of 1958 a civilian congregation, Beth Shalom, was formed by 25 Jews in Anchorage, and an auxiliary of the City of Hope was organized. Beth Shalom was not yet affiliated with any congregational union. Services were held in private homes and mimeographed sheets were used as makeshift prayerbooks. Through the efforts of the Connecticut Jewish Ledger, funds were raised to provide the congregation with a Torah Scroll. The only Jewish school was still the one directed by the Jewish chaplain for children of military personnel, but some civilian children also attended. In 1959 this school was the scene of Alaska's first bat mitzvah. Kosher food was not yet obtainable in Alaska but some Jews had it shipped in from Seattle. A supply of such foods as well as Jewish books and literature for military personnel, was provided by JWB. History of the Purchase of Alaska Few Jews in mid-20th-century Alaska knew of the part played by Jews in the United States' purchase of Alaska in 1867 and the subsequent development of Alaska's vast resources. In the 1850s and 1860s San Francisco Jews had already developed extensive commercial ties with the Russian American Company, which had a virtual monopoly on Alaskan trade. Fur dealers Herman Liebes and A. Wasserman were pioneers in importing sealskins. J. M. Oppenhein Co., London's biggest fur house, numbered among its California agents Jewish traders who had visited Alaska and knew at first hand its potential wealth. Ships of the Jewish-owned San Francisco Ice Company regularly carried ice imported from the Russian monopoly. To save Alaska from possible British capture during the Crimean War, a Russian diplomat suggested in 1853 a fictitious sale of the territory to the Jewish company. While historians differed as to the real motives for the sale of Alaska, there was substantial agreement that the efforts of San Francisco fur syndicates to buy out the Russian American Company was a factor in bringing about the purchase. Louis Goldstone, who had visited Alaska several times as an agent for California fur houses, came back in 1865 with information that the Russians were ready to sell out and that they preferred an American company. Goldstone's employers quickly formed the California Fur Company and engaged as their Washington lobbyist Cornelius Cole, a senator from California in 1866. In pressing his clients' offer, Cole had the advantage of a boyhood friendship with Secretary of State William H. Seward, who found Cole's lobbying helpful in the secret negotiations for the acquisition of all of Alaska. John E. Ballaine, Alaskan pioneer and founder of the town of Seward, 168 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK quoted Cole as having said in 1915 that "the original and most active mover in the plan to buy Alaska after the Civil War was an enterprising Jewish- American promoter and fur trader named Philip [sic] Goldstone of San Francisco." Writing in the Seattle Jewish Transcript for May 22, 1936, Ballaine attributed to Cole the statement that Goldstone and his associates "conceived the idea of buying Alaska outright" when their efforts to succeed to the rights of the Russian American Company were blocked by the British- controlled Hudson's Bay Company. According to Ballaine, Cole said the motives of Goldstone and his associates "were frankly commercial . . . but they rendered a patriotic service to the nation which we are only beginning to appreciate." Commercial and Trade Developments Soon after Alaska became American territory on March 30, 1867, another syndicate, largely controlled by San Francisco Jewish businessmen familiar with Alaskan commercial prospects, organized Hutchinson, Kohl and Co., which bought from the Russian American Company its entire stock of goods as well as its trading posts, warehouses, wharves, and ships. Lewis Gerstle and his brother-in-law, Louis Sloss, were the key 6gures in this firm. A company agent was aboard the government transport carrying the American officials who took possession of Alaska on October 1, 1867. Also on board was Ben- jamin Levi, whose obituary in the American Israelite in 1882 credited him with having hauled down the Russian flag and hoisted the Stars and Stripes when the formal transfer of sovereignty took place at Sitka. Levi later went into business at Wrangell. Samuel Sussman, who arrived early in 1868, became resident manager at Kodiak for Hutchinson, Kohl. Ownership of the former Russian installations and control of ships freight- ing supplies between California and Alaska gave the company the inside track in the race for commercial supremacy in Alaska. In 1869 the company reorganized as the Alaska Commercial Company, an enterprise destined to become one of the great mercantile institutions of the west and a decisive power in Alaskan affairs for a generation. Seeking a monopoly on seal hunting in the Pribilof Islands, the new company became the target of bitter attacks by corporate and individual rivals who did not scruple to use antisemitism. Some of the competition, however, was Jewish, notably the Alaska Traders Protective Association and Louis Goldstone. The latter fought a long but futile battle to prevent Congress from granting the Gerstle-Sloss interests a 20-year exclusive lease, giving it the right to take up to 100,000 seals a year from Alaskan waters. In two decades the company returned to the United States treasury more than the 17,200,000 paid for Alaska. The Gerstle River in Alaska is named for Lewis Gerstle. Responsible for popularizing the use of sealskins, Gerstle and his associates developed steam- boat transportation and financed some of Alaska's first mining ventures. The Guggenheims became interested in Alaskan mines when the Gerstle and Guggenheim families were joined in marriage. Letters containing news of the Klondike discovery of gold reached the out- ALASKA 169 side world early in 1897, but the real rush to the Klondike did not begin until one of Gerstle's steamers docked in San Francisco with §750,000 in gold aboard. The Alaska Commercial Company's line of river boats between Nome and Dawson on the Yukon River carried thousands of goldseekers and tons of their supplies and equipment. A number of early Jewish settlers in Alaska came originally as employees of the Gerstle company. Although its monopolistic practices were bitterly criticized and it was often charged with discouraging new settlers, the company did much for native health and education and helped to open up new industries. Among the independent traders, merchants, promoters, speculators, gam- blers, saloonkeepers, and fortune hunters that flocked to Alaska in 1867 were a number of venturesome Jews. The first issue of the Sitka Times (September 19, 1868) mentioned David Schirpser, who arrived in May 1867. By 1868 he owned general stores at 16 points. A kinsman, Herman Schirpser, was Kodiak's postmaster for several years before his death in 1873. Isaac Bergman, Sitka's first butcher, was elected an alderman in the territory's first election in 1868. Sam Storer was Sitka's acting mayor in 1869. Benjamin Levy established Alaska's first brewery. Other early settlers at Sitka were J. A. Manase, tobacconist; Lazar Caplan, saloonkeeper; Sam Goldstein, merchant; William Phillipson, Henry Friede, Albert Hahn, Theodore Haltern, and Henry Heitman. Because Sitka was Alaska's chief commercial center and only harbor until the mid-1870s, most of the first Jewish settlers established themselves there. But a few also found their way to Wrangell and Kodiak. One traveler reported meeting C. Sheinefelt, manager of a trading post at Unalaska in the 1870s, and Bill Levy, a miner, at Cassiar. Travelers who left records of their visits to Alaska in the 1860s and 1870s often described the Jews there in uncomplimentary terms. One of these was Emil Teichman, agent of a Jewish fur company, whose diary, a Journey to Alaska in the Year 1868 (published in 1925), also revealed that Jewish religious services were held in a warehouse in Sitka as early as 1868. When Lazar Caplan, owner of Caplan's Billiard Saloon in Sitka, visited San Francisco in 1869, the San Francisco Jewish paper, the Hebrew, quoted him as saying there were then 14 Jewish residents in Sitka, including four families. He described the community's seder, at which tnatzot shipped from San Francisco had been used, and told of plans to organize a congregation. A year later the same paper published a letter from A. Levy, also of Sitka, protesting against the conference of Reform rabbis in Philadelphia in 1869. "Let them know," he wrote, "that there are Jews close to the North Pole . . . who will never be converted, not even by the Jewish rabbis who held the above-mentioned conference in Philadelphia." The Jewish Messenger, in New York, also published correspondence in 1870 from subscribers in Alaska. When the American Israelite, in Cincinnati, proposed in the 1880s that the new Russian Jewish immigrants be "bundled off to Alaska," it did not foresee that three generations later some of these immigrants and their descendants would have laid the foundation for a Jewish community, small but destined to grow, of a 49th state. BERNARD POSTAL 170 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

HAWAII *

AWAII became the 50th state in the United States on August 21, 1959, after having been a territory for 61 years. Before then it had been Han independent kingdom and then a republic. Hawaii is an archipelago—a group of islands, reefs, and shoals—stretching 1,600 miles from northwest to southeast in the Pacific Ocean. The central group of eight islands, only seven of which are inhabited, are about 2,100 miles southwest of San Francisco. The area of the populated islands is 6,435 square miles. The population of Hawaii was slightly under 600,000, excluding military personnel estimated at 40,000. The racial background was estimated as follows: Caucasian 30 per cent; Japanese 32 per cent; Hawaiian and part Hawaiian 17 per cent; Filipino 11 per cent; Chinese 6 per cent, and others 4 per cent.

Jewish Population and Communal Activity There were some 300 Jewish families—more than 1,000 persons in all- in Hawaii, nearly all of whom lived in Honolulu and most of whom had come to Hawaii less than 20 years earier. Jewish life in Honolulu was centered around Temple Emanu-El, which received its charter from the territory of Hawaii in 1938 under the name of Honolulu Jewish Community. It was reorganized in 1949, when Barnett Sapiro was elected president. He was succeeded in 1950 by Bernard H. Levinson. James Zukerkorn was chairman of the temple's budget and finance committee during Levinson's tenure as president. The first full-time rabbi was Francis Hevesi, formerly chief rabbi of Budapest, who came to Hawaii in 1951 and served for ten months until his death in 1952. He was succeeded by Alexander Segel, from 1952 to 1958, and Roy A. Rosenberg. Temple Emanu-El was a Reform congregation and joined the Union of American Hebrew Congregations in 1952. Its new building, at 2550 Nuuanu Avenue (to become 2550 Pali Highway) on H/2 acres of land, was due to be completed in April 1960. It was to have a sanctuary seating 200 persons and a social hall seating 300 more. The facilities were to include a rabbi's study, general office, library, seven classrooms, and a kitchen. There were plans for four additional classrooms to be built later. Besides conducting religious services, the temple operated a religious school for approximately 80 children and sponsored forums and adult classes on subjects of Jewish interest. The membership was about 105 families. Intermarriage in temple families was about 15 per cent. It was considerably larger in non-temple families. Other Jewish organizations in Hawaii were the sisterhood of the temple, affiliated with the National Federation of Temple Sisterhoods, the men's club, and the Hawaii Jewish Welfare Fund. * For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. HAWAII 171 The Hawaii armed-services committee of JWB had as its chairman Calvin M. Wishna. The navy chaplain was Jason Edelstein. The Jews of Hawaii were from the start well-integrated in the life of the community. They included doctors, lawyers, accountants, educators, merchants, manufacturers, contractors, salesmen, clerks, government employees, newspapermen, insurance men, architects, and engineers. The president of Temple Emanu-El was also the president of the Rotary Club of Waikiki. The rabbi of Temple Emanu-El, a Rotarian, exchanged pulpits with clergymen of other faiths and spoke frequently before non-Jewish groups. One of Hawaii's most distinguished Jews was Max Levine, chief of the bureau of laboratories of the department of health. He was a trustee of Temple Emanu-El and a member of its choir, vice-chairman of the Hawaii Jewish Welfare Fund, and vice chairman of the Hawaii chapter of World Brotherhood. There had never been a mohel, a kosher butcher, or a mikweh in Hawaii, but some of the supermarkets stocked packaged kosher meats and other kosher foods. BERNARD H. LEVINSON

< •!• •!< >!• •!• »

OTHER COUNTRIES

* * * 'I- * •:•

Canada

N 1959 the Canadian Jewish community celebrated its 200th anniversary. I Although Jews had previously traveled and traded on Canadian territory, the first Canadian Jewish community was established in 1759 by a group of Sephardic Jews led by Aaron Hart, a British officer. In the year under review (July 1, 1958, through June 30, 1959), Prime Min- ister John Diefenbaker continued to head Canada's Federal government. His Progressive Conservative party had 207 out of 265 seats in parliament. The Canadian economy made a vigorous recovery in 1959 from the moderate recession of 1957 and 1958. Jewish Population At the end of March 1959, Canada's population was estimated to be 17,340,000, of whom 250,000 were Jews. About 60 per cent of the Jewish population were Canadian-born. Most Jews lived in the large urban centers. An estimated 103,000 Jews lived in Montreal, 85,000 in Toronto, 21,500 in Winnipeg, and 8,500 in Vancouver.

TABLE 1 GROWTH OF THE TOTAL AND JEWISH POPULATIONS OF CANADA, 1851-195 Total Jewish Per Cent Year Population Population Jewish 1851 2,346,000 451 0.02 1861 3,230,000 1,186 0.04 1871 3,486,000 1,333 0.03 1881 4,325,000 2,443 0.06 1891 4,833,000 6,501 0.13 1901 5,371,000 16,401 0.30 1911 7,207,000 76,199 1.06 1921 8,788,000 126,196 1.44 1931 10,377,000 156,726 1.50 1941 11,507,000 17031 1.48 1951 14,009,000 204,836 1.46 1959 • 17,340,000 250,000 1.44 a Estimated. Immigration In recent years it had been the general policy of the Canadian government to admit only immigrants who could be readily absorbed into the

* For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. 175 176 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOR country's economy. Because of this policy and the recession, only 124,851 immigrants entered Canada in 1958, a decrease of 55.7 per cent from 1957. Jewish immigration from overseas countries in 1958 fell to 2,290, a decrease of 58.2 per cent from 1957. Another 550 Jews entered Canada from the United States, making a total of 2,840 from all countries. Of the Jews arriving from overseas in 1958, 543 came from Israel, compared with 482 in 1957. There were press reports toward the end of 1958 that Jews from Israel were immigrating to Canada by illegally changing from student to immigrant status. Official investigation later showed that these reports had been greatly exaggerated. In 1958 Jews were the 12th largest ethnic group among immigrants admitted to Canada. In the 13 years between 1946 and 1958, the 54,381 Jewish immigrants represented 3 per cent of the total number of immigrants admitted. During the first half of 1959 total immigration was 57,089, compared with 67,744 for the same period in 1958. There were 1,166 Jewish immigrants, as against 1,146 for the 1958 period. Of the Jewish immigrants, 549 arrived from Israel; for the same period in 1958 there were 274.

TABLE 2 JEWISH IMMIGRANTS ADMITTED TO CAI 1948 9,892 1949 5,047 1950 3,006 1951 7,167 1952 5,682 1953 4300 1954 2,036 1955 1,660 1956 2,190 1957 6,037 1958 2,840 1959 » 1,166 Total 51,023 a First half.

Civic and Political Status Jews in Canada received all the rights and privileges of free citizens in 1832, when the parliament of Lower Canada adopted "An Act to Declare Persons Professing the Jewish Religion Entitled to All the Rights and Privi- leges of the Other Subjects of His Majesty in This Province." On September 5, 1958, Prime Minister Diefenbaker introduced in the House of Commons "An Act for the Recognition and Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms." This bill, which came to be known as the Canadian Bill of Rights, declared in its preamble: It is hereby recognized and declared that in Canada there have always existed and shall continue to exist the following human rights and fundamental freedoms, namely, (a) the right of the individual to life, liberty, CANADA 177 security of the person, and enjoyment of property and the right not to be deprived thereof except by due process of law; (b) the right of the individual to protection of the law without discrimination by reason of race, national origin, color, religion, or sex; (c) freedom of religion; (d) freedom of speech; (e) freedom of assembly and association, and (f) freedom of the press. The bill received its first reading and was sent to committee. It was expected to pass without opposition.

Discrimination and Antisemitism The Federal government continued to publicize widely the provisions of the Fair Employment Practice Act of 1953 (AJYB, 1954 [Vol. 55], pp. 167-68), designed to prevent discrimination in employment and trade-union membership on account of race, national origin, color, or religion. This was supplemented by a provision of the Federal Unemployment Insurance Act forbidding discrimination by the National Employment Service in referring workers to jobs. All Federal government contracts prohibited discrimination in employment by contractors. Six provinces—Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, British Columbia, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick—had laws banning discrimination in employment. Three—Ontario, Saskatchewan, and New Brunswick—had laws against discrimination in public accommodations. Ontario and Manitoba had laws nullifying restrictive real-estate covenants.

Community Organization In the speech from the throne which opened parliament in January 1959, the government proposed "that the question of ensuring the use of humane methods in the slaughtering of animals be referred to the Standing Committee on Agriculture for consideration." The chairman of this committee announced that on this question the Canadian Jewish Congress (CJC) would be recognized as the spokesman for the Jewish community. CJC submitted a brief requesting that in any legislation shehitah be specifically recognized as a humane method of slaughter. There was agreement on this point, but controversy developed over pre-slaughter handling of animals for shehitah. The animal-protection societies opposed as inhumane the hoisting and shackling of animals in preparation for the ritual stroke. The CJC brief stressed that prior rendering of the animal unconscious was expressly forbidden by Jewish law, which required the animal to be healthy, whole, and conscious at the moment of slaughter. Some of the larger packing plants were experimenting with casting pens and other devices designed to satisfy both the requirements of Jewish ritual law and the demands of the animal protectionists. But such installations were large and expensive, and could not meet the needs of small packers or of the small and scattered Jewish communities. In its report to parliament, the committee recommended 178 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOR that the combination of shackling and hoisting of a food animal before rendering it unconscious shall be considered inhumane; humane methods of slaughter shall be deemed to include shooting, shehitah (the Hebrew term for slaughter) as practiced in compliance with the Hebrew religious requirements; humane methods of pre-slaughter shall be deemed to include stunning with a mechanical stunner, certain electrical stunning methods; the use of anaesthetising agents; that the operation of the proposed law be postponed for a reasonable period to enable all persons affected thereby to take the necessary steps to comply with the law when it becomes effective.

The Humane Slaughter of Food Animals Act eventually adopted by parliament did not specifically list acceptable or unacceptable practices, but provided for their establishment by regulation. In 1944 an amendment to the Ontario Public Schools Act was passed providing for two periods of religious instruction per week in public schools of the province. From the outset the Jewish community opposed this. Early in 1959, for the first time, two leading newspapers, the Toronto Daily Star and the Peterborough Examiner, expressed editorial opposition to religious education in the public schools. Between 1933 and 1957 Canadian Jewry raised |105 million for overseas, national, and local Jewish causes. Of this total, $47 million was raised for Israel, $19 million for overseas relief outside of Israel, $35 million for local needs including social service and Jewish education, and $4 million for national Jewish organizations. From July 1, 1957, to June 30, 1958, $8.8 million was raised for all Jewish causes, exclusive of capital funds for building hospitals, schools, synagogues, etc The total for 1958-59 was expected to exceed this sum. The Toronto UJA raised $2.6 million in 1959 compared with $1.9 million in 1958. In the six years since the first issue of State of Israel bonds was put on sale in Canada, over $20 million worth were bought by Canadian Jews. In connection with the 200th anniversary of the founding of the Canadian Jewish community, CJC began publication of Canadian Jewish Archives, which presented documents relating to the history of Canadian Jewry. CJC also published, during the period under review, three studies by Louis Rosenberg: Jewish Children in the Protestant Schools of Greater Montreal in the Period from I8J8 to ip$8; A Gazetteer of Jewish Communities in Canada, 1851-1951, and Synagogues, Jewish Schools and other Jewish Com- munity Facilities of the Jewish Population in Metropolitan Montreal, 1951- 1956, as well as The Jewish Community of London, Ontario—A Self-Survey, by Isidore Goldstick, Joseph Klinghoffer, and others.

JEWISH EDUCATION About 60 per cent of all Jewish school-age children in Canada received some kind of formal Jewish education. The Jewish day schools continued to expand. In Montreal over 30 per cent of the children attending all Jewish schools attended day schools. In 1959 the Jewish community of Edmonton, Alberta, celebrated the 25th CANADA 179 anniversary of the founding of its Talmud Torah day school, which was attended by over 80 per cent of the Jewish children of school age. Calgary, Alberta, with approximately 2,500 Jews, supported two day schools. A new building was completed for the school sponsored by the Yiddish-oriented Workmen's Circle. In Toronto the two community-supported Talmud Torahs expanded their day-school facilities. A third day school, sponsored by the Labor Zionist Organization, was forced to dose because of lack of support. Teachers for the Jewish schools were trained at the Canadian Jewish Teachers' Seminary in Montreal and the Teachers' Training School in Toronto. New educational summer camps for children were established in the Toronto-Montreal area. Camp Ramah was the first Canadian camp sponsored by the Conservative movement. Camps were also established by Agudath Israel and Mizrahi. Camps sponsored by the Zionist Organization and Keren ha-Tarbut had existed for a number of years.

RELIGIOUS LIFE Of the Jewish congregations in Canada, about 170 were Orthodox, while 25 were affiliated with the Conservative United Synagogue of America and 6 with the Reform UAHC. Many of the Orthodox congregations were very small, some being in communities with as few as ten Jewish families. On the other hand, most Reform and Conservative congregations were in the large metropolitan centers, some having as many as 2,000 families. From 1933 to 1958 the number of Jewish congregations in Canada increased from 153 to 200. Orthodox congregations rose from 140 to 170, Conservative congregations from 9 to 25, Reform congregations from 3 to 6. A Sephardic congregation of North African Jews was organized in Toronto in 1958, reflecting their recent immigration. A similar congregation had existed for some years in Montreal. In 1958 the Synagogue Council of Montreal and the Montreal Board of Jewish Ministers jointly inaugurated a downtown chapel for minhah (afternoon) services for the convenience of those who could not attend services in their own synagogues. In Toronto members of the Orthodox community organized the first resident Jewish high school in Canada, to be operated as a branch of Ner Israel Rabbinical College of Baltimore. The school was to admit its first class in September 1959.

ZIONISM AND RELATIONS WITH ISRAEL There was no change in Canada's policy of friendliness to Israel. Israel's first supermarket, Supersol, was opened in the summer of 1958 by a group of Canadian businessmen, headed by Bertram Loeb of Ottawa. As a result of the success of this venture, a multimillion-dollar expansion program designed to open additional stores was launched. Shares in this enterprise were offered to Canadians, and the government of Israel agreed that they might be paid for largely with Israel bonds. A Gallup poll in July 1958 showed that on matters in dispute between 180 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK Jews and Arabs in Israel and the Near East, 5 per cent of Canadians were sympathetic with the Arabs, 14 per cent were sympathetic with the Jews, and 81 per cent indicated no opinion.

SOCIAL SERVICES In 1956 the Jewish Vocational Service of Toronto had launched an experimental rehabilitation workshop for the physically or emotionally handicapped, financed by a three-year grant from the J. P. Bickel Foundation. The project was a valuable and much-needed addition to the social services available in the community, and on termination of the original grant, the United Community Fund undertook to finance it. In Toronto the YW and YMHA opened the initial outdoor facilities of its new branch, to be located on a large suburban site.

CULTURAL ACTIVITIES In commemoration of the 100th anniversary of Sholem Aleichem's birth, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation presented the author's story, "The Littlest King," as a one-and-a-half-hour television play in April 1959. CBC also featured readings from Sholem Aleichem's works on radio and television. In celebration of Jewish music month in February the Toronto Musicians Union, through its Music Performance Trust Fund, presented a concert in cooperation with CJC. Works by Canadian and Israeli composers were performed by the Toronto Symphony Orchestra. On the occasion of Israel's 11th anniversary, the Chamber Music Ensemble of McGill University in Montreal presented a concert under the direction of Alexander Brott. Small Patients, by Alton Goldbloom, a Montreal doctor, became a national best-seller.

PERSONALIA Judge Samuel Freedman of Winnipeg was named chancellor of the University of Manitoba in June 1959. He was the first Jewish university chancellor in Canada. Elias Pullan of Toronto, industrialist and communal worker, died in March 1959 at the age of 93. He was a founder of the Federation of Jewish Philan- thropies, the Talmud Torah, and other communal institutions in Toronto. Dora Wilensky (Salsberg), one of the leading figures in the welfare field in Canada and for many years executive director of Toronto's Jewish Family and Child Service, died in March 1959 at the age of 56. MURRAY SHIFF Latin America

INTRODUCTION

N varying degrees, most of Latin America experienced economic strain and I political unrest during the period under review, mid-1958 to mid-1959. All were affected by steadily worsening terms of trade, the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America reporting that prices of Latin America's industrial imports had risen seven per cent since 1955, while the prices of its exports, chiefly raw materials, had fallen four per cent. In addition, some of the products which Latin American countries sold on the world market had fewer customers, either because of declining demand or more frequently because of increasing production in other parts of the world. As a consequence, unsaleable surpluses of some commodities piled up—e.g., coffee—while cutbacks in the production of others, especially metals, resulted in increasing unemployment. These factors affected different countries in different degrees. Bolivia, still almost a one-industry country, was especially hard-hit by the almost permanent crisis of her tin industry, while Venezuela, although her oil industry suffered somewhat from Middle Eastern competition and United States import quotas, still derived a high and steady income from it, while increasingly supplementing it with the development of other natural resources and industrial production. For some countries, notably Argentina and Brazil, further economic difficulties arose from the costs of past, present, and future programs of industrialization. In Cuba and Venezuela hundreds of millions of dollars had been embezzled by exiled officials of their deposed regimes. Unemployment and inflation produced unrest in a number of countries. Some countries, like Argentina, prodded by the International Monetary Fund and the United States Export-Import Bank, tried to apply classical deflationary techniques to reduce consumption. Others, like Brazil, fearing the political consequences of holding down wages and cutting back production or skeptical of the economic value of such measures, sought to expand production by currency and credit inflation, while hoping for increased markets and higher prices for their exports. Neither technique seemed particularly effective. Almost everywhere prices continued to rise, and the lag in the rise of wages led to repeated large-scale strikes. The repression of such strikes sometimes brought on political crises. In Argentina a special complication resulted from the continued loyalty of large sections of the urban and rural workers to the exiled Juan Domingo Per6n. In the Caribbean, tension steadily increased. The overthrow of the Vene- zuelan dictatorship of Marcos Pe"rez Jimenez in January 1958 was followed * For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. 181 182 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK by the fall of Fulgencio Batista's Cuban dictatorship in January 1959, and the dictatorial regime of Rafael Trujillo Molinas in the Dominican Republic seemed to be threatened. Whereas Venezuela held free elections within ten months after the ouster of its dictator, and was then governed by a coalition of three major parties (a unique experiment in Latin American politics), Cuba remained a de facto dictatorship with no democratic form of government even in sight. Venezuela maintained a common front with Cuba against common enemies like Trujillo, but internally President R6mulo Betancourt of Venezuela was firmly for democracy and against military juntas and Communists alike, while Premier Fidel Castro of Cuba, given to radical slogans and precipitate reforms, was dangerously close to the line which a Communist-led united front would follow if in power. Increasing divergencies between Premier Castro and such democratic leaders as President Betancourt of Venezuela and ex-President Jose Figueres of Costa Rica, and tension between Castro's regime and the United States, added a new complication to the picture. The Jewish communities in the various countries continued to prosper. Many Jews were in the consumer-goods industries, which kept expanding and were even favored by measures designed to conserve foreign exchange by limiting imports. Immigration continued, especially to Brazil. Emigration to Israel was exceeded by immigration from Israel. Relations between Israel and most Latin American countries continued to be very friendly, and were strengthened by Israeli Foreign Minister Golda Meir's visit to Latin America from May to July 1959.

ARGENTINA

N the eight months after the inauguration of President Arturo Frondizi I on May 1, 1958, serious inflationary developments had taken place and an unfavorable foreign-trade balance had reduced Argentine foreign-exchange reserves drastically. The government then appealed to the United States and the International Monetary Fund for aid. In return for its pledge to devalue the peso, make it convertible, impose various controls, and cut Argentine consumption, the government received credits of $329 million—$200 million from various United States government agencies, $75 million from the Inter- national Monetary Fund, and $54 million from a group of private banks. At the same time, it received a credit of $90 million from the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey and Royal Dutch Shell Oil Company, which were among a group of companies that received contracts for the development of Argentine oil resources. In 1959 a further $250 million was advanced by the International Monetary Fund and a group of private banks in the United States and Europe. With the aid of these credits, the government was able to bring Argentine reserves up to $250 million by the end of 1959. The country's economic situation seemed likely to improve somewhat as a result of a rapid increase in petroleum production. A 450,000-ton steel plant was to begin production in 1960 and reach its full capacity in 1961, United States ARGENTINA 183 auto companies were building assembly plants, and other factories were also nearing completion. But disastrous floods were a heavy blow to the grain and beef crops; in 1959 industrial production fell nine per cent, and in the first ten months of the year the cost of living rose almost two-thirds. As a result, general strikes were an almost monthly occurrence. These were usually incompletely effective, because the democratic unions frequently failed to support the Peronist unions, which had the support of the majority of the workers, and because the government regularly resorted to mass arrests, suspension of constitutional gurantees, and the use of troops. (Legis- lation passed in August 1959, providing for only one union to be recognized in each industry, seemed likely in most cases to leave the Peronists a dear field.) Despite some concessions, wages continued to lag well behind prices. And because the armed forces increasingly resented being used by the government to break strikes, in the summer of 1959 President Frondizi was forced to dismiss his army, navy, and air ministers. Minister of Economy and Labor Alvaro C. Alsogaray, appointed in June 1959, sought to avoid the need for military repression of strikes by a policy of limited concessions. A minor political crisis occurred in November 1958, when President Frondizi decided to force out Vice President Alejandro G6mez. It was quickly surmounted, however, since G6mez lacked a large personal following. More serious for the Frondizi government was its loss of popularity, as indicated in provincial elections. Thus in Mendoza province in April 1959, Frondizi's Intransigent Radical party polled only 22 per cent of the vote; the Con- servatives led the poll with about a third of, the vote; blank ballots, cast on the instructions of the illegal Peronist movement, were almost as numerous, and the Communist vote quintupled to a seventh of the total. The parliamentary elections due in March 1960 seemed likely to produce further trouble for the president. In October the parliament approved a Catholic university system granting degrees equal to those of the state universities. Protesting students battled police in a series of skirmishes.

Jewish Community The Jewish population of Argentina was 400,000 out of a total population of 20,248,000. The Jewish community, in the words of President Frondizi's Rosh ha- Shanah message to the Delegaci6n de Asociaciones Israelitas Argentinas (DAIA; central representative body of Argentine Jewry), made "a fruitful and constant contribution to the spiritual and material progress of Argentina." In 1959 the community celebrated the 70th anniversary of the first Jewish agricultural settlement in Argentina, Moisesville, established in Santa ~F6 province in August 1889 by 136 Russian Jewish families, numbering over 800 persons. They had come to Argentina with the help of the Alliance Israelite Universelle and Baron Maurice de Hirsch. Later, the Jewish Colo- nization Association (ICA), founded by de Hirsch, settled almost 30,000 Jews in 25 Jewish agricultural colonies. In 1959, 2,000 Jewish families, or 8,000 184 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK persons, remained on the land. Six thousand to 7,000 other Jews lived in and around the agricultural settlements, making a Jewish rural population of 15,000 in all. Although this was only half the Jewish rural population at the peak of ICA's activities, the production of the colonies had not fallen. The Jewish colonies had pioneered in the Argentine agricultural cooperative movement, and thus made a major contribution to the development of Argentina. In the cities the Jews were engaged mainly in the manufacture and sale of consumer goods. The Federation of Argentine Jewish Communities, meeting in May 1959 in Buenos Aires with more than 300 representatives of 110 kehillot, called for greater cooperation between Sephardim and Ashkenazim, and also pledged full support for the emigration of pioneering youth to Israel.

MIGRATION In 1958, 552 Jews left Argentina for Israel—323 professionals and artisans, and the rest halutzim. There were only about half as many Jewish immigrants to Argentina in the same period, despite the efforts of UHS and the Sociedad de Protecci6n a los Inmigrantes Israelitas (SOPROTIMIS) to facilitate the entry of special groups such as refugees from the Arab countries.

INTERGROUP RELATIONS Jews played a significant role in Argentine public life. There were four Jewish members of parliament and two Jewish governors, and for a time in 1959 David Blejer was minister of labor and social security. In May 1959 the government gave the DAIA representation in the Argen- tine committee for UNESCO. Antisemitism existed in some circles, and occasional incidents occurred. Thus in April 1959, 30 young nationalists smashed windows at the Sociedad Hebraica Argentina, the largest club of Spanish-speaking Jews in South America, with shouts of "Death to the Jews" and "Down with Ble"jer." (David Ble"jer was then minister of labor and social security.) A second attempt to attack the club was frustrated by the members, who had organized themselves for defense. Wide publicity was given to the incident by major Argentine newspapers. This was but one of a series of disorders in Buenos Aires and other Argentine cities, following widespread labor unrest. In August 1959 DAIA asked the government to take action against the wreckers of an exhibit about the Hebrew University on the campus of Buenos Aires University and against other anti-Jewish actions, which were becoming more frequent. In October 1958 a principal of a public commercial high school for girls in the center of a Jewish residential district in Buenos Aires made Jewish and Catholic girls sit apart. All the members of the parent-teachers' committee, both Catholics and Jews, resigned in protest, demanding the dismissal of the principal. An official investigation found "that the principal had engaged in discriminatory and antisemitic tactics." BRAZIL 185

RELATIONS WITH ISRAEL The visit of Israeli Foreign Minister Golda Meir to Argentina in May 1959 was the occasion for many demonstrations of friendship and cooperation between the two countries. The two houses of parliament held a joint session in her honor. In August 1959 the chief chaplain of Israel's armed forces, Rabbi Solomon Goren, visited Archbishop Fermin Lafitte of Buenos Aires, vicar general of the Argentine army, and presented him with a Bible used in the Israeli army. In the same month former President Pedro Aramburu visited Israel "to see how Israel succeeded in raising the standard of living of inhabitants coming from various countries, and to view the country's achievements in conquering the desert." The economic ties between the two countries were strengthened in May 1959 by the establishment of a I£l-million bank, by the Koor Industries of Israel and the Argentine Jewish shareholders of the Agrobank of Buenos Aires, to facilitate transactions with Israel. The Argentine-Israeli Shipping Company was established on a parity basis to facilitate trade between the two countries.

PERSONALIA Pinie Katz, a noted Yiddish writer, founder and for many years leading editor of the Yiddish daily Di Presse, died in August 1959 at the age of 77. Born in Russia, he came to Argentina in 1889. He translated into Yiddish Cervantes' Don Quixote and many works by contemporary Argentine writers. In September 1959 Marcus Regalsky died at the age of 74. He was a leading members of the editorial staff of the daily Yiddishe Tzaytung for 30 years. He also edited the Labor Zionist weekly Naye Tzayt. Born in Moscow, he emigrated to Argentina in 1918.

BRAZIL

N 1958 and the first half of 1959 Brazil enjoyed greater political quiet than in previous years. The main opposition party, the National Democratic IUnion, had cooperated with President Juscelino Kubitschek, whose term of office was to end in January 1961. However, the rampant inflation, the constantly rising cost of living, and the ensuing economic difficulties, as well as the approaching national elections, produced political agitation toward the end of the year. Inflation raised the cost of living 34 per cent in the first nine months of 1959, and the cost of food 41 per cent. The daily meal of the Brazilian masses, rice and beans, had become almost a luxury which many could not afford, despite United States surplus beans, sold to Brazil at a nominal cost. Since the government failed to stimulate agriculture to keep pace with the rapidly growing population—from 36 million in 1929 to 65 million in 1959— low production, high prices, and a mass exodus to the cities ensued. The government's solution was to print more money. 186 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK The opposition blamed the government's stubbornness in building an un- necessary, ostentatious, and costly new capital, Brasilia, and its policy of encouraging rapid industrialization at the expense of a lagging agriculture. The government contended that Brasilia had nothing to do with the economic crisis, which it attributed to the unfavorable foreign market, especially for coffee. Even so, Brazil still led the effort to bring all coffee producers, including those in Africa, into an agreement to fix annual export quotas. Brazil's petroleum industry, from which foreigners were excluded, produced 35 per cent more by mid-1959 than a year earlier. Steel production in 1958 totaled 1.5 million ingot tons, and it was estimated that in 1960 this amount would be doubled. A relatively small United States credit to Brazil—$233 million in all—was announced in August 1958, when Secretary of State John Foster Dulles visited that country: $100 million from the Export-Import Bank, $75 million from the International Monetary Fund, and §58 million from a group of New York banks. As Brazil did not accept the deflationary recommendations of the International Monetary Fund, unlike Frondizi's Argen- tina, further credits were not forthcoming. But the Soviet Union expressed its willingness to buy Brazilian coffee in exchange for crude oil and industrial equipment, and the Brazilians agreed. This implied renewed Brazilian recognition of the Soviet Union in the near future.

Jewish Community The Jewish population of Brazil was 125,000 out of a total population of 62,725,000. The Jewish population, belonging largely to the commercial and professional middle classes, suffered less from the unstable economic situation than most city dwellers. The community in the boom city of Sao Paulo was particularly able to strengthen its social and cultural services. At the end of March 1959 a new building for the $30-million Jewish community center was dedicated. It contained a library, rooms for kindergarten, youth, and Boy Scout activities, a solarium, a swimming pool, and a well-equipped department for religious instruction. A synagogue seating 1,200, with offices and a social center, was opened in 1958.

IMMIGRATION From 1957 to 1959 close to 4,200 Jewish immigrants settled in Brazil with the assistance of UHS and the local communities—2,900 Egyptian refugees, 700 Hungarian refugees, 380 Polish, Rumanian, and other East European immigrants, and 180 from North Africa, Syria, and Lebanon. About 1,000 additional immigrants came from Israel. The adjustment of the new immigrants was highly satisfactory. Some of them settled in the region of the country's still unfinished Brasilia.

Crvic AND POLITICAL STATUS Many Jewish citizens played an important part in Brazil's economic and political life. In August 1959 former Finance Minister Horacio Lafer, head URUGUAY 187 of the huge industrial enterprises of the Klabin family, was named minister of foreign affairs. Another prominent Jew, Israel Pinheiro, was in charge of the construction of Brasilia, the new capital scheduled to be inaugurated in April 1960. Henrique Henkin of Porto Alegre, the son of one of the first Jewish colonists in Brazil, was appointed chief of police of Rio Grande do Sul in February 1959. All observers agreed that there was little bias against any minority group in the country. The Rio de Janeiro city council renamed an avenue after Sholem Aleichem in honor of his centenary. But in September 1959 a Sao Paulo court held that Jews must vote, under Brazil's compulsory voting laws, even though the elections fell on a Jewish holiday.

RELATIONS WITH ISRAEL In June 1959 Israeli Foreign Minister Golda Meir received the highest Brazilian decoration for foreigners, the Gran Cruz Ordem Nacional Cruzeiro do Sul, and was honored at a joint reception by the two houses of parliament. A cultural-exchange treaty was signed during her visit. One of Israel's leading painters, Moses Kastel, received a prize of 100,000 cruzeiros (about §550) for works submitted to the fifth biennial Sao Paulo exhibition of modern art in September 1959.

URUGUAY

RUGUAY experienced an economic crisis. Her main exports, cattle and U wool, were hard hit when the United States-owned Armour and Swift packing companies abandoned their plants in Uruguay at the end of 1957 as a result of a strike of the packing-house workers. For several months, despite an increase in the capacity of the government's own packing houses, a large part of the country's production could not be processed and exported. By the time the plants were taken over and reopened as workers' cooperatives in the autumn of 1958, the damage had been done. Commercial slaughter for the year fell 39 per cent and meat exports 59 per cent. The Uruguayan peso fell sharply and prices rose about 25 per cent, although stringent controls kept the country's foreign trade in balance. The disastrous effects on agriculture led to the defection of an important bloc of small farmers from the liberal Colorado party, under which Uruguay had become known as the most democratic country in South America. In the elections of November 1958 the rightist Blanco party also appealed to pensioners and others with fixed incomes by charging that inflation was destroying the value of their incomes, and promising to save the peso. As a result, it succeeded in defeating the Colorados for the first time in 93 years. The dominant wing of the Blancos, led by Luis Alberto de Herrera, had in the past been extremely antagonistic to the United States and friendly to Juan Per6n, and during World War II had been widely regarded as pro- Nazi. To form a government, however, it had to have the collaboration of the small farmers' group which had come over to it from the Colorados. 188 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK The two Blanco factions managed to reach an agreement on a cabinet, and Martin R. Etchegoyen was named chief of state. The new government took office at the beginning of March. Early in April Herrera died. The new government removed exchange controls and discontinued many other controls and subsidies, and prices promptly rose 40 per cent. They might have risen more if the government had not imposed a "retention" tax on the proceeds of exports (50 per cent for wool) and used it in part to subsidize certain imports. It also confronted troubles not of its own making when, in the spring of 1959, disastrous floods ruined much of the grain and animal crop. As a result, Uruguay was forced to purchase for domestic use United States surplus agricultural commodities which it normally exported. Rising prices led to strikes throughout the year, especially among civil servants and in government-owned enterprises; in general, these resulted in wage increases of 30 per cent, so that wages still lagged substantially behind the increase in prices. The unfavorable trade balance, $55 million in the first ten months of 1959, caused a sharp drop in the country's gold reserves. A new trade deficit seemed likely for 1960, and the government entered into negotiations for assistance from the International Monetary Fund and various United States agencies. It also secured a loan of $8 million for livestock rehabilitation and improvement from the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.

Jewish Community

In 1958 the Jewish community of Uruguay celebrated its 50th anniversary. Of an estimated 50,000 Jews in a total population of 2,700,000, 90 per cent lived in the capital, Montevideo. In Paisandu and Salto there were well- organized small Jewish communities, and small numbers of Jews were scattered among 50 other towns. The Jews in the provinces tended to migrate to the capital as soon as their children grew old enough to need more adequate educational facilities than were available in the small towns and villages. (The Yiddish Sunday schools in the cities of Salto and Rocha recently closed down because so many of their pupils had moved to Montevideo in order to continue their education.) Only Paisandu, among all the smaller communities, still had a fully organized Jewish community life, with all religious and educational facilities. There were four separate Jewish groupings in Montevideo: East European, with 4,000 registered members (a registered member was usually the head of a family of three or four); Sephardi, 1,500; German, 1,400, and Hungarian, 800. All were united in the Jewish Central Committee, which represented the Jewish community in its relations with the authorities. Of the six rabbis in Uruguay, all in Montevideo, the East Europeans had three. There were six synagogues in Montevideo and one in Paisandu, all Orthodox. There were also three Jewish schools, each with its own building, and a small yeshivah organized by newly-arrived ultra-Orthodox Jews from Hungary. About 1,100 Jewish children attended supplementary Jewish schools in Montevideo, and there was a similar school in Paisandu. About a fifth of VENEZUELA 189 the Jewish families observed kashrut, and Montevideo had two kosher restaurants. Through the Cooperativa Comercial, several thousand small merchants were able to buy and sell, on credit, commodities ranging from housewares to automobiles. It was the main bastion of Jewish economic life in the country. A cooperative bank made small and medium loans. The Banco Palestina financed not only business with Israel, but also local enterprises. The long-established Centro Medico Israelita, a mutual institution for aid to the sick, bought a sanatorium building in 1958 and planned to open its own hospital. In 1959 Hebraica, a club for the youth and adult intelligentsia of all the four major Jewish communities of Montevideo, completed a seven-story building with all social and cultural facilities. In 1958 ha-Koah Maccabee, with a membership of over 2,500, completed a huge sports stadium, one of the best in Uruguay. The stadium and Hebraica helped to strengthen the younger generation's ties to the Jewish community. Most second-generation Uruguayan Jews tried to obtain higher education. It was estimated that Uruguay had more than 400 Jewish physicians, lawyers, engineers, and architects.

MIGRATION From 1948 to 1959, 2,000 Jews immigrated to Uruguay and 1,200 emigrated to Israel. According to the Jewish Agency, the latter included 612 middle- class emigrants, 550 halutzim, and 38 professionals.

JEWISH PRESS There were two Yiddish dailies, Folksblat and Unzer Fraynt, and one Yiddish weekly, Der Moment. In Spanish there was the semimonthly Revista Familiar Israelita. The weekly Boletin Informativo-Gemeindeblalt was the organ of the German-speaking Jewish community, and there were several minor publications in Yiddish and Spanish.

VENEZUELA

N 1958 the revolutionary junta that had taken power after the overthrow I of the Perez Jimdnez dictatorship in January had to normalize Venezue- lan political and economic life and prepare the ground for democratic elections. It also had to suppress a series of attempted counterrevolutionary coups. One of these, in July 1958, had the support of part of the army. After its suppression Defense Minister General Jose Maria Castro Le6n was forced to resign and leave the country as a result of the widespread belief that the conspirators had had his sympathy. Despite this and other attempted military revolts, free elections were held in December 1958. Former President R6mulo Betancourt, candidate of the Democratic Action party, was elected by a wide margin, and his party won control of congress. In the city of Caracas itself, however, he ran second to Admiral Wolfgang Larrizabal, who had headed the revolutionary junta and ran as the candidate of the Republican Demo- 190 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK cratic Union. (Larrizabal also had the support of the Communists, to whom Betancourt, a democratic socialist, was anathema.) After the election Betan- court formed a coalition government in which his own Democratic Action party joined with the Republican Democratic Union and the liberal Catholic COPEI. Both the junta and the Betancourt government had to deal with difficult financial problems because the Pe"rez Jimenez regime had not only used up Venezuela's large current oil revenues, but had also contracted external and internal short-term debts totaling $1.5 billion. To meet the most urgent debts, the junta negotiated a loan in New York—on favorable terms, because oil revenues assured repayment. The major oil companies also helped out both the junta and the Betancourt government on a number of occasions by paying taxes for several months in advance. Although Venezuela's oil income suffered somewhat from the existence of a worldwide oil surplus and from the imposition of import quotas by the United States, it still remained ample for the country's needs and provided the means for an ambitious program of agricultural and industrial development. Some aspects of this program were undertaken by private foreign capital; United States steel companies, for example, were active in the exploitation of Venezuela's huge reserves of iron ore. But the Betancourt government was not content to have the country's economy dependent solely on exports of raw materials. It planned to use these resources to create steel and petrochemical industries. It also sought to end Venezuela's dependence on imports of food and consumer goods, which made the Venezuelan cost of living one of the highest in the world. To increase domestic food production, it sought to expand the cultivable area by irrigation. At the same time it inaugurated a land-reform program intended both to benefit the peasants and to encourage more intensive use of the land. And it encouraged the development of consumer-goods industries by both domestic and foreign capital. Unemployment remained a major problem, especially in Caracas. Where possible, the government tried to resettle on the land the rural workers who had been attracted by the boom atmosphere of the mushrooming capital. It also provided some temporary employment on public works. However, a reduction in the public-works program led to large-scale riots in Caracas in August 1958, and the government was forced to suspend certain constitutional guarantees for a month. From time to time, groups dose to the former regime also attempted to incite revolts. The government was able to repress these without much difficulty, since the overwhelming majority of the people were determined to prevent any return of the military dictatorship. A more substantial danger was that the Communists, already strong among students and in some unions and professional groups, might be able to cause serious trouble if the government's economic-development program was inadequately successful in increasing employment opportunities and bringing down the cost of living. MEXICO 191

Jewish Community Of Venezuela's population of over six million, about 8,000 were Jews. The Jewish communities of Caracas and Maracaibo continued to develop normally. At the beginning of 1959 immigration was virtually stopped by the government, for the time being, because of the overcrowded condition of Caracas, and Jewish immigration was limited to family-reunion cases. About a fifth of the Jewish population of Venezuela—over a thousand persons- had entered the country since 1957. About half came from Eastern Europe, Egypt, and North Africa, and were assisted in their emigration and resettlement by UHS in cooperation with the local communities. The other half came from Israel on their own. The Jewish immigrants had adjusted well and rapidly, and it was expected that Jewish immigration would resume when the restrictions were relaxed.

MEXICO

N the presidential elections of July 1958 Adolfo L6pez Mateos was I chosen to succeed President Adolfo Ruiz Cortines, in whose cabinet he had been minister of labor. As the candidate of the government-backed PRI (Party of Revolutionary Institutions), he was elected overwhelmingly, although the opposition vote was larger than in previous elections. For the first time women voted in a presidential election. Despite the recession in most of the free world, the Mexican economy continued to expand in 1958. Gross national production in real terms rose four per cent. Crop prospects for 1959 were excellent, and exports and imports were roughly in balance during the first quarter of 1959. In March 1959 Mexico was granted $190 million in stand-by credits by the Export-Import Bank and the International Monetary Fund, to help bolster the peso. Government expenditures in 1959 were expected to run slightly below 1958, and private foreign and domestic investments were expected to expand as a result of greater confidence in the peso. In 1958 there were strikes of telephone operators and railway, textile, and oil workers. In large part these strikes were conducted by insurgent groups seeking to oust the officially recognized union leaders. The government charged that they were Communist-inspired and arrested many of the strike leaders, holding some for months without trial. Another event which marred the economic picture, and also United States- Mexican relations, was Mexico's lead and zinc slump, because of import quotas established by the United States. The visit of United States President Dwight D. Eisenhower to President L6pez Mateos in the spring of 1959, and the subsequent visit of Milton Eisenhower, improved relations between the two countries. During Israeli Foreign Minister Meir's visit to Mexico in June 1959, a cultural agreement was signed. 192 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

Jewish Community The Jewish population of Mexico was estimated at 26,000 at the end of 1958, of a total population of 32,348,000. Somewhat less than two-thirds were Ashkenazim, and the rest were Sephardim, more than half from Syria. About 23,000 lived in the capital, 450 in Monterey, and 300 in Guadalajara. The rest were scattered throughout the country. About 80 per cent were Mexican citizens. The community was organized in the Comite" Central Israelita de Mexico, but every congregation and group maintained full autonomy. The governing body of the Comite' Central consisted of delegated representatives from the Ashkenazim, the European Sephardim, two Syrian groups, and separate Ger- man, Hungarian, and American congregations. In July 1959, for the first time since 1948, the Yiddish-speaking sector of the community held elections to choose its 45 delegates to the Comite" Cen- tral. Only 1,540 voted, about half of those eligible. Of the 45 seats the Zionist Religious bloc received 20; OSE, 7; the Jewish School, 5; the Hilfsverein, 4; the Bund, 4; Agudat Israel, 3, and I. L. Peretz School, 2. The smaller congregations had neither synagogues nor rabbis, and depended on the larger ones for Rosh ha-Shanah and Yom Kippur services.

EDUCATION The Jewish school system in Mexico was one of the best in Latin America. It consisted of nine all-day schools, seven in the capital and one each in Guadalajara and Monterey. About 90 per cent of the Jewish children of school age attended those schools. The largest were Colegio Israelita de Mexico (Spanish-Yiddish-Hebrew), Escuela Israelita "Yavne" (Hebrew-Span- ish), Bet-Sefer Tarbut (Hebrew-Spanish), Colegio Hebreo Sefardi (Spanish- Hebrew), Colegio Hebreo Monte Sinai (Spanish-Hebrew), and Escuela Nueva I. L. Peretz (Yiddish-Spanish), all in Mexico City. Of the 4,200 pupils in the Jewish schools, 55 per cent were boys. There were 210 teachers in the Jewish school system, 60 for Jewish and 150 for general subjects. The Jewish Teachers Seminary was still not able to meet the need for Jewish teachers in Mexico, vacancies being filled by teachers from Israel and the United States.

OTHER ACTIVITIES Interest in Zionism and pro-Israel activities predominated, but a strong minority (Jewish Socialist Bund) worked mostly in the local social and cultural field. All shades of the Zionist movement were separately organized. Po'ale Zion had a membership of 600, General Zionists 500, Mizrahi 450, and Revisionists 300. Local social services were provided by the Hilfsverein, the main Ashkenazi aid society. Various women's committees specialized in family and child care. WIZO and the Pioneer Women had 700 and 150 members respectively. CUBA 193

PRESS For a small community, the Jewish press both in Yiddish and Spanish was varied. It included Der Veg, appearing three times a week, Yiddish, pro- Zionist, circulation about 800; Di Shtimme, twice a week, Yiddish, nonpartisan, 1,000; Mexicaner Leben, weekly, Yiddish and Spanish, nonpartisan, 2,000, and Prensa Israelita, weekly, Spanish, nonpartisan, 1,500. The monthly organ of the Bund, Foroys, in Yiddish, had a circulation of 1,000; another Yiddish monthly, Tzionistishe Tribune, issued by the General Zionists, had 1,500, and the monthly Tribuno Israelita, Spanish, nonpartisan, had 2,000. The schools published annual reports containing abundant material on Jewish education in Mexico and other countries.

CUBA

N January 1, 1959, the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista came to an end O with the flight of the dictator and the capitulation of his armed forces to the revolutionary Twenty-Sixth of July Movement headed by Fidel Castro. Castro's movement, which had been conducting guerrilla warfare against the Batista regime for over two years, had gradually expanded until Batista's forces were no longer able to hold their own. Batista's sudden capitulation, which came as a surprise to his supporters and his opponents alike, appeared to be due primarily to the belief of his commanders that they could no longer depend on their own forces. The Castro movement was drawn from diverse sources, although the middle class, students in particular, had furnished it with most of its active support. It had never formulated a precise ideology or program, except one of uncompromising enmity to the Batista regime and all who had given it active support or even passive tolerance, as well as to the old-line politicians whose corruption had helped to pave the way for Batista. Castro, who took the title of premier in February, dominated the government and set its policies—sometimes, apparently, on the spur of the moment, in long speeches to crowds or television addresses, without consulting his cabinet. The new government was faced with many problems, both political and economic. Its first concern was to liquidate the remnants of the Batista regime and, so far as possible, undo its consequences. Special courts, a species of revolutionary tribunals, tried the officials and agents of the former dictator, and hundreds were executed, mostly for participation in the murder and torture of Batista's political opponents. This aroused widespread criticism in other countries, particularly the United States, although Cubans pointed out that the executions were far fewer than those carried out by the previous regime, with or without trial, and that prisoners were not tortured, as they had been under Batista. Since the Batista regime had had a part in almost every aspect of the country's life, the purge effort had to be disruptive in some degree, both in the government and in the economy. Unemployment increased as a result of the government's measures and the decline in tourism. The country's finances were hard hit by the plundering 194 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK of decamping officials of the Batista regime. Sugar, the basis of the Cuban economy, was at its lowest price in many years, though the effect of this was somewhat cushioned by an increase in the quota Cuba was permitted to sell in the protected United States market, where prices were almost twice as high as the world level. Of the government measures designed to redistribute wealth and income, the most important was land reform. Agriculture was essentially based on large plantations, many foreign-owned. Through the National Agrarian Insti- tute, the Castro government attempted to replace these with cooperative farms, but often the peasants simply divided the land into small holdings and left the government little choice but to ratify their action. A number of industrial properties were also taken over by the government, either as the property of Batista officials or because they were foreign-owned. Many Castro policies aroused opposition among his former middle-class supporters, as well as in the United States. From the beginning, Castro and many of his followers had been bitter about the United States' supplying arms to Batista until shortly before his fall. This resentment was intensified by American criticism of the new regime's executions and charges of Com- munism. At the same time, the United States objected to the seizure of United States-owned lands and businesses without what Washington regarded as prompt and adequate compensation. The United States was also disturbed by Castro's increasing tendency towards neutralism and his agitation against the United States at home and in other Latin American countries. Castro, in turn, charged that the United States was permitting his enemies to use Florida as a base of operations against him. (Federal Bureau of Investigation investigations showed that operations against Cuba were indeed based on Florida. But they were carried out despite die efforts of the United States to prevent them, as had also been true of anti-Batista operations based on Florida in previous years.) The precise degree of Communist influence and power in the Cuban government was hard to determine. After he forced out President Carlos M. Urrutia in July, Castro gave increasingly open expression to his antagonism to the United States, and his domestic program grew steadily more radical.

Jewish Community The Jewish community in Cuba suffered no special difficulties in the course of the revolution. There were no antisemitic acts by revolutionary forces. Among the leaders of the new regime were a few sons of Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe, but they were not closely identified with the Jewish community. Of Cuba's population of over six million, the Jewish population remained static at about 11,000; 7,000 to 8,000 Jews lived in Havana and the remainder in Santa Clara, Camaguey, and Oriente. About three quarters were Ash- kenazim and one quarter Sephardim. Three quarters of the Jewish working population were small retailers, 15 per cent had larger stores, and 10 per cent were in consumer goods. There were no changes in community organization. Efforts to create a DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 195 kehillah on the pattern of that in Buenos Aires failed, mainly because of the opposition of the religious Jews in the Ahdut Israel congregation and of the old Centro Israelita, which tried to maintain itself as a representative organization for the entire community. The Council of Jewish Women, with a membership of 1,000, and WIZO, with 1,500, continued very active. Israeli Bonds and the other pro-Israeli campaigns were successful. B'nai B'rith, with about 400 members, continued its cultural work in Spanish, mostly among the youth.

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

HE Dominican Republic, since 1930 a dictatorship under Rafael Leonidas T Trujillo Molinas, became the refuge of a succession of fallen Latin American dictators, from Juan D. Per6n of Argentina to Fulgencio Batista of Cuba. (The latter appeared to be a distinctly unwelcome guest; while Trujillo gave substantial support to anti-Castro elements formerly connected with Batista's army and police, the ex-dictator himself was frequently attacked in the Trujillo-dominated Dominican press.) During the year, the Trujillo regime was subjected to major external and internal stresses. Relations with the United States, already bad because of the FBI's interest in the circumstances surrounding the kidnapping from New York of the anti-Trujillo scholar Jesus de Galindez in 1956 and the mysterious death in the Dominican Republic of the flier Gerald Murphy in 1958, deteriorated further. In June 1958 the Dominican consul in Miami was caught attempting to bribe United States officials to permit the smuggling of arms to anti-Castro plotters in Cuba. And the spectacular activities of the generalis- simo's son in Hollywood, while he was supposedly studying at the United States army's command and staff school at Fort Leavenworth, were followed by the school's refusal in June 1958 to graduate him. Also in June the Dominican government dispensed with the services of the U. S. navy's training mission in the country on the ground that it was too expensive. (Most of the cost was paid by the United States.) At the same time, the government sharply increased its military expenditures, which amounted to over half the national budget, importing jet planes and expanding its army. This was a result of the strained relations between Trujillo and some of his neighbors, especially Cuba and Venezuela. Addi- tional large sums were spent on activities directed against these governments, such as the training of an "anti-Communist foreign legion" and smuggling arms. These expenditures placed a heavy burden on the country's already weak economy. For the first time in many years the Trujillo regime, whose proudest boast was that it had liquidated the country's foreign debt, was forced to borrow abroad. There was some industrial expansion, and a large-scale program of public works helped to keep down unemployment. But the public-works program was threatened with contraction because of the country's financial problems, and unemployment seemed likely to grow 196 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

Jewish Community In August 1959 the Jewish community of about 600, out of a population of over two million, included 168 persons (121 adults and 47 children under the age of 16 years) in the agricultural colony of Sosua. The rest were mainly in Ciudad Trujillo. The colony, spread over 27,000 acres of coastal land in the northern part of the island, was divided into individual homesteads of 75 acres, which engaged in cattle breeding and dairy farming. The colonists employed about 300 Dominican farmhands, and their annual production came to about $1 million a year. Sosua included a cooperative, a school, and a synagogue. The Jews in the capital were engaged mainly in furniture manufacturing and other small-scale production of consumer goods. The community center in Ciudad Trujillo, started in 1957 with a government subsidy of $60,000, was completed in 1959. It included a club, library, and synagogue. Alfred Rosenzweig was named member of parliament from the province of Puerto- Plata, which included Sosua. ILYA DIJOUR Western Europe

GREAT BRITAIN *

HE year from July 1, 1958, to June 30, 1959, was marked by an increase Tof confidence in the country's economy and, as a consequence, in the government headed by Harold Macmillan. Political life was dominated by speculation about a general election. Parliament was due to end in 1960, and the belief was widespread, though in the event not justified, that the government would seek its fortunes at the polls in the spring of 1959. Public opinion continued to be exercised at the possibilities of nuclear war and anxiously followed the efforts of Russia and the Western powers to reach a modus vivendi. Little fresh ground was broken within the Jewish community, even its dissensions moving along well-worn grooves. Organizations concerned with protecting Jewish rights at home or abroad seemed to have difficulty finding matters of substance with which to occupy themselves; those concerned with raising funds applied themselves to their tasks with undiminished vigor; those concerned with stimulating Jewish religious life made no new departures. However, in 1959 changes in the Anglo-Jewish press led to a livelier discussion of issues which had previously remained beneath the surface—in particular, the indifference and. even hostility of a section of the younger generation to a Jewish society which seemed to them preoccupied with religious formalism or garish fund-raising activities. The centenary of the seating of Lionel Rothschild, the first Jewish member of parliament, was July 26, 1958. International Relations In July 1958 a delegation from the Board of Deputies of British Jews visited the Rumanian minister, Petre Balaceanu, to urge that his country allow emigration to Israel for the purpose of reuniting families. In January 1959 the board of directors of CJMCAG recommended grants to institutions in Great Britain of $118,972 for cultural and educational purposes and §20,300 for relief and restitution. An agreement settling the Anglo-Egyptian financial claims arising out of the Suez adventure in 1956 was signed in Cairo on February 28, 1959. There were complaints that British subjects were to receive only fractional compensation for property seized by the Egyptians (see p. 307). Common disquiet at the policies of UAR President Gamal Abdul Nasser brought the United Kingdom and Israel closer together. At a dinner in * For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. 197 198 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK honor of Israeli Ambassador Eliahu Elath, given by the Board of Deputies on November 5, 1958, Prime Minister Macmillan praised Israel for her "energy, social and scientific progress and sheer physical achievement" and referred to the Arabs' need for peace, economic progress, and social development. Britain agreed to sell Israel two submarines at an undisclosed price. The first was delivered in October 1958 and the second in February 1959. Mistrust of Nasser's intentions appears also to have been a factor in the government's decision, announced in May 1959, to sell arms to Iraq. Theodor Heuss, president of the German Federal Republic, paid a state visit to London—greeted with some reserve by the people of London—in October 1958. Proposing his health at a state banquet at Buckingham. Palace on October 20, Queen Elizabeth II said: "As you yourself have said, nothing can ever erase from the record certain deeds and events per- petrated in Europe." At a reception given in his honor by the London County Council, President Heuss said: "We are aware of our duty to make amends for the wrong that was done." He thanked Britain for having given refuge to people driven from Germany for political or racial reasons. At his own request, President Heuss paid a visit on October 23 to the Wiener Library, originally established in 1933 as an information center on the Nazi danger.

Jewish Community

Apart from a few specific areas of limited significance, the various agencies of the community worked in reasonable harmony. But sometimes they were slow to tackle obvious problems. Some smaller communities in the provinces, unable to engage qualified rabbis or teachers, manifested a growing debility in their religious life, due in part to their not being affiliated with any union of congregations that could assist them. After discussion, the Board of Deputies of British Jews referred the problems to an ad hoc conference. It met in January and simply referred the problem back to the Board of Deputies. In pursuance of the conference's recommendations, the situation was investigated in detail at several regional conferences, but no plan for dealing with it emerged. Long-standing personal dissensions between officers of the Board of Deputies became public during a discussion on a proposal that the board send an observer to the plenary session of WJC in June 1959. It was decided to send President Barnett Janner as an observer. The board maintained its connection with the World Conference of Jewish Organizations and was host to a meeting of that conference in London in October. There were recurrent complaints about the high cost of kosher meat, and charges that the communal authorities had allowed the butchers to form a "ring" and had left the consumer unprotected. A dispute over this problem led to the resignation of the chairman of the Board of Deputies' committee on kosher-meat prices in May. The Marriage (Secretaries of Synagogues) Act became law on February 26. It placed Liberal synagogues on the same footing as Orthodox and Reform GREAT BRITAIN 199 synagogues for the civil registration of marriages and ended what had once been an extremely bitter dispute.

RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES

On the whole, religious life continued unchanged. Discussions in the press brought to light the younger generation's dissatisfaction with the gap between the concerns of religious institutions and the moral issues of the day. Though nothing happened to challenge the institutional supremacy of the Orthodox rabbinate, a report in September 1958 showed a decline in the consumption of kosher meat, indicating that the hold of traditional observance was weakening. Among those consulted by Israeli Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion on the "Who is a Jew?" question were Chief Rabbi Israel Brodie, Rabbi Alexander Altmann of Manchester, Sir Isaiah Berlin, and Sir Leon Simon. Since the chief rabbi was about to leave for South Africa to recuperate from an illness which incapacitated him for most of the autumn and winter, the London Beth Din replied on his behalf in January 1959. (It was not considered appropriate to invite any single rabbi to deputize for Rabbi Brodie during his absence. His ecclesiastical duties were vested in the members of the Beth Din, while those of a representative character were entrusted to the president of the United Synagogue.) In November 1958 the United Synagogue authorized the expenditure of §616,000 on a new synagogue at Marble Arch, in addition to nearly $100,000 for officials' residences and an unstated amount for the synagogue hall. This was to replace the historic synagogue in Duke's Place, whose final service was held on October 26. Two new London synagogues, built partly with CJMCAG funds, were consecrated—The Hendon Adath Yisroel (No- vember 1958) and the New Liberal (July 1958). In February 1959 the elders of the Spanish and Portuguese Congregation reported a 75-per cent increase in membership since the war. To accommodate the influx—largely due to arrivals from Egypt, India, and Iraq—a new synagogue in North-West London was contemplated. Rabbi Isaac Cohen, of Edinburgh, was elected chief rabbi of Eire, succeeding Immanuel Jakobovits, who left for the Fifth Avenue Synagogue in New York. The Union of Liberal and Progressive Congregations launched an appeal for $560,000 to train ministers and subsidize new congregations, and by June 30, 1959, 5140,000 had been raised. In March 1959 the Blackpool Progressive Congregation decided to leave the Liberal union and to affiliate with the more conservative Reform group. In February the Reformers had announced that talks with the Liberals over cooperation in the administration of the Leo Baeck College had broken down. In June the Reform Synagogues decided to withdraw from the World Union for Progressive Judaism. The Leo Baeck College graduated its first two rabbis in December 1958. In July 1958, in reply to Chief Rabbi Brodie's greeting on the occasion of the opening of the Lambeth conference of the Anglican communion, Archbishop of Canterbury Geoffrey F. Fisher said: "we can remember with 200 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK thanksgiving that between the Jewish community and ourselves there is such understanding and a true sense of brotherhood in God." In November 1958, Father T. Corbishley, a leading British Jesuit, declared that the secession of the Roman Catholics from the Council of Christians and Jews had been a "regrettable mistake" and hoped that there would be "some sort of reconciliation." In December Roman Catholic Archbishop John C. Heenan of Liverpool said that the Vatican's reason for directing the withdrawal was unknown. In October there had been a weekend of religious discussions between Jews and Catholics.

JEWISH EDUCATION Public discussion of Jewish education was dominated by controversy between spokesmen for various groups of Jewish day schools. Meanwhile, however, the day-school movement continued to progress. In May 1959 the London Jewish Chronicle reported 38 Jewish day schools with 7,000 pupils, nearly an eighth of the Jewish school population. In September 1958 the Jews' Free School secondary school opened with 360 pupils. (There had been 900 applications for admission.) This was the successor to the Jews' Free School, founded in 1817, which had closed during World War II. The cornerstone of the new King David secondary school in Manchester was laid in September 1958; extensions to the North-West London Jewish day school were begun in November. Controversy developed from the government's reported intention of giving increased aid to denominational schools. The Jewish Secondary Schools Movement, which under Solomon Schonfeld's leadership worked independently of central institutions associated with the chief rabbi and the United Synagogue, called a conference of Jewish day schools with the object of establishing a coordinating and consultative council. Though most of the principal schools rejected the invitation and the chief rabbi urged post- ponement, the conference took place in March 1959, and a council was nominally established. In May a fully representative conference called by the chief rabbi resolved to set up a working group to consider the scope, purpose, and constitution of a consultative body. The terms of the government's bill, which had its first reading in the House of Commons on June 16, did not indicate that Jewish schools would in practice benefit from the proposed changes. Jewish primary education, apart from the day schools, registered little advance. In October 1958 it was reported that the London Board for Jewish Religious Education faced a possible financial crisis, and the situation was not helped by the decision of the United Synagogue in March 1959 to modify the levy imposed on its members for the board's purposes. Faced with the expense of maintaining synagogue classes in outlying areas, the board decided to amalgamate them into area classes. In many cases attendance at midweek sessions was said to be "dismal." Jews' College opened its Institute of Teacher Training in October, with 16 students. To raise funds and stimulate interest, the Friends of Jews' College was established that month. GREAT BRITAIN 201

SOCIAL SERVICE The centenary of the London Jewish Board of Guardians was celebrated in March 1959 by a religious service at the Central synagogue, and a banquet at Guildhall. It was reported in April that $900,000 had been raised towards the centenary appeal for $1,400,000. In June, Sir Seymour E. Karminski was succeeded as president of the board by Oliver Sebag-Montefiore. The Jewish Orphange announced an $840,000 rebuilding plan in June 1959. In Cardiff a new home for the aged was opened in February. The Association for Jewish Youth commemorated its 60th anniversary in March. A report published in the following month showed a decline of a quarter in the number of members over 151/2, indicating that its affiliated clubs were losing their attraction for Jewish youth. The Central British Fund for Jewish Relief and Rehabilitation, ORT, OSE, and the Federation of Jewish Relief Organizations launched a joint appeal in connection with World Refugee Year, beginning on June 1, 1959.

ZIONISM AND RELATIONS WITH ISRAEL Everything pertaining to Israel continued to arouse interest, but this did not extend to the Zionist political organizations; the Zionist Federation and Mizrahi announced separate membership campaigns in December, but the results were not significant. Three hundred and fifty emigrants left for Israel during the first three quarters of 1958, and during the year the Professional and Technical Workers Aliyah sent 130 persons. Altogther, 7,000 British Jews were said to have settled in Israel. Fund drives continued successful. The 1958 Joint Palestine Appeal (JPA) campaign realized $3,780,000, and the total raised for Israel by Anglo-Jewry during that year was $5,260,000. In April it was reported that $2,900,000 had been raised toward the 1959 JPA target of $5,000,000. JNF reported in November 1958 that in that year it had sent $2,158,000 to Israel. The Federation of Women Zionists reported raising a record $500,000 in 1958. Interest in the Hebrew University continued to be strong, and was stimulated by a governors' meeting in London in August 1958. In the 12 months to March 1958 the English Friends of the Hebrew University collected the record sum of $392,000. A gift of $280,000 for an administration building from the Sherman brothers of Cardiff was announced in November 1958. The Lord Chief Justice, Lord Hubert L. Parker, visited Jerusalem to give the Lionel Cohen law lectures at the Hebrew University in December 1958. In July 1958 an appeal was launched for $280,000 to provide a chair and lectureship in administration at Bar-Ilan University in honor of the tenth anniversary of the installation of Israel Brodie as chief rabbi. In May the impending retirement of Israeli Ambassador Elath was announced.

CULTURAL ACTIVITIES The work of the B'nai B'rith Hillel Foundation continued to expand. A Hillel House was opened in Leeds in October, premises were acquired in 202 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK Birmingham, and in London the building was so crowded that new premises were being sought. At Leeds University an annual lecture was instituted in memory of Selig Brodetsky, mathematician and Zionist leader. The first lecture was delivered in February 1959 by Ambassador Elath on "Hebrew and the Cultural Renaissance in Israel." WJC (British Section) extended its cultural program, holding regular symposia at which experts discussed topics of the day. At the March 1 symposium Arnold Toynbee described Jewish survival as both desirable and probable. In May WJC launched the Jewish Journal of Sociology under the editorship of Morris Ginsberg. The second Annual Book Award went to H. J. Zimmels of Jews' College, for his Ashkenazim and Sephardim. An exhibition of Yiddish books from 1548 onwards was held in March. The English branch of the Yiddish Scientific Institute (YIVO) was reported in April to have been reorganized. London's Jewish Museum, which had been dosed for rehousing, was reopened in June.

PERSONALIA In November, to mark the 50th anniversary of his appointment to the Privy Council, Queen Elizabeth conferred upon Viscount Herbert L. Samuel the Order of Merit. In the New Year Honors announced on January 1, Sir Jeremy Raisman was made a K.C.M.G. and Lord Stormont S. Mancroft a K.B.E. At by-elections three Jews from the Labour party were chosen members of the House of Commons—Leo Abse, for Pontypool (November 14), M. Cliffe, for Finsbury and Shoreditch (November 27), and John J. Mendelson, for Penistone (June 19). In December Solomon Schonfeld celebrated his silver jubilee as rabbi of the Adath Israel Congregation and principal of the Jewish Secondary Schools Movement. In March Alexander Altmann, communal rabbi of Manchester, accepted the chair of Jewish philosophy at Brandeis University. The Jewish Chronicle announced in October that William Frankel had succeeded John M. Shaf tesley as editor. Louis Golding, a successful writer of popular novels of Jewish interest, died on August 8, 1958. S. L. Bensusan, journalist and novelist, died on December 11, 1958; Sir Samuel Gluckstein, lawyer and municipal worker, died on August 19, 1958; Wilfred Samuel, historian and chairman of the Jewish Museum, died on December 13, 1958, and Jacob Snowman, physician and communal worker, died on February 28, 1959. Antisemitism and Racism There were few specific overt antisemitic activities. The country's attention was fixed on the broader question of race relations by a sudden outbreak of rioting early in September 1958 against the colored population recently settled in the Notting Hill area of London. No antisemitic remarks or literature were reported during this outbreak, but fascist agitators were involved. Statements expressing abhorrence of the attacks on the Negroes were issued by the Board of Deputies, the Association of Jewish Ex-Servicemen, FRANCE 203 and the Anglo-Jewish Association. In Johannesburg, South Africa, in February, Sir Oswald Mosley (see p. 342) stated: "I am not and never have been an antisemite. . . . Any member of the British Union who attacks Jews because they are Jews is expelled." At the annual conference of the Association of Jewish Ex-Servicemen in April, complaints were made that the machinery for Jewish defense was ineffective. A week later the Jewish Defense Committee of the Board of Deputies stated that it was preparing to rebut attacks from candidates with fascist or antisemitic views at the general election. Several forms of discrimination attracted attention. At a meeting of the British Travel and Holiday Association in October 1958, a Jewish member's motion to condemn discrimination in admission to hotels on grounds of race, religion or color, was defeated; the president of the Board of Trade, Sir David Ecdes, condemned discrimination but spoke against the resolution. A letter in the Jewish Chronicle in November stated that the majority of golf dubs either barred Jews completely or allowed only a small quota of Jewish members. The same paper also reported the existence of quotas for Jewish pupils at the so-called public schools. No attempt was made to contradict these statements, though the public schools, outside the state educational system, were defended on the ground that they were mostly of a distinctly Christian character. SEFTON D. TEMKIN

FRANCE *

OLITICAL life in France during the period under review (July 1, 1958, to PJune 30, 1959) continued to be dominated by the Algerian problem, which, in turn threatened the existence of the republican regime. The Fourth Republic had collapsed because of the inability of its successive governments to resolve that very problem, and its inglorious fall reinforced the disaffection of many sectors of the French population from democratic institutions. This largely explained the 80-per cent majority which the proposed constitution of the Fifth Republic received in the referendum of September 28, 1958. The electorate voted not for the text of the constitution, good or bad, but for de Gaulle, the "man of destiny." The paradoxical nature of the situation was revealed in the legislative election of November 1958, when the new nationalist party, the Union of the New Republic (UNR), obtained an absolute majority of the seats in the new national assembly, apparently to the considerable disappointment of de Gaulle himself. A kind of liberal monarch, the new president became the last rampart against the threat of a military dictatorship. The army, considering its professional honor at stake in Algeria, was hostile to any compromise solution, and so were the UNR and the new cabinet of Premier Michel Debre\ The Algerian guerrillas, entrenched in their mountains, appeared unconquerable. No resolution of the conflict seemed in view, unless

* For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. 204 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK by a dramatic intensification of the French war effort. And the picture was still further complicated by the pro-French sympathies of a part of the indigenous population of Algeria. Nevertheless, France experienced a wave of prosperity. Conservative economic policies contributed to an improvement of the financial situation. A monetary reform resulted in the introduction of a new franc, valued at 100 old francs. Production increased in most sectors of the economy. A rise in exports, particularly of automobiles, restored the trade balance. There was little social unrest. The imminent arrival of a flow of oil from the Sahara increased the general optimism. (Jacques Soustelle, the "strong man" of the crisis of May 1958, was minister for the Sahara.) And the problem of the French empire in sub-Saharan Africa appeared to have found a happy solution in the formula of a federative "community" or French commonwealth, which won the support of all the former French colonies except Guinea. The municipal elections of March 1959 appeared to show an ebb of the nationalist wave. The various sections of the left—followers of Pierre Mendes- France, socialists of every shade, and Communists—whose rivalries had prevented them from uniting in any constructive opposition, appeared to have found common ground in the defense of the secular schools against the intention of the Debr^ government and the UNR to give subsidies and privileges to the "free"—i.e., Catholic—schools. In September 1959 Mendes-France's Center of Democratic Action merged with the Independent Socialist party, whose leading members included Andre1 Philip, Daniel Mayer, Edouard Du- preux, and former President Vincent Auriol. There were no Jews in the cabinet of Premier Debrd (himself the Catholic grandson of a rabbi). But the attitude of President de Gaulle and his close associates toward the Jews was beyond reproach and Jacques Soustelle was known for his pro-Israeli sympathies. The political views of French Jews appeared to be divided along the same lines, more or less, as those of the nation as a whole.

Relations with Israel Relations between France and Israel continued to be good. One slight shadow had developed in the previous year (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 159) when Joseph Joanovici, a speculator, war profiteer, and collaborator with the Nazis, took refuge in Israel in an effort to escape French justice. This was eliminated when his residence permit was not renewed and he was forced to return to France. In various ways the new regime let it be known that its attitude toward Israel remained the same as that of the Fourth Republic. Through Guy Mollet, President de Gaulle informed the Israeli public that he sympathized with the aid the former government had given Israel in the Sinai campaign. French arms deliveries to Israel continued, and French investments and commercial contacts with Israel increased. The most important were the building of the Haifa subway, partly put into service in the course of the year, by a French company, and the construction of the big Eilat-Haifa pipeline by a group whose leading spirit was Baron Edmond de Rothschild. FRANCE 205 Negotiations were going on for the construction in French shipyards of two 13,000-ton cargo ships and a 33,000-ton tanker. Jacob Tsur and Pierre E. Gilbert, who had long been, respectively, Israel's ambassador to France and France's to Israel, were replaced by Walter Eytan, formerly director general of Israel's ministry of foreign affairs, and Jean Bourdeillette. A French lycde was opened in Tel-Aviv through the efforts of the Alliance Israelite Universelle. Hebrew was added to the languages taught in the lycdes of Paris, as a result of the efforts of the Institut de la Connaissance H^braique.

Jewish Population During the year under review, the Jewish population received an increment of some 2,500 Jews from Egypt and North Africa and about a thousand from Poland and Rumania. The total Jewish population was estimated at between 300,000 and 350,000, more than half in the Paris area. This traditional (and probably correct) estimate continued to suffer from the lack of precise statistical data, so that the responsible publication Ha-Moreh ("The Teacher") could speak of a population of only 75,000 Jews in Paris. Only for Eastern France (Alsace-Lorraine) was there a verifiably accurate figure—30,000. The Jewish populations of the two chief provincial cities, Marseilles and Lyons, were estimated at 12,000 and 10,000 respectively. For the less important communities estimates were more vague. In the same way, one could only guess at the number of mixed marriages and their impact on Jewish demography in France; in many sections of French society marriage was a purely civil ceremony.

Antisemitism The events of May 1958 raised great hopes, at the time, among former pro-Nazis and collaborators. There was consequently a certain recrudescence of antisemitic agitation. Its principal strongholds remained the two weeklies Aspects de la France (royalist, but disavowed by the pretender, the Count of Paris) and Rivarol (Hitlerite, denouncing de Gaulle as "judaized," and seeking support among activist elements in the army). In addition, there were small clandestine or semi-clandestine groups. One of the most important of these, the "Jeune Nation" group of the brothers Sidos, had an openly Hitlerite program. This group was generally regarded as responsible for some vandalism and violence in Paris during the year, such as breaking windows in two synagogues at Christmas time; smearing with ink of the tomb of the Unknown Jewish Martyr in May, on the anniversary of the end of the war in Europe, and depositing a small bomb (dismantled in time) in the vestibule of the same edifice in August, on the eve of the anniversary of the liberation of Paris. Antisemitic tracts were distributed sporadically in the streets of Paris. Other incidents of lesser importance were caused by isolated or unorganized antisemites. Pierre Poujade, whose popularity had declined, again included antisemitic themes in his propaganda. 206 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK In the electoral campaign of November 1958 no political party or group of any importance resorted to antisemitic propaganda. But it was used against two candidates of Jewish origin who had played a role in France's colonial problem: Gilbert Ohlendorff-Grandval, French resident general in Morocco in 1954 (a Christian), and Pierre Mendes-France, who had ended the Indo-Chinese war and given independence to Tunisia. Both were defeated. The victorious opponent of Mendes-France proceeded to tear down with his own hands the coarse antisemitic posters vilifying the ex-premier. In the municipal elections of March 1958, in Bellerive-sur-Allier, a small town in the center of France, there was a violent antisemitic campaign on the Nazi model by the incumbent mayor, Auberger, against his opponent, Benhamou. Although immediately expelled from the Socialist party of Guy Mollet, to which he belonged, Auberger was reelected. The administrative tribunal annulled the election and fined Auberger for defamation and for anticonstitutional propaganda. At a new election Auberger was again victorious, and a new appeal for the annulment of this election was under way at the time of writing. At the beginning of the school year in the fall of 1959, something of a controversy was stirred up by an echo of the passions aroused 20 years earlier by the personality of the Socialist leader Le"on Blum. The new edition of the basic reference book of French student youth, the encyclopedic Petit Larousse dictionary, asserted in effect that Blum's real name had been Leon Karfulkenstein. (This name, very dissonant to French ears, was invented before the war by some journalist of the extreme right.) How this linguistic scarecrow slipped into the pages of the venerable dictionary remained a mystery. Perhaps it was a practical joke by some subordinate employees. The Larousse firm did not say, but it hastened to withdraw the new edition from sale. It came out of the affair with substantial costs for a new printing and the loss of a few feathers from its old reputation.

Communal Organization Before the war the Jews of France were divided into two main groups, by origin. The native French Jews were, on the whole, of the "consistorial" type, officially practicing a respectable and proper Judaism; they were often anti-Zionist. The immigrant Jews, chiefly from Poland and Rumania, were apt to be Zionists or socialists, and often professed a militant atheism. The first group were predominantly bourgeois, the second proletarian or petty bourgeois. But the tendency toward assimilation was strong in both groups, and the climate was not favorable to the establishment of any sort of effective community organization. The war and occupation, followed by the establishment of the state of Israel, did much to erase the memory of old antagonisms and rivalries. After the war a single representative body, the Conseil Repre"sentatif des Juifs de France (CRIF), embraced all Jewish tendencies. Except for the Communists, almost everybody had become Zionist or at least "pro-Zionist." Nevertheless' long after the war over a hundred Jewish cultural and philanthropic organizations continued to work independently. But JDC succeeded in persuading FRANCE 207 the most important leaders of French Judaism to establish a single financial and fund-raising organization, the Fonds Social Juif Unifi£ (FSJU), in 1953. Most of its funds came from CJMCAG and JDC, and the remainder were supplied by a campaign whose yield increased each year. In 1958 it brought in 235 million francs (about $483,000) from over 6,000 donors. In the absence of a communal organization, FSJU was led to assume broader responsibilities than the purely financial ones for which it was originally designed. Its effectiveness contributed to a new and more positive attitude by the younger generation toward Jewish matters. In these circumstances, FSJU had not only to collect and distribute funds, but also to seek out the most efficacious ways for the reconstruction of Jewish life in France. After various initial errors, such as the investment of considerable sums in publications for which there was no clear need and which never achieved any significant circulation, FSJU concentrated its efforts on stimulating Jewish education and setting up community centers on the American pattern. This represented a policy of long-term investment, in preparation for the time when aid from CJMCAG would cease. Such centers were recently established in Belfort, Grenoble, Sens, Lyons, and Roanne, local communities supplying as much as half of the funds required. A large community center for Paris had been under consideration for some years, but technical difficulties and divergent points of view still prevented its realization. Meanwhile a midtown youth center had been functioning for four years.

SOCIAL SERVICES Because of the generally satisfactory state of the national economy, the social services were concerned principally with two limited categories. The first of these consisted of some 3,000 hard-core cases, the aged and the sick, largely people who had lost their health or their livelihood as a result of the war. During the year the Comite" Juif d'Aide Sociale aux Re'fugie's (COJASOR) opened a new home for the aged at Aix-les-Bains in the Alps. The second group consisted of the new immigrants, mostly from North Africa. Though the flood of refugees from Egypt abated, during the year an estimated 1,500 Jewish fugitives from Nasser came to France. About the same number came from Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia. The great majority settled in Paris. Familiar with the French language and culture, most oi them found jobs easily enough, but they needed the assistance of the social services of COJASOR and the Comite" de Bienfaisance Israelite in meeting the many difficulties of starting life in a strange metropolis. Paris continued to suffer from a housing crisis, and the most pressing problem was to find quarters, other than in a hotel, for these generally large families. With funds supplied jointly by JDC, the French government, and the UN High Commissioner for Refugees, COJASOR was able to supply 350 families with apartments. Sixty such families were originally from Eastern Europe—Poland, Rumania, and Hungary. In all, there were about 1,000 immigrants from these countries during the year. For them adaptation and establishment were generally more 208 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK complex than for the North Africans, because of their ignorance of the French language and mentality. Some 600 refugees from Egypt passed through France during the year en route to the United States.

JEWISH EDUCATION In 1959 the extension and improvement of Jewish education continued to be a major concern. Despite the efforts of previous years, at least three- quarters of the Jewish children of school age received no Jewish education. (Outside of Alsace-Lorraine, education in the public primary and secondary schools was strictly secular.) The lack of interest was noticeable even in families fresh from North Africa, for whom the assimilation of French culture was often accompanied by a rapid dejudaization. An increasing part of the budget of FSJU—now more than half of it—was devoted to the extension of Jewish education. Of 40,000 to 50,000 Jewish children of school age, fewer than 1,500 received their entire education in Jewish schools—1,100 in the four Jewish lyce"es (three in Paris and one in Strasbourg) and the remainder in yeshivot. The great majority of those at the yeshivot, the most important of which was at Fublaines, about 25 miles from Paris, were resident students who had come from North Africa, chiefly from Morocco. About 4,000 children in Paris and 5,000 in the provinces attended Talmud Torahs or Sunday schools set up by the Consistoire Central des Israelites de France et de l'Alg^rie or by independent cultural associations. Nearly all the once numerous secular Jew- ish courses (such as those in Yiddish language and culture conducted by the Federation of Jewish Societies in Paris) had either become religious or disappeared in the course of the preceding decade. In the face of the indifference of Jewish parents, which was due in part to the weakness of the traditional methods of Jewish education in France, great efforts were made to introduce new methods better adapted to the intellectual climate of the country and the diversified nature of the Jewish community. Ha-Moreh, published for the last year by JDC for the use of Jewish teachers, devoted itself chiefly to these problems, to exchange of views among instructors, and to working out new programs. Some notable new manuals were published, in particular Cours d'histoire juive moderne and Le Judaisme dans le monde romain, by Rene"e Ne"her- Bernheim. Communaute, set up at the beginning of 1958 by the Alliance Israelite Universelle, the American Jewish Committee, and the Anglo-Jewish Association, discussed communal and educational problems and supplied educational records and brochures. One of these, by Denise Weill on the education of children, went through a number of printings and was translated into Italian and Greek by the local communities.

RELIGIOUS LIFE During the year under review the Jewish consistories of France celebrated the sesquicentennial of their establishment by Napoleon I with numerous FRANCE 209 ceremonies. At the ceremony in the Great Synagogue of Paris, the participants included Minister of Justice Edmond Michelet and Pastor Marc Boeg- ner, leader of French Protestantism. An exhibition was held at the French National Archives on the history of French Judaism through the centuries; the earliest documents displayed were from the age of the crusades. One of the principal concerns of the Consistoire Central during the year was the training of young rabbis to fill the vacancies which had occurred in various provincial communities as the result of the deaths of the old in- cumbents and the mobilization of three young rabbis. In Paris the North African Sephardi communities received special attention, and they were given the use of some synagogues which had formerly followed the Ashkenazi rite. During a trip to Algeria, Chief Rabbi Jacob Kaplan of France had to deal with grave problems in the communities of the interior, which had been declining in population since the beginning of the rebellion, and where sometimes only the aged and indigent were left. A special problem facing the French rabbinate was that of the transfer of the remains of the Jewish deportees who died in the Bergen-Belsen camp. With the approval of the rabbinate, the French government decided on their exhumation in order to give them a decent burial in France. For various reasons the local German authorities, vigorously supported by the Zentralat der Juden in Deutschland (Central Council of Jews of Germany), opposed the transfer. This resulted in a painful conflict which aroused strong emotions among religious Jews in France, and for which no solution appeared in sight. The (Reform) Union Libe"rale Israelite made good progress among bourgeois and intellectual circles, and especially among the students, almost 500 of whom belonged to the Hillel Foundation set up by the union on the Left Bank near the Sorbonne. iuJ Rosh ha-Shanah and Yom Kippur services, the union rented the Salle Gaveau, with almost 3,000 seats, since its own synagogue was far too small for the worshipers.

CULTURAL ACTIVITIES Probably the outstanding event was the celebration of the centennial of Sholem Aleichem early in 1959, celebrated by both the Communist organization and non-Communist groups. The Soviet government sent five Jewish artists to France for the occasion. In Paris and the provinces there were numerous well-attended memorial meetings. Another centennial enthusiastically celebrated was that of the birth of Henri Bergson, son of a Polish Jewish immigrant. On this occasion, there was a revival of an already classical debate whether the philosopher had on his deathbed expressed his adherence to Catholicism, as his Catholic admirers claimed. One of the principal events of the artistic life of Paris was an exhibition of the works of Marc Chagall. An exhibition of the works of Soutine was in preparation. Jewish themes continued to have a considerable vogue in liberal and avant-garde French circles. In the spring of 1959 Francois Mauriac gave an 210 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK interview in which he told his Jewish friends to remain faithful to Judaism, and enthusiastically hailed a new edition of Jisus et Israel, by the historian Jules Isaac. It would be impossible to list all the Jewish philosophical and historical works published by the major French publishers. Translations included Introduction a la vie juive by Meyer Waxman, and Le Troisieme Reich et les Juifs by Le"on Poliakov and Josef Wulf. Georges Levitte and the great Franco- Jewish writer Edmond Fleg published a new poetic translation of the Book of Genesis. Georges Vajda published L'amour de Dieu dans la pensie juive du Moyen Age. General Moses Dayyan's family was represented by Deborah Dayyan's Une mere d'Israel and Jael Dayyan's Un nouveau visage. Among local products, there was the thought-provoking Le Dernier des justes, a moving novel on the history of the Jewish people which won the Goncourt Prize for its young author, Andre" Schwartz-Bart. A novel on Israeli life, La Route des voleurs, by Rene" Sussan, also enjoyed considerable success. Martin Buber received an honorary doctorate in absentia from the Sor- bonne. Various important studies on Jewish subjects were prepared, notably one on Judeo-Christian relations in the high Middle Ages by Bernhard Blumenkranz. The old Revue des itudes Juives, edited by Georges Vajda, appeared with greater frequency, thanks to the support of the £cole des Hautes Etudes and FSJU. The Nestor of Franco-Jewish letters, the poet Andr6 Spire, celebrated his 90 th birthday.

ZIONISM AND RELATIONS WITH ISRAEL The community of interest between France and Israel and the sympathy on which Zionist activities could count from all French political circles, except the extremes of right and left, were reflected in the life and struggles of the Zionist organizations in France. There were two rival organizations for the encouragement of relations between France and Israel. The first of these, Amide" France-Israel, had the support of French political figures of all tendencies and, on the Jewish side, of partisans of the coalition government of Israel. The other, Alliance France-Israel, was sponsored by Jacques Soustelle, the leader of the May 13, 1958, coup in Algiers, and Menahem Beigin, former head of the Irgun. The latter organization waged a campaign for a formal alliance between the two countries, a project which faced the declared opposition of the professionals of the French foreign service and the skepticism of Israeli diplomats. Another complicating factor in Zionist life came from the attacks of Mapai supporters on Andre" Blumel, president of the French Zionist Federation, mostly for excessive sympathy with the Soviet Union. The incidents between North African immigrants and the authorities in Israel (see p. 324) naturally aroused emotions in France and led to violent polemics between the supporters and opponents of the policies of the Ben-Gurion cabinet. But the special position of France in relation to Israel could also be a uniting factor, as when the farewell banquet for Israel's departing ambassador Jacob Tsur brought together the political opponents Jacques Soustelle and Pierre Mendes-France. BELGIUM 211

PERSONALIA Two leaders in Jewish communal work, belonging to the younger generation of traditionalist French Judaism, died during the year under review: Theo Klein, president of the French Keren Kayyemet and Edmond Levy, president of the Conseil Representatif du Judaisme Traditionnel de France. LEON POLIAKOV

BELGIUM

General Developments

NUMBER of outstanding events focused attention on Belgium during the A year under review (July 1, 1958, to June 30, 1959). WORLD FAIR A world fair in Brussels, organized around the theme "For the Realization of a Better World," lasted for six months, from April to October 1958. Forty- five nations participated, constructing pavilions either typical of their nation's architecture or demonstrating modern, audacious techniques. With an estimated 42 million visitors, the fair was a great success from the point of view of attendance, since 35 million had been the goal set by its organizers. The Israel pavilion, small but in excellent taste, attracted a great deal of attention; the crowds were often so numerous that it was difficult to make one's way through. Besides a succinct and striking explanation of Israel's past, present, and hopes for the future, its chief feature was a display of one of the Dead Sea scrolls. In the competition for the best pavilions at the end of the exposition, Israel was awarded a gold star. The American pavilion, inevitably compared with the Russian, just oppo- site it on the grounds, was the subject of much controversy. Some American tourists were indignant at what they considered a poor display, while its defenders claimed that its "soft sell" attracted many who were repelled by the Russians' massive propaganda. American residents abroad generally felt that America had understood what to show Europeans by subtly appealing to their intelligence.

ROYAL TRIP TO THE UNITED STATES American-Belgian relations were marked by the visit of young King Baudouin to the United States in May 1959. After his father, Leopold III, had abdicated in 1951 in favor of his son, Baudouin rapidly earned the reputation of the "melancholy king," since he was rarely seen to smile in public or when photographed. His visit to America changed all this, the press photographs showing him smiling and thoroughly enjoying himself. On his return to Brussels there was a great public welcome, culminated by an unprecedented American-style press conference. 212 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

ROYAL MARRIAGE Questions of procedure in regard to the marriage in July 1959 of the king's younger brother Prince Albert with the Italian Princess Paola Ruffo di Calabria occasioned much public debate. A wedding of a member of the royal family was considered an event for which the parliament had certain responsibilities. When a Vatican wedding was planned—there had not been such a wedding since the end of the 15th century—many Belgians felt that they were being deprived of a festive occasion at home. There was also the problem of the need for a civil ceremony under the Belgian law. The royal household consented to such a ceremony preceding the papal ceremony, but it then appeared that the Vatican would not play a secondary role. The issue became greatly embittered until the pope, in the interest of Belgian unity, suggested that both civil and religious ceremonies take place in Belgium.

BELGIAN CONGO The Belgian Congo, originally the personal fief of King Leopold II, was annexed by the Belgian government in the early years of the 20th century. An extraordinarily rich area, it became an integral part of the Belgian economy and a key factor in the nation's wealth and world position. The nation was therefore particularly shocked by a sudden native rioting in Leopoldville in January 1959. Investigative commissions were rushed to the scene and calm was restored. After discussions with native leaders and bitter parliamentary debate, the king pledged that Belgium would gradually lead the native population to a more emancipated political status, in cooperation with native leadership. Greater native participation in administration was promised and election of native representatives arranged.

NOBEL PRIZE In November 1958 Father Dominique Georges Henri Pire, a Belgian monk, was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work with refugees. In his speech of acceptance he announced a project to use his prize money to construct a refugee village in Norway, to be named after Anne Frank. He proposed to build it with the assistance of volunteer construction teams from other West European countries, and it was to be patterned on a similar village which he had already established in Belgium. He was obliged to give up this plan when the Norwegians, who had a remarkable record of receiving refugees and integrating them into their country, indicated that they did not believe in segregating refugees. Father Pire then transferred his proposed village to Wuppertal, Germany, where ground was broken in June 1959. Government Aid to Religions Schools Government assistance to religious schools remained a divisive political issue because of continued pressure for financial assistance to at least the secular portions of the curriculum in the heavily-attended confessional schools. A coalition government was formed after a truce on this issue—the so-called pacte scolaire—between the Catholic party and the Liberal and Labor parties, in May 1959. It provided for limited government assistance to schools outside the public-school system, for secular subjects in which instruction was given BELGIUM 213 in conditions approved by the government and conforming to the standards of the public-education system. The government has long been paying teachers giving religious instruction on a voluntary released-time basis in all schools. JEWISH EDUCATION This question was of special concern to the Jewish day schools. There was one such in Brussels, with 175 students (Ecole Israelite), while Antwerp had the Tahkemoni school (550 students) and Yesode ha-Torah (716 students), as well as two full-time schools of the Satmar and Belz hasidim. Jewish Population The total Belgian population of about 9,000,000 included an estimated Jewish population of 35,000. The two main centers of Jewish life were in Brussels and Antwerp (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], pp. 170-71). Community Affairs In March 1959 the Brussels community inaugurated a community center that planned a full program of Jewish and general cultural, artistic, and athletic activities, intended especially to appeal to the young people. Many other organizations conducting such programs were studying the possibility of coordinating and centralizing their future work in the community center. In June 1959 the cornerstone was laid for a 55-bed addition to the Brussels home for the aged. Its old building, dating from the turn of the century, no longer could meet the need of a long waiting list, made up mostly of victims of Nazism. As war orphans reached young adulthood, the institutions which had cared for them could see the possibility of dosing, their mission accomplished. At the beginning of 1959 the home run by the community welfare agency, Aide aux Israelites Victimes de la Guerre, closed its doors. The Comite" Central, which had run an Orthodox home, liquidated its activities in Antwerp and transferred the remaining children in its charge to the Antwerp Jewish welfare agency, which hoped shortly to be able to close the home for which it had taken responsibility.

ZIONIST ACTIVITIES The 83-year-old Queen Elisabeth, King Baudouin's grandmother, who had always been sympathetic to her Jewish subjects, was the guest of honor at the ceremony celebrating the 11th anniversary of the state of Israel. The queen had recently returned from a visit to Israel, where she had inaugurated the Queen Elisabeth Archaeological Institute of the Hebrew University, established through the efforts of the Belgian Friends of the Hebrew University. While in Israel, the queen also inaugurated the Helene and Romi Goldmuntz Museum of Art at Natanyah, established by a leading diamond merchant and active member of the Antwerp Jewish community. This close identification of the queen with Belgian-Israeli affairs gave the Zionist organization and other groups a substantial impetus.

LEONARD SEIDENMAN 214 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

THE NETHERLANDS *

N December 1958 a political crisis developed when Socialist Minister of I Finance H. J. Hofstra proposed to prolong certain special taxes for two more years. The defeat of the proposal led Prime Minister Willem Dries, in office since 1956, to resign. The issue had not been generally considered important enough in itself to lead to his resignation. A prevalent interpretation was that the Socialists' position had weakened in the previous two years as a consequence of their identification with other parties' programs, and that the cabinet crisis gave them a welcome opportunity to pass into the opposition. By the end of December a provisional government was formed without Socialist participation, the first since World War II. The elections took place at the beginning of March 1959, and the Liberal party made the principal gains. The Catholic party held its own, as did the Socialists, and the Com- munists lost four of their seven seats in parliament. The Protestant parties also emerged slightly weakened. After long negotiations, a coalition government was formed on May 20, 1959, consisting of the Catholic party (6), the Liberal party (3), the Anti-revolutionary party (2), and the Christian Historical Union (2). This political uncertainty came at an inopportune moment, for January 1, 1959, saw the inauguration of the six-nation European Common Market, which sought to coordinate and eventually integrate the economies of Italy, Ger- many, France, Belgium, Holland, and Luxembourg. Owners of small and medium-sized Dutch businesses, including Jews, feared the competition of the larger businesses of the other countries in the new trade area. The statistical data showed that the Dutch had a smaller proportion of their working population in productive enterprises than other nations in the common market.

Community Affairs

There were about 26,000 Jews in the Netherlands, of a total population of 11,186,000. The Dutch Jewish community carried out a number of projects with the assistance of CJMCAG and JDC. A 76-bed mental-health hospital was built at Amersfoort by the Centrale Verenigung Voor De Joodse Geestelijke Gezondheidszorg (Central Organization for Jewish Mental Health). This replaced a mental hospital which the organization, founded in 1898, maintained until 1943, when the Germans deported 1,100 patients and 50 staff members to the Birkenau extermination camp. After the war the building was deteriorated and the grounds too extensive for the small surviving Jewish population, and it was sold to the government. The new hospital, expected to care for many of the 100 or so Jewish patients scattered among the 23 mental hospitals in Holland, was planned as a short-term treatment center, using the most advanced methods. It was also expected to serve Jewish pa-

* For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. THE NETHERLANDS 215 tients in other West European countries, since no similar institution existed anywhere else in Europe. Amsterdam Jewry was planning a community center, designed especially to attract youth and acquaint them more thoroughly with Jewish life. The community of Oss furnished a notable example of accomplishment in the perpetuation of Jewish life in a small community. Oss, a town of about 35,000 on the river Mass near the German border, had expanded from about 20,000 after the war, largely as the result of the erection by Jewish entre- preneurs of a chemical and a pharmaceutical factory. The Jewish population of about 100, as compared to 400 before the war, had a synagogue, partly destroyed by the Nazis, which was built in 1831. After several years of work with the community's own resources, the help of the German government, and finally CJMCAG and JDC, a new synagogue, which included community and school facilities, was built, and was inaugurated on July 5, 1959. For the event the entire town was decorated with Hags, and municipal traffic was especially routed for the ceremonies. Minister of State L. J. Beel, a former prime minister, represented the Dutch government at the ceremony. Minister of Defense Sidney van den Berg and Israeli Ambassador Hanan A. Cidor were also present, as were Jewish leaders from all communities in the country. In October 1959 the Jewish Hospital of Amsterdam inaugurated a new wing, but the occasion was marred by a controversy between the hospital administration and the Orthodox community over kashrut—the Orthodox insisting on only a kosher kitchen and the administration wanting a non- kosher kitchen as well. The issue was taken to the Dutch courts, a virtually unprecedented event in Dutch Jewish history. After the courts decided in favor of the hospital administration, the unity of the community was reestablished by the installation of two kitchens, one of them for the preparation of kosher food under the supervision of the Dutch rabbinate.

INDEMNIFICATION After requesting the Jewish community to submit a summary of its losses, the government agreed to make the Jewish claims the first item on the agenda in its discussions with Germany concerning compensation for damages to its nationals as a result of the war and occupation.

JEWISH EDUCATION The Amsterdam community's large Jewish school Rosj Pina (i.e., Rosh Pinnah), a new and modern school building for about 200 children from kindergarten through the secondary grades, was opened in November 1958. The school received an annual subsidy from CJMCAG and JDC. It also received government aid as a part of the regular Dutch public-education system.

SOCIAL WELFARE Welfare work was conducted by the Stichting Joods Maatschappelijk Werk (Jewish Social Work Foundation; JMW). It received funds from its member 216 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK community agencies, its own income, and contributions to its budget from the Dutch equivalent of UJA, an organization known as CEFINA (Centrale Financierungs Actie voor Joods Sociaal Werk in Nederland). The Dutch community continued to finance its welfare work without outside help. There were few refugees to be cared for, since as one of the most densely populated countries in the world (340 people per square kilometer), the Netherlands could not permit a mass influx, particularly when it had to absorb its own citizens repatriated from Indonesia. Only a few Egyptian and Hun- garian refugees were admitted, but the people of the Netherlands contributed substantially to programs for aiding refugees through international efforts.

EMIGRATION In 1958 there were 76 Jewish departures: 27 for the United States, 25 for Canada, 10 for Israel, 5 for South America, 3 for Australia, and 6 to various other countries. These included 12 Egyptians and 7 Hungarians.

ANNE FRANK YOUTH CENTER A nonsectarian committee initiated a plan to establish a youth center at 263 Prinsengracht, Amsterdam, in the house where Anne Frank hid and wrote her diary. The city of Amsterdam supplied substantial funds and a public subscription was undertaken in the Netherlands.

PERSONALIA Philip Sondervan, secretary of JMW, active community leader, and professional Jewish social worker, died on May 30, 1959, at the age of 49. A special drive for funds to plant a Sondervan Forest in Israel was undertaken in the community. LEONARD SEIDENMAN

GRAND DUCHY OF LUXEMBOURG

GOVERNMENT crisis developed in December 1958, when the Christian A Social party's cabinet ministers joined with the Liberals to pass a resolution censuring a Socialist minister for not having pursued a matter of attempted corruption of a government official. The four Socialist ministers in the cabinet then resigned. Grand Duchess Charlotte appointed a caretaker government, and new elections were held on February 1, 1959. The total number of seats was 52. The Liberal party made substantial gains, winning 12 seats, at the expense of the Christian Social party, which lost 6 of its former 26 seats. Socialist strength remained unchanged, at 17, and the Communists had 3 seats. The result was interpreted as a movement towards the left center. On February 26 Pierre Werner of the Christian Social party formed a GREECE 217 cabinet of four Christian Social members and three Liberals, with the Socialists in the opposition. The population of Luxembourg was 320,000.

Communal Affairs The Jewish population of Luxembourg was estimated at 900 to 1,000. Two hundred and twenty families belonged to the Consistoire, the main community body. In December 1958 Emanuel Bulz of Chaud-de-Fonds, Switzerland, was named grand rabbi. The community's home for the aged cared for eight persons. There were lectures on subjects of Jewish interest by Jewish leaders, scholars, and professional people, as well as some non-Jews. The Consistoire also tried to provide isolated families in the provinces with religious instruction for their children by sending an itinerant teacher on a regular schedule to places where the parents desired such instruction. LEONARD SEIDENMAN

GREECE *

OR most of the year under review (mid-1958 to mid-1959), the Cyprus issue continued to dominate Greek political life. An agreement on Fthis question, which had for years embittered relations among Greece, Great Britain, and Turkey, was finally reached by those three countries and representatives of the island's Greek and Turkish communities in February 1959 at Zurich, after long and difficult negotiations. Great Britain agreed to surrender her control over the island, which was to become an independent republic; Greece and the Greek Cypriots gave up the demand for enosis, or union of the island with Greece, and Turkey and the Turkish Cypriots gave up their insistence on a partition of Cyprus between Greece and Turkey. The Greek opposition parties sought to make a political issue of the Karamanlis government's agreement to this settlement, but they failed to make any notable gains in the municipal elections of April 1959. A new factor on the political scene emerged when General George Grivas, former leader of the Cypriot revolutionary organization EOKA, repudiated the Cyprus agreement and indicated his readiness to enter the Greek political arena. It was not yet clear what support he would obtain, or from what elements it would come. In the economic sphere, unemployment was a serious problem, mitigated by emigration. Hope for improvement was based on the industrial and hydro- electric projects under construction and on a decline in inflation.

* For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. 218 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

Jewish Population The Jewish population of Greece in 1959 was about 6,500, less than a 12th of one per cent of the country's population of 8,173,000. The largest Jewish communities were Athens, with approximately 3,000, Salonica, with 1,200, Larissa, with 500, and Volos, with 275. The small remnant of Greek Jews played no major role in the national politics or culture. Neither were they regarded by the government, the press, or their fellow-citizens as a problem requiring any special attention. But the new generation of Greek Jews, attending the same schools as their fellow-countrymen, acquiring the same patterns of thought and ways of life, and joined to them in ties of friendship, were preparing to assume their full role in Greek life. There was no organized antisemitism. About five per cent of the Jews, mostly men, entered into mixed marriages. Since civil marriage did not exist, these marriages entailed the conversion of one party or the other. The children normally followed the religion of the father.

Community Organization Each community elected its own council and made provision for its own communal and religious administration, organizing assistance and providing to the best of its ability for Jewish education. The Central Council of Jewish Communities, representing Greek Jews in their dealings both with the government and with Jewish organizations abroad, was elected triennially by a congress of communities. By its role in the collection of funds and the distribution of budgetary subsidies to the communities, the council was in a position to exert considerable influence on the communities, despite their jealously guarded autonomy. The Salonica community, possessing substantial assets accumulated in the course of the three centuries during which it flourished, needed no subsidy and helped to meet the expenses of the council.

OPAIE The only other nationwide organization serving the Jews of Greece was OPAIE (Organization for the Assistance and Rehabilitation of Greek Jews), created to administer heirless Jewish property by a decree of March 1949, under Law 846 of 1946, which renounced the state's claim on such property. But in the absence of a special law providing an appropriate procedure for establishing the death of those deported by the Nazis, the ownership of the heirless property was never officially determined; OPAIE was therefore able only to administer it and dispose of the income. OPAIE, which had placed all its resources at the disposal of the council and thus made possible the local contribution to various programs carried out jointly with JDC and CJMCAG, appeared to be on the verge of having its statute modified. Neither the extent of the change nor its consequences could as yet be precisely estimated. It was believed that the GREECE 219 government planned to revise the composition of the council of OPAIE, hitherto composed entirely of Jews, by including in its membership some high officials directly named by the government. The government's an- nouncement of this intention aroused considerable excitement among Jewish leaders, who asked themselves several unanswered questions. Why this modification after OPAIE had existed uneventfully for ten years? In an exclusively Jewish OPAIE, questions had been seen from the same viewpoint and problems approached in a common spirit, and had received a Jewish solution; could one hope for as much in a council so modified that it would no longer have a common Jewish background? Was there reason to fear that, in the event of disagreement on essential points, the last word would rest with the representatives named by the government? The appointment of governmental officials to OPAIE could only be interpreted as a step towards liquidation of the organization before it could obtain title to heirless properties. In June 1959 Zachariah Shuster, European director of the American Jew- ish Committee, discussed this matter with some government representatives, and was assured that the Jewish point of view would receive sympathetic consideration.

ECONOMIC SITUATION AND EMIGRATION In the 15 years after liberation, when the Jews emerged from hiding or the maquis, or returned from deportation, barely surviving and with neither money nor jobs, their economic situation improved spectacularly. In part this reflected the recovery of the country's economy, particularly after the restoration of domestic peace and the stabilization of the currency. In part it was attributable to personal qualities of tenacity and thrift. And to an important extent it was due to the operation of the revolving loan fund established by JDC in 1945, which made loans totaling approximately $2 million. In a country where lack of work forced thousands of young people to emigrate every year, unemployment was rare among the Jews. They were artisans, in retail and wholesale trade, in the textile and garment industries, in the liberal professions, and in a variety of other occupations. The restoration of the economic health of the Jewish community was in part made easier by the emigration of many of its economically weaker members. Most of the emigrants at first went to Israel, which received some 3,500 of them. Later about 1,200 went to the United States, and another 500 found new homes in widely scattered parts of the world—Canada, Latin America, Australia, South Africa, and the Congo. As a result of emigration and improved economic conditions, a number of institutions that had arisen in response to urgent immediate needs gradually ceased their activity. Thus the orphan asylum was evacuated to Israel; the girls in the girls' home emigrated, married, or got jobs; the home for the aged lost its function as its inhabitants died off or were able to return to their families, and the ORT school, after a brief but successful career, saw its sources of new students dry up. 220 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK Economic recovery resulted in a generous response to various appeals on behalf of communities afflicted by disasters, and for activities serving Jewish interests. Relief budgets fell and community finances improved as the contributions of members rose.

RELIGION AND EDUCATION Relieved of some of their material worries, the communities turned to the religious and cultural problems created by war and Nazi persecution. At the end of the war synagogues had been destroyed or so damaged that they were unusable. There was only one fully qualified rabbi, along with three acting rabbis and a number of volunteers who led Sabbath services. There were only two shohatim, and kosher slaughter was at best intermittent. Because there were only two mohalim, circumcision had to be delayed until one of them made his regular appearance. Teachers were lacking and two government-supported communal schools gave only a minimum of Jewish instruction. There was little subsequent improvement. The difficulty was less one of finances than of finding personnel, but another major obstacle was the minuscule size of most of the dispersed communal units. With the financial and personnel assistance of JDC, a major religious and cultural program was intensified in 1957. This program, which was to be carried out over a period of several years, included the repair or replacement of damaged or destroyed synagogues and the sending abroad (to France, Britain, and Israel) of young people for training as teachers and rabbis. Under the direction of JDC-trained personnel, it was planned to establish vacation camps to awaken and develop the Jewish consciousness of the children. Well-equipped youth centers were to be set up under a director trained in Paris by JDC. Those books which had been found most useful in other countries for introducing children to Jewish history and tradition were to be translated into Greek. And finally, a school meeting the best modern standards was to be established, with a kindergarten and primary school and a boarding school for children from the provinces. While this school was regarded with great hope, there was also a good deal of apprehension whether it would have enough students and be able to meet its expenses. Since it was required to provide the entire curriculum common to all Greek schools, would it be able to give an adequate Jewish education? Was that education worth the price of voluntary segregation, and could not other solutions be found which could provide the same advantages without arousing the same apprehensions?

BUILDING PROGRAM Along with the construction of this school in Athens, work was also proceeding at Larissa on the building of 24 apartments to house 94 of the victims of the 1957 earthquake. In 1958, 16 apartments were completed at Volos for the victims of the 1954 earthquake in that city. In both cities the apartments were sold to their occupants for monthly payments equiva- GREECE 221 lent to a low rent. JDC and CJMCAG financed these projects by loans of $50,000 and $65,000, respectively.

PUBLICATIONS The sustained interest in Israel, often cited as an example to be imitated, was expressed by the publication of a monthly Greco-Israeli Revue, edited entirely by non-Jews, and Israel, by D. Zafiropoulos, a general. This work, dedicated to the author's Jewish fellow-combatants on the Albanian front, gave a very laudatory account of the Sinai campaign in 1956, based on official documents and complete with maps. The period under review saw the publication of a History of the Jewish Community of Larissa by a non-Jew, Vassos Kaloyannis, with a preface by the mayor of the city; He lie no-Judaic Studies, in Greek, by Asher Moissis, former honorary diplomatic representative of Israel in Greece, and an Histoire des Israelites de Salonique (the fifth volume of a planned total of seven), by Joseph Nehama. The newspaper Ebraiki Estia ("Jewish Home") and the bulletin News from Israel, published by the Hellas-Israel Association, gave their readers, both Jewish and non-Jewish, local and world Jewish news as well as news of Israel. Some articles by young people appeared here and there, dealing with the history of various Greek Jewish communities and stressing their will for survival and the preservation of continuity with the past, in spite of the Nazis.

REFUGEES Thousands of refugees from Rumania and Egypt passed through Greece on their way to Israel by boat and plane. By December 1957 some 8,300 refugees from Egypt had disembarked at Piraeus to take passage for Israel, mostly by ship to Haifa. From Rumania 3,800 refugees came to Athens in a flood suddenly interrupted in mid-January 1959; most of them went on to Israel by El Al planes. All received a warm welcome from the Jewish population and generous understanding and assistance from the Greek authorities. Their expenses while in Greece were met by the Jew- ish Agency. Merten Trial From February 10 to March 5, 1959, the trial of the Nazi war criminal Maximilian Merten took place before a special military tribunal in Athens, ending with a 25-year prison sentence. Merten, whose official position in Salonica was merely that of a military procurement officer, had in fact possessed supreme authority. Everything began and ended with him; in the words of one witness, he was "all-powerful after God." This omnip- otence was even cited by the defense witnesses, in order to show the active philhellenism with which they wanted to credit him. Since his field of activity was the city of Salonica, where 2,000 Jews out of 56,000 survived, Merten's war crimes were primarily crimes against Jews. Indeed, the trial was felt to be the case of the Jewish victims against their Nazi executioner. Fourteen of the 20 counts on which Merten was tried related to the Jews; 222 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK of the 13 counts which formed the basis of his conviction, 9 related to Jews. These included the premeditated murder of the Jews Camhi and Benveniste; internment under inhuman conditions; looting; compulsory labor of civilians for military purposes; extortion by fraud of 25,000 gold pounds from the Jewish community; destruction of the cemetery and seizure of the tombstones; confinement of all the Jews in a ghetto; forcible removal of dentures; shaving off rabbis' beards; forced surrender of jewels, and shipping deportees to Poland under inhuman conditions. These counts, supported in some instances by the testimony of the victims themselves, were fully reported and commented on in the press, and public opinion was horrified by a tragedy which had passed almost unnoticed by those who had not actually witnessed it. The defense was based on the thesis that the defendant was an agent executing the orders (in most cases verbal) of his superiors. This carried no conviction to military judges well-informed on the laws governing all the armies of the civilized world. Two witnesses who had come specially from Germany to support the defense actually served, at times, as prosecution witnesses. One of them declared that he had "blushed with shame as a German" at the sight of the destroyed cemetery and that he had advised Merten "not to get mixed up with questions of Jewish property." The other readily admitted that some of the things cited were at the least ungewohnlich—not customary. The verdict was felt to be just, and the press unanimously praised the tribunal, and especially its president and the prosecutor. (Merten was released in November 1959, was arrested upon his arrival in Germany, and was released by the German authorities a few days later.)

Relations with Israel Greece continued to be one of the few countries which did not recognize Israel. This policy, dictated by considerations having nothing to do with Israel, did not stand in the way of polite and cordial relations between the two countries on a basis of mutual understanding. Greco-Israeli friendship showed itself even more spontaneously in the relations between Israel and the new provisional republic of Cyprus. The evidence was that contacts between Greece and Israel were developing and extending in all fields. Trade, initially on a modest scale, rose from $770,000 in 1955 to $2,000,000 in 1957. An Israeli book exhibit in Athens displayed Israeli works on Greece and Hebrew translations of Greek classics. The Israel Philharmonic Orchestra played at the Athens music festival in August 1959. A mission from the Greek ministry of agriculture made a study of Israel's irrigation system and water-utilization policies. Direct connections between the ports of Piraeus and Haifa were established by an Israeli shipping line, and Israeli and Greek airlines maintained service between the airports of Athens and Lydda. From a weekly service started during the tenth anniversary of Israel, in 1958, the number of flights subsequently increased to four a week. VICTOR SEMAH SCANDINAVIA AND FINLAND 228

SCANDINAVIA AND FINLAND *

URING the two years under review (July 1, 1957, to June 30, 1959) the three Scandinavian countries continued to be governed by Social DDemocratic governments or coalition cabinets under Social Democratic premiers. In Finland the coalition cabinet of the Socialist Karl August Fagerholm was replaced by a coalition under Agrarian leadership without Socialist participation. Soviet objections to some members of the Fagerholm cabinet and difficulties in trade negotiations between Finland and the Sovet Union played a part in the change. Denmark and Norway remained members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Sweden, on the other hand, continued to maintain a policy of neutrality, but on specific issues was usually to be found aligned with the Western powers. Finland, barred both by her geographic position and by the terms of the treaty of peace with the Soviet Union from joining any blocs antagonistic to that country, was frequently to be found among the abstainers in votes in the United Nations, despite her democratic sympathies. There was some discussion of the possibility that she might be able to enter into economic ties with the so-called "Outer Seven," since this grouping was not supposed to have political implications. Jewish Population Sweden's population of approximately 7,300,000 included somewhat more than 13,000 Jews, about twice the 1933 number. Seven thousand lived in Stockholm and its vicinity, about 1,500 each in Gothenburg and Malmo, 350 in Boris, and 150 in Norrkoping. Communal organizations existed in Stock- holm, Gothenburg, Malmo, Norrkoping, Karlstad, Kalmar, Karlskrona and Sundsvall. Most of the Jews who came during and after the war were among those rescued by the Swedish Red Cross from Nazi concentration camps. Subsequently some Polish Jews also found their way to Sweden. Some members of these groups later emigrated to other countries; others settled in Sweden, mostly becoming Swedish citizens. In 1956 and 1957 about 600 Hungarian Jewish refugees came to Sweden, about half being among the 6,000 Hungarians officially invited by the Swedish government. In 1958 a small group of tubercular Hungarian Jewish refugees, with their families, entered Sweden. About 100 refugee families settled in the textile city of Boris, where a community-center building was recently purchased with CJMCAG funds. Of Denmark's population of 4,500,000, some 6,500 were Jews, 98.5 per cent of them being Danish citizens. Almost all lived in Copenhagen, the capital. Few Jews immigrated to or emigrated from Denmark during the postwar years. Norway had some 1,000 Jews in its population of about 3,000,000. Because many Norwegian Jews had lost their lives during the Nazi occupation, the Norwegian government had invited several hundred Jewish immigrants after * For meaning; of abbreviations, see p. 359. 224 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK the war; about 300 were not yet Norwegian citizens. Communal organizations existed only in Oslo and Trondheim, the small group in the latter city perhaps the northernmost Jewish community in the world. Almost all the 1,900 Jews in Finland's population of over 4,000,000 were Finnish citizens. About three-quarters lived in the capital, Helsinki, and there were smaller communities in Turku and Tampere. Many of the Jews in all four countries were in the professions, and others were in the various branches of commerce. There were also industrial workers, especially in the textile and metal industries, mostly refugees who entered Sweden after the war.

Community Organization In Sweden there was a Central Council of Mosaic Communities, which normally met once a year. In the other three countries no central organizations existed. In all, however, there was cooperation among the various communities, with the larger communities (notably that of Stockholm) taking the lead. A special committee to assist victims of Nazism included representatives of the Union of Jewish Victims of Nazism in Sweden, the Swedish Zionist Federation, and the Swedish section of WJC, as well as communities, large and small. The Union of Scandinavian Jewish Youth, with 23 branches in the four countries, each summer held a congress in one of the four countries, in connection with which there were lectures, discussions, and camping activities. It usually sponsored two summer-vacation camps, one for those between 14 and 17 and the other for older youth. It had its own representatives in Israel to assist Scandinavian youths visiting that country, and issued a quarterly publication. In June 1959 it celebrated its 40th anniversary. From 1952 on, membership in the Jewish community was purely voluntary in Sweden, as it had long been in the other three countries. But very few, even among the indifferent, dropped out as a result. However, a good many of those who arrived after the war did not bother to join. Most communal activities were financed out of communal taxes and income from endow- ments, but CJMCAG contributions were also important. It gave §135,000, half the cost, toward building a nursing home opened in Stockholm in January 1959, contributed $28,000 toward rebuilding the Copenhagen synagogue, and together with JDC bore most of the cost of cultural and philanthropic work in Oslo. In Stockholm, Gothenburg, and Copenhagen a leading part in communal affairs was still played by the old, well-established, assimilated families— the so-called "Vikings"—most of whom had originally come from Germany. Many had played important roles in the political and cultural life of Denmark and Sweden. In Malmo and the Finnish and Norwegian communities, the leadership was recruited mainly from the later East European immigrants and their children. Because these groups were less completely integrated with the general population, they played a less significant cultural and political role. Cooperation between the old families and the more recent arrivals was becoming increasingly close; the former, once anti-Zionist, now gave substantial sums for Israel. SCANDINAVIA AND FINLAND 225 In the three Scandinavian countries, whose languages were sufficiently similar to permit the people of each to understand those of the others, the Jews spoke the languages of the countries. In Finland, where the unrelated Finnish language was the native tongue of all except the Swedish minority of 300,000, most Jews of the older generation spoke only Yiddish and Swedish, but the younger generation spoke Finnish.

ZIONISM AND RELATIONS WITH ISRAEL The Union of Scandinavian Zionists served as a coordinating body for the Swedish Zionist Federation and the Zionist groups in the other three countries. Great good will towards Israel existed in all sections of society in the four countries, and in all there were societies for friendship with Israel, led chiefly by non-Jews. All participated actively in the celebration of Israel's tenth anniversary, and in Helsinki the principal address on that occasion was delivered by Archbishop Ilmari J. Salomies. In 1959 the Danish society suffered a severe loss when its president, the theologian Fleming Hvidberg, died suddenly while on a visit to Israel. In the summer of 1959 Israel's ambassador to Sweden, Hayyim Yahil, returned to Israel after three years in Stockholm. He was to be succeeded by Aryeh Aroch, until then ambassador to Brazil. The office of cultural attach^ in the embassy was discontinued for financial reasons. During the two years under review Swedish Jews raised about $104,000 for Keren ha-Yesod, §36,000 for Keren Kayyemet, §39,000 for WIZO, and $3,600 for Youth Aliyah. In addition, the Swedish Save the Children fund gave about SI8,000 to Youth Aliyah. In Denmark Keren ha-Yesod raised about $57,000, Keren Kayyemet about §28,000, and Youth Aliyah about $2,800. In addition, the Help for Hungary fund, a non-Jewish project, contributed about $15,000 to WIZO and Youth Aliyah. In Norway Keren ha-Yesod raised about $17,000 and Youth Aliyah about §1,400. In Finland contributions to Keren ha-Yesod were about $80,000, to Keren Kayyemet $3,000, to WIZO $15,000, and to Youth Aliyah §600.

JEWISH EDUCATION In all the Scandinavian countries there were special Jewish religious schools. There were also a number of Jewish kindergartens in Denmark and Sweden. The long-established primary school of the Copenhagen community, the Caroline school, received a government subsidy. So did the nine- year day school operated by the Jewish community of Helsinki, which was attended by 135 pupils, more than nine-tenths of the eligible Jewish children. In Stockholm a six-year day school, started in 1955 by the Orthodox and Zionist-oriented organization Hinnukh, had about 130 pupils, some 30 per cent of the eligible children. This school received no government subsidy, but the Stockholm community contributed to it an amount equal to the estimated cost of religious education for its pupils. There were Agudist hadarim in Copenhagen and Turku and a Lubavitch yeshivah, established in 1958, in Copenhagen. 226 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

RELIGIOUS LIFE In Stockholm, Gothenburg, and Copenhagen the main synagogues followed practices roughly corresponding to those of American Conservative Jews, though men and women were seated separately. Both sexes covered their heads. The Stockholm and Gothenburg synagogues, but not that of Copen- hagen, had organs. All three cities also had Orthodox places of worship. There were also synagogues in Malmo, Norrkoping, Oslo, Trondheim, Hel- sinki, and Turku. The Norrkoping synagogue celebrated its centenary in 1959 with a ceremony in which the chairman of the town council, the governor of the province, and the Lutheran bishop took part. In addition, a number of smaller Swedish communities had minyanim with regular services. There was a serious shortage of rabbis, and the posts in Oslo, Gothen- burg, and Malmo were unfilled.

CULTURAL ACTIVITIES The activities of the Union of Scandinavian Jewish Youth have been mentioned above. In addition, numerous local groups—more than 20 in Copenhagen and Stockholm alone—conducted cultural activities of various sorts, and many also engaged in philanthropic or Zionist work. There were study and discussion groups, sports, and social gatherings, as well as lectures, often by speakers from abroad. Two monthlies were published in Copen- hagen: Jfldisk Samfund, distributed free to all members of the community, and Israel, the organ of the Danish Zionist Association. Stockholm had three Jewish periodicals: the bimonthly Judisk Kronika, subsidized by the Swedish Zionist Federation, the monthly Judisk Tidskrift, and the Stockholm community's organ, Forsamlingsbladet, published five times a year. Julius Margolinsky, whose work on the Jewish cemeteries of Denmark was completed in 1957 (AJYB, 1958 [Vol. 59], p. 284), published 229 Epitaphs from the Jewish Cemetery of St. Thomas, Virgin Islands in November 1957. He also edited the volume Chevra Kaddischa 1858-1958. Raphael Edelmann, curator of the Judaica collection of the late David Simonsen, now a part of the Royal Library of Copenhagen, continued the publication of the Corpus Codicum Hebraicorum Medii Aevi; 1958 saw the publication of Codices Palatini I (Part I of the Parma Pentateuch and the Parma Bible) and the Subject Concordance to the Babylonian Talmud, prepared by Lazarus Goldschmidtt and edited by Edelmann. The radio opera Eli, composed by Moses Pergament on the basis of a poem by Nelly Sachs dealing with the Nazi persecution of the Jews in Poland, was presented by the Swedish radio and enthusiastically received. The Institute for Jewish Cultural Information (AJYB, 1958 [Vol. 59], p. 285) arranged a program of lectures, readings from Jewish literature, and motion pictures for boys and girls in the different grades of the Swedish schools. Under the will of H. G. Turitz, a lectureship on Jewish subjects was established at the University of Gothenburg. In October 1958 Hugo Valentin gave the first series of lectures, dealing with Swedish Jewish history from the time of the Vikings to the present. On March 11, 1959, in honor of the birthday of King Frederik IX of ITALY 227 Denmark, the Copenhagen Jewish community presented him with the original manuscript of a famous play by the Danish Jewish writer Henri Nathansen. The play, Indenfor Murene, written in 1912, was a classic description of Danish Jewish middle-class life.

PERSONALIA C. B. Henriques, one of the most eminent lawyers in Denmark and for many years president of the Copenhagen community, died in July 1957. In August 1957 H. G. Turitz (see above), one of the most important businessmen in Sweden and the only representative of Scandinavia on the board of governors of the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, died at Gothenburg.

HUGO VALENTIN

ITALY *

TTALIAN political life between mid-1958 and mid-1959 was marked by increas- J. ing stresses within the dominant Christian Democratic party. The government of Premier Amintore Fanfani resigned in January 1959, after a series of parliamentary defeats. The government was still able to secure a majority on votes of confidence, in which roll-call votes permitted the exercise of party discipline. But on ordinary votes, taken by secret ballot, Fanfani's opponents within the Christian Democratic party were able to desert him and cause his defeat. A few days after resigning as premier, Fanfani also surrendered the party secretaryship. He was succeeded as premier by another Christian Demo- crat, Antonio Segni. But whereas Fanfani, a left-wing Christian Democrat, had formed an alliance with the minor center parties, the Segni government relied for its majority on the support or benevolent neutrality of the monarchists and neofascists. Meanwhile, in November 1958, a group of dissident Sicilian Christian Democrats led by Silvio Milazzo had formed a regional coalition including Communists, monarchists, and neofascists; despite the expulsion of Milazzo and his followers from the Christian Democratic party, he continued to head the Sicilian regional government. The expelled members formed themselves into the Sicilian Christian Social Union in December. While the unity of the Christian Democrats was threatened by these events, the once solid alliance between the Communists and the Socialist party of Pietro Nenni continued to disintegrate. At the Socialist congress in January 1959, Nenni strengthened his control over the party organization at the expense of those who wished to repair the breach with the Communists. Italian secular politics, however, attracted less attention in Italy—and far less in the outside world—than the election of Angelo Cardinal Roncalli to succeed Pius XII, who died on October 9, 1958. The new pope, who took the name of John XXIII, was reputed to have had the support of the more liberal members of the College of Cardinals. Ambassador Elijah Sasson represented the government of Israel in the ceremonies connected with the * For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. 228 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK coronation. One of Pope John's acts of particular relevance to Jews was his order, distributed to all the clergy of Rome in March 1959, to strike out perfidis from oremus pro perfidis Judaeis in the Catholic liturgy for Good Friday. (This prayer, translated in the American Catholic Missal as "let us pray for the unbelieving Jews," was also susceptible of even more derogatory interpretations.) The modification was applied in all the churches of Rome, including the one at which the Pope prayed on Good Friday, and it was widely anticipated that in the near future the revision would be extended to the entire church.

Jewish Population

The Jewish community in Italy was a small minority with an ancient history, side by side with equally small Protestant minorities within an overwhelmingly Catholic nation. In 1959 approximately six of every 10,000 Italians were Jews. According to the statistics compiled by the Union of Italian Jewish Communities, the number of Jews in Italy remained about 32,000, in a total population of 48,735,000. They formed 23 communities: Alessandria, Ancona, Bologna, Casale, Ferrara, Florence, Genoa, Gorizia, Leghorn, Mantua, Merano, Milan, Modena, Naples, Padua, Parma, Pisa, Rome, Trieste, Turin, Venice, Vercelli, Verona. The smallest communities, Casale and Gorizia, had 30 and 31 members respectively. The largest, Rome, claimed 11,238 Italian Jews, and Roman Chief Rabbi Elio Toaff estimated that about 3,500 foreign Jews lived there too. Rabbi Toaff also reported an increased interest in Judaism among Gentiles in Rome, including several requests for conversion from Catholicism to Judaism. Most of these requests were motivated by the desire to marry a Jewish man or woman. Each case was scrutinized with great care. While the total number of Italian Jews remained practically unchanged in recent years, individual communities grew or declined. There was a general tendency for small communities to become smaller and eventually disappear, as Jews moved to the larger communities. Milan, Italy's largest industrial center, with its educational and occupational opportunities, attracted not only Jews living in Italian small towns but also foreign Jews, who formed sub- groups within the Jewish community of 8.000: Syrians, Egyptians, Persians, Lebanese, Turks, and a large group of Ashkenazim. Milan and Rome were the two main centers of Italian Jewish life, their Jewish communities reflecting the characteristics of the two cities. In Rome most employed Jews were engaged in wholesale or retail trade, especially clothing, underwear, fabrics, leather goods, and durable consumer goods. Though the Roman ghetto had been officially abolished almost a century before, and most Jews had since moved out, the old ghetto remained a predominantly Jewish quarter with an intense and colorful small-trade activity. The Jewish community of Milan, on the other hand, reflected the industrial character of the city and of northern Italy in general. Important industrial establishments—e.g., in cotton, paper, and paint—were owned and managed by Jews. ITALY 229

MIGRATION Although Italy remained the most important European transit country for Jews from countries to the east and the south, there was a steady decrease during the year in the number of refugees living there while waiting to be settled in other lands. In 1958 only 83 persons (37 families) arrived from Eastern Europe (Hun- gary, Poland, Rumania, and Yugoslavia) to join the 109 already in Italy. Most of them were resettled, in accordance with their wishes, in Canada, Australia, the United States, and Italy. On June 30, 1959, according to the welfare department of the Union of Italian Jewish Communities, there were only 33 East European Jews in Italy waiting to be settled. The exodus from Egypt continued through 1958 and 1959, but at a reduced pace. The number of Egyptian Jews on relief fell from 442 in 1957 to 239 in 1958. An estimated total of 2,500 Jews from Egypt were settled in Italy, 90 per cent of them Italian citizens. Both the Union of Italian Jewish Com- munities and JDC encouraged the settlement of Egyptian Jews in Milan, where opportunities were greatest, and 2,000 became paying members of the Milanese community. The others settled in Rome, Leghorn, Genoa, and Verona. Approximately $150,000 was spent for the settlement of Egyptian Jews from mid-1958 to mid-1959. Most of this was supplied by JDC, the rest being raised in Milan. Twenty-five Egyptian Jews received $ 10,000 in loans from Milan's Jewish Bank during the same year. UHS reported the arrival of some 30 Jews from Lebanon during the year, most of whom subsequently left for Brazil.

SOCIAL SERVICE The welfare program of the Union of Italian Jewish Communities had a relief budget of about $90,000 for 1958-59. Half of the sum was raised by the Union of Italian Jewish Communities and the rest came from CJMCAG funds and JDC. Assistance was given to 1,093 persons (642 families). The number of cases declined, partly because of better organization of the welfare program. Greater efficiency, particularly in Milan, resulted from the election of a new welfare committee which, with the aid of two American-trained social workers, brought about a greater systematization of relief and welfare techniques. Out of the general CJMCAG funds allocated to Italy in 1958 and 1959— $122,000 and $216,177 respectively—in each year $10,000 went for the relief and assistance of transient Jews and special cases and $5,000 for old-age care. In 1958 the homes for the aged in Turin, Milan, Venice, Trieste, Rome, and Mantua cared for 256 persons. A new home for the aged was completed in Florence, and was to be officially opened on Rosh ha-Shanah 1959.

EDUCATION AND RELIGION A new elementary and prevocational school was inaugurated in Rome in December 1958. Built to accommodate 700 pupils, it cost $250,000. 230 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK In Milan a lot was purchased for a new Jewish school, to be built at an estimated cost of $1 million. Half of this was to come from CJMCAG funds, and half from the Milan Jewish community. The school was intended to accommodate 1,000 pupils in the primary and secondary grades and it was expected to become the largest Jewish school in Europe. Of the 790 pupils in Milan's Jewish school in the past year, only 395 were Italians. The others represented 37 different nationalities. Fifty-seven university scholarships were given to refugees residing in Italy. Eighty-one scholarships were given to high-school pupils. In April 1959 Augusto Segre was appointed head of the cultural department of the Union of Italian Jewish Communities. The main aspects of the cultural program were Jewish schools, the Rabbinical College, a teacher-training program, textbooks and books on Jewish culture, regular contacts with the various Jewish youth organizations, and social centers. One such center already existed in Rome; another was expected to open in Florence in the near future, and a third in Milan. The Union of Italian Jewish Communities organized several seminars on Hebrew culture for teachers and pupils. One, for teachers only, took place in Jerusalem in July and August 1959. Fourteen Italian Jewish teachers enrolled. Funds were supplied by JDC and the Jewish Agency. A three-week teachers' seminar organized by the Italian Jewish Teachers Federation was held in Vigo di Cadore in August 1959. The union's cultural department also planned, beginning with the New Year, to send each week's parashah by mail to all requesting it. This was intended mainly for those Jews living in places without synagogues. An agreement was reached with the Italian state radio network for a regular weekly broadcast by an Italian rabbi, expounding the week's parashah. Dante Lattes, Italy's greatest living Jewish scholar, continued his weekly exposition of the "Prophets of Israel," sent by mail to all Jewish community members. The ark from the "Small Synagogue" of Trieste (demolished in 1937), sent by the Trieste community to Israel in 1956, was placed in one of Tel-Aviv's new synagogues early in 1959. Thus a tenth Israeli synagogue was enriched by a portion of the religious and artistic patrimony of Italian Jewry.

Relations with Israel In September 1958 Premier Amintore Fanfani sent Republican party leader Randolfo Pacciardi on a fact-finding mission in the Middle East. Upon his return Pacciardi expressed his alarm over Soviet infiltration in several Arab countries and his admiration for Israel's democratic achievements. In January 1959 Premier Fanfani went to Cairo on an official visit. In a press conference at the Italian embassy, he declared: "I have always stated that Israel is a historical and geographical reality. It is the task of political leaders to acknowledge realities." TULLIA ZEVI Central Europe

WEST GERMANY* Foreign Policy and Reunification deadlock over reunification continued in the year under review (mid- 1958 to mid-1959). Moscow on various occasions repeated its proposal that the East and West German governments form a "federation" or "confederation" in which each regime would have equal representation. In Bonn the West German Federal Republic, with two-thirds of Germany's population, continued to insist on free elections; in Pankow the East German government demanded the establishment of a "dual-state system" which would ensure perpetuation of the "Soviet socialist achievements." In October 1958 the Pankow government denounced the "four-power status" of Berlin, referring to the city as a "center of provocation and agres- sion." The following month Soviet Premier Nikita S. Khrushchev demanded the withdrawal of Allied troops from West Berlin and the creation of a "free and demilitarized city." His recommendations were rejected unanimously by the Western powers and the Federal Republic. In January 1959 the Soviet Union threatened to conclude a separate peace treaty with the East German government. On May 11, 1959, a conference between Soviet and Western foreign ministers began in Geneva. Bonn and Pankow were permitted to participate in a consultative capacity. The ministers parted in August without any agreement on Berlin or German reunification. In March the Social Democratic party published a "Germany Plan," recommending the creation of a demilitarized zone in Central Europe, a collective-security pact between the Soviet Union and the United States of America, and "gradual rapprochement" between the two Germanies. This plan was rejected unconditionally by Chancellor Konrad Adenauer. Sug- gestions for a Polish-German non-aggression pact were criticized severely, especially by refugee groups.

Domestic Political Affairs Provincial elections confirmed the continuance of the two-party trend indicated in the Bundestag elections of September 1957 (AJYB, 1958 [Vol. 59], p. 288). The Bavarian election resulted in a clear victory, although not an absolute majority, for the Christian Social Union (CSU), the Bavarian branch of the * For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. 231 232 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK Christian Democrats (CDU). Under its leadership a coalition with the smaller nonsocialist parties, which had lost 21 seats, was formed. In Hesse the Social Democratic (SPD) government kept power and retained its coalition with the All-German Bloc Refugee party (GB-BHE). In Schleswig-Holstein the Christian Democrats captured 44.4 per cent of the total vote and the Social Democrats 35.9 per cent, while the smaller parties declined noticeably. The right-wing German party (DP) was unable to reach the 5 per cent minimum required for representation, polling only 2.8 per cent of the total vote. In Rheinland-Pfalz the Christian Democrats retained their plurality and formed a coalition with the Free Democratic party (FDP). In Lower Saxony the Social Democrats won a plurality, ousted the DP from the government, and formed a coalition with BHE and FDP. In Berlin, where a record high of 93.7 per cent of eligible voters turned out, SPD won an absolute majority, but retained a "great coalition" with CDU in view of the critical situation. The Socialist Unity party (SED; Communist) polled 1.9 per cent of the total vote. Atomic armament continued to be a central issue in political affairs. Fol- lowing the federal Supreme Court's ruling of July 30, 1958, that it would be unconstitutional for a state government to hold a referendum on the question, SPD, supported by FDP and many prominent nonparty people, decided to continue the "war against atomic death." The government's bills for giving the federal government emergency powers and for stronger anti-libel legislation were severely criticized by the public and by members of all major parties. The federal cabinet proposed a "party law" to regulate the internal order of political parties and to ensure their democratic structure. The bill also provided for compulsory publicity on party financing. On July 1, 1959, Minister of Agriculture Heinrich Luebke was elected to succeed Theodor Heuss, who was to retire from the presidency in September upon conclusion of his second term. The election of the Christian Demo- cratic candidate was preceded by personal and political conflicts among Chancellor Adenauer, cabinet members, and CDU-CSU party functionaries.

Economic Affairs The West German economic "miracle" continued. Industrial production on April 1, 1959, was 3.1 per cent higher than a year earlier. In July 1959, for the first time since the war, the number of unemployed was smaller than the number of jobs open, unemployment dropping 72,165 to 255,395. Exports for 1958 were slightly above 1957-DM 36.98 billion ($8.9 billion) against DM 35.97 billion ($8.6 billion). The foreign trade surplus rose from DM 4.27 billion (about §1 billion) to DM 5.85 billion (about $1.4 billion). The stock-market index rose from 155.4 in June 1958 (1954=100) to 324.67 in June 1959. Partial transfer to private ownership of the government-owned Preussag (Preussische Bergwerks- und Hutten A.G.) commenced in April with the issuance of Volksaktien (people's stocks) for middle-income groups, and the federal cabinet planned to follow a similar procedure in the near future in regard to Volkswagen. However, its right to do so was challenged by the WEST GERMANY 233 government of Lower Saxony, which claimed ownership of the Volkswagen works. West Germany's favorable trade position enabled her to invest more capital abroad, particularly in underdeveloped countries, both directly and through loans to the World Bank. Foreign investments stood at the record figure of DM 5.65 billion (about $1.4 billion) at the end of 1958. Trade agreements were signed or renewed with the Soviet Union, Poland, Hungary, Greece, Denmark, Sweden, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, and Pakistan. Special measures were considered by the federal government to deal with the coal industry's overproduction crisis. A special tax was imposed on fuel oil, to slow the shift from coal to oil.

Neo-Nazism and Ultranationalism At a provincial ministers' conference in May the general consensus was that "the greatest danger came from the left and not from the right." Rightist groups were divided, it was asserted. Nevertheless, neo-Nazi groups attracted voters in the provincial elections. The Deutsche Reichspartei (DRP) polled 87,222 votes in the Rheinland-Pfalz election, 5.1 per cent of the total, as against 2.6 per cent in the Bundestag election of 1957. In Lower Saxony the party lost the 7 seats it had held in the diet since 1955, but only because it was unable to meet the 5 per cent minimum newly required by state law; actually, since the Bundestag election of 1957 the number of rightist votes had increased 33,263 to 122,226. In Schleswig-Holstein DRP's share rose from 0.7 per cent (Bundestag election of 1957) to 1.1 per cent; in Bavaria and Hesse DRP scored only 0.6 per cent and 0.4 per cent respectively. Neo-Nazi groups generally tended to hide their antidemocratic aims so as to avoid the fate of the Sozialistische Reichspartei (SRP), banned by the Supreme Court in 1952 (AJYB, 1954 [Vol. 55], p. 238). During election campaigns DRP skilfully aroused economic and nationalistic resentments as well as anticlerical feelings. Recent cases of corruption were propagandistically manipulated to discredit parliamentary government and the liberal parties. The party claimed a membership of 20,000, with an average age of 33. Its leaders vehemently denied that they received financial aid from industrial circles or from East Germany. After DRP's gains in Rheinland-Pfalz, FDP and some members of SPD tried to steal its thunder by supporting a private bill circulated among deputies in the Bundestag which would grant benefits and pensions to high SS and Nazi-party officials. In general, there was increasing pressure for "drawing a line under the past." A new neo-Nazi party, the Freie Sozialistische Volkspartei (FSVP), was founded in March by 40 delegates from various local neo-Nazi groups. Most persons with rightist leanings and nationalist resentments, however, gave their votes to less extreme parties which had a better chance of reaching the 5 per cent required for parliamentary representation. Some support of this kind went to FDP, DP, and GB-BHE. In May the Nadonaldemokratische Union (NDU) was founded under the leadership of ex-Sudeten German Nazis in the Bavarian GB-BHE as an inclusive "organization of all nationally conscious and anti-Communist parties." 234 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK The activities of Emigre groups in Munich, notably the Hungarian Arrow Cross movement, which maintained contacts with similar groups in the United States, Australia, and Great Britain, aroused strong protest. The Rumanian Iron Guardists staged an "anti-Bolshevik" conference in Mainz in October 1958. Slovak separatists and Hlinka groups continued their activities in Bavaria. The total membership of extreme rightist youth groups in the Federal Republic was estimated by socialist and Christian youth leaders at about 40,000. In June 1959 seven extremist youth groups merged into the Nationale Jugendgemeinschaft Deutschlands. The League of Nationalist Students (BNS), affiliated with DRP, continued to be active at several universities. Numerous extremist youth periodicals were published and prominent Nazis appeared as guests of honor at discussion meetings and campfire celebrations.

NAZI REHABILITATION In June 1959 a bill to bring denazification to a conclusion was introduced in the Bavarian diet by the GB-BHE party. In October 1959 the clause which would have made it possible for men given the highest guilt rating by postwar denazification tribunals to be chosen for municipal and administrative posts was killed in committee, with only BHE and some CSU members voting for it. During the election campaign in September 1958, the Bavarian CSU withdrew the candidacy of three former SS members, after public protests (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 186). The denazification tribunal in Berlin was the only one still functioning fully; on June 3, 1959, Hermann Goering's heirs were ordered to pay a fine of DM 756,000 ($181,000). The exposure of old Nazis in political and economic life was a popular propaganda device in the East-West conflict. This trend was especially apparent during the Geneva conference in the late spring, when both sides vied in denouncing delegation members' pasts. The East German regime published a list of 800 judges and public prosecutors in the West-German judiciary who had served on Hitler's People's Courts, in a brochure supplementing a 1957 publication (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 187). Many of those named had been responsible for death sentences. After a question in the British House of Commons, Bonn gave assurance in December that federal and provincial authorities were investigating crimes committed by members of the Nazi judiciary. The matter was discussed in the Bundestag in January. The opposition parties, SPD and FDP, sharply attacked cabinet members and government officials who, they said, had been affiliated with the Nazis and had made it possible for Nazis to reenter the judiciary. Criminal and administrative proceedings were opened against a number of persons in the judiciary. In December 1958 Hessian Senior State Attorney Otto Schweinsberger was suspended after charges that during the war he had quashed the prosecution of a person accused of shooting 75 Jews "unlawfully." In Bavaria an investigation was started against Adolf Paulus, the judge who had convicted the "Butcher of Buchenwald," Martin Sommer, in July 1958, on charges that he had handed down death sentences while serving on WEST GERMANY 235 Nazi courts. Munich's Senior State Attorney Max von Decker was fined DM 300 ($70) by a disciplinary board for letting concentration-camp physician Hans Eisele escape to Egypt in 1958 (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 190). Dis- ciplinary action was started against two senior prosecutors in West Berlin, also for handing down death sentences while serving on Nazi courts. A parliamentary inquiry in Rheinland-Pfalz had produced no results by the end of the period under review.

PENSIONS FOR NAZIS The Trade Union Council of Lower Saxony published two lists, naming more than 60 leading Nazi officials and concentration-camp physicians receiving government pensions. Popular protests led the Schleswig-Holstein ministry of the interior to revoke the pensions of People's Court prosecutor Ernst Lautz and of Nazi Deputy Minister of Justice Franz Schlegelberger. The Social Court in Schleswig-Holstein in September granted a pension to Reinhard Heydrich's widow, because it found that the SS security chief, assassinated by Czech patriots, had died "in war action." A Frankfurt administrative court granted the former Nazi mayor of Offenbach, Helmuth Schranz, a monthly pension of DM 1,407 ($337) and DM 100,000 ($23,900) in back payments. Another court denied a pension to Friedrich Krebs, formerly the Nazi mayor of Frankfurt. Curt Rothenberger, state secretary in the Nazi ministry of justice, one of the persons responsible for the decree placing the Jews under police jurisdiction, was receiving DM 2,073.19 ($497) in monthly pensions. The SS-Haig (an aid organization of former SS members) sent a petition to Bundestag deputies, demanding that 1,500 former SS leaders receive government pension, and claiming that the Waffen SS, as distinguished from the regular SS, did not partake in Nazi crimes. The proposal found some support among Bundestag deputees of all parties, including some members of SPD. In April two Nazi groups disguised as welfare organizations, the Soziale Hilfswerk fiir die Zivilinternierten in Wuppertal and the Bundesverband der ehemaligen Internierten und Entnazifizierungsgeschadigten in Bonn, were dissolved by the North Rhine-Westphalia ministry of the interior. Offices were closed and Der Ring, & publication with an estimated circulation of 15,000, was confiscated. The Hessian subsidiary of the Bundesverband, the Kameradschaf tshilf e ehemaliger Internierter und Entnazifizierungsgeschadigter, survived. The Landesverband Saar der ehemaligen Internierten und Entnazifizierungs- geschadigten protested in April against the banning of the organization in North Rhine-Westphalia. The protest was signed by former Saar Premier Hubert Ney and Deputy Speaker Paul Simonis of the Saar diet. The organization changed its name to Kampfbund fiir Freiheit und Recht.

NAZI AND MILITARIST LITERATURE Memoirs of prominent Nazis and other pro-Nazi books were rarely sold in bookshops, but through "specialized" book clubs affiliated with neo-Nazi periodicals, such as the Reichsruf and the Deutsche Soldatenzeitung, they 236 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK reached high circulation figures. Attempts to invoke the law against their publishers and authors met with little success. In August 1958 the Munich Jewish community filed a complaint against the Hungarian Arrow Cross periodicals Cdl and Hidverok, which were being distributed in Germany and abroad. Hidverok was edited by Gaza Alfoldi, former propaganda section chief for the Hungarian Nazi Premier Ferenc Szalaszi. Other antisemitic and antidemocratic literature, such as the monthly Der Quell and the weekly Die Volkswarte, was published regularly by Frau Mathilde von Ludendorff, widow of the field marshal and priestess of Wotan and Thor. Bavarian authorities were reluctant to ban this literature, although a state law (Lex Hoegner of March 13, 1946) made group defamation a punishable offense. In February Der Weg, published by Nazis in Argentina, was confiscated by the Lueneburg district court. On May 22 the Federal Supreme Court sentenced Robert Hans Kremer, publisher of the antisemitic Die Anklage, to two years' imprisonment. Das Neue Reich began publication in January in the neo-Nazi Plesse Verlag, Gottingen. It was edited by Helmut Steinberg, formerly secretary to the Nazi race mythologist Alfred Rosenberg. Propaganda literature distributed by the Arab League in Bonn included a pamphlet entitled "May 15—Mourning Day of the Arab World," asserting that atrocities committed by the SS in Oradour and Lidice were "but a shadow" of what the Zionists had done in Palestine. In March Arab students were punished by a disciplinary tribunal at Marburg University for dis- tributing anti-Jewish literature. The editor of the pro-Arab Deutsch-Afrika- Orient Informationen, Otto Karl Duepow, was given a suspended five-month sentence in September for making anti-Jewish remarks about non-Jewish SPD chairman Erich Ollenhauer. Propagandistic literature was also distributed by the "Cairo Friends," a group of Nazi intellectuals. In June the Lower Saxony printing trade union called on its members to refuse to print neo-Nazi literature and promised to defend members dismissed because of their refusal.

EDUCATION AND ATTITUDE TO THE THIRD REICH While German democratic leaders, radio, television, and the press overwhelmingly condemned the Hitler regime, some admiration still existed for the "achievements" of Nazism, and there was a tendency to avoid knowledge of Nazi crimes. In May a series of television interviews revealed that many young people viewed Hitler as the man "who revived Germany" and "built the Autobahnen," and professed almost complete ignorance of the crimes committed against the Jews. Newspaper and periodical surveys found that German youth in general was open-minded, but had been badly informed. The surveys revealed that students were skeptical of "all ideologies," including Nazism, Communism, and democracy. History textbooks dealt with the Third Reich and the persecution of the Jews inadequately and teachers preferred to avoid "controversial" questions, claiming that the social-studies curriculum was so crowded that no time was left to teach contemporary history. Teachers also complained that parents, uncertain in their own attitudes, gave their children a distorted picture of the Nazi period. In June the Hesse ministry of education decreed that history lessons in the WEST GERMANY 237 last grade of all state high schools must in the future concentrate on the period after 1917. The state immediately began in-service training on contemporary history for teachers. Similar steps were under consideration in Baden-Wiirt- temberg and Rheinland-Pfalz. The Coordinating Council of Societies for Christian-Jewish Cooperation conducted an educators' conference in October, and young history teachers met on their own initiative to remedy the situation. It was found that while there was a great deal of factual material available on the Third Reich, there was much confusion about method and a lack of historical perspective. Presi- dent Theodor Heuss stressed that one of the main problems was the "lack of tradition" due to two world wars and the Nazi experience. He said there was a danger that the vacuum might lead to a "romantic overexaggeration" of tradition. At Frankfurt University a new chair of contemporary history was occupied by Paul Kluke, former director of the Institute of Contemporary History in Munich. At Heidelberg, Professor Werner Conze's lectures on Nazism were overcrowded. Numerous discussions on "how to overcome the past," sponsored by government, trade-union, and church agencies, took place at adult- education centers. The government-financed Institute of Contemporary History in Munich published studies on the Nazi period in its quarterly. Sections of the autobiography of Auschwitz commandant Rudolf Hoss (Kommandant in Ausch- witz, Stuttgart 1958), published by the institute, were reprinted in various popular magazines and periodicals. Das Parlament, a weekly published by the Bundeszentrale fur Heimatdienst and dedicated to political education, reached a high circulation. The radio stations and many newspapers used anniversaries of such events as the Nazis' rise to power and the anti-Jewish pogroms of November 1938 to recall the Nazi crimes to the population. The horrors of the concentration camps, revealed in recent trials, were also reported and commented upon at great length by the press and radio. A group of young writers in West Berlin collected material for an exhibit on antisemitism to be shown in Berlin and major West German cities. The project received the support of the Berlin ministry of the interior. School programs on the major radio stations stressed the cultural and economic contribution of German Jews. In July 1958 Chief of Staff General Adolf Heusinger of the German army praised the revolt of army officers against Hitler in 1944. It was the first time an army official had described the anti-Nazi conspirators not merely as "men of conscience" but as "guiding images" for the German soldier.

ANTISEMITISM According to a public opinion poll conducted by the Allensbach Institut fur Demoskopie, anti-Jewish attitudes in West Germany were dwindling. Whereas in 1952 37 per cent thought "it was better that no Jews live in Germany," there were 29 per cent in 1956 and 22 per cent in 1959. Another survey by the institute showed that 44 per cent of the adult population had no associations with the word "antisemitism," and that 50 per cent of those 238 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK under 30 years of age did not know what the word meant. For some observers this was so incredible that they questioned the worth of the survey. Numerous antisemitic incidents occurred, generally in inns, cafes, and restaurants, and under the influence of alcohol. The standard slogan was: "Not enough Jews were gassed." Jewish cemeteries were desecrated in Freiburg, Amberg, Essen, Diisseldorf, and Dinslaken. In January swastikas were painted on the portal of the synagogue dedicated in Dtisseldorf in Sep- tember 1958. German leaders and the Zentralat der Juden in Deutschland stressed that although the incidents had to be taken seriously, they were "isolated" and did not express the attitude of the German people. Chancellor Adenauer blamed "incorrigible Nazis and delinquent youths." It was asserted that in some cases East German agents had instigated antisemitism in the West in order to discredit the Federal Republic abroad. Jewish leaders expressed more concern about "latent, indirect, and disguised" forms of antisemitism, such as the delaying tactics of indemnification officials and the leniency of some courts toward Nazi criminals. Antisemitic incidents were widely reported and condemned in the German press. Numerous forums and lectures were conducted on the "revival" of antisemitism. Letters to the editors showed the people's disturbance over the incidents. Politicians, educators, youth leaders, and women's associations appealed for better education about Nazi crimes and for strong measures against antisemitism. In September 1958 libel charges, brought by the Society for Christians and Jews against Karl Meissner, chairman of the neo-Nazi Deutsche Block, were dismissed for lack of evidence, but in February 1959 the federal Supreme Court reinstated the case. In October a German consulate official in New York, Hans von Saucken, was suspended and recalled because he had called a UN journalist a "dirty Jew." In November the federal Supreme Court rejected Ludwig Zind's appeal for retrial. While the Court was deliberating, the antisemitic chemistry teacher escaped to Cairo (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 189). Inquiries were started in December by the Hessian police against hooligans who had vandalized the property of a Jewish cafe owner in Koppern. In Liibeck Anne Frank's father brought libel charges against Lothar Stielau, a high-school teacher and district chairman of DRP, for calling The Diary of Anne Frank a fraud. On January 6 the Hamburg Superior Court upheld the decision not to place Nieland and Heimberg on trial. A lower court had refused to ban the pamphlet Wieviel Welt (Geld) Kriege miissen die Volker noch verlieren, published by lumber dealer Friedrich Nieland and printer Adolf Heimberg. Hamburg's Mayor Max Brauer denounced the "scandalous decision" and appealed to Chancellor Adenauer. The case was referred to the federal Supreme Court, which ordered confiscation of the pamphlet on the ground that it contained antidemocratic statements. On January 14 the federal cabinet decided on a bill revising paragraph 130 of the penal code and providing stiffer measures for group libel. The bill was approved by the upper house (Bundesrat), and received its first reading in the Bundestag on April 8. During the debates, however, political WEST GERMANY 239 leaders of all parties voiced their misgivings about "special legislation for a particular group," because it might in the long run be used for antidemocratic purposes. Representatives of the Zentralat feared the law might "perpetuate the special and isolated status" of the Jews in Germany. It was also deemed inadequate because it did not provide for public prosecution of group libel. There was general agreement, however, that antisemitism should be met with strong measures. During the following months German courts meted out numerous prison sentences, ranging from three to seven months, under existing laws against libel, defamation of the memory of the dead, and public condonation of crimes.

WAR CRIMES AND NAZI TRIALS The only major war criminals still detained under four-power control in Berlin-Spandau were Rudolf Hess, Baldur von Schirach, and Albert Speer. About 30 war criminals were still imprisoned in various European countries. After the Tilsit Einsau-Commando trial (April 26 to August 29; AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 190), the provincial ministries of justice established a central commission in Stuttgart-Ludwigsburg to coordinate and accelerate investigations into war and concentration-camp crimes. The commission, headed by Senior State Attorney Erwin Schuele, was to carry out preliminary investigations, leading to prosecutions by local authorities, not, officials stressed, to carry out a "second denazification." Suspects were to be investigated not for political reasons—i.e., affiliation with Nazi organizations—but because they were under suspicion of having committed crimes punishable under German criminal or military law. The commission was working against time because many crimes, including murder, would soon come under the statutes of limitations. As a result of inquiries by the Central Committee of German Jews and local authorities, a number of "respectable citizens" were arrested, including high police officers, doctors, attorneys, public prosecutors, and salesmen for big industrial firms. Some committed suicide after their arrest. A few confessed, but most claimed they had acted under orders without knowing they were doing wrong. The prosecutors, however, charged that even according to the penal and military code valid in the Nazi period the accused had committed crimes. In Bielefeld two police officials and a prominent lawyer were arrested and charged with the murder of Lithuanian Jews in 1941. In Hanover former Einsatz-Commando chief Gerhard Schneider was charged with the murder of thousands of Jews in Poland and Russia. West Berlin investigated charges that 23 former members of Battalion IX—a police battalion—had participated in the murder of Bialystok Jews. Auschwitz guard Wilhelm Reichenbach was sentenced to ten years by a Munich court for complicity in murder. The public was shocked when 55-year-old former camp guard Gottlieb Muzikant confessed to the murder of 500 persons and the torture of many more at Mauthausen and other camps. In January, after a four-month trial which revealed details of concentration-camp brutality, the Bonn Jury Court convicted former Sachsenhausen SS guards Wilhelm Schubert of 46 and Gustav Sorge of 67 murders and sentenced them to life imprisonment at hard 240 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK labor. A Soviet tribunal in 1947 had sentenced them to life imprisonment for the murder of more than 10,000 Russian prisoners. Numerous persons were implicated during the trial. In June Wilhelm Unkelbach, a truck driver, was given seven sentences of life imprisonment by a Hanau court for crimes committed in the Czesto- chowa ghetto. In April five former policemen were acquitted of the charge of shooting Polish citizens in 1939 because the court found that they had "acted under orders and were unaware of doing wrong." A Duisburg court in January dismissed the indictment of Alfred Freter, a high officer in the fire department, who in November 1938 had ordered the burning of the Muelheim synagogue. In April a Luneburg court rejected arraignment of a Dutch SS man who had escaped from Breda prison in Holland, where he had been serving a life sentence for shooting hostages in 1944. The federal Supreme Court ordered the retrial of SS General Max Simon, acquitted by a lower court of executing German citizens who tried to prevent a hopeless last-ditch defense at the end of the war.

Indemnification

Bonn agreed to pay compensation to foreign nationals, while acknowledging only moral and not legal obligations. Agreements were reached with Norway, Luxembourg, and Denmark for the indemnification of persons persecuted during the Nazi occupation for religious, racial, or ideological reasons. There was a deadlock over indemnification talks with France, which demanded the compensation of resistance fighters as well. Talks with Austria were also deadlocked because West Germany said that Austria had willingly collabo- rated with Hitler. Negotiations with the Netherlands were still in progress. At the end of March an agreement was reached with JOKOS (Stichting van Joodge Kerkgenootschappen en Sociale Organisaties in Nederland . . . ), a restitution organization in the Netherlands, to compensate Jews for the loss of household assets conficated during the so-called "M-Aktion" (a measure instituted by Nazi authorities for the confiscation of Jewish property). Misleading figures on the costs of indemnification, published in the official government bulletin of August 6, 1958 (AJYB 1959 [Vol 60], p. 191), were criticized by the Allgemeine Wochenzeitung der Juden and by leading Ger- man publications. In September the German Institute for Economic Research pointed out that indemnification to Nazi victims only made up a minor frac- tion (6 per cent) of the cost of "Hitler's war." The institute estimated that whereas total indemnification to victims of Nazism, including reparations to Israel, would approximate DM 22 billion (about §5 billion) the total German "social war burdens" would amount to between DM 239 and 259 billion (S57 and S60 billion). The last official estimate of the finance ministry put indemnification at DM 17.2 billion ($4.1 billion). According to federal Fi- nance Minister Franz Etzel, the Federal Republic had expended approximately DM 6.36 billion ($1.5 billion) for individual compensation under the Federal Indemnification Law (BEG) up to June 30, 1959. In June the federal ministry of finance announced that half the cost of WEST GERMANY 241 indemnification was to be borne by the federal government and half by the states. The slow progress of compensation was criticized by a delegation of CJMCAG which visited the Federal Republic in June. It was estimated that at the present rate of about 23,000 claims rejected or paid each month, the March 31, 1963, deadline could not be met. Many claimants were dying before their cases were reached. Of DM 2.6 million ($650,000) earmarked for indemnification in the federal and provincial budgets for 1958, one million was not expended, largely because of the inadequacy and poor training of the staff. Of about 2.6 million claims filed (1.9 million from abroad and 670,000 from Germany proper), a little more than 60 per cent were Jewish. There were more than 1.5 million claims pending on March 31, 1959. Jewish leaders protested against the "growingly restrictive interpretation and narrow-mindedness" in the application of the indemnification law. Claimants who had difficulty in proving eligibility, due to narrow and legalistic interpretations by the authorities, sometimes took refuge in the manufacture of proof. Jewish leaders condemned such practices. A bureau was jointly opened in Frankfurt by the German authorities and the United Restitution Organization for the purpose of uncovering irregularities. In June Chancellor Adenauer and a conference of finance ministers gave assurances that practical steps would be taken to accelerate indemnification. In some states the indemnification staff was increased, and measures were under consideration to distribute the work between the various states. The president of the Federal Board of Financial Review (Bundesrechnungshof) promised that it would support the acceleration program. Restitution, the return of identifiable property, proceeded much more smoothly than compensation. By April 1959 more than DM 308 million ($77 million) had been paid. Compensation for nonrecoverable property confiscated by the Reich, the Nazi party, and similar bodies was to be paid to a total amount of DM 1.5 billion ($375 million), under the Federal Restitu- tion Law of July 19, 1957.

Jewish Community

There were no official figures on the number of Jews in Germany except the membership statistics of the Jewish religious congregations ("communities"). Many Jews, particularly those returning from abroad, failed to take out formal membership, and estimates of their number varied greatly. The number registered in the Jewish congregations rose from 20,645 on June 30, 1958, to 21,653 on June 30, 1959. Between 1955 and 1959 the registered membership had risen 5,879, almost solely by immigration, mostly of Jews who had been forced to leave Germany after 1933, and not by natural increase. From 1955 to 1959 there were 239 births, as against 1,466 deaths. In the same period 1,885 Jews left Germany and 205 dropped their membership in the communities, approximately 6,000 Jews immigrated from abroad, and some 3,000 came to the communities from former DP camps. Unofficial estimates of the total Jewish population ranged between 30,000 and 40,000. 242 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

RELIGIOUS AND COMMUNAL AFFAIRS There were 72 organized Jewish communities. Of the total Jewish population a half, about 14,500, lived in Berlin, Munich, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Diisseldorf, and Cologne. There was still a shortage of spiritual leaders. Rabbis officiated regularly only in Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Dortmund, Essen (for all of North-Rhine Westphalia), Munich, and Cologne. Hamburg and Berlin were in search of rabbis. In addition, retired and foreign rabbis, including some from the occupation forces, conducted services on Rosh ha-Shanah and Yom Kippur. From 1955 to 1959, the number of school-age children more than doubled, reaching 1,817. But in June 1959 there were only 49 teachers giving religious instruction in about 40 localities. These teachers often concurrently performed other duties in the communities. They represented a variety of backgrounds and outlooks, and the training and experience of some were not fully satisfactory. If the Jewish Agency had not provided some Israeli teachers, the situation would have been even more difficult. Though there was a great need for extension courses for teachers, only one in-service training course could be organized. It took place in Strasbourg, France, in March and was attended by only a few of the teachers. A Jewish history textbook was being compiled under the auspices of the cultural section of the Zentralat. The Zentralat also subsidized the purchase of teaching material. B'nai B'rith lodges were founded in Berlin and Frankfurt. New synagogues and community houses continued to be planned and built. The most impressive of these, the Berlin Jewish Community House, on the site of the Fasenenstrasse synagogue burnt by the Nazis in November 1938, was inaugurated in September 1959. The new building included assembly halls, club rooms, a library, and other educational facilities. New synagogues and community houses were dedicated in Diisseldorf in September 1958, in Bonn in May 1959, and in Cologne and Essen in September 1959, in the presence of political personalities, officials, and Jewish representatives. Funds had been allocated for building synagogues and community centers in Paderborn, Aachen, Minden, Hamburg, Bremen, and Gelsenkirchen. Negotiations between federal, provincial, and municipal authorities for the reconstruction of the Rashi Synagogue in Worms were completed, and the cornerstone was laid in September 1959. The synagogue was to be built in exactly the same style as the 12th-century one destroyed by the Nazis during the November 1938 pogroms. The Bavarian Association of Jewish Communities held its annual conference in July, but without the Munich community, which was still headed by the Vorstand (executive committee) regarded by most Jewish authorities as illegally elected (AJYB, 1956 [Vol. 57], p. 387; 1957 [Vol. 58], p. 291; 1958 [Vol. 59], p. 298; 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 196).

INTERGROUP RELATIONS Brotherhood week was celebrated in all major German cities and by the 19 West German radio stations. On March 27 the Allgemeine Wochenzeitung der Juden wrote that never was philosemitism so strongly expressed as during that year's celebrations. The Deutsche Koordinierungsrat der Gesellschaften WEST GERMANY 243 fur christlich-jiidische Zusammenarbeit (German Coordinating Council of Societies for Christian-Jewish Cooperation) had been established in 1949 under American auspices on the pattern of the (American) National Conference of Christians and Jews. It was supported by state and private contributions. President Heuss was active in its work, as were many government officials, educators, and molders of public opinion. While the council and its local societies were not a mass movement, they exerted a continuous influence. There were 26 local societies, the most recent having been founded in Mannheim, Aachen, Gdttingen, and Siegen. The Evangelical Dienst an Israel (Service to Israel), under the auspices of the Lnstitutum Judaicum of Miinster University, held its tenth annual conference in Bremen in March. The conference was well attended, with more than 200 theology students participating. Major speakers were former Hessian State Minister Arno Henneg, Chief Rabbi Kurt Wilhelm of Stockholm, and author Heinz Fliigel of the Evangelical academy of Tutzing. The numerous Evangelical academies devoted many weekends to free discussion of public issues by men and women of all creeds and backgrounds, and often scheduled gatherings on Jewish and intergroup questions where Jewish personalities were invited as speakers and guests. A similar program in the Catholic Rabanus Maurus Akademie was initiated by Karl Thieme. Drei Ringe (Three Rings), a group of Protestant, Catholic, and Jewish high-school and college youth, also arranged conferences. Men of Faith in the German Resistance, consisting of talks given before such groups on Rabbi Leo Baeck, Protestant theologian Dietrich Bonhoeffer, and Father Alfred Delp, was published by Ner Tamid publishing house in Munich. Round-table discussions took place on radio and television networks, and numerous inter- denominational discussions were published in newspapers and periodicals. In July a ten-day youth conference on intergroup relations initiated by the cultural section of the Zentralat took place in Gauting under the auspices of UNESCO. Participants included 50 youths—25 Jews and 25 non-Jews— from 12 different countries. In February 1959 two young Catholic writers, Heinrich Boll and Paul Schalliick, founded a library of German Jewish history, the Bibliothek zur Geschichte des deutschen Judentums ("Germania Judaica"), in Cologne. They started to collect books and documents, and planned the publication of a bulletin. Paul Schalliick's novel Engelbert Reineke, the story of a young German teacher trying to overcome the past, became a best-seller. In West Berlin the Protestant clergyman Gerhard Kreyssig founded the Aktion Siihne- zeichen. Youth groups were organized to do reconstruction work in countries devasted by Nazi occupation and in Israel. School children and boy scouts volunteered to clean up Jewish cemeteries in Wuppertal, Seligenstadt, Dins- laken, and Helmershausen. In May the Belgian Nobel Prize winner, Father Dominique Pire, broke ground in Wuppertal for a European Village to be named after Anne Frank. Author Ernst Schnabel and publisher Gottfried Fischer created an Anne Frank Scholarship fund for Israeli students wanting to study or engage in research in West Germany. Anne Frank groups were organized in various German cities, and in May 1959, for the third time, some 8,000 youths staged 244 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK a pilgrimage to the site of the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp where Anne Frank had spent her last days. The Youth Council, which represented socialist and Christian student organizations, adopted strong resolutions warning against all manifestations of revived antisemitism and requesting a program of "reconciliation with the Jews and rapprochement with Israel." Erich Luth, press director of Hamburg, published a pamphlet calling for Arab-Jewish cooperation after his third trip to Israel. In the municipal series "Neues Hamburg," Die Ueberwindung des Vakuums, a collection of essays on the persecutions and German-Jewish relations, was published under Liith's editorship. A report on Israel by Protestant theologian Helmuth Gollwitzer, Israel und wir (Lettner Verlag, 1958), stressed that "antisemitism is not a Jewish question but rather a Christian question." Plans for a teachers' exchange with Israel were initiated by religious and municipal institutions. Teachers, students, and indemnification officials visited Israel and reported sympathetically on their return, thus helping to further German understanding of the young state. A documentary film on Israel, "Paradies und Feuer- ofen," produced by Herbert Victor, received the German Film Prize and the award of the International Catholic Film Bureau. It was shown in German movie theaters with great success. The West Berlin senate in July 1959 paid a special tribute to 19 non-Jewish men and women who had helped and sheltered Jews during the Nazi regime.

ZIONISM AND RELATIONS WITH ISRAEL West German Jews continued to maintain close relations with Israel. Keren ha-Yesod, Keren Kayyemet le-Yisrael, Youth Aliyah, and other campaigns raised sizeable sums in the period under review, totaling between DM 600,000 and 800,000 ($144,000 and $190,000). Zionist groups existed in West Berlin, Diisseldorf, Frankfurt, and Munich, with a total membership of about 1,000 persons. A Zionist conference, held at Frankfurt in October 1958, was addressed by Herberg Lewin, a professor in Offenbach, and Karl Marx of Diisseldorf, editor and publisher of the Allgemeine Wochenzeitung der Juden in Deutschland. The Friends of the Hebrew University chartered a new branch in Frankfurt in addition to existing chapters in Berlin, Hamburg, Diisseldorf, and Munich. In March Leo Kohn of the Hebrew University in Jerusalem spoke before a small circle of university teachers in Frankfurt on Israel's relations to the surrounding world. Norman Bentwich visited local chapters in June. In July ex-Premier Moses Sharett of Israel led a Mapai delegation at the Socialist International's Hamburg congress. Nahum Goldmann, president of CJMCAG, WZO, and the Jewish Agency, visited Germany frequently and conferred with Chancellor Adenauer, other government officials, and Jewish community leaders. The Federal Republic still did not have diplomatic relations with Israel. Until recently the Israelis had been reluctant, and later the West Germans feared that the Arabs would retaliate by recognizing the East German regime and by canceling commercial contracts. Relations between the two countries were carried on through the Israeli WEST GERMANY 245 mission, established in Cologne as a result of the Hague and Luxembourg agreements of 1952 (AJYB, 1953 [Vol. 54], pp. 437, 477-82; 1954 [Vol. 55], pp. 354-55). While primarily a trade mission, it also performed a variety of additional functions of a consular, educational, and informative nature. Deliveries under the Luxembourg agreement of 1952 proceeded smoothly. Of the total reparations of $825 million, 55 per cent was utilized between 1952 and 1959. During the first half of 1959 the Federal Republic's agricultural and industrial imports from Israel were $10 million, some §3 million more than in the same period of 1958. In March Israel for the first time participated officially in a German fair. The Israeli pavilion at the Frankfurt International Fair received great attention from customers and German officials, including Economic Minister Ludwig Erhard. Israel was also represented at the annual Frankfurt Book Fair in October. A contract for the purchase of DM 12 million (|3 million) worth of muni- tions was signed between the Federal Republic and Soltam Ltd. of Haifa in May 1959. German government circles expressed astonishment over the government crisis in Israel (see p. 289) when the deal became public. The Bonn government held that it would have been "an act of discrimination against Israel" not to purchase the well-tested ammunition offered at a favorable price. At the same time it was reported that the defense ministry had concluded an arms deal with Egypt, totaling DM 26 million ($6.2 million), to "neutralize the negative effect the arms deal with Israel might have on Arab- German relations." In October the libel trial against European Common Market President Walter HaUstein and West German Ambassador to NATO Herbert Blanken- horn—charged by Hans Strack, a former Middle East expert in the ministry of economics, with making false allegations against him, namely, that he had opposed the Luxembourg agreement because he had been bribed by Arab firms, causing his removal from the Middle East post—exposed to the public some of the difficulties surrounding the Hague reparations negotiations in 1952 and the ratification of the agreement by the federal parliament. Witnesses, including important officials of the foreign ministry, stated that the agreement was much opposed not only by the Nazis but also by members of the government coalition and the ministries, by business circles with interests in the Middle East, and by the Arab countries.

SOCIAL SERVICES Most forms of social services were rendered by the Central Welfare Office of Jews in Germany (Zentralwohlfahrtsstelle der Juden in Deutschland— ZWST), with headquarters in Frankfurt, and its various local offices. It cooperated with JDC, whose main German office was also in Frankfurt, and the UHS office in Munich. ZWST arranged vacations for 122 adults and 600 children during the summer of 1959 at its own Henrietta Szold home in the Black Forest, in the home conducted by the Cologne Jewish community at Soberheim, and at a rented home, Haus Wolfshalden, in Garmisch, Bavaria. 246 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK The Federal Youth Plan (Bundesjugendplan), the Jewish Agency, and ZWST jointly financed a trip to Israel by 25 Jewish youth between the ages of 16 and 20. Jewish kindergartens continued their activities in the larger communities. In Berlin JDC conducted an accelerated course for training 12 Jewish kindergarten teachers. Club houses for Jewish youth in Berlin, Munich, Frankfurt, and Dusseldorf expanded their activities, with the aid of trained leaders. A home for the aged was dedicated in Neustadt, Rheinland-Pfalz. ZWST published a bi-monthly bulletin, Jiidische Sozialarbeit. A survey on the special needs of the Jewish aged was conducted jointly by JDC, ZWST, and the Frankfurt community. ZWST reported that the need for homes for the aged had been met, and that it was now necessary to concentrate on clinics and residences. A new problem confronting ZWST was the substantial number of immigrants who came to West Germany with false expectations about indemnification benefits, and who were than unable to earn a livelihood. Problems of reintegration of Jews into German society in respect to employment, housing, and social security were presented in a Zentralat memorandum to Chancellor Adenauer. Jewish loan associations continued to operate in Berlin, Munich, Hamburg, Frankfurt, and Dusseldorf. Over a period of four years they made 1,600 loans, totaling almost DM 5 million ($1.2 million).

CULTURAL ACTIVITIES The educational and cultural activities of the Jewish communities were stimulated and coordinated by the cultural department of the Zentralat. Many Jewish lecturers, musicians, and artists from various countries participated in the adult-education program. They included Hermann Levin Gold- schmidt of Zurich, artist Ludwig Schwerin of Tel-Aviv, and the conductor of the Oratorio de Paris, Max Neumann. During 1958-59 Stockholm Chief Rabbi Kurt Wilhelm and Adolf Lesch- nitzer and Hans Kohn, both New York professors, lectured on Jewish subjects at the University of Frankfurt in the Loeb lecture series. An honorary pro- fessorship of Jewish studies, established by the philosophical faculty of the same university, was to be occupied by Rabbi Wilhelm. On November 2, 1958, the anniversary of Leo Baeck's death, the Zentralat and ZWST awarded the second annual Leo Baeck Prize to H. G. Adler, author of a study of the Theresienstadt camp, historian Ernst Ludwig Ehrlich, and the non-Jewish author Erwin Sylvanus, whose Warsaw ghetto play Korczad und die Kinder was scheduled to be performed on a number of German stages. The Zentralat made plans for a central archive and collection of documents on the Nazi persecution. A 44-page brochure, Dokumente uber die Behand- lung der Juden durch das Dritte Reich, was distributed to political personalities, schools, and indemnification officials. The creation of community libraries was stimulated by the Zentralat. The program of youth conferences on Jewish topics, conducted jointly by ZWST and the Zentralat, lagged in early 1959 because of changes in EAST GERMANY 247 personnel. The cultural department supplied non-Jewish groups with information and answered numerous questions about Judaism, Jewish history, and Israel. The Zentralat preferred to inform the population about Judaism and the Jewish people, rather than to engage in futile arguments with incorrigible antisemites. It participated in cultural activities of various federal and voluntary organizations, such as the review boards for films, youth literature, and illustrated magazines. In Frankfurt the Friends of the Leo Baeck Institute of Jews from Germany organized meetings and a lecture series. Books sponsored by the institute included Selma Stern-Tauebler's Josel von Rosheim, Hannah Arendt's Rahel Varnhagen, Leo Baeck's Aus drei Jahrtausenden, and S. Adler- Rudel's Ostjuden in Deutschland. A Jewish publishing house, Jiidischer Verlag, was founded in West Berlin.

E. M. ORLAND

EAST GERMANY

HE so-called German Democratic Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik—DDR) continued its campaign against the "fascist" Bonn Tgovernment and against the atomic armament of the West German army. DDR's attempts to gain diplomatic recognition from the UAR and its establishment of a consulate general in Cairo were watched with dismay by the Bonn government. A DDR trade mission headed by Premier Otto Grotewohl visited Egypt in January. At the same time DDR representatives distributed propaganda literature in the Middle East countries, denouncing the Luxem- bourg agreement of 1952 between West Germany and Israel as "an act of hostility" against the Arab nations. In the November elections for the Volkskammer (parliament), 99.87 per cent of the eligible voters cast their ballots for the sole ticket, that of the National Front. Otto Grotewohl and Walter Ulbricht continued as premier and deputy premier. In January the Volkskammer approved a plan to increase industrial and agricultural production within the current five-year plan. The production of consumers' goods in 1959 and through the five-year plan was to be increased, with the announced aim of surpassing the West German standard of living. In July prices for food products were lowered. Trade relations with the Soviet Union, Hungary, Poland, and Iraq were strengthened, and an agreement for an exchange of scientists with the Soviet Union was signed. A status-quo agreement was reached in July 1958 with the German Evan- gelical church (EKD). Nevertheless, in October Heinrich Grueber withdrew under protest from his post as plenipotentiary of the Evangelicals to the Soviet German government, saying that he was unable to work with DDR officials and that his job had become superfluous. In June 1959 the Evangelical church protested that the DDR was not fulfilling the terms of the agreement. Purges against "revisionism" in the cultural field and at the universities continued. A series of treason trials were held against youths charged with 248 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK being Western agents. Although greater social opportunities for middle-class groups and greater ideological freedom for scientists were announced in Sep- tember, the exodus from East Germany continued. The West German government announced that 74,377 persons had fled East Germany during the first six months of 1959. Almost half of the refugees were less than 25 years old. Among those seeking political asylum were about 200 university teachers and assistants. In January the chief of the East German intelligence service, Siegfried Dombrowsky, fled to West Berlin. Jewish Community The Jewish community of East Berlin had approximately 900 members. About 600 registered Jews lived in Leipzig, Dresden, Erfurt, Magdeburg, Halle, Plauen, Schwerin, and Karl-Marx-Stadt (formerly Chemnitz). Syna- gogues existed in a few of these cities, but none of them had an officiating rabbi. There were no Jewish schools or public cultural activities. Jews still prominent in Soviet German cultural life included the artist Herbert Sand- berg, author Arnold Zweig, and composers Hanns Eisler and Max Michailow. Propaganda East German newspapers reported extensively on antisemitism in the Fed- eral Republic, calling it a symptom of capitalism and imperialism, and stressed the Nazi past of West German politicians, government officials, and members of the judiciary. In turn, the West Berlin Investigation Committee of Free Lawyers published in April 1959 its second list of former Nazis in influential political and economic positions in the Soviet zone. This revealed that 47 deputies in the East German parliament, most of them belonging to the bourgeois parties, had been members of the Nazi party. The revelation that a member of the central committee of the Communist Socialist Unity party (Sozialistische Einheit Partei—SED), Ernst Grossman, had been an SS guard in the Sachsenhausen concentration camp led to his removal. In the case of others listed by the West Berlin lawyers, it was unofficially stated during a television program that they had regretted their mistakes, and that the only thing that mattered was "who is working for peace today." In June the Jewish cemetery at the Schonhauser Allee in East Berlin was desecrated. Soviet officials called it the "work of agents from West Berlin." At the site of the Ravensbriick concentration camp a monument was dedicated in the presence of Soviet government officials. Jews were mentioned incidentally. E. M. ORLAND

AUSTRIA *

HE general election on May 10, 1959, led to the reconstruction of the T15-year-old coalition between the People's (Catholic) party and the Socialists. Both parties together had about 90 per cent of the votes. The Nazi- tinged Freedom party gained over 50,000 votes and its percentage rose from • For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. AUSTRIA 249

6.5 to 7.7, giving it eight seats as against six in 1956; in 1953 it had received 11 per cent of the votes. The Communists, dropping from 4.4 to 3.3 per cent, lost the three seats they had had in the outgoing parliament.

TABLE 1 GENERAL ELECTIONS, 1956 AND 1959 Per Cent o/ Vote Seats Party 1956 1959 1956 1959

People's 46.0 44.2 82 79 Socialist 43.1 44.8 74 78 Freedom .... 65 7.7 6 8 Communist .4.4 3.3 3 0

TOTAL 100.0 100.0 165 165

The 1959 elections arose out of the refusal of the People's party to continue the coalition. After the election and the negotiations made necessary by the Socialist gains, a new cabinet, headed by Julius Raab, chancellor since 1953, took oath of office on July 16, 1959. Leopold Figl (Catholic) became speaker of parliament. He was succeeded as foreign minister by the Socialist Bruno Kreisky, the only Jew in the cabinet. Reinhard Kamitz (Catholic), whose policy had been attacked by the Socialists, remained as finance minister, but Vice Chancellor Bruno Pitter- mann (Socialist) obtained a voice in the control of the nationalized industries. Of the other changes, the most important was the departure of Oskar Helmer (Socialist), minister of the interior since 1945, who had shaped Austria's liberal policy toward refugees, especially the Hungarians who escaped to Austria after the upheaval of 1956. For his outstanding work on behalf of refugees, Helmer was awarded the Nansen Medal for 1959; the medal was established in 1954 by the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCFR). Yugoslavia complained about the treatment of the small Slovene minority in Austrian Carinthia. The Austrian foreign minister accused Italy of having infringed on the local autonomy guaranteed in the Paris agreement of September 1946 to the German-speaking population in the Italian province of Alto Adige (South Tyrol). Czechoslovakia protested against the Sudeten Ger- man rally held in Vienna in May 1959. The Austrian government permitted the Communist-sponsored World Festival of Youth to be held in Vienna in the summer of 1959. Refugees The Intergovernmental Committee for European Migration (ICEM) reported that on January 1, 1959, there were in Austria 56,000 refugees under the protection of UNHCFR, 11,400 of them in camps. Of those in camps, 4,600 were old refugees, 5,000 were new refugees from Hungary, and 1,800 were newcomers from Yugoslavia. Up to the end of 1958 the total number in Austria of those who escaped from Hungary after the revolt of 1956 was 14,900. 250 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR. BOOR There were also, according to Austrian sources, another 32,000 refugees not under the jurisdiction of UNHCFR. Between 1945 and 1956 Austria gave sanctuary to more than 1,500,000 refugees, of whom 275,000 were granted Austrian citizenship.

Jewish Population

The total Austrian population was 7,021,000. There was little important change in the membership of the Kultusge- meinden or in the old refugee population. The number of new Jewish refugees from Hungary decreased from nearly 1,100 on June 30, 1958, to slightly under 400 a year later. The data on the Jewish population in Austria were available only for the membership of the Jewish communities and refugees registered with JDC. The total number of Jews in Austria was not known, but was probably somewhat higher than the following table would indicate.

TABLE 2

AUSTRIAN JEWISH POPULATION, 1958-59 As of June 30 Location 1958 1959 Gemeinden Vienna 9,283 9,371 Graz, Innsbruck, Linz, Salzburg. 674 660 Camps—Old refugees 60 60 Refugees from Hungary in and outside of camps 1,076 398 TOTAL 11,093 10,489

Immigration from East European countries and repatriation offset emigration and the high death rate among the members of the Viennese Kultusge- meinde.

TABLE 3

CHANCES IN VIENNESE KULTUSCEMEINDE'S MEMBERSHIP, 1958-59 1958 1959 (January 1 to June 30) Immigration 681 503 Births 57 35 Conversions to Judaism 16 10 TOTAL INCREASE 754 548 Emigration 473 213 Deaths 277 121 Resignations 75 54

TOTAL DECREASE 825 388

NET INCREASE —71 160 AUSTRIA 251

The age structure of the Viennese Kultusgemeinde remained about the same—few children and many elderly persons.

TABLE 4 AGE DISTRIBUTION OF THE VIENNESE KULTUSGEMEINDE'S MEMBERSHIP, DECEMBER 31, 1958 Age Number Per Cent 0-6 170 1.8 7-14 686 7.5 15-18 171 1.9 19-40 1314 16.5 41 -60 3,253 35.4 Over 60 3,389 36.9 TOTAL 9,183 » 100.0 Male 4,782 52.1 Female 4,401 47.9

a In March 19S9 Vienna had a population of 1,652,427. Jewish Community A major concern of the Jewish community was the problem of indemnification. The Kultusgemeinde election in Vienna, due at the end of 1958, was postponed for a year so that the Jewish community could concentrate its energy on urging the Austrian government to adopt adequate indemnification legislation. The Viennese Kultusgemeinde depended on the help of CJMCAG and JDC. Community taxes and cemetery fees accounted for only some 30 per cent of the 1959 budget. The deficit in the regular budget of 9,405,000 schillings ($1=26 schillings) was 2,996,000 schillings (Die Gemeinde, December 19, 1958). The Viennese Gemeinde gave welfare assistance to 650 persons a month, most of them aged, unemployable or unemployed. It maintained a home for the aged (150 residents), a hospital (50 patients), and vacation colonies for children and old people. In March the Gemeinde organized an exhibit of modern paintings from Israel. A "Senioren Klub" functioned on the premises of the Gemeinde. A kosher canteen, financed by JDC, served more than 200 persons a month in 1958. The Jewish day school in Vienna (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 202) had about 40 pupils. It was recognized by the Viennese school authorities and had equal rights with other elementary schools. Other Jewish educational institutions in Austria included four Talmud Torahs and four kindergartens, with a combined enrollment of nearly 400. In addition, more than 300 children in Vienna and some 20 in Salzburg attended religious classes. The Jewish Credit Cooperative in Vienna, sponsored by JDC, made 118 loans ($91,108) in 1958 and 58 (}50,700) during the first six months of 1959. The total number of loans granted by the cooperative since its inception in 1949 came to 1,053 (5646,338). The Hakoah sports club celebrated its 50th anniversary in June 1959. 252 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

Jewish Refugees The number of new Hungarian refugees under the care of JDC in Austria decreased from 1,076 on June 30, 1958, to 398 on June 30, 1959. Of these, 206 were in camps (including 133 in Camp Asten) and 192 in communities, mostly in the Vienna area. The mixed (Jews and non-Jews) Camp Asten also sheltered a group of 60 old refugees supported by JDC. The all-Jewish camps at Rothschild Hospital in Vienna, which sheltered thousands of Jewish DPs after World War II, and Camp Korneuburg, which accommodated new Hungarian refugees after December 1956, were closed during the period under review. Between August 1958 and the end of February 1959, some 15,000 Jewish emigrants from Rumania arrived in Vienna en route to Israel. They were cared for by the Jewish Agency for Israel and also benefited from the JDC- financed kosher canteen. This movement ended in March 1959, when the Rumanian government stopped issuing passports (p. 274). Indemnification In May 1959 negotiations begun in the fall of 1958 led to an agreement on indemnification between Austria and the Western signatories of the Austrian State Treaty of 1955. The Austrian government agreed to establish a fund for the settlement of certain claims of persons who, between March 13, 1938, and May 8, 1945, sustained specified property losses because of their religion or racial origin. These losses comprised confiscation or forced transfers of bank accounts, securities, etc., and punitive taxes against Jews (Reichsfluchtssteuer and Judenvermogensabgabe). The fund, established under Article 26 of the Austrian State Treaty, was to total $6,000,000 plus $600,000 for administrative expenses. Austrian legislation implementing the agreement was held up first by the dissolution of the parliament and then by delays in forming a new government. The reaction of the Jewish community to the projected §6,000,000 fund was mixed. It was feared that the plan would create a climate unfavorable to the long-overdue adoption of indemnification legislation patterned after the German laws. Since an estimated 98 per cent of the prospective beneficiaries of the fund lived abroad, the Jewish community in Vienna asked that parliament simultaneously pass the 12th Novelle (amendment) to the Opfer- fursorgegesetz (relief-of-victims law; AJYB, 1959 (Vol. 60], p. 203) and laws providing compensation for the destruction of synagogues and other communal properties. In July 1959 Chancellor Raab declared that his cabinet felt duty-bound to give just compensation to the Jewish community for damages suffered under Nazi rule. An amendment of March 18, 1959, to the War and Persecution Damages Law of 1958 (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 203), enlarged the category of beneficiaries, ended the deduction of the payments from the Assistance Fund (ibid.) and extended the deadline for filing claims from June 30 to December 31, 1959. There were some minor changes in the regulations concerning the registration centers for heirless property established in 1957, but the promulgation of the fourth Riickstellungsgesetz (restitution law) was still pending. AUSTRIA 253

By April 30, 1959, the Assistance Fund had paid out more than 395 million schillings (175 million to beneficiaries in the United States, 66 million in Israel, 64 million in England, and 91 million in other countries). It was assumed that the 550-million-schilling Assistance Fund would be paid out by the end of 1960, i.e., in four years instead of the ten years envisaged in the law which had set up the Assistance Fund in 1956.

Intergroup Relations The Jewish community repeatedly called attention to the antidemocratic and antisemitic tendencies of certain groups and organizations, some of which concealed their actual purposes behind antirestitution slogans. Thus, the Freedom party supported the attempts of the beneficiaries from Hitler rule (Schutzverband Riickstellungsbetroffener—Protective Association of Persons Affected by Restitution) to obtain compensation for their losses under the existing modest restitution legislation, besides sponsoring a welfare committee to aid former Nazis imprisoned after 1945. This party also did not answer an appeal from Action Against Antisemitism in Austria, asking the four main political parties to pledge themselves to oppose antisemitic activities, whereas the Catholic, Socialist, and Communist parties gave it their support. The Viennese Gemeinde protested the appointment of Hermann Neu- bacher, Vienna's first Nazi mayor, to an important post in the state airlines. The publications of the Gemeinde charged that he was responsible for the destruction of the Viennese synagogues in November 1938, since he forbade the city's fire brigades to save the burning buildings. Neubacher, however, won a libel suit against these publications because they could not prove that he personally gave the order not to extinguish the synagogue fires. In October 1958 the ministry of the interior under Oskar Helmer dissolved a neo-Nazi movement known as SOBRE (Sozialorganische Ordnungsbewegung Europas)—it appealed the decision to the Constitutional Tribunal—and in February 1959 an organization called Patriotic Austrian Soldiers. In June it banned the wearing of decorations of the Hitler era and the holding of military exercises by nationalistic groups. In April the Union of Young People's Vacation Homes (Jugendherbergswerk) struck from its membership rolls the pro-Nazi Heimattreue Jugend, affiliated with the Nazi-tainted Arbeitsge- meinschaft nationaler Jugendverbande Osterreichs (ANJO). ANJO's publication Der Trommler was seized twice in January 1959 and its editor was sentenced to six months' imprisonment. A former Gestapo official, Josef Gabriel, received a life term in March 1959 for the murder of Jews in Galicia during World War II. In June 1958 the Federation of Austrian Jewish Communities established a Crystal Night Commemorative Medal (Crystal Night was the night of November 10, 1938, when Jewish property was widely destroyed in Austria and Germany on orders from Hitler) to be awarded annually to non-Jews outstanding in the fight against antisemitism and neo-Nazism. The first medal went to Mayor Ernst Koref of Linz. 254 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

Personalia On April 11, 1959, Emil Maurer, president of the Vienna Gemeinde and of the Federation of Jewish Communities in Austria, celebrated his 75th birthday. He received congratulations from President Adolf Scharf and many other Austrian leaders. Wilhelm Krell, executive director of the Viennese Gemeinde and of the Federation of Jewish Communities in Austria, was appointed to the Austrian Privy Council in February 1959. Theodore D. Feder, JDC director in Vienna, and Albert Goldman, ORT director for Austria, were awarded the Gold Medal for Meritorious Service to the Republic of Austria. Egon Fink, deputy director of JDC, received the Medal of Merit. BORIS SAPIR * » *

Eastern Europe

INTRODUCTION *

HE 21st congress of the Communist party of the Soviet Union in January and February 1959 confirmed Nikita Khrushchev as undisputed ruler of Tthe country, the successor of Lenin and Stalin. He too, like them, was acknowledged as the authoritative interpreter of the doctrine of Marx. At the party congress and after, Khrushchev was credited with every Soviet achievement. Any organized Soviet opposition was totally humiliated and destroyed. At the same time Khrushchev continued the "liberal" reforms he had initiated after Stalin's death. While foreign visitors differed as to the extent and character of those reforms, all agreed that the situation in the Soviet Union was changing. The new criminal code, enacted before the 21st congress, prohibited the persecution of entire "dangerous" categories of people without regard to individual action or guilt. Former New York Governor Averell Harriman, visiting Russia in June 1959, reported that fear of foreigners had largely disappeared and that Soviet citizens appeared freer in their discussions of problems and difficulties. But there was no substantial change in the Soviet Union's power structure, and it remained to be seen whether the "rule of law" and "limited freedom" could survive under an essentially autocratic regime.

Economic Policy The Soviet Union intensified its competition with the West, proclaiming the goal of overtaking America's output and standard of living. The seven- year plan (1959-1965) called for an 80-per cent increase in industrial production and a 70-per cent increase in agriculture. The post-Stalin concessions to the peasants (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 207) were said to be only the initial stage in a plan to replace the traditional villages by the agrogorods (farming towns) proposed by Khrushchev a few years before Stalin's death.

Foreign Policy Khrushchev continued his visits abroad. In Moscow itself, talking with foreign officials and other important visitors, he tried to convince the West that the Soviet moves for "total disarmament" and "peace" offered a realistic basis for the liquidation of the cold war. At the same time, he sought to • For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. 255 256 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK persuade the uncommitted nations that their interests were identical with the policies pursued by the Communist nations. The Soviet leaders found psychological weapons in their sputniks and rockets. They also increased exports and challenged the West with low prices, and credits at low rates of interest. Soviet influence was present in Iraq, where the pro-Western regime of King Faisal was overthrown in July 1958. Moscow continued its strong pro-Arab stand, and Khrushchev promised new arms to the UAR and declared that Israel had no right to use the Suez Canal (New York Times, November 11, 1959). During the Berlin crisis in November 1958, Moscow increased its pressure for a summit meeting. In the course of discussions on this question, an exchange of visits between the Soviet premier and President Eisenhower was arranged. On September 15, 1959, Khrushchev arrived in the United States, a day after a Soviet space rocket had hit the moon. Khrushchev's visit to the United States eased the Berlin threat and produced tentative agreement on a summit conference in the near future. Immediately after his visit to the United States, Khrushchev went to Peking and lectured his Chinese allies on the "need for peace" and for "abstention from aggressive actions." Relations with the Satellite Countries The Soviet satellites continued to enjoy a measure of autonomy in their internal policies and their relations with one another, while recognizing the primacy of the Soviet Union. A Moscow-directed program of economic integration sought to coordinate the separate national economies of the satellites into one organization based on mutual cooperation and division of labor. This effort was entrusted to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, which included all the European Communist states except Yugoslavia. An all-out fight against "revisionism" continued in practically all the countries of the Soviet bloc. Toward the end of 1958 there was a general drive to raise production norms, and the Chinese Communist example was publicized both in the press and on the radio. Especially in Bulgaria, Hungary, and Rumania the call for a "leap forward" was coupled with ambitious plans for the "voluntary" participation of "young brigade workers." Poland was in the throes of a growing shortage of consumer goods, and its Communist government was gradually shifting away from the relatively liberal spirit of October 1956 and looking to a more rigid economy and a more centralized system to solve its difficulties. Wladislaw Gomulka was still un- willing to impose an orthodox Communist policy by force, but the danger of such a change existed. Jewish Situation The Soviet Union continued to hinder Jewish religious, communal, and cultural life. In the satellite countries Jewish life of various degrees of intensity was maintained, notwithstanding difficult conditions, and Yiddish schools and some publishing activities benefited from state support, at least for the time being. LEON SHAPIRO SOVIET UNION 257

SOVIET UNION *

Jewish Population

HERE were still no official data on the number of Jews in the Soviet Union. (But see p. 351, n. 1.) Some foreign visitors and journalists repeated the Testimates of visitors after Stalin's death, while others gave modified figures. Pesah Novik, editor of the Communist New York Morning Freiheit, reported that he had been told by city officials in the Soviet Union that Moscow had 400,000 Jews; Kiev, 200,000; Odessa, 200,000; Minsk, 130,000; Bobruisk, 60,000; Kishinev, 30,000, and Vitebsk, 20,000. He also said that some local Jews estimated the Jewish population of Leningrad at 300,000, but that the actual number might be higher {Morning Freiheit, March 22, 1959). It was reported that Georgia had 100,000 Jews; Baku, in Azerbaidjan, 100,000, and Riga, in Latvia, 35,000. David Matis, who visited Lithuania, estimated the number of its Jews at 27,000, of whom Vilna had 16,000; Kaunas (Kovno), 5,000; Memel, 4,000, and Sabeli (Shavel), 2,000 {Morning Freiheit, August 28, 1959). Recent estimates put the number of Jews in Birobidjan at about 35,000. Thus there was a total of over 1,600,000 Jews in the parts of the Soviet Union covered. Premier Nikita S. Khrushchev told a delegation of American veterans that the Soviet census of January 1959 indicated that there were some 2,0Q0,000 Jews in the Soviet Union (JTA, Daily News Bulletin, May 13, 1959). While there was no way of checking the various estimates, available data tended to corroborate Khrushchev's figure.

Communal and Religious Life The 'liberal" reforms introduced by Khrushchev did not appear to affect substantially the status of Soviet Jews as a group. Individual Jews, like other Soviet citizens, benefited from the abolition of terror, labor camps, and the secret police, but the Jewish community as a whole continued to suffer discrimination. Foreign visitors reported that Soviet Jews no longer feared for their lives, as under Stalin, but were seriously concerned about the dis- integration of their group life and the destruction of their religion and national identity. There were reports from Communists in Poland and France that the reestablishment of Jewish institutions was discussed at the time of the 20th party congress, in February 1956, but that after some initial hesita- tion, the Kremlin decided to work toward liquidation of Jewish group life in the Soviet Union. Ilya Ehrenburg, often an official Soviet spokesman, said in Paris that he considered himself a Jew only because there was still antisemitism in the Soviet Union; once anti-Jewish feeling disappeared there he would see no reason to call himself a Jew (JTA, May 13, 1959). During the period under review, therefore, Soviet Jews were not permitted to reestablish Yiddish newspapers, Yiddish schools, or a Yiddish theater. (The only Yiddish newspaper was the Birobidjaner Shtern.) They lacked any cen- * For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. 258 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK tral communal institution to care for specifically Jewish needs. Even the religious corporations dealing with worship and burial were beset by difficulties. Communication between Jewish congregations in various Russian cities was virtually impossible. There was no official contact between Soviet Jews and Jewish communities of the West. WJC invited several Soviet Jewish communities to participate in its world assembly in Stockholm in August 1959, but Soviet Jews did not attend. Rabbi Judah Leib Levin of Moscow stated that the activities of the Jewish communities should be limited to religious affairs and that therefore the Jewish communities could not participate in meetings dealing with nonreligious matters (New York Day-Jewish Journal, June 18, 1959). The general conditions of Soviet life and the special treatment to which the Jewish group was subjected made Jewish religious life extremely difficult. Reports from the Soviet Union indicated not only increasing disintegra- tion of Jewish religious observance but also discriminatory and oppressive practices, including the closing of synagogues, banning of private prayer meetings, desecration of burial grounds, and bans on baking matzot. In June 1959 Soviet authorities closed the great synagogue of Chernovtsy (formerly Czernowitz) in the Ukraine, on the ground that it was "promoting alcoholism." Rabbi Birnbaum of Chernovtsy went to Moscow and asked in vain for the reopening of his synagogue. It was also reported that the Irkutsk synagogue had been converted into housing facilities for medical students and the Baranovici synagogue confiscated for the use of the police. There were also reports of synagogue closings in Chernigov, Korosten, Vor- enezh, Kremenchug, Tula, Orenburg, and Bobruisk (New York Times, May 21, June 19, 1959; London Jewish Post, August 14, 1959; Bulletin international d'information, Paris, September 1, 15, 1959). Authorities in Kharkov, Odessa, and Vitebsk forbade prayer meetings (minyanim) in private apartments, and in some cases religious articles and Torah scrolls were confiscated by the police. Israeli sources charged desecration of Jewish burial grounds and official interference with the baking of matzot in Odessa, Rostov, Kharkov, and other cities. David Miller, a JTA correspondent who visited the Soviet Union in 1959, reported that religious ceremonies at marriages were virtually unknown, and religious rites were only occasionally performed at funerals. Bar mitzvah ceremonies were infrequent, and few Jewish youths knew the meaning of or were familiar with phylacteries. Circumcision was rare, parents being reported as fearful that it would endanger their livelihoods or careers. There was a lack of siddurim, mahazorim (daily, Sabbath, and festival prayer books), religious calendars, prayer shawls, phylacteries, etc. Although synagogues, especially those visited by tourists, were in tolerable condition, many Jewish religious corporations were refused permission to build new synagogues or repair old ones. Soviet authorities repeatedly denied discrimination against Jews. The Soviet embassy in Washington distributed a statement by a Moscow Jew, A. S. Rabinovitch, purportedly written to dispel "untruths" about anti- Jewish persecution in the Soviet Union. According to Rabinovitch, there were 40 functioning synagogues in the Ukraine alone. He said that the SOVIET UNION 259 absence of synagogues in some towns was due to the fact that "our people now believe in sputniks and not in religion" (New York Times, August 16, 1959). In June 1959 B. Z. Goldberg of the Day-Jewish Journal reported on his visit to the Moscow yeshivah. In 1959 the yeshivah had 16 students, half of them from Bokhara and Georgia, in Asia. Students and their families (most of them were married) were assured free lodgings and kosher meals and in addition received from the yeshivah 1,000 to 1,500 rubles monthly, which, by Soviet standards (official rate of exchange, |1 = 4 rubles), represented a considerable stipend. Despite its short existence, the Moscow yeshivah, opened in 1957, had already graduated several students, who then joined the very depleted rabbinical personnel of the Soviet Union. There was no precise information on the number of Jewish religious corporations in the Soviet Union or their membership, nor were there available accurate lists of rabbis active in the Soviet Union. Rabbi Judah Leib Levin was rabbi of Moscow, head of the Moscow yeshivah, and leading rabbi of the Soviet Union. Rabbis Krebanov and Panich were the rabbis of Leningrad and Kiev, respectively. Among the Oriental Jewish communities in the Soviet Union, the names of Hakham Emanuel of Tbilisi (Tiflis) and Hakham Mishuel of Kularz, both in Georgia, were known. In a statement to Tass, Rabbi Levin said that Moscow had four synagogues open for daily prayer. He also indicated that the Jewish community of Moscow had 600,000 rubles in the official state bank (Jewish Post, August 14, 1959). It was reported from Jerusalem that in 1959 no Rosh ha-Shanah greetings were received by the chief rabbinate from the rabbis of the Soviet Union. Apparently Soviet rabbis felt that even purely religious contact with rabbinical authorities in Israel would be viewed with suspicion by Soviet authorities. Soviet postal authorities returned to the Israeli chief rabbinate 185 parcels of etrogim (citrons) and lulavim (palm branches) addressed to various Jewish communities in the Soviet Union for use on Sukkot. The parcels were marked "forbidden for import."

Neglect of Mass Graves Soviet authorities tried to obliterate the memory of the mass exterminations of Jews by the Germans in towns and villages of the Soviet Union. Jewish mass graves were uncared for, and not only did Soviet authorities do nothing to honor the memories of the victims, but they did not even permit the Jews themselves to make the necessary arrangements according to religious customs covering burial grounds. The Yad wa-Shem Bulletin (Jerusalem, July 19, 1958) reported that the suburb of Babi-Yar, near Kiev, where some 80,000 Jews were slaughtered and thrown into prepared pits by the Nazis, had become a pasture for cattle. The same neglect was noted at Bald Mountain in Berdi- chev, where 30,000 Jews were murdered in the Bagonine quarter, in Zhitomir, and in many other places. 260 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

Cultural Situation Soviet leaders frequently repeated that Russian Jews preferred to assimilate. According to the official line, Jewish culture in the Soviet Union died a natural and unlamented death. At a press conference in the United States on January 15, 1959, First Deputy Premier Anastas I. Mikoyan declared: In my country all peoples enjoy freedom for the development of their culture. They can have their theaters and their literature, and that includes the Jews. However, the Jewish population has merged with Russians in Russian culture so fully that Jews participate in general culture and literature on the Russian stage and in Russian literature. There are many Jewish writers who consider themselves Russians and prefer to write Russian. We cannot interfere in that matter.... Another explanation for the absence of Yiddish cultural activities was advanced by Vyacheslav P. Yelyutin, the minister of higher and secondary education of the Soviet Union, who came to the United States as a member of Khrushchev's party in September 1959. Yelyutin stated that there was no point in reviving Yiddish-language schools because Jews were widely dispersed among Russian, Ukrainian, and other non-Jewish peoples. He argued that if Jews were to be taught in Yiddish they would not be able to work effectively with their non-Jewish fellow citizens (New York Times, September 19, 1959). While the Jewish nationality was recognized by the basic laws of the land, the situation of the Jewish group thus differed from that of other nationalities of the Soviet Union. Yet recent reports indicated that contrary to the official assertion, certain segments of Russian Jewry retained great interest in Jewish values and a profound desire for Jewish knowledge and self-expression. Hayyim Sloves, a staunch Communist from France, returned from the Soviet Union, where he had met with many Jews from all walks of life dissatisfied with the official line on Jews and Jewish culture. In Yiddishe Kultur (New York, February 1959), he stated: Many Moscow Jews . . . acknowledged . . . that, judging by their children as well as by the children of their friends, a profound spiritual change has taken place in certain groups of the Soviet Jewish youth in the course of the last years. . . . This youth, in whom the indentification with Jewishness had begun to be almost atrophied, suddenly awakened ... to an extraordinary interest in all things Jewish. Also, according to Sloves, Soviet Yiddish writers said that there was a great demand and market for Yiddish literature in the Soviet Union, equal to that for books issued by other national minorities. Although Sloves remained a devoted Communist, he nevertheless concluded that "the official integration theory is in absolute and categorical opposition to Soviet Jewish reality." His statement seemed to be confirmed by the apparent survival of Yiddish despite all the measures taken by the Soviet authorities. Young actors and singers brought Yiddish readings and concerts to considerable audiences in Moscow, Leningrad, Kiev, Odessa, Kherson, and other cities. In 1958 the Leningrad Jewish Musical and Dramatic Ensemble presented a program SOVIET UNION 261 of songs and dances based on both a traditional Jewish repertoire and modern works of Soviet Yiddish writers. Among the participating artists were Esther Roitman and Nadia Zatorova, in dramatic numbers; Nata Kron, Nahum Agronov, and David Stiskin, singers, and Nahum Zloff, Halia Lebed, Miriam Kachkovskaia, and Elena Ganelina, dancers (Folks-shtimme, Warsaw, June 25, 1958). Again in Moscow, on March 4 to 8, 1959, Nehamah Lifshitz presented on the concert stage Di blondzhendike shtern ("The Wandering Stars"), before leaving for a tour through the provincial cities of the Soviet Union. Folks-shtimme also reported Yiddish artistic efforts in Vilna, Kaunas (Kovno), Riga, and many other cities. It was also reported that a book of Yiddish folk songs by Zinovyi Kompanietz was scheduled for publication in the near future. In 1958 the Leningrad division of the Soviet Union Art Fund issued an album of illustrations with Yiddish text for Sholem Aleichem's tale, Der farkishefter shnayderl ("The Bewitched Tailor"), by the well-known Jewish painter Tanhum Kaplan. The same organization was preparing for publication two other albums, one of the text of Tevya der milkhiger ("Tevya the Milkman"), and another of Di hoipt personazhn in Sholem Aleichems shafung ("The Principal Characters in Sholem Aleichem's Work"). The exhibition of painters and etchers of Leningrad, organized by Soviet artists in the spring of 1959, included many works by Jewish painters on Jewish themes. Among them were Solomon Gershov, Tanhum Kaplan, S. Steinberg, S. Kaufman, Shor, and Charshak. During the American exhibit in Moscow in the summer of 1959, Soviet authorities requested the removal of a number of books from the exhibit, among them "controversial" books dealing with Jewish subjects. Energetic protest resulted in restoring the volumes on Jewish history (Great Ages and Ideas of the Jewish People, edited by Leo M. Schwartz, and History of the Jewish Khazars, by D. M. Dunlop), but not the books on Israel (Israel and Its Glory, edited by Abraham Harman, and The Politics of Israel, by Marver H. Bernstein). The 1959 recipients of the Lenin prize included a number of scholars who were Jewish: V. Weksler, A. Mintz, N. Monosson, Samuel Ruptschinsky, M. Rabinovitch, Abram Kolton, Zalman Gamce, M. Berman, and Moses Bass (Sovetskaya Kultura, Moscow, April 22, 1959). There may have been other Jewish winners as well. SHOLEM ALEICHEM CENTENNIAL The 100th anniversary of the birth of Sholem Aleichem was noted in both Pravda (March 2, 1959) and Izvestia (March 1, 1959) as well as in Literaturnaya Gazeta and Ogonek. The state issued a special 40-kopek stamp bearing a portrait of Sholem Aleichem; but while the other stamps in the same series identified the person honored by nationality and achievement (e.g., "Ilya Chavchavadze, famous Georgian writer"), Sholem Aleichem's stamp, uniquely, bore only his name, with no explanatory legend. For the first time since the anti-Jewish persecution began under Stalin, a slim volume of Sholem Aleichem's tales, in Yiddish, was published by the State Belles Lettres publishers in Moscow. It was prepared by Am Vergelis and was issued in an edi- 262 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK tion of 30,000 copies under the title Oisgeveilte verk ("Selected Works"). The Foreign Language Publishing House in Moscow distributed an English translation of Sholem Aleichem's The Bewitched Tailor. According to reports from Moscow, a group of translators was assigned to prepare a new six-volume edition of Sholem Aleichem's works in Russian, of which 150,000 copies were to be published. Soviet sources claimed that Sholem Aleichem had been translated into 15 Soviet languages and had a sale of nearly six million copies. Other projects in connection with the Sholem Aleichem anniversary included a monograph by G. Reminik, a volume by Shatz-Anin, another volume by Israel Serebriany, and a novel based on Sholem Aleichem's life by Abraham Kahan.

Antisemitism

All recent visitors to the Soviet Union reported widespread antisemitic feeling among both the population and the Soviet elite. Ilya Ehrenburg frankly admitted the existence of antisemitic feeling in the Soviet Union. Just before the Soviet Writers' Congress in 1959 he returned to the problem of antisemitism in an article on Anton Chekhov. Among other things, he emphasized Chekhov's distaste for antisemitism and racial prejudice. "On Rereading Chekhov," published in Novy Mir (May-June 1959), created a stir among Moscow's literati. Harrison E. Salisbury of the New York Times reported that "antisemitic tendencies are still alive and powerful" (September 12, 1959). In hiring personnel, consideration was given not only to ability but also to national origin. Jewish candidates for important jobs in the Ukraine, White Russia, etc., were disqualified on national grounds. While the Soviet minister of higher and secondary education stated that there were no quotas limiting the admission of Jews to educational institutions (New York Times, September 29, 1959), it was nevertheless reported that Jewish students experienced difficulties in entering certain schools. There were also persistent reports of sur- prisingly small Jewish enrollments even in places with a substantial Jewish population. Anti-Jewish stereotypes appeared with increasing frequency in the provincial press. One article, Zreci Boga Yagve ("Priests of the God Jehovah"), by Panas Efremenko, appeared in the Ukrainian Prikarpatska Pravda (Stanis- lav, September 24, 1958). With its blatant attack on the Jewish religion and its association of Jewishness with filth, treachery, etc., it could easily be mis- taken for the invention of some Nazi paper. Less virulent but equally revealing was a piece in Sovetskaya Moldavia (July 23, 1959) in which the author accused the rabbis of ignorance and reactionary thinking and insinuated that religious Jews despised honest work. Despite denials by Moscow, signs of anti-Jewish campaigns multiplied. There were reports of the arrest of eight Jewish students in Minsk "for having organized a Zionist cell." There was also a report of the imprisonment of elderly Jews in Moldavia for "insobriety"; the accused were drinking wine in observance of the ancient havdalah rite at the end of the Sabbath (New York SOVIET UNION 263 Times, June 19, 1959; JTA, August 18, 1959). In October 1959 it was reported from Kiev that the name of Sholem Aleichem Street in that city had been changed to Konstantinovskaya Street. There were also cases of violent antisemitism, engineered, apparently, by habitual criminals, delinquent youths, etc The New York Times (October 13, 1959) reported attempts at arson in the synagogue of Malakhovka, near Moscow. Leaflets posted in Malakhovka invited the citizens to "kill the Jews and save the revolution." (Another version was ". . . save Russia": Sotzialisticheski Vestnik, New York, December 1959.)

Relations with Israel and the Middle East There was no change in the hostile Soviet attitude towards Israel. Radio Moscow attacked Israel as the 51st state of the United States and insisted that United States aid to Israel was being used mainly for miliary expenditures. That "the aggressive militaristic policies" of Israel had little support from the "Israeli masses" was a thesis of Gosudarstvo Israels, Evo Polozjenie e Politika ("The State of Israel: Its Situation and its Politics"), by K. Ivanov and Z. Sheinis, published by Gospolitisdat in 1958. Intended for internal propaganda, it was full of vitriolic attacks on Zionism—e.g., that it was a species of racism. The Kremlin leaders continued to court the Arab states. In May 1959 an agreement to strengthen Soviet-Iraqi friendship was signed, and various moves were under way to increase cultural exchanges between the Soviet Union and Iraq. At the same time, Soviet advisers were working on the Aswan dam in Egypt, and Soviet aid was warmly praised by the Egyptian press. According to reports in the London Financial Times (August 30, 1959), shipping links between Israel and the Soviet Union, cut off during the Sinai campaign in 1956, were quietly resumed. Despite Khrushchev's hints that at some unspecified future date Russian Jews would be permitted to go to Israel, Jewish emigration from the Soviet Union was prohibited, with very rare exceptions.

Birobidjan The Jewish population of Birobidjan was estimated at 35,000. Though Soviet Jews preferred to think of Birobidjan as a dead issue, there were re- curring rumors of the projected forced removal of Jews to the autonomous region. In January 1959, during Mikoyan's visit to the United States, he told American Jewish Committee leaders that "the reported plans for the recreation of a Jewish state in Birobidjan and the transfer of the Jewish population in Russia to that area is without foundation." The only Yiddish newspaper in the Soviet Union, the Birobidjaner Shtern, with a circulation of 1,000, continued to appear three times weekly, but Jewish cultural life in the territory had disintegrated. There were no Yiddish schools or Yiddish movies, and the Yiddish language was heard infrequently in the city. Jewish religious life was very limited. Religious services were conducted in a make- 264 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK shift building, without a rabbi, and attended chiefly by old men and women. According to the Day-Jewish Journal (August 24, 1959), Soviet News of the Russian embassy in London reported that a volume entitled Jewish Auton- omous Region, containing stories, poems, and articles, recently appeared, with contributions by Yiddish writers translated into Russian.

LEON SHAPIRO

POLAND *

URING the year under review (July 1, 1958, through June 30, 1959) much of Wladislaw Gomulka's energy was devoted to fighting both the remain- Ding Stalinist die-hards and the liberal elements that had spearheaded his return to power. In December 1958 Poland commemorated the 40th anniversary of the founding of the Polish Communist party. It was also celebrated in the Soviet Union, where in 1938 Stalin had liquidated the Polish Communist leadership and dissolved the party itself. Anastas Mikoyan represented the Soviet Union at the celebrations in Poland and praised Gomulka for "leading the party forward in an earnest and Bolshevik way." At the third congress of the Polish United Workers (Communist) party in Warsaw in March 1959, Gomulka made it clear that he fully accepted Marxist- Leninist doctrine as currently interpreted by Nikita Khrushchev, and that "revisionists" faced expulsion from both party and government jobs. Never- theless, the regime continued its tolerant attitude toward scholarship, literature, and the arts, and the Polish intelligentsia still enjoyed considerable freedom. After much soul-searching, the Gomulka regime recognized "the leading position" of the Soviet Union among "socialist" countries and of the Soviet Communist party among the "equal" parties of those countries. While there was no break in the friendly relations with Tito's Yugoslavia, Gomulka censured the League of Yugoslav Communists for its isolationism and lack of confidence in the world Communist movement. There was no substantial change in relations between the state and the Roman Catholic church. The press continued to denounce the "political intervention" of the church in the secular domain, and some priests were arrested and jailed for "black marketing," use of the church for "nonreligious purposes," etc. However, the basic state-church agreement remained in effect. While respect for "the will of the peasants" continued to be the official policy, the importance of agricultural collectives was increasingly stressed and the peasants were apparently being prepared for a possible policy change.

Jewish Situation Jewish repatriates from Russia continued to arrive, and Jews continued to leave Poland for Israel and other countries. But the year under review saw * For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. POLAND 265 a certain stabilization of Jewish life in Poland. A division was still felt between the old settlers and the repatriated Jews, but the feeling of panic and help- lessness, particularly among the repatriates, had substantially disappeared. In November 1958 the Cultural and Social Union of Polish Jews condemned the emigration trend as a survival of "bourgeois ideology" and invited all Jews "to think twice before taking the decision to emigrate" (Folks-shtimme, Warsaw, November 20, 1958). The central government and the party took energetic measures to combat antisemitism, but anti-Jewish prejudices remained widespread. Anti-Jewish incidents and acts of vandalism took place in various localities. It was also reported that before the Communist congress in Warsaw in March 1959, an antisemitic leaflet was circulated among party members by Polish Stalinists as a means of fighting Gomulka and the new regime. However, the Com- munists in charge of Polish Jewish affairs strongly denied any serious danger of antisemitism in the party or the government. They cited, among other things, the fact that Roman Zambrowski, a Jew, was on the party politburo. Szymon Zachariasz, a leader of the Cultural and Social Union, was on the party's Central Control Commission.

Jewish Population Accurate data on the Jewish population of Poland were not available. According to the best estimates, in June 1959 there was a total of 41,000 Jews, including 12,000 repatriates from the Soviet Union, in a total Polish population of 28,783,000. Repatriation and Emigration The 1957 Russo-Polish agreement on repatriation of Polish citizens, which was to expire on Docember 31, 1958, was continued, first through March and then through June 1959. As a result, Polish citizens registered before March 31, 1959, but unable to leave within the agreed period, could do so. It was estimated that from the beginning of the repatriation in 1957 through June 1959, over 18,000 Jews returned to Poland from the Soviet Union. About 6,000 of them left for Israel, France, and other countries and 12,000 stayed in Poland, joined by 500 more in July and August 1959. Only a few Jews left Poland during the summer of 1959. Communal Life The Cultural and Social Union of Polish Jews, the central organization of Polish Jewry, had 21 local committees serving a membership of 5,000, including 700 "activists." It was reported in the spring of 1959 that the Cultural and Social Union was suffering from a shortage of funds because the government subsidy had been reduced and income from membership was inadequate. There were no new elections during the period under review, and Hersh Smoliar and David Sfard continued as president and secretary general, respectively. Many Jewish leaders from Israel, Europe, and America visited Poland. 266 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK Jacob Blaustein, honorary president of the American Jewish Committee, spent two weeks in Poland at the invitation of the Polish government, visiting many Jewish communities and meeting with Jewish leaders. The Cultural Union was still discussing with WJC whether and on what terms it should affiliate with that body. Three representatives of the union- Michael Mirsky, Hersh Smoliar, and David Sfard—attended the plenary assembly of WJC in Stockholm in August 1959 as observers and criticized Israel and WJC.

RELIGIOUS LIFE Jewish visitors from abroad reported a considerable increase in religious interest among Polish Jews. Interest in religious identification was also seen among the Jewish repatriates from the Soviet Union, some of whom had for a number of years been totally cut off from Jewish life. The Jewish Religious Congregations (Wa'ad ha-Kehillot) ministered to Jewish religious needs in 26 localities. During the summer of 1959 a special rabbinical meeting in Warsaw discussed the situation of religious Jewry in Poland. It was reported that there were 17 small schools of the Talmud Torah type, where Jewish children received some rudimentary religious education. The Wa'ad also took care of the cemeteries, most of which were in dire need of repair. In addition to its purely religious activities, Wa'ad ha-Kehillot, with the help of JDC, provided for the special needs of repatriates by kosher kitchens and summer camps for children. Toward the end of 1958, 15 kosher kitchens in Dzier- zionow, Lignice, Swidnica, Wroclaw (Breslau), Cracow, Warsaw, Lodz, and other places distributed 50,000 kosher meals a month to 2,000 persons, 90 per cent of them repatriated Jews. The Communist activists in Jewish affairs vehemently denounced Jews eating in skull caps in the Lignice kosher kitchen (Folks-shtimme, June 5, 1958). Isaac Frankel was president of the Wa'ad, and David Percowitch was rabbi of Warsaw. During the summer of 1959, Rabbi A. Zibes was appointed deputy to old Rabbi Percowitch. Rabbis Perlow and Kivelevitch, who had spent the war years in the Soviet Union, reportedly returned to Poland. A serious lack of religious personnel continued.

JEWISH EDUCATION In the 1958-59 school year a difficult situation arose from the influx of new pupils from repatriated families and the lack of qualified teachers. The schools used every inducement to attract teachers. Thus, in Folks-shtimme of Novem- ber 29, 1958, an advertisement promised teachers immediate employment and housing in Lignice and Dzierzionow. A special conference was held in June in Warsaw on problems of teaching Jewish history and Yiddish, at which L. Lozowski represented the ministry of education. At the end of the 1958-59 school year, Jewish state schools had a total enrollment of some 3,000 pupils. These included Yiddish schools in Lignice (800), Wroclaw (500), Lodz (400), Szcezin (Stettin) (300), Walbrzych (300), Dzierzio- now, and Bielawa. POLAND 267

SOCIAL WELFARE The welfare program of JDC reached about 20,000 individuals in 1959. Operating through local Jewish welfare committees, it included assistance in home furnishing (2,300 individuals), cash relief (4,000), feeding of school children (2,500), grants to families of ORT trainees (6,000), etc. JDC also supported a home for the aged in Lodz and various projects of the religious congregations, and contributed to capital investment for producers' cooperatives. Initiated in 1957 especially for repatriated Jews, the JDC program now largely also covered the needs of the local Jewish population. An estimated 50 per cent of the Jews in Poland received JDC help in one form or another. ORT provided technical training for 4,000 persons in a large variety of trades. In March 1958 ORT was active in 21 localities, besides teaching trades in the Jewish schools. Local Jewish leaders stressed the need to expand constructive aid programs, emphasizing vocational training and the so-called "productivization" of individuals without technical trades (Folks-shtimme, February 5, 1959).

ECONOMIC STATUS AND PRODUCERS' COOPERATIVES In September 1958 a special conference was held on the economic status of the Jewish population and questions connected with the producers' cooperatives. While the Communist leadership contended that Jews should become fully integrated into Polish society, Jewish workers and artisans still suffered from discrimination in factories and shops. The producers' cooperatives aided not only the repatriated Jews, for whom they were initially reestablished in 1957, but also the longer-settled Jewish artisans and workers, giving productive employment to many Jews who otherwise would have had difficulty finding suitable jobs. On January 1, 1959, there were 11 Jewish cooperatives producing clothing, shoes, hats, cotton and leather goods, etc. They employed 723 workers, compared with 517 on June 30, 1958 (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 218). Plans for 1959 called for a further increase to 1,170 by the year's end. Nine of the 11 cooperatives were working at a profit, and the total product of all 11 in 1958 was zl.30,243,000 {Folks-shtimme, March 5, 1958). At the official rate the dollar was worth 24 zloty. A law passed in July 1958 regulated the issuance of permits to artisans, permits for opening private commercial enterprises, etc. It established a scale of payments for the issuance of artisan licenses ranging from 500 to 10,000 zl., but exempted from payment those who had worked for more than 20 years as artisans. Since an estimated 12 per cent of the gainfully employed Jews in Poland were artisans, the new law could have important repercussions on the economic status of the Jews.

CULTURAL AcnvrriES The Cultural and Social Union made strenuous efforts to reestablish Yiddish cultural activities, which had been undermined by Jewish emigration from Poland. It was officially reported that in October 1958 there were six dramatic 268 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK groups, six choruses, eight youth clubs, and a puppet theater for children. A special seminar for cultural workers in October 1958 was designed to improve local standards and to replace experienced men and women who had left Poland. A countrywide conference of supporters of the Yiddish Bukh publication society was held in Wroclaw in January 1959, and was attended by 90 delegates from local unions, the press, etc. In 1958 Yiddish Bukh, under the direction of Leyb Domb, published Raphael Mahler's Yiden in amoliken Poilen in likht fun tzifern ("Jews in Early Poland in the Light of Numbers"). The Jewish Historical Institute continued research as well as issuing its publications, Bletter far geshikhte in Yiddish and a bulletin in Polish. In 1958 the institute published, in Polish, a study of the extermination of Jews in occupied Poland. The 100th anniversary of the birth of Sholem Aleichem was celebrated at a meeting on March 2, 1959, in Warsaw, organized by the Cultural and Social Union in cooperation with non-Jewish organizations. Similar assemblies were held in many other Polish towns. On August 13, 1958, the 20th anniversary of the death of A. M. Wajsenberg, one of the creators of modern Yiddish literature, was observed. The Yiddish State Theater continued its activities, and on October 5, 1958, left for a tour of France and Belgium. Toward the end of 1958 the Yiddish press, particularly Folks-shtimme, devoted many issues to commemoration of the 40th anniversary of the Polish Communist party and Jewish participation in the Polish workers' movement

LEON SHAPIRO

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

ROM mid-1958 to mid-1959 the "peace campaign" of the Soviet bloc was Fthe main theme of the political pronouncements of the central bodies of Czechoslovak Jewry which appeared in the unsigned editorials of Vestnik ("Gazette"), monthly publication of the Council of Jewish Religious Com- munities. Warnings against the idealization of Masaryk and Benel by "some of our correligionists" figured as a minor motif. At the same time, however, the 40th anniversary of October 28, 1918, founding day of the first Czechoslovak republic, was officially celebrated. On that occasion the Jewish Council of Prague received congratulatory communications from the Cultural and Social Union of Polish Jews, the so-called Jewish Community of Greater Berlin, the Jewish Consistory of the Bulgarian People's Republic, and the Jewish community of Hungary. Vestnik's silence on Zionism and Israel was broken only once, in August 1959, when it ran an article entitled "Israeli Arms for West Germany's Army" that reported the protest of the Jewish Council of Prague and the Central Jewish Association of Slovakia against Israel's delivery of grenade launchers to the Federal Republic of Germany. The same issue of Vestnik published a CZECHOSLOVAKIA 269 message from Chief Rabbi Gustav Sicher to the World Youth Congress in Vienna. The reply of President Isaac Ben-Zvi of Israel to the Czechoslovak protest, made public on August 30, pointed out that Czechoslovakia was the main supplier of arms to Israel's Arab neighbors, and that German guilt was distributed equally between West and East Germany.

Jewish Political Prisoners

The appeal of 27 Zionist leaders, sentenced to prison between 1952 and 1954, was denied by the judicial authorities of Prague. They were reported serving their sentences in the uranium mines of Jachymov, the older prisoners assigned to surface duties, the younger to work underground. Socialist spokesmen in Great Britain interceded unsuccessfully for this group with Mikhail A. Suslov, a leading Soviet Communist, when he visited England in March 1959. It was reported that the Czech authorities had promised that the cases of the imprisoned Jews would be reconsidered individually. Mordecai Oren unsuccessfully petitioned the Supreme Court of Czecho- slovakia for a review of his case. Oren, sentenced in 1953 to 15 years in connection with the Slansky case, was released from prison in 1956 (AJYB, 1957 [Vol. 58], p. 323) and expelled from Czechoslovakia. In 1958 he published an account of these events, Reshimot Asir Perag ("Notes of a Prisoner in Prague"), in Israel. In 1959 Oren's party, Mapam, launched a campaign for his rehabilitation and for the release of the jailed Zionists in Czechoslovakia. The May 1959 issue of Mezindrodni Politika ("International Politics") included an article on the German question by Vavro Hajdu, a former deputy foreign minister and one of the three defendants in the Slansky case who were not executed. The two other survivors of the trial, Evien Loebl and Artur London, had been freed in 1956 (New York Times, May 27, 1959). All three were of Jewish origin. They had received life sentences as "Trotskyite- Titoist-Zionist bourgeois nationalist traitors and enemies of the Czechoslovak people." The release of Bernard FarkaS, regional rabbi of Northern Bohemia who had been arrested in March 1957, was indirectly announced when the October 1958 Vestnik stated that Rabbi FarkaS had resumed his office on September 1, 1958.

Communal Organization

There was no change in the organizational structure of Czechoslovakia's 18,000 Jews (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], pp. 220-21). In Bohemia and Moravia the nine Jewish religious communities, with their local synagogal subdivisions, were represented by the Council of Jewish Religious Communities in the Czech Lands. Forty-two Slovak congregations were affiliated with the Central Association of Jewish Religious Communities in Slovakia. With the return of Rabbi FarkaS, there were again four rabbis in Bohemia and Moravia: Chief Rabbi Gustav Sicher and Rabbis Richard Feder, Emil Davidovic', and FarkaS. Slovakia had Chief Rabbi EliaS Katz and Rabbis 270 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK Solomon Steiner and Gustav Wald. Hope was expressed that the contemplated opening of a Jewish seminary in Bratislava would eventually alleviate the shortage of rabbis and religious teachers. In October 1958 Vestnik published an appeal to the Jews of Czechoslovakia to fulfill their financial duties to the Jewish communities, complaining that Jewish spokesmen, in their budgetary negotiations with representatives of the national committees of their districts, found it hard to explain why contributions obtained through the voluntary religious tax were so small. During the first half of 1959 the congregations in the western provinces elected new officers in preparation for the triennial elections to the council, scheduled for December 1959.

CULTURAL ACTIVITIES The number of books on Jewish themes increased. Several, by both Jewish and non-Jewish writers, were published outside the framework of organized Jewish life. Pet svdtecnich svitku ("Five Holiday Scrolls"), a new Czech translation of the Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecdesiastes, and Esther, was edited by the young semitologist Stanislav Segert, who also wrote intro- ductions for the individual books and contributed the translations of Ecdesi- astes and Esther. For the other translations he secured the collaboration of the great Czech poet Jaroslav Seifert and of Vilem Zavada and Vgra KubicTtovi. On the occasion of the Sholem Aleichem centennial, the State Publishing House for Literature, Music, and the Arts issued a selection of his writings translated from the Yiddish by Jakub Markovic". Tevya the Milkman was also translated into Slovak by the Slovak Jewish writer Emil Kriezka. In May 1959 a literary evening in Prague's Jewish center was dedicated to Sholem Aleichem. Official commemorative meetings in several dties were announced for November 1959. An anthology from the work of the Czech Jewish writer Vojte'ch Rakous, who died in 1935, appeared under the title Modche a Rezi a jine pfibehy ("Modche and Rezi and Other Stories"). Two Polish books on Jewish subjects, Julian Strijkowski's Hlasy v temnotdch ("Voices in the Darkness") and Adolf Rudnicki's live a mrtvi more ("The Living and the Dead Sea"), were translated into Czech and published in the fall of 1958. Jifi Weil's latest book, lalozpev na 77297 obeti ("Lamentation for 77,297 Victims"), was a memorial to the Jews of Bohemia and Moravia who perished in the Nazi holocaust. So was Jan OtcenaSek's short novel Romeo, Julie a tma ("Romeo, Juliet, and the Dark"), which received critical acdaim and was awarded the Prague literary prize. H. G. Adler, the historian and sodologist of the Theresienstadt ghetto and concentration camp, author of Theresienstadt 1941-1945: Das Antlitz einer Zwangsgemeinschaft and Die demaskierte Wahrheit, a collection of 241 documents concerning Theresienstadt, was one of the three Leo Baeck award (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], pp. 198-99) winners for 1958 (see p. 246). Drawings and paintings of Theresienstadt children were used as background for the film "Butterflies Do Not Live Here," which was televised in Prague in March 1959 and took first prize for documentaries at the Czechoslovak film HUNGARY 271 festival in Banska Bystrica in February 1959. The film also won a grand prize at the Cannes film festival in May 1959. The Jewish Almanac for 5720 was published in September 1959. It contained contributions by Rabbis Sicher, Feder, Katz, and FarkaS, as well as articles by FrantiSek Langer, FrantiJek Gottlieb, FrantiSek Kafka, Vladimir Kafka, FrantiSek R. Kraus, Amok Lustig, Otto Muneles, Dagmar Peroutkova, Jiff Weil, Rudolf Itlis, and others, and reprints from Sholem Aleichem, Scholem Asch, Pavel Eisner, and Hugo Salus. For the 14th anniversary of the liberation of Czechoslovakia, the Jewish State Museum prepared an exhibition in the Maisl synagogue of Prague, called "We, the Dead, Accuse," depicting the fate of Czechoslovakia's Jews after March 15, 1939, when the Nazis seized Czechoslovakia. The Klaus synagogue and the synagogue in Dusni Street in Prague, which had not been in use, were put at the disposal of the Jewish Museum for permanent exhibitions of materials on the annual cycle of Jewish religious life and of the most valuable pieces of the museum's huge collection of ceremonial textiles. In August 1959 a memorial plaque was unveiled at the house in Marienbad (Mariansk£ Llznfi) where 25 years earlier the noted Jewish philosopher Theodor Lessing had been murdered by Nazi agents.

HUNGARY *

N JULY 15, 1958, the United Nations Special Committee on Hungary O issued a second report on the reign of terror which followed the Soviet suppression of the Hungarian uprising of November 1956. It reported 30 more death sentences, besides the 105 originally reported, and hundreds of long prison terms for such offenses as attempting to cross the frontier, dealing in foreign currency, and "instigation against the democratic order." Towards the end of 1958, 30 member nations of the UN proposed the appointment of a UN agent on the Hungarian question, to report to the General Assembly on Hungary's compliance with the many UN resolutions calling for free elections, the withdrawal of Soviet forces, and respect for human rights. At the same time, other proposals were made for the expulsion of the Hungarian "puppet delegates" from the UN. None of these proposals was adopted. After the summer of 1958 the direct terror, climaxed by the execution in June of Premier Imre Nagy and three of his associates, gradually abated. Executions, mass arrests, and deportations were largely replaced by other methods. One of these was the systematic penetration of religious life through collaborating clergymen. The Kldar regime placed pro-Communist clergy in key positions in the various dioceses, Catholic and Protestant alike. Catholic priests of this sort were organized in Opus Pads ("Work of Peace"), which was completely sub- servient to the aims of the party. Members of this group were increasingly appointed by the regime as "coadjutors" to the bishops, in effect taking over

* For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. 272 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK most of the functions of the latter. Several resisting church dignitaries were arrested. Calvinist and Lutheran bishops were similarly replaced by collaborators with the regime. On May 17, 1959, Pope John XXIII protested in a sermon against the Communist attempt "to foment a schism in the Roman Catholic Church" in Hungary. In April 1959 Archbishop Joszef Groesz, acting head of Hungarian Catholicism in the absence of Joszef Cardinal Mindszenty, and the bishops were compelled to take an oath of loyalty to the Communist constitution. The oath was also required of the Protestant church and the Jewish community leadership. On June 2 the head of the government's church office, Janos Horvath, was replaced by Karoly Olt, former Stalinist finance minister under Rakosi. The press intensified its campaign against religion. Minister of Education Gyula Kallay was reported to have declared that "peaceful coexistence" with the churches was not enough, but that they must be compelled "actively to cooperate" with the regime. Vacant church offices were filled exclusively on the basis of appointments by the state authorities. It was too early to determine how these developments would affect the position of the Jewish community. Other methods of stamping out centers of potential resistance included the disbarment of many hundreds of lawyers, at least half of them Jews, and the extension of rigid police controls over all organizations of writers, artists, students, and other groups of intellectuals. However, the regime did not interfere with the conduct of religious services or even with cultural activities by religious groups. While the properties of churches and religious communities had long since been confiscated and their right to tax their members abolished, they continued to receive government subsidies, which made them all the more dependent on the regime. On October 14, 1958, the London Jewish Chronicle reported that the government had decided to continue the previous subsidy to the Jewish community for 1959 and 1960, instead of cutting it to 50 per cent, as had been planned.

Community Organization and Religion Altough religiously divided into the so-called Neolog and Orthodox wings, Hungary's 100,000 Jews were united in their communal activities. In Budapest there were eight synagogues. The 80-year-old Budapest Jewish Theological Seminary, directed by Sandor Scheiber, continued to function with nine students. Most of its former students had fled from Hungary during the 1956 revolution. The Jewish communities engaged in cultural activities, such as lectures, Bible courses, and some primary religious education of a private character. According to the Warsaw Folks-shtimme of June 21, 1958, two secondary schools for children of religious families included Hebrew and the Jewish religion in their curriculum. The same article reported that two orphanages, a home for the aged, a Jewish hospital with a hundred beds, and a Jewish cafeteria serving three thousand persons were maintained. The Hungarian- language Jewish weekly Uj tUt ("New Life") continued to appear, reflecting HUNGARY 273 the party line. In April 1959 a new synagogue and a memorial for Jewish victims of Nazism were inaugurated in the city o£ Debrecen. In 1959 preparations were made to exhibit documents on Jewish life and history in Hungary in the Jewish museum in Budapest. Volume V, part 1, of the Monumenta Hungariae Judaica, covering historical documents from 1096 to 1700, edited by Fulop Grunwald and Sandor Scheiber, appeared in Buda- pest in 1959. In September 1958 the Hungarian committee of WJC and the Budapest Jewish Community held a joint meeting in Budapest to hear a report from a delegation which had attended the WJC meeting in Geneva.

Emigration

In the fall of 1958 it was rumored in Jerusalem that Hungary would again permit the emigration of Jews. But during the year under review there was no movement from Hungary to Israel. In May 1959 the Hungarian foreign ministry let it be known that Hungary would favor the reuniting of divided families only by the return of their emigrant members to Hungary. In September 1958 Uj tXet printed an article by Rabbi Oedon Singer, who escaped to Israel in 1956 and later returned to Hungary. He asserted that the Israeli authorities were "heartless" to immigrants, who therefore longed to return to their old countries. Jews emigrating from Rumania to Israel between August 1958 and March 1959 were permitted undisturbed transit through Hungary (see p. 274). fLmigres

In the second half of 1958 Hungarian Arrow Cross Nazi emigre groups in West Germany stepped up their antidemocratic and antisemitic propaganda, disseminated among Hungarian emigres throughout Western Europe and the Americas. Banned from Vienna, one of these publications, called Cil ("Goal"), the organ of a group called Hungarists and led by the notorious Nazi Arpad Heney, resumed publication in Munich, Bavaria. At the same time another Nazi periodical, the monthly Hidverok ("Bridge Builders"), banned in 1949 by the United States occupation authorities in Germany when the American Jewish Committee complained, resumed publication under the editorship of Gaza Alfoldi, a wartime Nazi propagandist. Following the reappearance of the two Nazi papers in Bavaria in August 1958 (see p. 236), the Association of Jewish Communities in Bavaria filed a complaint with the Bavarian ministry of the interior against the publishers. In March 1959 the Bavarian Social Democratic, party and the Association of Socialist Emigrants published a "White Book" exposing the subversive activities of the emigre groups supporting these publications. At the same time the Hungarian Council in Germany, opposed to Nazism and Communism alike, denounced the antidemocratic and antisemitic groups. The matter was taken up with German political leaders and high officials of the federal and Bavarian administrations by the European office of the 274 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK American Jewish Committee in March 1959. Pending the entering into force of an amendment to the federal penal code already adopted by the upper house of the West German parliament which would provide sanctions against group libel, the authorities decided to call on the publishers of the two papers to cease publication and to quit Germany voluntarily.

RUMANIA * Emigration to Israel HEN mass emigration of Jews from Rumania to Israel became possible Wagain in late 1958 and early 1959, after a virtual halt of about seven years, it was reliably reported that 120,000 persons, out of a Jewish population estimated at 220,000, registered for emigration. The number of those who actually emigrated came to over 15,000, the peak of the movement being reached in January 1959, when about 8,000 were reported to have left. Soon afterwards the government again clamped down, and on March 20 the New York Times reported from Vienna that the emigration of Rumanian Jews had been stopped entirely on March 9, 1959. The emigration procedure imposed by the government was very complex. The would-be emigrant had to obtain a large number of documents from different government offices—statements concerning the payment of taxes, irreproachable conduct, etc. He also lost his job and his home and had to sign a formal renunciation of citizenship. Thus everything was done to make his emigration irrevocable. Each document involved a high fee—even the renunciation of citizenship cost 1,000 lei ($166). Emigrants were allowed to take along only a few things (154 pounds for working people, 88 pounds for others). The luggage had to be packed in wooden boxes supplied by the government, at a price. Hence many Jewish families had to sell all their household goods, within a few days' notice and at sacrifice prices. The emigrant was not allowed to come in contact with the Israeli consulate. Together with the travel papers he received from the Rumanian government, he also received the Israeli visa and transit visas through Hungary and Austria. (A small number of emigrants left through Yugoslavia.) Once all the papers had been issued the emigrant had to leave the country without delay. The emigrants were selected from both old and new lists of applicants. Those who had registered in previous years were not asked whether they had changed their minds in the meantime. And occasionally Jews who had never registered for emigration were told to sign up "voluntarily." Though world Jewish opinion resented this ruthless procedure, no protest was made for fear of reprisals. On the contrary, the emigration was hailed enthusiastically by Jews everywhere. In the United States and in other Jewish communities throughout the free world great efforts were made to raise funds for the emigrants. A special loan was launched in Israel and Israeli Prime

• For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. RUMANIA 275 Minister David Ben-Gurion said at a rally of subscribers that "factors under- lying the emigration from Rumania might lead to the elimination of barriers against the largest concentration of Jews in the Old World" (New York Times, January 28, 1959)—i.e., the Soviet Union itself. Whatever the reasons for the resumption of emigration, its cessation was due to Arab protests. Egyptian Under Secretary for Foreign Affairs Saeleh Khalil warned Rumanian Minister to Egypt Constantin Stanescu that Rumanian Jewish emigration to Israel would have a detrimental effect on Arab-Rumanian relations (New York Herald Tribune, February 24, 1959). On February 25 the New York Times published a statement by the Rumanian government charging leading circles in Israel and world Zionism with falsely trumpeting abroad that a mass migration of Rumanian Jews to Israel was on the way. The same statement announced that the Rumanian news agency Ager-Press accused Israel and "imperialist circles" of using the emigration of Rumanian Jews to Israel to create ill-feeling between the Eastern bloc and the UAR. At the same time an attache of the Israeli legation in Bucharest, Amnon Keren, was expelled, charged with an attempt to mislead the Rumanian Jews into requesting permission for emigration to Israel. The first secretary of the Rumanian Communist party, Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, declared that the Rumanian government would do everything in its power to maintain good relations with the Arab nations. When emigration was stopped abruptly, an estimated 14,000 Jews who had lost their jobs, their homes, and their citizenship were unable to leave. Emigrants on their way to the Hungarian border were stopped and turned back. The halt in emigration was accompanied by vehement Rumanian Com- munist internal propaganda against emigration and against Israel. Those in charge of Rumanian Jewish communal affairs joined in the vilification of Israel. The refugee publication La Nation roumaine (Paris, May 1959) reported that Bercu Feldman, the member of parliament from Yassy and the Communist boss of Jewish affairs, created an anti-Israel committee in Yassy, and similar committees were set up in other parts of the country. In Israel data from a survey of some 1,500 heads of families may be assumed to be fairly representative of the new Rumanian immigrants. Occupationally, 58 per cent were artisans and craftsmen, 12 per cent were workers and farmers, and 30 per cent were members of the free professions. By age, 45 per cent were between 20 and 49, 25 per cent were 50 or older, and the rest were under 20 (Jewish Observer and Middle East Review, February 6, 1959). The organ of the Bukovinian landsmanshaft in Israel, Di Shtimme (May 1959), noted that there were 180 physicians among the Rumanian immigrants. Apparently this time the Rumanian government had imposed no restrictions of age or occupation, whereas the previous emigration consisted largely of older people. A trickle of emigrants left Rumania after March 1959, and there were many rumors about the resumption of emigration. Thus Ma'ariv, a leading Tel-Aviv daily (JTA, April 5, 1959), quoted "diplomatic sources" as stating that "despite the bad impression created by some irresponsible statements with regard to Jewish emigration, the Rumanian government still intends to abide by the humanitarian principle of reuniting families." On July 9, 1959, the Associated 276 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK Press reported from Vienna that a few dozen emigrants had arrived from Rumania on their way to Israel. There was no direct news from Israel on new arrivals. The Israel government made all information pertaining to immigration a state secret by an order published in the Official Gazette on June 7, 1959. No word on the fate of the Jews caught by the abrupt halt in emigration while in the midst of their preparations for departure had been received abroad at the time of writing.

Internal Conditions The Communist leaders of Rumanian Jewry continued to depict Jewish community life in the same glowing colors as in previous years. The only publication of the Rumanian Jews, Revista cultului mosaic (with text in Rumanian, Hebrew, and Yiddish), was filled with praise of the Communists and declarations of loyalty to the government. Its editor, Chief Rabbi Moses Rosen, also rendered homage to the regime in all his holiday messages. In November 1958 a Jew named Kowler, formerly a businessman in Bucharest, was sentenced to death and executed for a crime allegedly involving exceptional social danger, one of the first victims of a new amendment to the penal code reintroducing capital punishment for grave offenses against the security of the state. The London Times (October 13, 1958) and the Economist (October 25, 1958) reported that a great wave of terror was sweep- ing Rumania. No details about the activities of the executed Kowler were published, but the London Jewish Chronicle (November 28, 1958) stated that a non-Jew under whose leadership Kowler claimed to have carried out his activities was only sentenced to prison. On April 8, 1959, Rabbi Alexander Zissu Purtogal was arrested, together with his son Hillel (JTA, April 19, 1959). This hasidic rabbi, who before the war resided in the Moldavian town of Sculeni and was therefore known as the Sculener Rebbe, was well known as a relatively independent teacher and spiritual leader outside the officially organized Jewish community (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 228). Rabbi Purtogal was in a concentration camp in Transnistria during World War II. His first act at the end of the war was to collect orphans and care for them at his home in Cernauti (Czernowitz), under Russian occupation. His fame spread rapidly and children were brought to him from as far away as Odessa; at one time 40 boys and girls lived in his quarters in Cernauti. Later he was forced to leave for Bucharest, where he continued his care of orphaned children. He was arrested once and was in jail for four months. He traveled about in Rumania, visiting his followers and collecting funds with which to carry on his activities. Rabbi Purtogal was over 65 years old and was said to weigh only 90 pounds, largely because he was unable to obtain kosher food in jail. He and his son were released from jail in the summer of 1959. RUMANIA 277

Community Organization There were 150 Jewish communities in 16 provinces, all belonging to the Federation of Jewish Communities (Wa'ad ha-Kehillot). The salaries of the federation's personnel were partly paid by the government. Its principal income came from matzot, kosher wine, and the manufacture of prayer shawls.

ECONOMIC LIFE The full integration of the Jewish population into the economic life of the country was constantly stressed. At a commemorative celebration in Yassy, for instance, publicity was given to the fact that a textile mill in the city, one of the largest in the entire country, employed 200 Jewish workers and was managed by a Jewish director, Naphtali David. The equality of the Je^s-s and their economic and social gains were also emphasized in a Yiddish broadcast over Radio Bucharest (Jewish Chronicle, May 22, 1959) and were contrasted with conditions under former regimes, when 196 antisemitic laws excluded Jews from trades and professions, including all branches of the government. Now, it was asserted, 40,000 Jews were productively employed in cooperative factories and state enterprises, many in leading positions, often receiving high awards for their contributions to industry. But emigrants who reached Israel reported that although the Rumanian government did not openly persecute the Jews, discrimination was practiced on a large scale and in a systematic way by the dominant bureaucracy, drawn largely from ex-members of the antisemitic Iron Guard (AJYB, 1958 [Vol. 59], p. 340; 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 227). According to these reports there was widespread chaos and corruption in most government industries; the Jews still in administrative posts were held responsible for any irregularities uncovered, and even when dearly innocent were dismissed from their jobs and often prosecuted in the courts. Not many Jews were left in positions of consequence in industry.

CULTURAL AND RELIGIOUS LIFE Rumania, one of the most submissive of Soviet Russia's satellites, nevertheless did not completely follow the Moscow pattern in matters relating to Jewish culture. In June 1959, at a ceremony in Yassy commemorating the 11,000 victims of an Iron Guard massacre in 1941, the president of the Federation of Jewish Communities in Rumania, Israel Bacal, spoke with special pride about the Jewish schools, the two Yiddish state theaters, and the publication of Yiddish literature. Revista cultului mosaic repeatedly said that Jewish religious institutions were in a good state. The authorities were thanked particularly for generous aid in rebuilding synagogues destroyed during the war, including those of Braila, Craiova, Radautz, and Oradea Mare, whose photographs appeared in the paper. It was estimated that there were over 400 synagogues. According to the report in Revista cultului mosaic on the June 1959 ceremony in Yassy mentioned above, the speakers vied with each other in prais- ing the good life now enjoyed by Rumanian Jewry—equality before the law, 278 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK and social, cultural, and economic gains—in contrast to their life under former regimes. In an address over Radio Bucharest on the tenth anniversary of the Yiddish schools, a representative of the ministry for culture and education paid special tribute to Jewish cultural creativity. He emphasized that the Jews were free to cultivate their own language and culture and enjoyed all the government support needed for this purpose. According to the Jewish Chronicle (June 12, 1959), Chief Rabbi Rosen made an address in Yiddish over Radio Bucharest celebrating the tenth anniversary of the adoption of the Statute of the Jewish Communities by the Rumanian parliament. The tenth anniversary of the founding of the Yiddish state theaters (one each in Bucharest and Yassy) was marked by festivities. An article on this occasion in the Warsaw Folks-shtimme by the Rumanian Jewish writer Israel Bercovici credited the government with substantial aid. During the ten years of their existence the Yiddish theaters played 2,000 performances to half a million spectators throughout the country, and 40 Yiddish artists were decorated by the Rumanian government. The celebration of the 100th anniversary of Sholem Aleichem's birth included special performances in the Yiddish theaters. Revista cultului mosaic (July 1, 1958) attributed laudatory statements about Jewish life and institutions in Rumania to Moises Goldman, chairman of the Buenos Aires Jewish Community, and these were repeated in a broadcast over Radio Bucharest on March 3, 1959. Goldman, however, denied (JTA, March 9, 1959) that he had ever been in Rumania or made any of the statements attributed to him by the Rumanian government. The Warsaw Folks-shtimme (August 23, 1958) reported that two books of short stories had been issued by the government publishing house for use in schools, one by Sholem Asch and the other by the American Yiddish writer, Joseph Opatoshu. A Yiddish translation of the Diary of Anne Frank was also published in Bucharest, a copy of which was received by YIVO in New York.

JOSEPH KISSMAN Turkey

HIS report covers the period from mid-1956 to mid-1959. The victory of the government in the violent electoral campaign of TOctober 1957 merely served to intensify the rivalry of the ruling Democratic party and the opposition Republican People's party. The Republican People's party, headed by Kemal Atatiirk's old companion in arms, ex-President Ismet Inonu, at first was deaf to all proposals that it merge with another of the opposition parties, but after its defeat agreed to merge with the Liberty party, whose executive committee consisted mostly of dissidents from the Democratic party. The latter had itself originally been formed by dissident members of the Republican People's party, which had been the sole party in existence under the regimes of Atatiirk and Inonu. The 1957 election gave the Democratic party 424 seats, the Republican People's party 178, and the Liberty party and the right-wing National Re- publican party 4 seats each. After the elections all the defeated parties directed a continuous barrage of criticism against the Democratic party and especially Prime Minister Adnan Menderes, centering their attack on the government's restrictions of freedom of the press and its economic policy. The press law, passed in March 1954 after sharp attacks by the opposition on members of the government, imposed severe penalties for personal attacks on officials. The opposition particularly objected to the fact that persons accused under this law were not permitted to prove the truth of their accusations. The press was permitted to publish criticisms of public affairs, but was also compelled to print the replies the government might see fit to make. Government authorization was required for all public meetings. These laws, together with steps taken to prevent the publication of reports on certain political matters and the imposition of severe sentences on a number of persons, brought a large part of the press over to the side of the opposition. In foreign affairs, and especially where the question of opposition to Communism was involved, the Republican People's party supported the main lines of the government's policy. But it also tried to take advantage of what it regarded as the government's mistakes, like the Baghdad Pact. The opposition was against letting this pact become a means of pressure on Israel, and it held the pact responsible for the formation of the United Arab Republic The Democratic government did not renew ambassadorial relations with Israel, which it had broken off at the time of the Suez affair, in 1956. But trade between the two countries continued, and Israeli companies, notably Solel Boneh, won a number of construction contracts for roads, airports, and buildings. Concerning Cyprus, the opposition strongly supported the government's 279 280 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK demand for partition. The opposition was against relying exclusively on American aid, on the ground that American progress in military technology might some day make the United States place less value on the support of other countries, including Turkey. Moreover, political independence, the opposition maintained, was impossible without economic independence. But it offered no practical formula for the country's economic rehabilitation.

Economic Situation In the economic field, the opposition charged that the government had launched a program of industrial development and investment without a long-range plan, that it had increased purchasing power without providing a parallel increase in consumer goods, and that it had thus opened the way to inflation. The government's policy was aimed at securing a rapid development of the economy, so as to remove Turkey to at least a considerable extent from the category of underdeveloped countries. Without questioning the desirability of this goal or the necessity of a large-scale effort, the opposition criticized the methods employed and charged that out of fear of un- popularity the government had not adopted necessary measures. In any case, the country was in the midst of a vast construction program, which included roads, railroads, power plants, ports, dams, cement factories, and sugar refineries. Turkish electric power production had risen from 757 million kilowatt hours in 1950 to four billion in 1958, and was scheduled to reach five billion in 1960. Investment in 1949 had been 258 million Turkish pounds; ten years later it was at the rate of two billion a year. (From 1949 to 1959 the price index went from 100 to 210.) These achievements were made possible by loans made available either directly by various Western countries or through international institutions. The opposition press asserted that the interest alone on the foreign debt came to §81 million, and that the total debt exceeded a billion, of which $424 million had to be repaid within 12 years. The government had also borrowed another $135 million against its gold reserve, owed about $41 million for petroleum imports, and had debts of $35 million as a result of the dissolution of the European Payments Union. At the same time, Turkish exports in 1958 came to only $247 million, as against the $335 million the government had predicted. Nevertheless, new loans and the promise of a firm stabilization policy gave some reason for optimism. For the moment, the opposition contented itself with championing freedom of the press, assembly, and worship, and the right to strike and to form professional groups—essentially the same points that the Democratic party had stressed when it was trying to win power between 1946 and 1950. The similarity was recognized by a large part of the public, who had at that time responded to the Democratic party's campaign by giving it an overwhelming majority; they now found it difficult to understand why the present opposition leaders had not, when they were in power, established the liberties they now demanded. The Democrats did not fail to point out this paradox, but without placing undue stress on it, since their own leaders had held office during the period of one-party rule. TURKEY 281

Tradition and Modernity As a result of these circumstances there appeared to be a tendency for people to look for new faces and new formulas. The desire for westernization kindled by Atatiirk was still alive in the hearts of the intellectual elite of the youth, and indeed of a great part of the population, and had played an important part in bringing the Democratic party to power in 1950. The attempt of some Democrats to win the votes of the religious masses by accusing the opposition of atheism drew unfavorable comments from many observers, who considered respect for the letter and spirit of the constitutional principle of secularism as the best guarantee of freedom of religion and worship. Kemalist doctrine saw secularism as the surest guarantee of the country's westernization, regarding any concession in that field as a dangerous encouragement to a latent obscurantism, falsely identified with tradition. But the Democratic government, while it authorized sermons on the radio, prayers in Arabic, and religious instruction in the schools, also sought to prevent religious fanaticism. The opposition charged the government with trying to assure itself the votes of the devout by its religious policy, as it had previously obtained the support of the rural population by its agrarian policy. However, while religious publications were freely sold, to the accompaniment of a good deal of propaganda in favor of the Democrats, their circulation was much smaller than that of the numerous Western-oriented and secular dailies and weeklies. All attempts at fanatical practices by Islamic extremists were prosecuted, while no limitation was imposed on the freedom of religious minorities to practice their faiths, so long as these did not involve any aspect of foreign policy. In the 1957 elections the three Jewish publications—the French daily, Journal d'Orient, and the two bilingual (Ladino and Turkish) weeklies Salom and La Vera Luz—firmly supported the Democratic party. In Istanbul, where the Jewish population was substantial, this party included two Jewish candidates on its list, whereas the other parties nominated only one each. The two were Yussuf Salman (Joseph Salmona), former secretary of the Council of the Grand Rabbinate and a Democrat from the party's foundation, and Izak Etabaki (Isaac Altabev), former president of the Council of the Grand Rabbinate; both were elected. The electoral campaign was marked by oratorical duels between the Jewish candidates nominated by the various parties. The Democrats cited the bitter experience of the capital tax (Varlik) imposed by the previous regime in 1942 (AYJB, 194748 [Vol. 49], p. 437) on the members of the minorities. The candidate of the Republican People's party replied that certain Democratic candidates had then been prominent advocates of this tax. The opposition's bitterness as a result of the minorities' heavy vote for the Democrats was intensified by the fact that it was concentrated in Istanbul, where the victorious party stood to win more seats than in any other district. From time to time the opposition's opinions were reflected in unflattering articles addressed to minority groups in certain papers supporting the Republican People's party, such as Hiirriyet and Cumhuriyet. Official Demo- 282 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK cratic organs, such as Havadis and Zafer, denounced these articles as "provo- cations." The events on Cyprus also contributed to the development of a vague antiminority feeling; the resentment felt toward one group, the Greeks, was extended to others. But despite the appearance of a very few openly hostile articles in publications known for such attitudes, the security of Jews, Greeks, and Armenians was not disturbed in 1958 and 1959.

Antisemitism Organs of the extreme right, which had suffered under the previous government, were now resolute defenders of the party in power, but still continued antisemitic attacks. Thus they printed the old dichds about the Protocols of the Elders of Zion and "world-conquering Zionism," and in general took up the slogans of the Arab cause. But these publications, Hur Adam ("Free Man") and Buytik Dogu ("Great East"), had lost much of their importance. The first sought a popular audience, while the second put on a false air of intellectuality. The major newspapers regarded them with contempt, denouncing them for their reactionary tendencies, objecting to their distribution, and criticizing the government for having permitted it so long. Moreover, their antisemitic propaganda came up against the fact that there was practically no "Jewish question" in Turkey, if only because the Jews were so few in comparison with the great majority of Moslems, except in Istanbul. There, together with the other minorities, they formed a group of which the parties had to take account in their electoral campaigns.

Jewish Population In Istanbul the Jewish community was divided into 11 major groups, according to the sections of the city in which they lived. Most were Sephardi, but there were small Ashkenazi and Italian communities as well. According to the most recent statistics available (1950), the mother tongues of the Istanbul Jews covered a wide range, including Turkish, Albanian, English, French, German, Ladino, and Serbian. The total number of Jews in Turkey was estimated at about 42,000,1 as compared with 81,000 in 1927. The total Turkish population was about 26,000,000. In 1950 there were 49,237 Jews in Istanbul, but in 1958 the number had fallen to 32,946. (Istanbul also had 64,000 Greek Orthodox, 37,000 Gregorian Armenians, 12,000 Catholics, and 2,000 Protestants; its total population was about 1.5 million.) Many Jews had emigrated to Israel at various times, particularly just after the proclamation of the state in 1948. The greatest part of the emigrants, however, had come from Anatolia and Eastern Thrace. Except for Izmir (Smyrna), with about 5,000 Jews, the Anatolian Jewish communities were very small; there were 125 families (600 persons) in Brousse, 100 in Ankara, and a few in Mersine and Adana. In Thrace there were 25 families at Kirklareli, 60 at Tekirdagh, and slightly more at Edirna (Adrian- ople).

1 But see p. 352. TURKEY 283

Community Organization The Jews of Turkey were represented in the Council of the Grand Rabbinate, which named the various committees responsible for the functioning of the educational and welfare institutions, as well as of the Grand Rabbinate itself. The education committee of the Grand Rabbinate administered four primary schools, with 1,400 students, and one secondary school, with 600. The deficit of these schools was considerable, and the secondary school had to be expanded if it were to keep up with the demand, which was increasing each year; the sixth grade had 35 students in 1954, 80 in 1956, 130 in 1957, and 177 in 1958. (In proportion to their numbers, the other minorities had substantially greater numbers of schools, the Armenian community having 32 and the Greek community 46). Efforts to build a new secondary school ran up against a lack of funds, and there was not enough money to supply the existing school with modern equipment or pay the teachers adequate salaries. The deficits of the schools were due primarily to the scholarships given to students unable to pay. The Jewish orphanage of Istanbul cared for some 50 children. After the completion of their primary education, they were placed with merchants through the efforts of the members of the committee in charge of the institution. In rare cases, they went on to secondary school. The school of the Izmir Society for Aid to Orphans educated over 400 children, of whom 170 were fed and clothed by the institution. The Mahazike Torah continued to play an important role in the religious life of the community, furnishing cantors in the various districts and suburbs of the cities, giving advice on questions of religious law, and taking responsibility for a number of students. The lack of officiating rabbis was felt less than in previous years, although it recurred in Izmir. That city had a number of synagogues in old quarters without a Jewish population, and proposals were made for their liquidation. About 460 poor students were aided by the Mishneh Torah, founded in 1899, some 300 others by the Tzedakah u-Marpe, and a hundred by the Goutte de Lait, founded in 1907. The Or ha-Hayyim hospital, founded in 1885 with eight beds, had 109 in 1957. In the course of a year its clinic served some 8,000 patients; 900 were hospitalized, and 400 were operated on. It received a subsidy from the Turkish government. Its staff, including that of the clinic, consisted of 100 persons, of whom 40 were physicians. At Izmir there was a hospital with 30 beds, and about 150 operations were performed annually. Istanbul also had a dispensary, operated by the Bikkur Holim, which additionally gave small monthly amounts to 300 needy families. The Veren aided between 200 and 300 persons with tuberculosis; in 1954 it was estimated that seven per cent of Istanbul's Jews either suffered from this sickness or were predisposed to it. In the summer the Veren sent some young invalids to a rest home in the country. Thirty indigent old people received meager care in a private home so inadequate in its means that applicants had to be rejected. All these activities were administered and supported financially by a central organization connected with the Grand Rabbinate. Its budget for 284 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK these purposes came to 350,000 Turkish pounds (about $29,000) in 1957. Since almost half of this went to the Or ha-Hayyim hospital, the others were each limited to the average budget of 15,000 pounds (about $1,250). Necessary reforms in their administration were slow, partly because of the lack of funds and partly because there were few able and dynamic young people. However, an increasing number of young people were beginning to take an interest in communal affairs and to seek a voice in them. This was shown by their criticisms in the Jewish press of the administration of the various institutions and even of the Grand Rabbinate. But they had not yet organized themselves. The desire for social and intellectual activity had declined gradually, and the only meetings that achieved real success were those organized in connection with lectures at the Italian Temple of Istanbul, which had a faithful public. At these lectures the subjects ranged from agriculture to religion. The Istanbul Cultural Club, founded in 1953 by some young people, organized sporadic debates and athletic activities. Others put on plays, including the Diary of Anne Frank, which had considerable success. The artists Edith Assa, Albert Bitran, and Sarah Farhihad had their works exhibited. Jacques Fermon was in the chorus of the State Opera of Istanbul, and Victor Birsel and Glazer played in the Philharmonic Orchestra of Ankara. During the period under review Habib Gerez published collections of poems which were favorably reviewed by the Turkish press, as did Mathilde Altchek in 1954. In 1958 Sami Cohen, political editor of the important daily Milliyet, won second prize in a competition run by the Istanbul Journalists' Association. Abraham Galante, at the age of 85, was still working on his history of the Jews of Turkey. ' >t> fr fr 'V » 't' » * * * 'E »» * 't' ft fr fr 't' fr fr fr fr

Israel

HE year under review (July 1, 1958, to June 30, 1959) was marked by a consolidation of Israel's international relations with Western Europe Tand a further development of political, cultural, and economic ties with a number of the new countries in Africa and Asia. The stability of Israel's democratic regime stood out sharply against the background of the tension in the Middle East. Important Jewish and international gatherings took place within the framework of the tenth-anniversary celebrations. As the general election neared, interparty antagonisms intensified. The period closed with a cabinet crisis over the question of the supply of arms to Western Germany. Israel's Relations with Arab Countries Israel remained calm as international tension grew after the Iraqi revolution in July 1958. The government protested when, on July 17, British planes flew over Israel on their way to Jordan, before obtaining Israel's consent; it later authorized limited flights. When sources in Egypt and the Soviet Union charged that the Israeli army had mobilized with aggressive intentions against the neighboring countries, Premier David Ben-Gurion stated, on November 3, 1958, that "there is no foundation whatsoever for the hostile and baseless slanders against Israel in the Soviet press." On November 5 he said in the Keneset that a change in the status quo in Jordan would constitute a danger to Israel. If Jordan disintegrated, he continued, he personally believed western Jordan should be demilitarized and Israel's territorial integrity guaranteed by the great powers. Abba Eban, Israel's permanent representative at the United Nations, made an important statement on the Arab refugee problem on November 17 at the Special Political Committee of the UN General Assembly, Emphasizing that "the basic solution of the refugee question lies in the integration of the refugees in the countries where they have been for the last decade," he said: If such a solution by integration is actually carried out, and if the international assistance offered in 1955 is available, Israel would be prepared to pay compensation even before the achievement of a final settlement or the solution of other outstanding problems. Border trouble during the year was concentrated mainly on the frontier with the Syrian province of the UAR. On July 2, 1958, two Israeli policemen were wounded by Syrian fire in the east of the Hulah demilitarized zone, and the settlement of Ashmurah was shelled by mortars. On the following day automatic-rifle fire was directed at workers in the same area.

* For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. 285 286 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK Toward the end of 1958 a grave series of outbreaks took place on the Syrian border, from Dan village in the north to Lake Kinneret (Lake Tiberias), including the murder of Mrs. Mary Doran, wife of the British air attache" in Israel, on November 17, firing by Syrian forces in the Hulah area, the killing of a shepherd near Gonen on December 3, and the shelling and machine-gunning from Syrian army positions of six Israeli settlements along the border on the same day. The damage done by this last bombardment was estimated at almost a million Israeli pounds. On December 4 the Israel government asked for an immediate meeting of the United Nations Security Council to deal with these incidents. The firing was repeated on December 6, 7, and 8. The Council again discussed the subject on December 15. During this period, Israel air space was violated on several occasions, in the north and south, by UAR MIGs, and one plane of a flight of eight was shot down by Israeli Mystere fighters over the Negev on December 20. UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjold visited Israel at the end of the year, and held conversations with Prime Minister Ben-Gurion on January 1 and 2, 1959. They exchanged views on the general position in the Middle East and the international situation as it affected the area. They also discussed the implementation of Article VIII of the armistice agreement between Israel and Jordan (on free access to the educational and humanitarian institutions on Mount Scopus and the Holy Places in Jordan territory) and measures for assuring tranquillity and safety on the Syrian-Israeli border area. Hammar- skjold also visited the Hebrew University, the Weizmann Institute of Science, and the Institute for Arid Zone Research at Beersheba. After further Syrian attacks, mainly in the Kinneret area, on seven occasions from January 9 through January 15, Israel again appealed to the Security Council. The Council closed its discussions in the matter on January 30 without coming to any decision. There were also a number of cases of infiltration and mine-laying on the border of the Gaza Strip. After a period of relative quiet on the Jordan border, Israel returned to the Israel-Jordan Mixed Armistice Commission in March 1959. From July 5, 1956, to March 1959, over 40 ships of other nations carrying Israeli cargoes passed through the Suez Canal without interference. In the spring of 1959, however, three such ships were detained: the Capetan Manolis (Liberian) on March 9, the Lealott (German Federal Republic) on March 17, and the Danish ship Inge Toft (see p. 103) on May 21. The first two were allowed to pass after their cargoes had been confiscated; the third was still held at the time of writing. In the Keneset on March 30, Foreign Minister Golda Meir noted "a decisive, almost revolutionary modification in the way in which the problems of the Middle East are regarded in most countries of the world. . . ." She said:

There was a widespread and . . . erroneous notion that the instability in the region, the cold war which penetrated it, and the dangers likely to arise within it and spread to other regions, are exclusively the product of the Arab-Israel dispute. This last year has left no doubt that the problem of ISRAEL 287 Palestine is completely secondary to the enormous economic and political issues of the region. Other Aspects of Foreign Relations In August 1959 Israel maintained 22 embassies, 32 legations, 1 diplomatic mission, and 34 consulates in foreign countries. Friendly relations with the United States were maintained and fortified. The United States government showed a lively interest in Israel's security, and public sympathy and support for Israel were particularly notable during the tenth-anniversary year. When Abba Eban, Israel's ambassador to the United States and permanent representative at the United Nations, relinquished his posts on February 11, 1959, he was presented with the Freedom of the City by Mayor Robert Wagner of New York, as well as several other mayors. Food surpluses to the value of $38 million, to be repaid in local currency, were made available by the United States. Israel also received $7.5 million in special aid, a $10-million development loan, and $1.9 million in technical assistance. Relations with Latin America continued to be friendly. Several Latin American statesmen visited Israel, and Mrs. Meir made an eight-week tour of ten Latin American countries in June and July 1959. Cultural agreements were signed with Mexico and Brazil during the tour, and it was agreed to raise the diplomatic missions of Israel and Mexico to embassies, and to open an Israel embassy in Guatemala (pp. 181-96). The growth of mutual understanding and friendship with the United Kingdom was symbolized by the tributes paid by Prime Minister Harold Macmillan and the leaders of the opposition parties to Eliahu Elath, Israel's ambassador in London, before his approaching retirement in September 1959. Britain sold two submarines to Israel in October 1958. Friendly relations continued with the other countries of the British Com- monwealth. Israel's close ties with France were confirmed after the rise to power of General Charles de Gaulle and Foreign Minister Meir's visit to Paris in August 1958. She also visited Italy in the same month. Queen Mother Elisabeth of Belgium visited Israel at the end of March 1959, and opened the Institute of Archaeology named after her at the Hebrew University. An Israel consulate was opened in Lisbon in December 1958, and a trade agreement was signed with Portugal in July 1959. In May 1959 Israel became a provisional member of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). Israel was represented by a special envoy at the enthronement of Pope John XXIII, and letters were exchanged between the new pope and Presi- dent Isaac Ben-Zvi. Israel's efforts to improve trade relations with the Soviet Union were not successful, and there was no change in the USSR's general attitude to Israel. In reply to the Soviet note of August 1, 1958, protesting the flight of British planes over Israeli territory on their way to Jordan, the government reiterated Israel's loyalty to the principles of the United Nations Charter. Relations with Poland continued to be friendly, especially in trade and 288 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK cultural matters. Trade relations were maintained with Hungary, but there was no improvement in relations with Czechoslovakia. On February 22, 1959, the Rumanian government criticized Israel for statements on emigration from Rumania and accused the Israel legation of illegal activities in that connection. An official of the legation, Amnon Keren, was declared persona non grata. On May 26, 1959, the International Court at the Hague decided that it had no jurisdiction in Israel's claim for damages arising out of the shooting down of an El Al airliner over Bulgaria on July 27, 1955 (AJYB, 1957 [Vol. 58], p. 379; 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 234). The year was marked by closer relations with several countries in Asia and Africa, especially those that had recently become independent or were on the verge of independence. The first Burmese ambassador to Israel arrived in May 1959, and Prime Minister Ne Win of Burma visited Israel in June of that year. Several joint Burma-Israel companies were set up. There were still no diplomatic relations with India, but Minister of Development Morde- cai Bentov went there in May, and a number of important Indian personalities also visited Israel. Joint Israel-Ghana shipping and development companies continued to make progress, and a number of Israeli experts went out to advise the Ghanaian government. A treaty of friendship with Liberia was signed in March 1959, and Ethiopia requested Israeli physicians and teachers. Israel opened an embassy at Conakri, Guinea, and decided to set up consulates in Dakar and Senegal. Several Nigerian leaders visited Israel. Israel was represented at 54 governmental and 112 nongovernmental conferences and gatherings. Fifty-two Israeli experts were sent to advise and assist the governments of African, Asian, and Latin American countries, and over 150 students from abroad came to Israel for advanced study. Domestic Affairs LEGISLATURE The third Keneset, elected on July 26, 1955, ended its fourth and last session on August 6, 1959; it had passed 285 laws. Elections to the fourth Keneset were to take place on November 3, 1959. The composition of the Keneset at its dissolution was as follows: Party Seats Israel Labor (Mapai) 40 Herut 15 General Zionist 13 National Religious 11 Unity of Labor (Ahdut ha-"Avodah—Po'ale Zion) 10 United Workers (Mapam) 9 Agudat Israel and Po'ale Agudat Israel 6 Communist 6 Progressive 5 Arab Democrats 2 Progress and Work (Arab) 2 Agriculture and Development (Arab) 1 ISRAEL 289 Since the resignation of the National Religious party's ministers on July 1, 1958, the coalition government of Mapai, Mapam, Ahdut ha-'Avodah—Po'ale Zion, and Progressives had been supported by the 64 votes of these parties and the five of the Arab parties. It was opposed by Herut, the General Zionists, the National Religious party, Agudat Israel and Po'ale Agudat Israel, and the Communists. The cabinet crisis at the end of the session, however, disrupted the coalition. Some of the more important laws passed by the Keneset during its final session provided for giving legal effect to collective labor agreements on wages and labor conditions concluded between representatives of a majority of employers and employees; nationalizing labor exchanges, previously run by representatives of the labor unions, and allowances under the state's national insurance for the fourth and subsequent children of large families. In October the cornerstone was laid for the new Keneset building, funds for which were donated by the late James de Rothschild. In December 1958 Sephardi Chief Rabbi Jacob Moses Toledano of Tel Aviv was appointed minister of religious affairs in place of Moses Hayyim Shapira. In November Minister of Health Israel Barzilai took over the portfolio of posts, which had been vacated by Joseph Burg, and in January 1959 Perez Naphtali, minister without portfolio, was appointed minister of social welfare in place of Shapira. When Joseph Sprinzak, the first speaker of the Keneset died (see p. 301), the Keneset named Nahum Nir (Ahdut ha-'Avodah—Po'ale Zion), the senior deputy speaker, to succeed him on March 2, 1959. At the end of June a cabinet crisis broke out when the German magazine Der Spiegel disclosed that Israel had undertaken to manufacture small arms for the German army. Ahdut ha-'Avodah and Mapam spokesmen denounced the agreement and declared that their ministers would demand its cancellation. Prime Minister Ben-Gurion contended, on the basis of cabinet minutes and correspondence, that the cabinet had formally approved the sale in December 1958 and had again discussed it on subsequent occasions. The Ahdut ha- 'Avodah and Mapam ministers declared that they had not been aware of the cabinet decision of December 1958, had opposed it when it was brought to their notice, and had in vain demanded a cabinet discussion. On June 29 the cabinet again discussed the question; a majority upheld the previous decision. The Keneset approved the government's policy on July 1 by 57 votes to 45, with 6 abstentions. Ahdut ha-'Avodah and Mapam, including their representatives in the cabinet, voted against the government motion. Of the opposition parties, the General Zionists voted with the government. The prime minister described the vote by four cabinet ministers against the cabinet decision as a violation of the statutory obligation of collective responsibility, as well as of a special agreement on cabinet discipline concluded after the crisis over leaks to the press at the beginning of January 1958 (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 235). He therefore demanded the resignation of the four ministers. When they refused he submitted his own resignation to the president on July 5. This was constitutionally equivalent to the resignation of the entire cabinet. 290 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK Negotiations with the General Zionist and National Religious parties failed to produce a new majority. Hence the outgoing administration continued in office until a new government, enjoying the confidence of the fourth Keneset, could be established after the elections.

Other Domestic Affairs Important Jewish and international gatherings in Israel, most of them connected with the tenth-anniversary celebrations, included the 20th-anniversary convention of UJA and the first World Jewish Youth Conference, in July 1958, sponsored by the WZO; the International Mobilization Conference for Israel Bonds and the International Lawyers' Convention, in August; the three-month International Seminar on Cooperation, under the joint auspices of the ministry of foreign affairs and Histadrut (General Federation of Labor), starting in November; the International Farmers' Convention, in April 1959; the second International Conference of the Association of Bi-national Cham- bers of Commerce with Israel, and the triennial convention of B'nai B'rith, in May. On October 12, 1958, a special military tribunal presided over by Judge Benjamin Halevy, president of the Jerusalem district court, found eight officers and men of the border patrol guilty of "deliberately causing the deaths" of 43 members of the Arab village of Kafr Kassim on October 29, 1956, the eve of the Sinai campaign. They received sentences ranging from 7 to 17 years. The court laid down the principle that a soldier who obeyed a manifestly unlawful order would be held criminally responsible for the consequences. "The protection of the criminal law will always be extended to everyone—whether a citizen of the state or a ward of the state, and whether within the borders of the state or in occupied territory," the court declared. On May 8, 1959, the sentences were reduced by the Supreme Court, on appeal, to terms of 10, 8, and 7 years, respectively, for two officers and one corporal. The terms of the 5 privates were reduced from 7 to 3 years and they were set free, having been allowed 6 months off for good behavior. The 50th-anniversary celebrations of the foundation of Tel-Aviv opened on March 10, 1959. The elections to the ninth national congress of the Histadrut took place on May 17. About 80 per cent of those eligible to vote went to the polls. The results (with those of the elections in 1955 in parentheses) were as follows: Mapai-55.42 (57.7); Ahdut ha-'Avodah-17.03 (14.6); Mapam-13.92 (12.5); ha-'Oved ha-Tziyoni (Progressive)—5.77 (5.3); General Zionist Workers—3.48 (3.8); Communists—2.80 (4.1); ha-'Oved ha-Dati (Orthodox)—1.57 (2.0).

Zionist Gatherings The Jewish Agency executive, meeting in plenary session in August 1958, discussed the need to intensify support of Israel in view of the new Middle East situation following the Iraqi revolution. The Smaller Zionist General Council, which convened on October 15, 1958, heard reports on preparations to deal with the increased immigration expected from Eastern Europe. ISRAEL 291 The Zionist General Council, meeting from May 31 to June 9, 1959, approved the amendment of the constitution of WZO to empower President Nahum Goldmann to negotiate with Jewish national and international bodies accepting the Zionist program, with a view to their admission to the organization en bloc. WZO was redefined as an association of national and territorial Zionist organizations and federations. Population and Migration At the end of December 1958 the population of Israel was 2,031,672, consisting of 1,810,148 Jews and 221,524 others (152,568 Moslems, 47,612 Chris- tians, and 21,344 Druse). There were 5,000 members of the Karaite community and 150 Samaritans. As of June 1, 1959, the figures were 1,836,886 Jews and 225,116 non-Jews. Of the population increase of 55,000 in 1958, net immigration supplied about 15,000 and natural increase the remainder. There were 27,290 immigrants 1 in 1958, as against 72,634 in 1957. Another 15,797 came in the first six months of 1959, bringing the total number of immigrants since the establishment of the state to 938,071. Emigration from Israel in 1958 amounted to about 11,500, approximately the same as in 1957. Between the establishment of the state and the end of 1958 about 100,000 Jews left Israel to settle in other countries. About three- fifths of these were new immigrants and two-fifths veterans. Almost half the latter were born in Israel, including some of the children of the departing new immigrants.

TABLE 1 POPULATION, DECEMBER 1948 TO JUNE 1959 Year end Total Jews Others 1948 879,000 758,702 120,000 1949 1,173,871 1,013,871 160,000 1950 1,370,094 1,202,993 167,101 1951 1,577,825 1,404,392 173,433 1952 1,629319 1,450,217 179,302 1953 1,669,417 1,483,641 185,776 1954 1,717,814 1,526,009 191,805 1955 1,789,075 1,590,519 198,556 1956 1,872,390 1,667,455 204,935 1957 1,975,954 1,762,741 213,213 1958 2,031,672 1,810,148 221,524 1959 b 2,062,002 1,836,886 225,116

• Estimated. b As of June 1, 1959.

After the 1957 wave of immigrants from Eastern Europe, especially Poland and Hungary, immigration declined in the first half of 1958. There was an upward trend towards the end of the year, when the Rumanian government allowed some Jews to leave to facilitate reunion of families, but this trend was not maintained in the first half of 1959 (see p. 274).

1 Immigration figures given in this survey include tourist3 and temporary residents obtaining permission for permanent residence. 292 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK About half the immigrants in 1958 came from Eastern Europe (mostly in the second six months of the year), 7,500 from Asia, 4,000 from Africa (mainly North Africa), 800 from South America, 720 from Western Europe (including about 500 from Britain), 378 from the United States, and 31 from Canada. At the beginning of December 1958 a voluntary Immigration Loan of I£120 million was launched in Israel. As increased immigration was expected, this was replaced by a compulsory Absorption Loan, approved by the Keneset in April 1959. The collection of this loan was postponed, however, pending a decision by the Keneset finance committee. In 1958 the Jewish birth rate fell about 2 per thousand to 24.05 per thousand, while the birth rate among non-Jews rose 1.38 to the high figure of 48.03 per thousand. The death rate fell about 1.5 per thousand among both Jews and non-Jews, to 5.62 and 7.87 per thousand respectively. Infant mortality fell 2.48, to 30.91 per thousand live births, among Jews, and no less than 11.11, to 51.34, among non-Jews. Children under 14 were 34.8 per cent of the Jewish and 45.7 per cent of the non-Jewish population. The percentages for other age groups were: 15 to 29, 21.8 and 26.3; 30 to 44, 19.8 and 13.0; 45 to 64, 19.0 and 10.4; over 64, 4.6 and 4.6.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE POPULATION At the end of 1958 the population lived in 21 towns, 36 urban settlements, 45 large villages, 133 small villages, 344 moshavim (cooperative smallholders' settlements), 228 kibbutzim and kevutzot (collective settlements), 20 moshavim shittufiyim (combining features of the moshav and the kibbutz), 11 temporary settlements, and 63 large farms, agricultural schools, and other institutions. There were 166 local authorities: 21 municipalities, 95 local councils, and 50 regional councils administering 682 villages. The urban population constituted 76 per cent of the total, compared with 75.7 per cent at the end of 1957.2 The proportion in the three chief cities- Haifa, Jerusalem, and Tel-Aviv—was almost stationary, at 35 per cent. In 1949 it had been 44.5 per cent. Of the Arab and Druse population, 74.5 per cent lived in 104 villages, of which 21 were administered by local councils and 9 were included in regional councils, and a number of Beduin encampments. The remainder lived in the municipalities of Nazareth and Shefar'am, and in six towns of mixed population.

Economic Developments

NATIONAL INCOME The gross national product increased in 1958 to I£3,530 million at current prices, I£263 million higher, in real terms, than the 1957 figure. This was an increase of 8.1 per cent, as compared with an increase of 11 per cent from 1956 to 1957. National income in 1958 was estimated at I£2,728 million, an

2 In figures previouslj published the rural population included settlements later given municinal status. ISRAEL 293 increase of 7.3 per cent in real value over 1957; the increase at current prices was 13.3. The share in the national income of the various branches of the economy in 1957 and 1958 is shown in the following table:

TABLE 2 NATIONAL INCOME BY ECONOMIC ORIGIN, 1957 AND 1958 (in percentages at current prices) Increase 1958 1957 1958 over 1957 Agriculture 12.4 125 11.1 Industry and mining 20.6 20.6 12.9 Contract construction 6.7 6.5 7.9 Utilities 1.6 1.7 16.8 Transport 7.8 8.0 17.7 Commerce 9.8 10.0 16.4 Finance and real estate 11.9 11.9 13.5 Other services 9.4 9.6 16.6 Public sector and non- profitmaking institutions 19.8 19.5 11.8

National income per capita rose from I£l,245 in 1957 to I£l,364 in 1958, an increase of about 9 per cent, or 3.5 per cent at constant prices.

MANPOWER Quarterly manpower surveys carried out in 1958 indicated that while the total population 14 years and over had increased 3 per cent since 1957 (from 1,275,300 to 1,313,650), the civilian labor force had risen on the average only 1.4 per cent (from 689,750 to 698,275). The average number of those employed, however, increased 2.5 per cent, and the average daily number of unemployed registered at the labor exchanges fell from 12,500 in 1957 to 9,300 in 1958. There was an increase from 16.3 to 17.6 in the percentage employed in agriculture and a decrease from 13.0 to 12.3 per cent in the proportion of those engaged in trade, banking, and insurance.

INVESTMENTS Gross investments increased 4.6 per cent in real terms, from I£883 million 8 (at 1958 prices) in 1957 to I£924 million in 1958. The percentage of the total devoted to productive purposes—agriculture, industry, mines and quarries, and electricity—rose from 40 per cent to 45. The share of investment financed by the government, the Jewish Agency, and other public bodies fell from 57 per cent in 1957 to 50 per cent in 1958. The total investment was divided as follows:

3 Revised estimate. 294 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

TABLE 3 GROSS FIXED INVESTMENT BY INDUSTRIAL USE, 1957 AND 1958 (millions of 1958 /£) Increase or Industry 1957" 1958 decrease (per cent) Agriculture and irrigation 171.4 211.7 +23.5 Industry 106.0 1515 +42.9 Mines and quarries 18.2 5.5 —69.8 Electricity 57.5 515 -10.4 Transport 148.3 117.1 -21.0 Residential building 278.2 2775 — 0.1 Services 103.7 108.7 + 4.8

TOTAL 883.3 9235 + 4.6

a Revised estimate. A revised Law for the Encouragement of Capital Investment, providing more generous concessions for foreign investors, was passed on August 6, 1959.

AGRICULTURE Gross agricultural production from October 1957 through September 1958 was I£716 million, 13 per cent higher at constant prices than in the previous year. The increase was highest in eggs and poultry (48.6 per cent) and milk and beef (21.1 per cent), and lowest in crops—vegetables, grain, fruit (3.6 per cent). The cultivated area in 1958-59 was 4,040,000 dunams (one dunam = about 14 acre), of which 1,290,000 dunams were irrigated, compared with 3,947,000 and 1,230,000 dunams respectively in 1957-58. The improvement in production was achieved in spite of a drought during part of the year. It was the result of expansion of the area under cultivation, increase in the number of agricultural workers, improved efficiency, and higher labor productivity. Agricultural exports increased 6 per cent in 1958, to $57 million. Provi- sional figures for the first half of 1959 showed little change. Citrus exports, 85 per cent of the total (compared with 89 per cent in 1957), were 8 million cases in 1957-58, about the same as in the previous year, but prices were on the average 1.3 per cent higher. Agricultural exports other than citrus rose 47 per cent in 1958, to $8.6 million. The increases were mainly in eggs, grapes, bananas, and melons. An agreement between the state and JNF established two central authorities, with representation for both participants, to deal with state and JNF land; each retained ownership of its own holdings. A National Land Author- ity, within the framework of the government, was to administer the lands, while a Land Development Authority, within the framework of JNF, was to deal with land reclamation, afforestation, and the like. The agreement awaited Keneset ratification. INDUSTRY The aggregate value of industrial output at current prices was estimated at I£l,715 million, 12.7 per cent above the 1957 figure of I£l,522 million. Since ISRAEL 295 prices rose 2 to 3 per cent, the real output rose about 10 per cent. The increase was greatest in chemicals, metals, electrical equipment, paper and printing, transportation equipment, and clothing. The value added by manufacture was estimated at I£658.2 million in 1958, as against I£581.7 million in 1957, an increase of 13.2 per cent, or 10 per cent in real value. Industrial exports were steady at $82 million, though prices fell 3 per cent. They included cut diamonds—$34.3 million; textiles and wearing apparel— $7.5 million; rubber tires and tubes—$5.8 million; preserves and fruit juices— $5.7 million; potash—$3.0 million; plywood—$2.9 million; art objects, religious requisites, and books—$1.9 million; cement—$1.7 million; motor vehi- cles—$1.6 million, and postage stamps—$1.5 million.

BUILDING The volume of building in 1958 was slightly greater than in 1957, when there was a considerable rise in building for new immigrants. Residential building decreased slightly as construction for new immigrants declined, but there was a considerable rise in the building of homes for persons living in ma'barot (temporary immigrants' quarters) and in government "saving for housing" developments. There was also an increase in industrial construction. The value of all types of buildings rose to I£371 million, an increase of 3 per cent at constant prices over 1957. Two-thirds of the homes built were financed by public funds, mainly in the form of long-term government loans. In August 1959 Labor Minister Mordecai Namir announced in the Keneset that 47,000 families in tents and in canvas or aluminum huts had been re- housed, leaving only 800 in this category, and that good progress was being made in rehousing those in wooden huts. The next step would be a special project to build new homes for people living in slums.

TRANSPORTATION The transportation industry earned some I£400 million in 1958, 12 per cent more than in 1957. Shipping activity increased about 9 per cent, and El Al Israel National Airlines expanded its operations by 68 per cent, but railroad traffic fell 6.5 per cent as a result of the transportation of oil by pipeline and an increase in the carriage of goods by road. While freight at Haifa port was almost unchanged, and the number of passengers fell from 121,000 in 1957 to 88,000 in 1958, there was a considerable expansion in the operations of Eilat harbor. After I£2 million was invested in developing the harbor in 1957 and 1958, imports through Eilat rose 31.8 per cent to 29,000 tons in 1958, and exports 57.9 per cent to 30,000 tons. An agreement for the completion and operation of a 16-inch oil pipeline from Eilat to Haifa was signed in July 1959 between the government and an international group of investors headed by Baron Edmond de Rothschild, who were to invest over $20 million in the undertaking. Six more ships were added to the Israel merchant fleet in 1958 and four in the first half of 1959, bringing the gross tonnage to 233,405 and the dead- weight tonnage to 290,626 on June 30, 1959; these included four passenger ships, two passenger-and-cargo ships, 35 freighters, and four tankers. 296 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK El Al brought into service the fourth of its Bristol Britannia jet-propelled airplanes, greatly reducing the time required for the Atlantic crossing.

PRICES The consumer's price index (1951 = 100) stood at 248 in 1956, 264 in 1957, and 273 in 1958. The percentage rise in prices over the preceding year was thus 6.5 in 1957 and 3.4 in 1958. There was no change in the first half of 1959. Average building costs rose only 1.1 per cent from 1957 to 1958.

LABOR Though there was no increase in basic wages in 1957, the gross wages and salaries per worker rose 5 per cent, because of higher cost-of-living, seniority, and family allowances, as well as increased output and upgradings due to improved skill. There were 48 strikes in 1958, with 87,751 days lost, compared with 57 strikes and 166,955 days lost in 1957, but in 1958 there were 6,050 strikers as against 3,648 in the previous year. The Histadrut reformed the administration of its industrial and marketing undertakings, promoting decentralization and public control through Hevrat 'Ovedim, its economic arm.

FOREIGN TRADE Israel's foreign trade was affected by a 7-per cent fall in import prices and a 2-per cent fall in export prices in 1957. Imports of commodities fell from $432.1 million in 1957 to $421.5 in 1958, and exports of commodities fell from $140.8 million in 1957 to $139.2 million in 1958. Since the cost of Israel's imports declined 7 per cent, and the prices earned by exports declined 2 per cent, these figures corresponded to increases of 5 per cent and 1 per cent respectively at fixed prices. The trade deficit, without taking government services into account, fell for the first time since 1954, from $297 million to $281 million, a drop of 5.4 per cent. With government services, transport, and insurance taken into account, the deficit in the balance of payments was $334 million, against $335 million in 1957. Exports in the first half of 1959 (including most of the season's citrus exports) were $99.5 million, 15 per cent over the $86.5 million of the corresponding period of 1958. Twelve million dollars of the increase came from industrial exports, including $6 million more from diamonds. Imports were $217 million, $2 million less than in January-June 1958. Income from services increased from $81.2 million in 1957 to $99.5 million in 1958. The tenth-anniversary year brought 75,000 tourists, compared with 44,500 in 1957, and income from this source rose from $5.5 million to $11.9 million. Some 44,000 tourists came in the first half of 1959. Education, Science, and Culture Enrollment in kindergartens, schools, and colleges of all types was expected to exceed 600,000 in 1959-60, about 9 per cent more than in the previous year. This estimate included 80,000 in kindergartens, 417,000 in primary schools, 32,000 in secondary schools, 30,000 in vocational and agricultural schools and' ISRAEL 297 courses, and almost 10,000 in institutions of higher education. The rest (12,000) consisted of students in yeshivot, Christian mission schools, etc. About 52 per cent of the pupils in the primary schools were born in Israel, 36 per cent in Asian and African countries, and 12 per cent in Europe and America. Between April 1956 and April 1959, new schools containing 2,515 classrooms were built at a cost of I£28,851,000. Prevocational classes, introduced in a number of centers to prepare children for industry and agriculture, had about 13,000 pupils. In order to improve the functioning of the Jewish-consciousness program (see p. 299) introduced during the previous year, steps were taken to expand Jewish studies in the teacher-training colleges. Greater stress was to be laid on diaspora history, the characteristics of the various Jewish communities, the relationships between Israel and the diaspora, Jewish culture and thought, and Jewish religious and traditional life.

SECONDARY EDUCATION Because of the heavy burdens on the country's finances, there was no immediate prospect of universal free secondary education. Plans for the next few years included expansion of the secondary-school network, greater financial support for schools and pupils, and a comprehensive program for training secondary-school teachers. It was also planned to establish two-year secondary schools (for ages 14 to 16) and to introduce a limited form of compulsory secondary education in certain areas, particularly those largely inhabited by new immigrants. In 1958, 82 per cent of primary-school graduates continued their education, 66 per cent in day and evening secondary schools, 22 per cent in vocational schools, and 12 per cent in agricultural schools. Beginning with the 1957-58 school year, graduated fees, with government subsidies for parents with limited means, were introduced for new entrants to secondary schools. Each year the new class of entrants was included, so that in die 1959-60 school year the first three years of the secondary school (ages 14 to 17) were covered; and in the following year all secondary-school pupils would be included. Children from the oriental communities were 22 per cent of the pupils in secondary schools, 42 per cent in vocational schools, and 48 per cent in agricultural schools. The graded-fees plan was expected to increase their proportion in the secondary schools considerably.

HIGHER EDUCATION During the 1958-59 academic year there were 4,569 students in the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, as compared with 4,373 in 1957-58; there were 808 teachers. The university awarded the record number of 617 degrees at the end of the session, bringing the total number of graduates since 1948 to almost 4,700. The school of dentistry gave its first degrees, and the Tel Aviv School of Law and Economics became affiliated with the university. The 12 faculties and departments of the Haifa Technion, the Israeli institute of technology, had 3,172 students, compared with 2,344 in 1957. The extension division had about 4,000 students. 298 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK In 1959 the Weizmann Institute of Science at Rehovot had 200 scientists working in ten departments. In Tel-Aviv University (excluding the School of Law and Economics) there were about 350 students, and 370 in the religious Bar-Ilan University at Ramat Gan.

Cultural Activities The centenaries of Eliezer Ben-Yehudah, pioneer of modern Hebrew, and Sholem Aleichem, the great Yiddish writer and humorist, were celebrated in December 1958 and February 1959 respectively. The year beginning February 19, 1959, was proclaimed Sholem Aleichem year in Israel. A World Jewish Bible Society was founded in October 1958, and a Com- mittee for Interfaith Understanding, representing Jews, Christians, Moslems, and Druse, was set up in January 1959. Cultural institutions that opened included the Queen Elisabeth of Belgium Institute of Archaeology at the Hebrew University, in March 1959; the new center of the Hebrew Language Academy, in May 1959; the Glass pavilion of Muzeon ha-Aretz (the Land of Israel Museum), in May 1959, and the Helena Rubinstein pavilion of the Tel-Aviv Museum, in June 1959. On Independence Day, May 13, 1959, Israel Prizes were awarded in belles lettres to Izhar Smilansky, for his novel, Days of Ziklag, and to Y. Goleh, the pseudonym of a Hebrew poet living in an East European country, for his poem, The Burden of Gog; in religious literature to Rabbi S. J. Zevin, for his work on the Talmudic Encyclopedia; in science to Ephraim Katchalsky and Michael Sela for their polymer research; in humanities to the late Leo A. Mayer for his research into Islamic culture; in agriculture to Hillel Oppenheimer for his work on plant growth in citriculture, and in fine arts to Joshua Bertonov, the veteran Habimah actor, and Joseph Zaritski, the artist.

THEATER AND MUSIC Habimah celebrated its 40th anniversary and was officially recognized by the government as the Israel National Theater on October 10, 1958. Some of its main productions during the season were Staircase Street, an original Hebrew play by Judith Hendel; Aristophanes's Lysistrata; Eugene O'Neill's Touch of the Poet; Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice, produced by Tyrone Guthrie, and John Osborne's Look Back in Anger. The Kameri theater presented Luigi Pirandello's Tonight We Improvise, Thomas Wolfe's Look Homeward, Angel, and Henrik Ibsen's Doll's House. Ohel theater presented Peter Shaffer's Five-finger Exercise and Tennessee Williams's A Streetcar Named Desire. The three main companies staged over 1,300 performances, and their audiences totaled over a million. The Sambatyon and Batzal Yarok revue companies performed frequently during the year. There were also a number of children's theater companies, several small repertory companies, and about 200 amateur groups. The Israel National Opera staged La Traviata, Madama Butterfly, Die Fledermaus, and Alexandra the Hasmonean, an original Hebrew opera, with libretto by A. Ashman and music by Menahem Avidom. ISRAEL 299 The Israel Philharmonic Orchestra appointed Jean Martinon as its musical director. In the 173 concerts it gave during the 1958-59 season it was conducted by Martinon, Eugene Ormandy, Josef Krips, Carlo Giulini, Georg Singer, and others, and the soloists included Artur Rubinstein, Yehudi and Hephzibah Menuhin, Glenn Gould, and George London. It had 22,000 subscribers. The orchestra presented concert performances of Verdi's Falstaff and The Masked Ball, and in August 1959 it participated in the international music festival in Athens.

Jewish Religious Affairs The Jewish-consciousness program in the schools, introduced in 1957 for the purpose of giving the children in the state schools a better understanding of Jewish religious traditions and observances, Jewish thought and life, and the problems of diaspora Jewry, won wider acceptance, though it was still criticized by the Orthodox as not going far enough and by leftist circles as going too far. Special attention was paid to training teachers in the subjects dealt with in the program. The Circles for Progressive Judaism, which held Friday-night and festival services in Jerusalem, Tel-Aviv, Haifa, and a few other centers, affiliated with the World Union for Progressive Judaism. There was also a circle in Haifa associated with the Conservative movement in the United States. It was announced on November 30, 1958, that all rules in force since the establishment of the state on the registration of the children of mixed marriages had been annulled. Jewish scholars and spiritual leaders in Israel and the diaspora had been asked to give their opinion on the nationality of children of non-Jewish mothers and Jewish fathers. Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion stated in the Keneset in July 1959 that for the time being the nationality of the children in question was not being registered. The replies to the prime minister's inquiry, published in August 1959, showed that the overwhelming majority of those consulted believed children should be registered only on the basis of the halakhah (Jewish religious law). It was expected that the question would be settled after the general election in November 1959. Differences of opinion arose between Rabbi Jacob Moses Toledano, the new minister of religious affairs, and Sephardi Chief Rabbi Jacob Nissim on the registration of the children of mixed marriages and the respective powers of the ministry and the chief rabbinate. At a meeting between Rabbis Nissim and Toledano, agreement was reached on most points of dispute. At the beginning of 1959 there were 177 religious councils. In 1957-58 they expended I£4.4 million on religious services in the various localities, in addition to the expenditure of the ministry of religious affairs. Twenty- five additional rabbis were appointed in 1958-59, bringing the total number to about 350. The salaries of rabbis and dayyanim (religious-court judges) were raised. There were over 4,000 synagogues in Israel, including 316 established in 1958-59; in 1948 there had been about 900. A special department of the 300 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK ministry of religious affairs cared for the religious needs of 400 new immigrant settlements. In 1958 Israel exported about half a million dollars' worth of religious supplies—almost twice as much as in the preceding year. The ministry subsidized 146 yeshivot, with over 8,400 students, in 1958. Five new yeshivot were established in new immigrant settlements. Ten local authorities passed by-laws forbidding the sale of pork. Twenty- five such by-laws, in force at the time of writing, covered the greater part of the population.

Christian and Moslem Communities Ninety per cent of the Christians in Israel were Arabs. There were over 1,100 Christian clergymen, 200 churches, 100 monasteries, and 50 church schools, with 9,500 pupils. Monsignor Antonio Vergnani, head of the Roman Catholic Latin community, resigned, and was succeeded by Reverend John Kaldani, a Palestine- born citizen of Israel. The ministry of religious affairs continued to help the Christian communities to maintain their religious activities, paying special attention to the numerous Christian pilgrims who came during the tenth-anniversary year. Regulations were amended to make it easier for clergy to cross the border in both directions to visit holy places in Israel and Jordan. Three thousand Christian citizens of Israel crossed on Christmas to visit the Holy Places on Jordan territory. The ministry contributed in 1958 to the salaries of 178 Moslem religious dignitaries. The four Shari'ah courts heard 2,524 cases. Repairs to the Great Mosque in Jaffa and the Jerina mosque in Haifa were completed; repairs to the al-Jazzar mosque in Acre were almost completed.

ARABS IN ISRAEL4 On December 30, 1959, Prime Minister Ben-Gurion met the members of the Keneset representing Arab and Druse parties to discuss Arab progress and plans for the future. In 1958 there were about 1.1 million dunams (over 250,000 acres) of land at the disposal of Israel's Arabs (with the exception of the Beduin), of which about a half was arable and the rest pasture land. Thirty thousand dunams of the total area were irrigated. In addition, the Beduin in the Negev cultivated crops in rotation on 400,000 dunams and pastured their flocks on another 600,000 dunams. On August 4, 1959, the government announced far-reaching relaxations of military-government restrictions in the border areas, in which the majority of the Arab population lived. It authorized Arabs to move freely without permits during the daylight hours in most parts of the country. (The main exceptions were Jerusalem and the Negev.) Arabs were to be encouraged and assisted to settle in mixed towns, in which the restrictions did not apply. 4 For population, distribution, and vital statistics, see p. 291. ISRAEL 301 Local government covered about half the Arab population, and steps were being taken to set up further local councils in the Arab villages. In 1958-59 the regular budgets of the 17 Arab local councils totaled I£1.6 million, and their development budgets I£2 million. The government contributed 20 per cent of the former and 60 per cent of the latter. By the end of 1958, 103 water installations had been set up or basically repaired in Arab villages, the government paying 50 per cent of the cost. From 1948 to 1958 the value of Arab agricultural produce increased six- fold, at constant prices, mainly as a result of government assistance in introducing new crops and better methods of cultivation. The two government tractor stations were managed by the Arabs themselves, and 22 of the 32 members of the staff of the ministry of agriculture's Arab village-development program were Arabs. The flocks and herds of the Negev Beduin numbered 107,000 sheep and 10,000 camels, eight times as many as in 1948. The ministry of agriculture paid I£l million in subventions to the Beduin after the 1957-5& drought. A preserves factory was erected with the aid of Arab and Jewish capital in Bak'a al-Gharbiya in February 1959. The number of Arab unemployed registered at the labor exchanges fell to 1,160 in 1958, compared with 2,470 in 1954. The ratio of the average Arab wage to the average Jewish wage rose to 1:1.5 in 1958, from 1:5 in 1948 and 1:3 in 1953. Arabs engaged through the labor exchanges received the same wages as Jews. In February 1959 the Histadrut decided to accept Arabs as fully equal members. At the end of 1958 there were 47 Arab cooperatives. In January 1959 there were 116 Arab kindergartens, 131 elementary schools, and 5 secondary schools, with 1,169 teachers and 33,787 pupils. In addition there were about 9,000 Arab pupils in church and other private schools. Attendance of children of compulsory school age was 93 to 95 per cent for boys and 40 to 45 per cent for girls. Sixty per cent of Arab pupils in secondary schools paid reduced fees, compared with 30 per cent of Jewish pupils. There were 73 Arab students at the Hebrew University and 12 in the Technion. The Israel radio broadcast Arabic programs for seven and a half hours per day. Twenty thousand Arab families, one in three, had radio sets.

Personalia Joseph Gedaliah Klausner, historian and author, died in Tel-Aviv on October 27, 1958, at the age of 84. Elias Epstein, director of the ZOA House and member of the directorate of JNF, died in Tel-Aviv on November 24, 1958, at the age of 63. Rabbi Abraham Hayyim Shaag (Zwebner), Mizrahi leader, died in Jerusalem on December 6, 1958, at the age of 75. Joseph Tzevi Rimmon, Hebrew poet, died in Tel-Aviv on December 17, 1958, at the age of 69. Joseph Sprinzak, labor leader and first speaker of the Keneset, died in Jerusalem on January 28, 1959, at the age of 74. Ernst Kahn, banker, died in Jerusalem on February 19, 1959, at the age of 75. Zalman Shneour, Hebrew poet, died in New York on February 20, 1959, at the age of 73 (see p. 419). Elijah Berligne, veteran Zionist leader and signatory to the Proclamation of Independence, died in Tel-Aviv on February 24, 1959, 302 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK at the age of 94. Zelig Soskin, agronomist and Zionist leader, died in Tel- Aviv on February 26, 1959, at the age of 86. Harry Beilin, chief of protocol in the foreign ministry, died in Jerusalem on March 15, 1959, at the age of 53. Thelma Yellin, cellist, died in Jerusalem on March 22, 1959, at the age of 64. Leo A. Mayer, emeritus professor of Near Eastern art and archeology at the Hebrew University, died in Jerusalem on April 6, 1959, at the age of 64. Reuben Shiloah, political adviser to the foreign ministry, died in Tel-Aviv on May 10, 1959, at the age of 49. Menahem Binyamini, veteran Habimah actor, died in Tel-Aviv on June 18, 1959, at the age of 61. Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi Isaac Hezekiah Halevi Herzog died in Jerusalem on July 25, 1959, at the age of 70. MISHA LOUVISH * » ** * * •!• * •!• * * * * * * 'M' '* * * * * »1< * * * * >t> * * * * •!• * * * *

Arab Middle East

Jewish Populations N the Arab countries of the Middle East—Aden, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, I Saudi Arabia, Sudan, the United Arab Republic (UAR; Egypt and Syria, with Yemen loosely attached)—the Jewish communities, already extremely small at the beginning of the period under review (July 1, 1958, to June 30, 1959), continued to dwindle. In modern times Sudan, Saudi Arabia, and Jordan never had Jewish communities of any significant proportions. Where relatively large Jewish centers had existed—Iraq, Egypt, and Yemen, and to a lesser extent Aden, Lebanon, and Syria—major population changes had taken place before July 1958. In Iraq a Jewish population of about 130,000 was reduced to perhaps 5,000 by a mass emigration, chiefly to Israel, in 1950-51. Yemenite Jews, who had been emigrating to Palestine since 1881, carried out a virtually total evacuation in 1949-50, when over 40,000 were flown to Israel. The Syrian Jewish community, which had been gradually declining for decades, dropped from approximately 30,000 to about 5,500 after the rise of Israel. A similar decline in Egypt, from perhaps 90,000 in 1947 to between 40,000 and 50,000 in 1956, was sharply accelerated after the Israeli attack on Sinai in 1956. The emigration which followed left behind approximately 15,000 Jews in Cairo and Alex- andria. During those years Lebanon and Aden were transit areas for large numbers of Jewish e"migr£s from Syria and Yemen respectively, but by July 1958 the Jewish population had stabilized at between 6,000 to 6,500 in Lebanon and 800 in Aden. Those Jews who had remained in the Arab countries were often the wealthy, who had most to lose by leaving, or the old, who were reluctant to leave a familiar environment, however harsh. Community functions, shrunken by the decline in numbers, were generally subject to stringent government control. Jewish economic activities were frequently hampered by policies of "Arabi- zation." In the UAR especially, the government sometimes placed Moslem Arab supervisors in charge of enterprises owned by foreigners, Christians, or Jews, and required them to hire additional Moslem Arab employees. Jews, because of the conflict with Israel, were subject to especially close and suspicious supervision.

Pan-Arab Nationalism The trend to pan-Arab nationalism, which reached its height when Egypt and Syria joined in the UAR on February 1, 1958, met strong opposition in • For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. 303 304 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK some Arab countries during the year under review. Internal Arab conflicts were interwoven with the global rivalry of East and West. A realignment of forces was still in process in the summer of 1959. Lebanon In July 1958 the pan-Arab cause seemed about to celebrate a new triumph through the expansion of UAR President Gamal Abdul Nasser's sphere of influence into Lebanon, torn by civil war. The hard-pressed pro-Western government of President Camille Chamoun and Premier Sami as-Solh was being given little aid by either the Western governments or the UN. On July 4 the first report of the United Nations Observation Group in Lebanon (UNOGIL) declared that it had not been possible to detect evidence of large- scale infiltration of armed forces into Lebanon. On July 14 Iraqi forces under the command of Brigadier General Abdul Karim Kassim and Colonel Abdul Salam Mohammed Aref, ordered to Bagh- dad in support of Chamoun, rebelled and overthrew the Iraqi monarchy. On the following day American troops were sent to Lebanon and on July 17 British forces were flown into Jordan, in response to the appeals of their governments. The political consequences in Lebanon were inconclusive. On July 31 the Lebanese parliament chose General Fuad Chehab as a candidate acceptable to both sides to succeed President Chamoun when his term of office expired on September 28. By September 24 Rashid Karami, a leader of rebel forces, was announced as Chehab's proposed premier. This provoked armed opposition by the (Christian) Phalangist movement. On October 14 a compromise government headed by Karami but composed of a balanced group of pro- Western and pro-Nasser, Christian and Moslem, elements, was announced. Hostilities gradually came to an end, and American forces were withdrawn by the end of the month. On December 10 Karami announced that Lebanon no longer supported the Eisenhower Doctrine. The political upheavals of 1958 did not pass without seriously unsettling the Jewish community in Lebanon. In June the rebel groups had threatened to blow up the Jewish quarter in Beirut, charging that ammunition was being stored in the synagogue (London Jewish Chronicle, June 27, 1958). In Sep- tember Jews were arrested or kidnapped by Moslem extremists on several occasions. On November 7, 1958, the Jewish Chronicle reported that 500 Jews had emigrated to Latin American countries "in recent weeks" and 500 more had applied for admission to the United States. Jordan The Iraqi rebellion of July 14, 1958, marked the end of the Arab Union, formed five months earlier by the Hashemite kingdoms of Iraq and Jordan in opposition to Nasser's UAR. It seemed to many that Iraq would soon join Nasser's pan-Arab federation, and that British occupation was only a temporary barrier to the engulfment of Jordan. However, the outcome was a sharp setback to Nasser in both cases. Egyptian pressure against Jordan was countered a few days before the Iraqi ARAB MIDDLE EAST 305 revolt by the arrest of 60 Jordanian officers as alleged plotters against the regime. When the British paratroopers began to leave Jordan at the end of October, King Hussein felt sufficiently strong to cancel death sentences imposed upon rebels. On November 10 he departed by plane for a trip abroad, but it was cut short. Threatened—or allegedly threatened—by UAR aircraft over Syria, the young monarch returned to his capital of Amman, his prestige among his people strengthened by the apparent plot to kidnap or assassinate him. Martial law was lifted on December 1. In December, too, the situation seemed stable enough for the UN to withdraw its last observers from Lebanon and Jordan. On March 8, 1959, King Hussein departed for his postponed trip, during which he successfully negotiated in Washington and London for increased aid to his kingdom. He also visited Nationalist China, Italy and the Vatican, and Turkey.

Iraq In Iraq the chief advocate of closer ties to the UAR was the Ba'ath party. (Adherents of this international pan-Arab socialist party had taken the initiative in bringing about the federation of Egypt and Syria on February 1, 1958, in part to prevent Communist domination of Syria. Subsequently Nasser banned all parties except the officially-sponsored mass movement.) In Iraq Ba'ath had support in the top echelon of the revolutionary command from Colonel (later Brigadier) Aref. The pro-Nasser pressure exerted by Aref and his partisans brought together in defensive alliance varied elements, including Communists, who opposed Iraq's absorption in the UAR. Kassim based himself upon this coalition and in a series of moves crushed the supporters of Nasserism in Iraq. On September 12, 1958, Aref was deposed as deputy commander-in-chief of the Iraqi forces. At the month's end he was also relieved as deputy premier and minister of the interior, and was named ambassador to West Germany. On October 7 Kassim placed Aref under house arrest. On October 12 Aref finally departed for Europe. But he soon returned to Iraq, and was arrested on arriving at the Baghdad airport on November 4. Rioting took place in the streets of Baghdad at this time between supporters and opponents of union with the UAR, the latter showing a strong Communist influence. On December 8 the old extremist-nationalist leader, Rashid Ali al-Gailani, was arrested as the leader of a new plot; but on January 14, 1959, Kassim took measures to curb the growing Communist influence by ordering the police activities of the so-called People's Resistance Force to be restricted. In January both Aref and al-Gailani were condemned to death for treason in secret trials before a "people's court" headed by Kassim's fellow-traveling relative, Colonel Fadhil Abbas al-Mahdawi, but Kassim did not approve execution of their sentences. On February 7 Foreign Minister Abdul Jabbar Jomard and five other ministers resigned and were replaced by opponents of union with the UAR. A climactic effort by pro-Nasser elements was the uprising by army units under Colonel Abdul Wahab Shawaf, aided by Shammar tribesmen, in Mosul on March 8. Loyal army and air-force units, together with Kurdish tribesmen, re- pressed this rebellion and administered a decisive defeat to pro-Nasser forces in 306 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK Iraq. In Cairo and Damascus, as well as in Western capitals, these developments were interpreted as the beginnings of a Communist take-over. But in May Kassim issued a succession of statements in which he rejected Communist demands for official recognition as a distinct political party and specific representation in the cabinet. The position of Iraq between the Eastern and Western blocs was marked by a "neutralism" as ambiguous in its intentions as that of Egypt in earlier periods. In July 1958 Iraq and the UAR alike suspected that the American- British intervention in Lebanon and Jordan was directed against the uprising in Baghdad. When Israel, after a short delay, granted permission for British flights over its territory to supply Jordan, the Egyptians and Iraqis were joined by the Soviet Union in condemning the alleged "Zionist-imperialist" plot against Arab nationalism. Communist delegations from the Soviet Union, China, East Germany, and the Soviet satellite states appeared in Baghdad, and treaties for trade, cultural exchange, and technical and military assistance were signed. As the Iraqi opposition to absorption in the UAR became dearer, Egypt, its own "neutralist" attachment to Moscow growing cooler, began in November and December 1958 to charge that the Communists were engaged in an antinationalist plot against Arab unity. Nevertheless, in November 1958 Nasser accepted Soviet assistance in carrying out the first stage of the Aswan dam, while Kassim did not let his "neutralism" or his new ties with the Eastern bloc prevent him from maintaining advantageous relations with the West. Throughout the period the Iraqis conducted negotiations with the Iraq Petroleum Company to keep Iraqi oil flowing to the West and to obtain the introduction of additional Iraqi personnel (reportedly enjoying Russian technical advice) into strategic positions in the company. On March 24, 1959, Iraq withdrew officially from the Baghdad Pact (see p. 104). On May 11 an agreement was announced by which Iraq was to receive new British equipment for its armed forces, in addition to the material being supplied by the Soviets.

SEQUESTRATION OF JEWISH PROPERTY After the mass flight of the Jews in 1950-51, a law of March 22, 1951, provided that Jews who had left the country individually and on Iraqi passports (like those affected by the laws concerning the mass evacuation) were to be denationalized, and their property was to be sequestered, if they did not return to Iraq within two months after their names were posted by Iraqi diplomatic or consular service. On November 30, 1958, Radio Baghdad announced that on the following day Jewish property sequestered under this law would be auctioned off in the central market place of the city. In April 1959 it was reported that the government, with the aid of a citizens' committee of Shi'ite clerks, had begun checking the past transactions of firms, large and small, suspected of serving Jewish or Israeli interests.

UAR The period under review saw a decided swing in the policy of the UAR against Communist influence in the Arab countries. Nasser also increased his efforts for a political and economic rapprochement with, the Western ARAB MIDDLE EAST 307 powers. At the same time he did not mean to abandon the advantages he gained from relations with the East. The cautious policies adopted toward the UAR by both Eastern and Western blocs made this policy feasible. On July 17, 1958, after the American intervention in Lebanon, Nasser flew to Moscow. Cairo reports of his activities there stressed that he was urging Premier Nikita S. Khruschchev not to intervene with force in the dispute. Other interpretations would have it that the Soviet authorities were not interested in committing themselves further to aiding Egypt militarily—except through war-of-nerve tactics such as talk of sending "volunteers"—and that they had suggested economic aid as an alternative in order to sweeten the pill. At this time the UAR and the Russians both condemned the American and British interventions as a "Zionist-imperialist plot." United States Deputy Under Secretary of State Robert Murphy was very coolly received in Cairo on August 6, when he came to discuss the situation. (For U.S. aid to Egypt see p. 103.) France and the UAR signed an agreement on August 13 settling financial claims against each other arising out of the Suez fighting of 1956. On August 30 President Nasser invited Premier Amintore Fanfani of Italy to make a state visit in Cairo. Through the mediatory efforts of President Eugene R. Black of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, an agreement on the settlement of claims arising out of the Suez campaign was finally signed by Great Britain and Egypt on February 28, 1959. In May 1959 discussions took place between Egypt and the International Bank on a possible loan for widening the Suez Canal. By the end of 1958 the strain on UAR-Soviet relations caused by the events in Iraq had become acute. Nevertheless, the Soviet agreement to finance and execute the first stage of the Aswan dam was announced in October. In December Nasser accused Syrian Communists of plotting to break up the UAR and soon thereafter took measures to repress the Communists in Syria and Egypt. Yet on January 7, 1959, Premier Otto Grotewohl of East Germany, visiting Cairo at the same time as Premier Fanfani of Italy, announced an agreement to exchange consuls-general. In response to West German protests the Egyptians explained that what was contemplated was not the establishment of diplomatic relations, constituting recognition of East Germany, but only facilities for trade relations. The exchanges between the UAR and the Soviet Union grew sharper in tone. Khrushchev remonstrated against the persecution of Communists on January 27 and rebuked Nasser as a "hot-headed young man" on March 20, while Nasser charged Iraq and the Soviets with plotting against Arab unity. It was generally believed that the emigration of Rumanian Jews to Israel was suspended in March 1959 because of Arab League and UAR protests, among other reasons (see p. 275). In the negotiations between the UAR and Western powers on financial claims arising from the Suez fighting and its aftermath, the claims of Jews were a source of recurrent difficulty. A UAR decree of April 8, 1958, provided that Jews within certain broad categories who had left Egypt should be inscribed on "the lists of persons to whom access [to the territory] is forbidden." The French agreement of August 1958 provided that French citizens who wished to regain or liquidate assets released from sequestration by the UAR should be 308 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK readmitted to Egypt, but at the discretion of the Egyptian government. The press continued to report that such French Jews were normally not being readmitted. During his visit to Cairo in January 1959 Premier Fanfani obtained a similar agreement on behalf of Italian citizens. In reply to critics in Rome, it was stated that no discrimination against Jews was accepted by Italy in the agreement, and that among the first 20 Italian nationals to return to Egypt, three were Jews. However, on May 3, 1959, members of an Italian economic mission returning from Cairo said that they had asked the UAR government "to suspend the sale of property owned by Italian nationals, including several Jews" and cancel its sequestration, so that the owners could sell it or transfer it to Italy, in accordance with the agreement. The Anglo-Egyptian settlement was long delayed by Egyptian demands for war damages and Britain's wish to establish a mission in Egypt to observe the execution of the agreement without implying resumption of diplomatic relations. When other details were worked out, it was disclosed on February 28, 1959, that the Egyptians had listed as agricultural land a large section of valuable suburban real estate near Alexandria, developed from a marsh by a British Jew, Joseph Smouha. The issue was resolved not by revising the evaluation but by an agreement that most of the land would be restored to its owner.

Other Arab Affairs The division of Nile water for irrigation remained a source of friction between Egypt and the Sudan. The diversion of Nile water by Sudan was a theme of UAR agitation among Egyptian peasants, and in Sudan itself pro- Nasser elements sought a new government more amenable to Cairo. A military coup led by Lieutenant General Ibrahim Abboud on November 17, 1958, was generally understood as being intended to strengthen Sudanese independence. The military junta in Sudan faced internal difficulties from certain younger officers, widely regarded as pro-Communist. In June 1959 two of these officers, Brigadier Abdul Rahman Shennan, who had been made minister of local government, and Minister of Communications Mohieddin Ahmed Abdullah, were arrested by order of General Abboud. Saudi Arabia, which in earlier years had played a leading role in the politics of the area, remained preoccupied with its fiscal difficulties. Attention was devoted chiefly to the problem of balancing the national budget, in large part given over to the maintenance of the royal kinsmen and retainers, and Saudi Arabia remained relatively inactive internationally. However, the policy of the Arabian American Oil Company (Aramco) of banning Jewish employees not only in Saudi Arabia but also in New York State became a public issue (see p. 106). In July 1958 the dispute between Yemen and the British in Aden over the allegiance of the sheikhs on the borders of these two countries was acute. During the summer of 1958 one sheikh, the sultan of Lahej, attempted to organize his peers in opposition to the British, with the result that recognition of his rule was withdrawn by London and he fled to Cairo. There he consulted with Sheikh Abdullah as-Salim as-Sabah, ruler of oil-rich Kuwait, who had for ARAB MIDDLE EAST 309 months been discussing a possible relationship of his country with the UAR. It had long been one of Egypt's dreams to combine the oil wealth of such countries as Kuwait with the control of all the lanes of Middle Eastern transport as political and economic levers for raising over-populated Egypt out of its extreme and seemingly hopeless poverty. However, the Iraqi-Egyptian split and the shift in Egypt's position between East and West changed the picture. Whatever interest Kuwait may have had in a federal relation with the UAR dissipated, and in February 1959 pro- Nasser as well as pro-Kassim demonstrations were banned in Kuwait. In April an attempt to overthrow the government of Kuwait was reported by Cairo as Communist-inspired. The unrest on the Yemen-Aden frontier continued through the summer and fall of 1958. In the beginning of November fighting in Aden itself left 5 dead and 18 wounded, and during the disturbances the Selim Jewish school, maintained by the Anglo-Jewish Association, was set afire. The elections of January 9, 1959, were boycotted by Arab labor and nationalist groups. On February 11 Britain joined six sheikhdoms on the Yemen-Aden borders in a Federation of Arab Emirates of the South, tied to Great Britain but promised ultimate independence. In May a Yemeni delegation was sent to Aden to negotiate a settlement of the outstanding disputes.

Arab League, United Nations, and Israel The sharpening conflicts among the Arab countries had the paradoxical result of bringing back into prominence one symbol of Arab unity, the Arab League. But attempts to use the league to solve critical differences ended in failure. On the issues between the Arab states and Israel, such as the refugee problem, the Arabs remained uncompromising. The sharper the rivalry between opposing Arab countries, the more keenly they competed to appear most ardent in hostility to Israel; sometimes joint action against Israel could bring together Arab countries which refused to meet for a settlement of their own differences. During the first week of June 1958 the Arab League met in an unsuccessful effort to settle the dispute between Lebanon and the UAR, then pending before the UN. After the Iraqi rebellion and the Anglo-American intervention in Jordan and Lebanon, an Arab-sponsored resolution passed the UN General Assembly unanimously, even Israel voting in favor, on August 21. It called on the Arab states—i.e., the Arab League—to settle their internal differences in a spirit of mutual respect in consultation with the UN secretary general. But the meetings of the league in September were marked by an acrimonious dispute between the UAR and a new member, Tunisia. This led to a walkout by the Egyptian delegate and Tunisian withdrawal from the league (see p. 316). At the same session the league voted to oppose the election of Charles Malik of Lebanon as president of the UN Assembly, and he was elected against its opposition. Later, in May 1959, he was violently attacked by Lebanese parlia- mentarians because he had been photographed drinking a good-will toast, in his official capacity, at the Israeli pavilion in the international exhibition at the New York Coliseum. (Malik said he had been tricked into visiting it.) 310 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK When Sudan, on March 24, 1959, asked that the Arab League council be convened to mediate between Iraq and Egypt, Iraq refused to attend the session, which took place in the first week of April. Iraq also boycotted an Arab oil conference in April. Inter-Arab polemics gave indirect evidence of the peculiar role of Israel as a deterrent to military adventures by one Arab regime against another. In the trial of Major General Ghazi Daghestani in Baghdad in August 1958, the accused and a former Jordanian officer, General Ali Abu Nuwar, testified that Hashemite plans to invade Syria or to move Iraqi troops across the Jordan were held back by fear of Israeli action against the Jordanian West Bank. A similar revelation was Nasser's charge, on March 22, 1959, that the Iraqis had refused to join him in a "decisive battle" against Israel in November-December 1958, when Arab radio services were raising an alarm over alleged Israeli plans of aggression. BENHALPERN > * * *

Iran

ESPITE its strategic position in the Middle East, Iran slowly succeeded in D achieving and maintaining comparative stability during the years under review, from 1953, the Mossadegh-Tudeh upheavals, to mid-1959. Iran aligned itself with the West and was a member of the Baghdad Pact since its inception. An American military mission helped to train the Iranian army and supplied most of its weapons and bases. Many Iranian government agencies had American advisors, and large-scale American loans and grants and technical assistance were provided. Much attention was given to raising the general level of the country politically, economically, and socially. Iran became a constitutional monarchy in the early 1900's, but great power remained in the monarch's hands. Shah Mohammed Reza Shah Pahlevi increased his power in 1953 as a result of the coup which overthrew Mossadegh. With his prompting, two political parties were established in early 1958—the Melliyun party, which represented the legislative group currently in power, and the Mardom party, which represented the opposition. Artificially created from above, these parties did not have the dynamic influence over national politics of political parties elsewhere. In 1959 parliament passed a law prohibiting anyone connected with the government from having any business dealings with it, and another, the so-called "Where did you get it from?" law, requiring all public officials and civil servants to declare the sources of their income and property. Parliament consisted of two houses, the Majlis and the Senate. Any male Iranian Moslem over 20 could vote for Majlis deputies. (Women did not have the vote.) In addition, religious minority groups, such as the Zoroastri- ans, the Jews, and the Armenians, were each permitted at least one representative in the Majlis. There was one such Jewish representative. A government agency called the Plan Organization of Iran had major responsibility for planning and directing the country's general economic and social development. The Second Seven-year Development Law established a comprehensive, integrated plan for the development of the country's resources. The Plan Organization was supposed to receive 80 per cent of Iran's oil revenues for its projects, but some of this income was diverted to the general budget. The industrial revolution begun under Reza Shah, father of the present shah and founder of the Pahlevi dynasty, was interrupted and in some respects even reversed by the events of World War II and its immediate aftermath, as well as by the oil crisis of 1951-53. It gradually regained new

* For meaning of abbreviations, sec p. 359. 311 312 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK impetus with the stabilization of the country after 1953. There were still glaring contrasts in Iran's level of development. Thus, television was introduced, while most of the country's roads and water-supply systems remained primitive. The deep chasm between wealth and poverty continued, and the improved standard of living in the cities scarcely touched the countryside. A slowly emerging middle class consisted in the main of small shopkeepers, white-collar workers, and professionals not deriving from the upper class.

Jewish Population A census completed in 1956 showed dose to 19,000,000 inhabitants, about 98 per cent of them Moslem. There were 80,000 to 85,000 Jews, approximately 0.4 per cent of the total population. Of these, 50 per cent were in Teheran and Abadan, 40 per cent in six other larger cities, and the remaining 10 per cent scattered through some 23 small towns. There was considerable internal migration and some emigration to Israel. The Jews' social and economic condition reflected general Iranian conditions, modified by their position as Jews in a Moslem country. There was the same gap between the small group of the prosperous and the masses of the poor, the same uneven- ness and inconsistency of progress, the same emerging middle class.

Antisemitism There was little overt political antisemitism in the years under review, aside from the discrimination resulting from the position of Islam as the official state religion. A certain amount of economic and social antisemitism was endemic. In general, Iranian Jews had little opportunity to obtain employment, and almost no opportunity to advance, in government, the army, banks, and similar fields. Many Moslem businessmen refused to employ Jews, and some used antisemitic slander to attack Jewish competitors. Jewish school children in non-Jewish schools were frequently the butt of antisemitic taunts and abuse. In spite of this, the Jews enjoyed relative peace, security, and opportunity under the present regime. The king and his various ministries were interested in the welfare of the Jews and sympathetic to their needs. Good relationships existed between government authorities and the local Jewish leadership and Jewish foreign organizations. Although there were no official relations between Israel and Iran, emigration to Israel was freely permitted, and the Jewish Agency for Israel carried on its emigration activities without hindrance. There was also trade with Israel, and many products in Iranian shops bore a "Made in Israel" label and found a ready market. But the position of the Jews in Iran was by no means completely secure. During the Suez crisis and Sinai campaign of 1956, strongly antisemitic threats and warnings appeared in at least one newspaper and the assembly of more than ten Jews for any purpose was prohibited. These manifestations passed quickly as the international crisis subsided, but they could not be disre- garded. IRAN 313

Community Organization The Jewish community used these years of relative calm and freedom to make numerous advances in education, health, and welfare. The community organizational structure took the form of a number of special committees, organized at various times to meet particular needs and made up mostly of the leading, i.e., the wealthiest, local Jews. The Iranian stratification of society was based more on wealth than other types of achievement, and this was equally true within the Jewish community. Authority and prestige were therefore chiefly in the hands of the rich and only to a much more limited extent in those of the scholar, intellectual, or religious leader. With the emergence of a middle class, an occasional member of this new class, usually a professional, found his way into community activity and achieved recognition. No strong central body existed to coordinate the work of the various committees and to represent Iranian Jewry, despite several efforts to establish one. The Anjoman Kalimian, or Jewish Committee, was the central Jewish body officially registered with the government. Its president was the Jewish representative in the Majlis, and it gave promise of developing into a central organ for the Jewish community.

JEWISH EDUCATION Jewish elementary and secondary education were provided through school systems under the auspices of two foreign Jewish organizations, the Alliance Israelite Universelle and Otzar ha-Torah. There were schools in Teheran and a number of provincial cities. ORT also operated vocational schools. In all, during 1958, approximately 10,500 Jewish children attended 35 schools in 25 cities. In recent years there was a slight increase in the number of Jewish school children in Teheran and a decrease in the provinces, as a result of emigration to Israel and migration to Teheran. Some 4,000 Jewish children attended non-Jewish Iranian schools, and many wealthy families sent their children abroad for secondary or higher education. The Jewish schools also offered a feeding program, periodic clothing dis- tributions, and bath and health programs. For pre-school children, there were two day-care centers in Teheran and one each in Hamadan, Isfahan, and Shiraz. In 1958 approximately 2,200 pre-school age children benefited from the day-care centers, where food, clothing, baths, haircuts, and medical attention were also provided. Training opportunities for staff were offered in all the schools, particularly in the day-care centers.

HEALTH AND SOCIAL SERVICES The greatest concentration of effort was in health. The major emphasis was on maternal and child health, but through the extensive sanitation program, the various clinics, the school health facilities and other channels, the medical program reached into the life of almost every Jewish family that was not entirely self-sufficient. The health services included maternal and child-care centers, which gave pre- and postnatal medical care and advice as 314 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK well as nutritional supplementation to expectant and nursing mothers and their babies; the highly-rated Jewish hospital (Kanoun Kheir Khah hospital) in Teheran which provided in-patient facilities for maternity cases, a children's ward, and an out-patient department for all types of illness; dispensaries; a nurse's-aide training school, and a parasitological study under the direction of an outstanding foreign specialist, with a follow-up program of prevention and treatment. Large quantities of surplus commodities furnished by the United States Department of Agriculture were valuable supplements to the feeding programs. From 1957 on, summer camps offered hundreds of Mahalleh (ghetto) boys experience in outdoor group living. In 1959 financial assistance was extended to 50 university students through the University Students' Aid Pro- gram. In Teheran a welfare office in the Mahalleh gave direct relief in kind, and occasionally in cash, to selected needy cases; relief was also given in urgent cases in the provinces, though on a less organized basis. Passover supplies were distributed to all needy Jews.

CULTURAL ACTIVITY The Koresh Kabir Cultural Center in Teheran, six years old in 1959, while its operation and program were quite Iranian, was modeled on the American Jewish community center. There was also a Jewish sport club, similar to other Iranian sport clubs which enjoyed great popularity and respect. In recent years, in response to an increasing demand for adult education, literacy and health-education classes were provided, particularly for the mothers in the Mahallehs. Except for educational programs operated directly by the Alliance Israelite Universelle, Otzar ha-Torah, and ORT, all these health, education, and welfare programs were under the sponsorship of the various local Jewish committees and were financed, with some local participation, primarily by JDC. JDC also provided technical and professional advice and service, help in organizing new services, consultation for the ongoing programs, and assistance in community organization and leadership development.

EMIGRATION As indicated previously, the Iranian government permitted emigration to Israel, adopting a neutral position. It did not encourage or press Jews to leave Iran, nor did it restrict their departure. The Jewish Agency for Israel supervised emigration. In 1958 about 7,000 Jews, approximately 8 per cent of Iran's Jewish population, emigrated to Israel. In a few smaller towns and villages the Jewish community was almost entirely liquidated through such emigration, together with migration to Teheran, and in others it was drastically reduced. As a result the continued existence of some schools, clinics, and synagogues was put into doubt. The overwhelming number of emigrants to Israel were poor. However, even among the poorest there was a strong reluctance to pull up ancient roots and go to a new land. North Africa

TUNISIA *

ROM mid-1958 to mid-1959, Tunisia continued to consolidate its inde- Fpendence. Between July and October 1958 French troops evacuated all Tunisian territory except Bizerte in accordance with an agreed schedule. The French air force gave up its base at El Aouina, four miles from Tunis, in October 1958, but continued to occupy the base of Sidi Hamed, near Bizerte. At the end of the period under review, negotiations between France and Tunisia on the subject of Bizerte had not yet begun. The Bank of Algeria and Tunisia lost its former privilege of issuing currency, the right of issue being transferred to the new Central Bank of Tunisia, in November 1958. The new Tunisian currency, the dinar, equal to a thousand French francs, was put into circulation with the establishment of the central bank. It was tied to the franc, but when France devalued the franc in November 1958, Tunisia decided not to follow suit, though remaining in the franc zone. In order to preserve its economic independence, the Tunisian government then undertook the "battle of the dinar." The authorization of the central bank was required for all transfers of capital to France, including payments for imports. Initial difficulties decreased subsequently. Negotiations between France and Tunisia on commercial, tariff, and monetary questions began in January 1959. They were suspended and then resumed, but no agreement had been reached at the end of the period under review. Since the Tunisian negotiators refused to yield on the question of not devaluing the dinar, agreement seemed likely only on commercial and tariff questions. There were numerous frontier incidents during the year, but none as grave as the bombardment of Sakiet-Sidi-Youssef in February 1958 (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], pp. 257-58).

New Constitution When the text of a new Tunisian constitution was approved and promul- gated by the constituent assembly, on June 1, 1959, President Habib Bour- guiba recalled that a previous constitution, that of 1857, had been adopted under pressure from foreign consuls, disturbed by the abuse of power to which Moslems and Jews were at that time subject, including a death sentence imposed on a Jewish coachman. The 1959 constitution proclaimed "a republican regime" as representing the "best guarantee of respect for human rights and . . . equality" (Article 8). It guaranteed the basic civil liberties and

* For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. 315 316 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK the rights of unionism and property (Articles 8 and 9). Article 10 guaranteed the right of every citizen "to circulate freely within the territory of the country, to leave it, and to fix his domicile, within the limits foreseen by the law," and Article 11 said that no citizen could be expatriated or forbidden to return to his country. Nevertheless, there were Jews who emigrated to Israel without giving up their Tunisian citizenship and who were not readmitted. Article 1 of the constitution defined Tunisia as a "free, independent, sovereign state. Its religion is Islam, its language Arabic, and its mode of government republican." Representatives of Jewish organizations who had discussed this clause with President Bourguiba while it was in draft form were assured that this did not mean that the Moslem religion was the state religion of Tunisia, but that the clause represented a simple statement of sociological fact. But the preamble to the constitution, going further, asserted the "will of the Tunisian people to remain faithful to the teachings of Islam, to the unity of Arab North Africa, to its membership in the Arab family . . ." (Paragraph 6). Article 37 required the religion of the president to be Islam. The constitution provided for a strong executive in the president and a single-chamber national assembly. At the end of December 1958, when President Bourguiba reorganized his cabinet, Andr£ Barouch, who had been the only Jewish member (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 257) as secretary of state for public works and housing, was replaced. Barouch had wanted to leave for some time. Two months later he was named president of the administrative council of the republic and director general (representing the Tunisian state) of the Tunisian Navigation Com- pany, then being formed.

Tunisia and the Arab League A few days after Abdul Jabbar Jomard, at the time foreign minister of Iraq, visited King Mohammed V of Morocco and President Bourguiba, in Septem- ber 1958, Morocco and Tunisia applied for admission to the Arab League. On October 1, 1958, they were unanimously accepted as members and on October 11 the council of the league met in Cairo. In the course of a speech the head of the Tunisian delegation, Habib al-Chatty, angered the UAR representatives—they walked out—by charging that the league was dominated by delegations from "some big countries." Chatty left Cairo on the following day, and on October 13 the council of the league, meeting behind closed doors, unanimously condemned the attitude of the Tunisian delegation. On October 16 Tunisia broke off relations with the UAR. Tunisian public opinion welcomed the opposition which Tunisia thus demonstrated to UAR President Gamal Abdul Nasser's attempt to assert hegemony over the Arab world.

Public Order The plot of Salah ben Youssef (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], pp. 258-59) was before the high court during November and December 1958, 53 defendants being tried in person and five in absentia. The court condemned nine persons to death-four of them (including Salah ben Youssef and Salah Nadjar) in absentia—and 39 to hard labor or ordinary imprisonment of 15 to 20 years, TUNISIA 317 acquitting 10. In December President Bourguiba commuted two of the death sentences to hard labor for life. The court also tried the cases of two former premiers, Salheddine Baccouche and Mohammed Salah Mzali, for "collaboration" with the French in 1952. In November 1958 it condemned Baccouche to ten years at hard labor and some of his ministers to five years each. One Ben Rais, who had taken refuge in France, was sentenced in absentia to death. The ministers were also condemned to national indignity and their properties were confiscated. In Feb- ruary 1959 the high court condemned former Premier Mzali to ten years' imprisonment, confiscation of his properties, and national indignity. Later, on various national holidays, the authorities amnestied some of the condemned men. Former Premier Tahar ben Amar, prosecuted before the high court on a charge of acquiring property illegally, was fined 30 million francs in Septem- ber 1958. In October, in the case of the crown jewels (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 259), the court imposed on him penalties which included a fine of ten million francs. An espionage network centered in the French embassy was discovered in February, involving French technicians in the postal service and certain functionaries of the French embassy. For a time the affair placed some strain on relations between Tunisia and France, but it ended when the prisoners were released in October 1959 in accordance with an agreement between the two governments for the exchange of persons under indictment and in prison. Economic Situation Tunisia, an essentially agricultural country, had an average yield of hard wheat, barley, wine, and olive oil. The country continued to need foreign aid. In May 1959 the U. S. De- velopment Loan Fund lent Tunisia $6.25 million for a cellulose factory and agreed to lend $2.4 million more for the Tunisian National Railway Com- pany. In May the U. S. International Cooperation Administration gave Tunisia §5 million, as the first installment of economic assistance for the year, to maintain the value of the dinar. The United States also gave Tunisia more than 30,000 tons of wheat. Total United States aid to Tunisia in the year, including technical assistance, came to about f 32 million. In November and December 1958 President Bourguiba announced the government's intention of taking over, for a period of three or four years and in return for fair compensation, all agricultural land held by non-Tunisians. French and other foreign agricultural circles—Italian, Maltese, Swiss, etc.— were disturbed. The value of land in French hands to be recovered under the proposed program was estimated at 90 billion francs (about $180 million). Unemployment continued to be a major problem, despite the Tunisian- izing of the civil service and various professions. Demographic pressure was very great, the annual population increase coming to about 2 per cent, or 60,000 persons. More than half of the population were under 20, and 45 per cent were under 16. Bad harvests in the south resulted in a shift of population to the north. No strikes or labor disputes occurred during the year. 318 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

Jewish Community The last general census took place in February 1956. The number of Jews in the year under review was probably between 55,000 and 60,000—out of a total of 3,815,000—of whom three-quarters lived in Tunis and its suburbs. Emigration, which tended to diminish, was motivated principally by economic considerations. The unemployment affecting the entire Tunisian population did not spare the Jews. Departures for Israel, whose decline was noted last year (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 261), did not come to more than 300 in the period under review. Departures for France could not be estimated exactly, but came to some thousands. UHS continued to furnish efficient and enlight- ened assistance.

RELATIONS WITH THE GOVERNMENT President Bourguiba's government did not discriminate in any way, and the Tunisian population behaved properly towards Jews. The Jewish population was affected by the dispossession of its old cemetery (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 262), in the heart of Tunis, which was turned into a park. Jews were distressed because this was done too rapidly to permit proper exhumation and reburial, though it was possible to take out the remains of five venerated rabbis to whose tombs it had been customary to make pilgrimages. There was also a difference of opinion about ownership of the cemetery land, some ten acres in extent. The authorities considered it to be like Moslem cemeteries, which had always been owned by the municipality, but the Jewish plot was actually owned by the community. The question was to be adjudicated in 1960. The subsidies of 20 million francs (about $40,000) a year, which the community had formerly received, had not been paid for three years. In Novem- ber 1958 the Tunis municipal council voted subsidies to several Jewish institutions: Nos Petits, 500,000 francs (|l,000); OSE, 100,000 ($200); Garderie Israelite, 200,000 ($400) and the clothing service, 100,000 ($200). At Passover the government distributed food to 500 families in Tunis and 200 in its suburbs of La Goulette and L'Ariana. In June 1959 the Jewish community of Sousse received a subsidy of 500 dinars (about $1,000) from the government. President Bourguiba sent Yom Kippur greetings to Chief Rabbi Mordecai Meiss Cohen of Tunisia and the Jewish population. Secretary of State for In- formation Mohammed Masmoudi took part in the ceremonies and festivities connected with the traditional Jewish pilgrimage to Djerba.

"BATTLE OF THE DINAR" In a speech about the "battle of the dinar," President Bourguiba made special reference to the Jews, as follows: It is impressive to see the unanimity in all circles, whether they be merchants, producers, farmers, exporters, or importers, Moslems or Jews. I do not doubt that in this regard our Jewish brothers will be sensitive to the imperatives of the hour and will understand that this is the occasion for them to demonstrate their loyalty and attachment to this country that considers them as its children. TUNISIA 319 This fundamental trait of the regime marks a revolution against the out- dated ideas of the past. What I desire and what the country expects of its Jewish sons is that they shall engage in this battle with as much ardor and devotion as all their fellow-citizens, by putting their great resources into action. . . . All reasons—subjective and objective, moral and material- command them not to disappoint us and to mobilize all the means at their disposal. . .. This singling out troubled the Jews. On February 11, when President Bourguiba received a delegation of representatives of economic organizations, Albert Bessis, a member of the constituent assembly and a former minister (from September 1955 to April 1956), speaking for Tunisian Jewry, thanked President Bourguiba for inviting the Jews to participate in the "battle of the dinar" on the same basis as other sections of the population and emphasized that the Jews would give the president their complete support, since they were citizens without reservation and sought the fusion of all elements of the population.

POLITICAL AND CIVIC STATUS The Jews of Tunisia continued to enjoy the same rights as their Moslem compatriots. They voted and were eligible for election to all local and national legislative bodies, but as non-Moslems they were ineligible for the presidency. As indicated last year (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 260), the Jews of Tunisia were no longer subject to the Jewish law of personal status, but to the Tunisian code, which was essentially inspired by Moslem law.

COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION As noted last year (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 261), a law of July 11, 1958, dissolved the Jewish community council of Tunis and the welfare committees of the interior and replaced them with interim administrative committees. The law provided for religious associations with more limited functions than the community councils, whose statutes were to be drawn up by the interim administrative committees. It was not expected at the time that the interim committees would exist for more than a few months, but they were still functioning at the end of the period under review. Although the interim committee of Tunis submitted the proposed statutes for the new religious association to the government in February 1959, they had not yet been discussed by the authorities at the end of June. The interim administrative committee of Tunis continued to carry on the activities of the community council which it replaced, particularly welfare and cultural activities, although there were doubts that the new religious associations yet to be named would be able to do so. The community faced serious financial difficulties because of the government's failure to pay the subsidy, its own inadequate resources, and its heavy expenses. JDC gave it important help.

RELIGION As in the past, Jewish religious life continued without difficulties. Shehitah was provided for in the municipal slaughter houses, and kosher food was served in restaurants under the control of the chief rabbinate. Matzot 320 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK were baked, the Sabbath and holidays were observed, worship took place both in private and publicly in the synagogues, there were pilgrimages to the tombs of venerated rabbis, and the dead were buried in accordance with the Jewish rite. The Hevrat Talmud, a well-known old yeshivah subsidized by the community of Tunis, continued to function. There was talk of reorganizing it, but no decision was reached. EDUCATION All Jewish children received some education. Instruction was carried on in schools under the jurisdiction of the secretariat of national education or of the French cultural mission. By a convention signed between France and Tunisia in April 1959, the French government agreed to furnish Tunisia with necessary educational personnel, to pay between 15 and 45 per cent of the teachers' salaries, and to bar political activity. The convention was to last until Sep- tember 1960, while a new convention was being negotiated. Arabic was taught in all schools, and especially in those under the jurisdiction of the secretariat of national education, but French remained the basic language from the third year on. The schools of the Alliance Israelite Uni- verselle, under the jurisdiction of the secretariat of national education, taught Arabic, but also continued to teach Hebrew. The basic teaching personnel was paid by the Tunisian government, but the Alliance paid the Hebrew teachers, ten ORT instructors, kindergarten personnel, and the housekeeping staff. It also paid for the upkeep of the buildings, which was costly because of their age. ORT continued to give technical training, valued by Jews and non-Jews alike. In the 1958-59 school year the number of students at the school in L'Ariana rose to 450, of whom 85 per cent were Jewish. The apprenticeship school for adults expanded significantly, serving 900 students, while the girls' school had 75. In the secretariat of national education's examinations for certificates of aptitude, 61 per cent of the candidates from the ORT school at L'Ariana passed, as against 18 per cent of those from other schools; in the French cultural mission's examinations, the respective percentages were 83 and 43. The interim administrative committee of the Tunis Jewish community supervised the instruction in the schools which came under its authority, i.e., the Or Torah, the Hebrew classes in the schools of the Alliance, and the schools of the Rue Glatigny, La Goulette, and L'Ariana. It decided on certain changes in the status of the teaching personnel, in the curriculum, especially the teaching of modern Hebrew, and in supervision. Carrying out those changes caused certain difficulties with the chief rabbi, which were later smoothed out. Evening courses in modern Hebrew continued, but the number of students dropped. In the interior, and particularly in certain towns in the south, JDC gave substantial financial and technical assistance. SOCIAL WELFARE The interim administrative committee continued to make weekly, monthly, and emergency relief payments. It distributed matzot, oil, and rice, provided wine for holidays, and gave scholarships and prizes to students. It also sub- TUNISIA 321 sidized such organizations as Nos Petits, la Garderie, l'Oeuvre de l'Habille- ment, l'Oeuvre des Couvertures, l'Oeuvre de la Protection de la Jeune Fille Juive, and l'Oeuvre de Bar Tefillin. Nos Petits, the most important of these organizations, functioned in Tunis in the Alliance schools and in Or Torah, in the suburban towns of La Gou- lette and L'Ariana, where there were many Jews, and in certain towns of the interior. It furnished 5,000 poor children, studying on scholarships, with meals and winter clothes, and it gave light clothes to the 1,500 children whom it cared for in vacation camps for three weeks in the summer. This organization received considerable help from JDC. United States surplus agricultural commodities received through JDC decreased during the year. Supplies of butter, cheese, cottonseed oil, beans, and rice ceased, necessitating a larger cash contribution from JDC. In January 1959 the ministry of finance and economy wrote JDC in Tunis that it would be permitted to import welfare supplies and materials into the country, but only if these were distributed to all Tunisians without regard to religion. Though this concept had been advanced on various occasions by Tunisian authorities, including President Bourguiba himself, as early as Feb- ruary 1957, it later developed that the ministry's letter did not properly state the position of the government, and supplies continued to come in as before. OSE worked through dispensaries in Tunis and certain towns of the interior, serving some Moslems as well as Jews. Its principal support came from the World OSE Union. The Caisse de Relevement Israelite Economique, established by JDC, made 380 loans totaling more than 25 million francs ($50,000). It also guaranteed more than 3 million francs (§6,000) of artisans' commercial paper as part of its fight against usury. The community house (AJYB, 1957 [Vol. 58], pp. 349-50) was not yet fin- ished because the interim committee did not have enough money, but the completed parts were in use, and the chief rabbinate was able to move in.

ZIONISM AND RELATIONS WITH ISRAEL After Tunisia became independent, in 1957, Zionism was officially branded as a threat to the state, and the government declared Zionists subject to expulsion {Jewish Chronicle, London, July 25,1958).

CULTURAL AcnvrrY Ha-Kol and the Compagnons des Arts were unable to stage any performances, but their members conducted the weekly half-hour program "Images et Pense'es Juives" (Jewish Thought and Image) on the French program of the Tunisian radio. In general, cultural activity was on a much-reduced scale. 322 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

MOROCCO *

Politics and Economic Conditions

OROCCAN political and economic life faced a series of crises during mid- M 1958 to mid-1959, but internal order and security were strengthened. There was no more open tribal unrest, such as had led to fighting with the royal army the year before, and there were only occasional incidents between members of rival parties or trade unions. In November 1958 the cabinet headed by Ahmed Balafrej of Istiqlal—then virtually the only important party in Morocco—fell after an uneventful six months in office, characterized largely by internal factional squabbling. The reason for his resignation was the growing dissatisfaction, primarily economic, of Istiqlal's left wing. This came to a focus when Minister of Economic Affairs Abderrahim Bouabid quit the cabinet. King Mohammed V, who appointed all ministers and ruled by decree, in the absence of any representative body, chose Abdallah Ibrahim, favored by the Istiqlal left wing, as premier after a month of consultation, and Bouabid returned as economic minister. In May 1959 the badly riven Istiqlal split in two. The more bourgeois, conservative, and traditional elements headed by Allal al-Fassi kept control of the party's name and part of its machinery. They drew much of their strength from the bled, or back country. The more radical wing, headed by Mehdi Ben-Barka and Mohammed al-Basri, formed the New Union of Popular Forces (UNFP). Its support came primarily from the trade unions representing the growing Moroccan urban working class; it also had the support of the premier, and quickly became the outstanding political force in the nation. There was bitter feeling between the two parties, which denounced each other in the press and at party meetings and sometimes clashed physically. Other active political groups included the remnants of the Party of Democratic Independence, much of whose strength had been absorbed by UNFP, and the Popular movement headed by Abd al-Khatib, with former premier Si Bekkai as its honorary president. The Communist party—small but important because of its influence on certain Moroccan intellectuals—was first banned but later won from the country's high court the right to exist as a party. The strength of the different political groups was due to be tested in the communal elections of May 1960, the first elections of any kind in the country. Morocco's already serious economic difficulties were further complicated in December 1959 when the Ibrahim government refused to follow the French devaluation of the franc, although remaining part of the franc zone. Moroc- can money, formerly at a par with the French, now became about 18 per cent more expensive to purchase. Suddenly Moroccan products, including the orange crop so important to the nation's trade balance, found themselves priced out of the French market, and there was considerable confusion. Business, which had been picking up from the near-stagnation point of 1957, * For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. MOROCCO 325 slumped once more. This was aggravated by a flow of capital out of Morocco. The governmental policies considered responsible were dropped in October 1959, as one of the conditions for a loan of $25 million from the World Bank, and the Moroccan franc was set at 506 to the dollar. At the same time the Moroccan government announced an ambitious five-year development plan, tightened economic controls, and called for the registration of all assets owned outside of Morocco by Moroccan nationals. Important elements such as the Moroccan Trade Union (UMT)—which was probably the best- organized institution in the country—advocated schemes calling for greater economic self-sufficiency. Hundreds of thousands were unemployed and many more underemployed, to the point where in April 1959 the government forbade the use of road-building machinery, so as to create more jobs for laborers. The Ibrahim government strengthened Morocco's ties with the Arab League, which the country had joined in 1958. It sought through pan-Arabism to cement the population around its general policies and programs. It also tended increasingly towards neutralism between East and West. This represented partly a continued reaction against colonialism, with which the West was associated in the popular mind, and partly a growing interest of Moroccan leaders in the example of countries like China and Yugoslavia, believed to have pulled themselves up by their bootstraps. It also came from the conviction that such aid as was coming from the United States would continue anyway, because of the desire to keep Morocco out of the Communist orbit. Morocco demanded that the United States give up its airbases, even though Moroccan leaders recognized the major economic importance of the $20 million these brought into the country annually. During a visit by Premier Ibrahim to Washington in October 1959, the United States announced that it would evacuate the bases. In the same month the government canceled Tangier's special status as a free port.

Effects on the Jewish Community Many of the Moroccan government's moves, in both the political and economic spheres, had a pronounced effect on the country's 200,000 Jews— about 2 per cent of a total population of 10,000,000—though they were not adopted with the Jews in mind. The change in atmosphere as a result of the increased emphasis on pan-Arabism and the government's closer ties with the Arab League caused increasing concern to Jews in Morocco.

RELATIONS WITH ISRAEL The leading Moroccan political parties, in their appeals for popular support, manifested their hatred of Israel and Zionism. Morocco's leading Arab- language newspaper, al-'Alam, unofficial organ of UNFP, asserted on May 30: We consider that the Jews of Morocco are citizens with the same rights and duties as Moroccan citizens, and we say so. This has earned us severe re- proaches and unfriendly press campaigns from our Arab brethren. . . . But it appears that [Jews] do not see the advantages of our conduct; that, on the contrary, they exploit every occasion to send the goods they have 324 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK acquired in our country to Israel and to the Zionist criminal groups who have chased a million Arabs from their homes. ... If they do not wish to adopt the Arab mentality, it is our duty to reconsider [our attitude]. The next day, asking for stronger action against "the Zionist elements scattered among Moroccan Jewry," the paper accused Jews of bribing government employees to get passports, in order to be able to emigrate. "Everybody knows that the Jews were, and have not stopped being, people who adore money. They collect the goods with which to arrive at their goals, the destruction of the country they have decided to destroy. The history of Morocco is full of such examples. . . ." The newspaper of the al-Fassi party, Istiqlal, made the false charge that a group of Moroccan Jews sent to France by the government for postal training had all promptly taken off for Israel. In August 1959 a Moroccan court sentenced a Jew in Meknes, Solomon Ben-Amram, to a year in prison for possessing a five-year-old Keren Kayyemet calendar, or in some accounts, old receipts. This aroused considerable fear in the Jewish community, even though Ben-Amram was released after 48 hours in prison and given a suspended sentence. Tales flew about that Jews in various localities had been advised not to wear blue and white skullcaps or the Star of David, considered as Zionist insignia. These reports could not be confirmed, but they were symptomatic. Tension was particularly high in September 1959, during an Arab League meeting in Casablanca, but this passed without incident. The Ibrahim government cut all postal and cable communication with Israel on September 26, 1959. This worked particular hardship on Moroccan Jewry, since in the previous 15 years well over 100,000 Jews from Morocco had emigrated to Israel, and many families had members in both countries. At the time communication was cut, about 20,000 letters a month were flowing between the two lands. UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjold unsuccessfully urged the Moroccan authorities, on humanitarian grounds, to make some arrangements by which mail could move indirectly between the two lands. Thus the Moroccan public and government increasingly considered any contact with Israel or sympathy for it as inimical to the Moroccan state. This put Jews in a most difficult position because, apart from any other considerations, family ties and the traditional religious attachment to Israel were very strong in this community. The Moroccan press made much of the Wadi Salib incidents (riots in a Haifa slum by North African Jews against what they considered to be discrimination against them) in Israel in the summer of 1959, as proof of the thesis, popular in Morocco, that Israel wanted Moroccan Jews only as a cheap labor force and was mistreating them. King Mohammed V told a group of three Moroccan businessmen to whom he gave audience in Geneva in July 1959 that he could not permit his Jewish sons to go to a land where they were so badly treated.

ECONOMIC SITUATION Jews traditionally occupied an important role in Moroccan trade and commerce. Many members of the Jewish middle class in Morocco, already hard MOROCCO 325 hit by the economic difficulties of recent years, were again adversely affected when business slumped after Morocco refused to devalue her franc. They also feared that the government might take over various economic activities, as advocated by those asking for greater Moroccan economic self-sufficiency. The Jew- ish merchant class in Tangier was particularly hard hit when that city lost its free-port status and it became dear that much of its business would go elsewhere. Tangier's banking business, in which there were many Jews, had profited greatly from that city's free market in currency. It now became subject to new Moroccan regulations, to its detriment. Among the middle classes, consequently, there was an increasing desire to leave for France, Spain, and other western lands, but this was not always possible. While unemployment plagued the poorer elements of the Jewish population, as it did the Moslem, the Jews were in a better position because Jewish welfare aid was much better than that available to Moslems. Furthermore, up to late 1958, as the French continued to leave Morocco, Jews increasingly found clerical and accounting positions in private industry and in various government administrations, thanks to their greater literacy. By the middle of 1959, however, Jews felt that they were being discriminated against in applying for government jobs, and reports circulated that various ministries had been instructed not to give jobs to Jews unless there were no other qualified applicants. Jews also felt that they were being discriminated against in job placement, though the facts here were difficult to determine. Under a system instituted early in 1959, jobs were to be filled through the government placement office. That a Jew should find dozens of Moslems before him on any waiting list was to be expected, given the proportion of Jews to Moslems in the country, but there was also a feeling that Jews were being put toward the bottom of the list. Employers often tended to favor Jewish applicants because of their better education and training. Even when they demanded particular Jewish applicants, however, they would sometimes be sent Moslems. Hence the Jews of all classes felt themselves under increasing economic pressure.

Emigration For the public record Moroccan officials maintained that there was no ban on emigration, and that Jewish demands for passports were treated without discrimination. But government offices refused to grant any passports to persons who, it was thought, might be going on to Israel. Often, instead of outright refusal, passport requests were simply not answered. The Council of Jewish Communities presented to the ministry of the interior the names of over a thousand persons who had been refused or had not received any answer to passport requests; this represented only those cases which had been brought to the council's attention. Jewish businessmen seeking to go abroad on business and would-be tourists who had no intention of emigrating found themselves undergoing thorough investigation and questioning, or met with delays and were occasionally required, in effect, to leave hostages in Morocco. At the same time, because of the worsening situation for Jews in Morocco, there was a greater desire for emigration. In these circumstances it was not 326 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK unnatural that there should be illegal movement. It was no secret to anyone in the country that would-be emigrants continued to seek means to leave, and that the police were active in trying to discover and close the various exit routes. Incidents arose throughout the year. Thus in August 1958 a group of some 125 Jews were arrested in the former Spanish zone. The women and children were released after a few weeks; ten men were kept in a Tangier jail until February 1959, and another 12 were released in subsequent months. In March 1959, 26 Jews were arrested in the little town of Nador, near Oujda, on the Moroccan-Algerian border. Two men suspected by the police of organizing emigration were beaten up; the others were jailed, and then released on bail after intercession by the council of communities. In the summer of 1959 a busload of Jews was picked up by police on a beach near Tetuan. Since some of them came from the Extourist hotel in Tangier, the owner, Mrs. Esther Levy, was arrested and held incommunicado for three weeks, her husband jailed a few days, and her manager imprisoned. In Tangier, at the beginning of 1959 there remained 800 Jews of a group of 1,400 who had gone there in 1957 to emigrate, but who had been stopped by the police. They lived in three small hotels and a nearby garage in conditions reminiscent of the worst postwar displaced persons' camps, and were fed by the local Jewish community with the aid of JDC. The Moroccan government ignored repeated requests by overseas Jewish organizations that these people, no longer rooted in Morocco, be permitted to leave. Their number gradually diminished as they drifted to other communities, despairing of moving from Tangier. In October there was a trial in Tangier of almost 40 of the Jews arrested in the various incidents described above. Since there were no Moroccan laws against emigration, the charge against them was action inimical to the interests of the state. Two persons were sentenced to a year in prison each and heavy fines, others got terms up to six months, and some sentences were suspended. The prosecutor announced that he would appeal because the sentences were too light; the defense also appealed, on the ground that the defendants had committed no crime. In the fall of 1959 the Moroccan police set up a special section to deal with emigration. One result was an increase in unauthorized house searches and in detention of Jews on suspicion of desire to emigrate. After intervention by local Jewish community leadership, Governor Si Bargash of Casa- blanca personally toured that city's police stations and released about 80 Jews. Suspicious of all emigration, the Moroccan authorities refused in July 1959 to give permission to UHS to operate in Casablanca. A few weeks later they ordered the closing of the other UHS office in Tangier. Working discreetly, so as not to offend Moroccan sensibilities on the subject, UHS had been helping about 400 persons a year move to Canada, Brazil, and other countries.

Community Organization Jewish institutional life in Morocco continued much as before; in some instances there was even an expansion of activities. However, because of a MOROCCO 327 requirement that all institutions in the country submit their charters for review, many Jewish bodies underwent a period o£ considerable tension. Some disappeared, and there was considerable fear for the future of others. Besides refusing to recognize the charter of UHS, as noted above, the Moroccan government refused the Moroccan section of WJC and some local Jewish institutions in Casablanca and Tangier permission to operate. In some instances, as with the Bengio-Murdoch home for Jewish children at Casablanca, approval of the charter was contingent on a change in the leadership of the institution; in others, on some modification of the charter. At the time of writing, JDC had been notified that its request for charter registration had been received, but not whether it had been accepted; the charters of ORT and OSE had been approved. The Alliance Israelite Universelle continued to receive a substantial subsidy from the Moroccan government, but toward the end of 1959 there were rumors that the authorities intended to take over its educational network. In the city of Tangier the charter of the local OSE was questioned on the grounds that the organization received outside aid. This pointed up a serious potential threat. Under Article 6 of the Moroccan dahir of November 1958 regularizing the right of association, "every regularly declared association can . . . possess and administer, in addition to public subventions: fees paid by its members or income by virtue of which such fees have been reduced: the latter cannot be greater than 24,000 francs. . . ." If this were interpreted by Moroccan authorities to mean that no more aid than 24,000 francs could come into the country for each of the various Jewish institutions, most of them would have to close down, being unable to exist on local contributions. Similarly, the various Jewish community councils would be forced to curtail their activities seriously. The Tangier OSE board told the local authorities that without outside aid they would not be able to function. The matter was referred to the government at Rabat, with Tangier OSE continuing to operate in the meantime. On various occasions JDC met with difficulties in importing welfare supplies. Early in the summer of 1959 the Moroccan government ordered that all imports be cleared before arrival at Moroccan ports; it was several months before a JDC shipment, on the high seas when this regulation was adopted, was permitted entry. In August the government declared that all but certain kinds of welfare supplies would be admitted automatically. In practice, however, Moroccan officials were often loath to take the responsibility of admitting supplies and some effort was usually required to get permission to bring them in.

JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCILS The situation of the Jewish community councils depended on local leadership. In Casablanca, the largest Jewish community, with some 75,000 Jews, the council—headed by Meyer Obadia—was active and vigorous. In the fall of 1959 it opened a new kindergarten for about 400 children. It succeeded in almost doubling its funds by increasing taxes on kosher meat and wine, raising cemetery fees, and getting local contributions, and could thus raise some of its grants to its associated organizations. In some cities the councils 328 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK had ceased to operate effectively. In others the situation remained static Government aid to the councils continued to go through the Council of Jewish Communities, with headquarters in Rabat. This body, in eclipse since Morocco became independent, showed some signs of increased vitality during the year. In March the council elected David Amar of Kenitra (Port Lyautey) as its secretary general. In 1959 it intervened more actively with the authorities on matters of Jewish concern than previously. The leaders of the council and of the Casablanca community, however, did not see eye to eye. Hence the council continued to be without the active support of its largest member. The government took no action during the year to give the council the new charter, requested by Moroccan Jewry for several years, to define its functions and powers in independent Morocco.

SOCIAL WELFARE Because of the serious economic problems, JDC had to increase its expenditure and expand its program. According to JDC, some 61,000 persons—mainly children—were receiving assistance, largely through feeding programs. Medi- cal care was provided for 8,300 patients in 26 clinics, chiefly through OSE. A total of 5,382 children attended summer camps in 1959, and maternity and health stations served 2,000 pregnant mothers and 2,200 infants. JDC distributed almost 5 million pounds of United States Department of Agriculture surplus food, valued at $367,000. Much of the welfare work was done through Jewish educational institutions. These included the Alliance Israelite Universelle schools, with more than 28,000 pupils learning Arabic, Hebrew, and French. The more Orthodox Lubavitcher and Otzar ha-Torah systems taught about 11,000 boys and girls, and 13,000 more children received some religious or cultural education in other, local institutions. ORT gave vocational training to just under 4,000 boys and girls, sponsored social-work training through an apprentice program, and conducted some courses for adults. The Department of Education of Jewish Youth had seven centers, including a new one opened in Rabat early in 1959, with well over a thousand members. Demographic factors complicated the task of Jewish welfare and educational institutions. The Jewish birth rate, estimated at about 40 per thousand, was one of the highest in the world. Infant mortality was declining, and it seemed certain that natural population increase more than made up for any Jewish emigration. Jewish institutions were, therefore, hard-pressed in their efforts to assure some schooling for all children. ALGERIA 329

ALGERIA * Political Developments N June 28, 1958, a month after becoming premier as a result of the events O of May 13 (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 273) that led to the collapse of the Fourth Republic, General Charles de Gaulle declared: "France desires to settle the conditions of Algeria's future together with the Algerians themselves. . . . The Algerians will be able to express themselves in the coming referendum and then in elections, all together in a single college in which the vote of each shall count as much as that of every other." Thus he denned the bases of the policy he intended to pursue in regard to Algeria. Decrees were then pro- mulgated extending the principle of the single electoral college to all communities and giving the vote to Moslem women. The establishment of the single electoral college was a basic reform, against which the European extremists and their press had repeatedly fought in the past. In the referendum on the new constitution of the Fifth Republic, held from September 26 through September 28, the affirmative votes in Algeria were 96.5 per cent of the total. On October 2 de Gaulle declared at Orleans- ville: 'Trance is bound up with Algeria. Algeria is bound up with France. It is decided: they have a common destiny." The next day, in Constantine, he announced a five-year plan for the development of Algeria: "A profound transformation must be accomplished in this land, so courageous, so vital, but also so difficult and so pain-wracked. . . . All Algeria must have its part in that welfare and dignity which modern civilization can and should offer to men." He announced practical measures for the realization of these proposals, and appealed to the rebels to "cease these absurd struggles." At a press conference on October 24 de Gaulle, offering the guerrilla fighters a "peace of the brave," described it as an end to hostilities in which "those who have opened fire shall cease fire, and . . . shall return without humiliation to their families and their work." The leaders of the rebellion, who had on September 19 announced in Cairo the formation of a provisional government of an Algerian republic, did not see fit to respond to this appeal, basing their decision on the aspect of unconditional surrender which seemed to them implicit in it. The government nevertheless went ahead with its program for the social advancement of the Moslems of Algeria. Increased opportunity was offered French Moslems to enter the civil service, not only in Algeria but in all of metropolitan France. In particular, ten per cent of the places in competitive examinations for the civil service and the state professional schools were to be reserved for five years to Frenchmen of Koranic status, and the age limit for them was to be raised five years. On November 26 the legislative elections took place. Of 67 deputies elected from Algeria to the National Assembly, 46 were Moslems and 21 Europeans, the latter including some integrationists, who wanted Algeria to be an * For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. 330 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK integral and indistinguishable part of France. Candidates of the liberal left did not participate in the elections. Two Jews were candidates, one in Algiers and one in Oran, but neither was elected. On December 19 Paul Delouvrier took office as delegate general of the French government in Algeria. On December 21 de Gaulle was elected president of the republic. When he assumed office, on January 8, 1959, he declared: "A choice place in the [French] Community is in store for the Algeria of tomorrow, pacified and transformed, developing its own personality in close association with France." Desiring to establish a new climate, he shortly thereafter decreed measures of amnesty and clemency for many Algerians who had been interned or condemned to death. Europeans in Algeria resentfully interpreted these measures as magnanimity towards terrorists who had caused the death of innocent civilians, and on the walls of Algiers could be read the slogan "de Gaulle equals Mendes" (former French Premier Pierre Mendes-France, a Jew, who had held office in 1954-55). The linking was significant enough, in view of the fact that Mendes was the bete noire of the European extremists, many of them antisemitic. A part of the population was already disappointed at not having heard de Gaulle pronounce the word "integration," which to its partisans meant the territorial unity of Algeria, the Sahara, continental France, and the island of Corsica. The chief popular slogan for integration was "The Mediterranean passes through France as the Seine passes through Paris." This concept of integration excluded federalism, but did not exclude the recognition of local particularisms. Federalism, however, was the basis of the constitution of the French Com- munity. Its partisans declared that federalism was not secession and that Algeria would be an integral territory of a French republic transformed into a federal state. This thesis was defended by a number of senators in the senate debate on Algeria on June 25 and 26, 1959. Their adversaries, arguing from the experience of the recent past (the challenging of the Franco- Tunisian conventions almost as soon as they were signed in June 1955, and, in Morocco's case, the unreality of the slogans about independence with inter- dependence), maintained that its application would inevitably lead, more or less quickly, to complete independence for Algeria. Shortly before the anniversary of the events of May 13, 1958, President de Gaulle, asked about his refusal to pronounce the word "integration," told deputy Pierre Laffont, publisher of the newspaper L'Echo d'Oran, that he "had not pronounced it because they wished to impose it on him" and that "those who were today crying loudest for integration were the same ones who had been against it" (i.e., those clamoring for integration were formerly against giving the Algerian Moslems equal rights with Frenchmen). On the same occasion he went on to declare that "l'Alge'rie de papa" was dead, a statement which stirred up the waters again. On the eve of the municipal elections of April 1959 there was a new anti- de Gaulle campaign among some of the European extremists in Algiers, which was opposed by a number of the local organizations of the French Algeria movement and by trade-union groups. Elections took place in 1,224 ALGERIA 331 Algerian communities. Especially in Algiers there were a considerable number of Jewish candidates. One Jew was elected to the new city council of Algiers, and others were elected elsewhere. For the first time a Moslem, Mohammed Bouharaoua, was elected president of the municipal council of Algiers. In receiving Israel's consul general in Paris, when he passed through Algiers, Bouharaoua affirmed his sympathy for Judaism and Israel. Similarly, a number of the deputies elected from Algeria, including two Moslems, belonged to the France-Israel friendship group. In May elections took place for 32 senators from Algeria. There were no Jewish candidates. Of the 22 Moslems and 10 Europeans elected, most were conservatives. A number of outgoing senators were reelected. Both extreme rightists and liberals were in general defeated. On June 10 the government proposed a reform of the Moslem system of justice by divesting the cadis (religious judges) of their judicial powers, which seemed likely to mean the substitution of civil law for Koranic law. These proposals brought strong protests from the cadis as well as from the National Liberation Front (FLN) and various Arab countries. In July 1959 the policy of the French government appeared to be to continue the war, with a view to imposing a solution on the military level by the application of the Challe plan, named after the general in command in Algeria. On the diplomatic level it brought pressure on various governments in order to isolate the rebel government, recognized by 15 states. Besides the ten countries of the Arab League—Morocco, Tunisia, UAR, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Libya, Iraq, Jordan, the Sudan, and Lebanon—these were Indonesia, Communist China, North Vietnam, North Korea, and Outer Mongolia, all countries with which France had little or no diplomatic contact.

Economic Development Parallel to this political course of action, the government worked out the details of the program for the economic development of Algeria announced by de Gaulle in Constantine in October. In March 1959 a government interdepartmental committee decided in principle to construct a steel plant at Bone, a major city on the east coast of Algeria. The same committee made plans for the distribution, within two years, of gas from Hassi-R'Mel in the Sahara, 270 miles from the coast, by pipeline to the Algiers and Oran areas. Two trillion francs (about §4 billion) in investments were planned for the five years of the Constantine plan, half to be divided almost equally among housing, communications, education, and administrative expenses, and the other half to go to agricultural and industrial development. Financial assistance was given to industrial enterprises established or expanded in Algeria. Major oil wells were discovered in the Sahara in recent years, and a production of 30 million tons was expected in a few years. In agriculture, which supported six million of Algeria's ten-million population, a number of steps were taken to improve the standard of living by modernization of methods, notably the creation of pilot projects, improvement of new areas, and training technicians to work on rural development. 332 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK In education, according to the official statistics the number of children in school had risen from 546,340 in October 1957 to 725,491 in May 1959. (There is some question whether this rise did not seem more dramatic than it really was, because of an FLN boycott of the schools in 1957.) In primary schools there were 143,000 children of European and 517,000 of Moslem descent, in the secondary schools 33,314 Europeans and 8,670 Moslems, in vocational schools 8,505 Europeans and 9,548 Moslems, and in higher education 4,924 Europeans and 530 Moslems.

Jewish Population Native to the country, their settlement having antedated the Arab conquest of North Africa by several centuries, the Jews of Algeria were assimilated to the European population as a result of the Crdmieux Decree of 1870, which conferred French nationality on them en masse, except a few thousand in the southern region, then not yet French. Their origins were diverse: some were descended from Jews who came from Palestine centuries before the Christian era, others from Berbers converted to Judaism after the Roman era, and still others from Jews who came from Spain in the exoduses of 1391 and 1492. It was difficult to determine their precise number, in the absence of official statistics on religion. It was generally thought that there were 135,000 to 140,000 Jews in a total population estimated in January 1959 at about ten million (8,850,000 Moslems and 1,025,000 Europeans). In the main, the Jewish population was concentrated in the coastal areas and their immediate hinterland. The events in Algeria after 1954 and the climate of insecurity which they produced often resulted in the disintegra- tion of the small Jewish communities of the interior, whose inhabitants left for the large cities or for France. Some small communities in the southern part of the Constantine region of East Algeria,, such as that of M'Sila, completely disappeared as a consequence of repeated terrorist attacks in the spring of 1956, which resulted in the murder of several Jews. A Moslem boycott of Jews, particularly in various small localities and in Constantine in 1956-57, which had followed serious incidents between Jews and Moslems in May 1956, practically disappeared later. One of its causes undoubtedly had been a desire to suppress competition by all means, even assassination. This could explain a series of attacks in the summer of 1957 on Jewish merchants in a Moslem-Jewish business district of Bone. After the situation improved, not only did Jews cease to leave, but also a number of Jews returned from France. This was due in large part to the increased security in the major centers, to Algeria's economic prosperity, and to the difficulties of adaptation in metropolitan France, and especially of finding housing and jobs. Nevertheless, the normal evolution of the country, and in particular the rapid increase of the Moslem population—400,000 births each year posed the economic and social problem of providing for 300,000 children of school age and 60,000 to 80,000 new workers annually-tended to push the Jews back into their traditional occupations of small businessmen, artisans, and minor administrative employees. This tendency was strengthened ALGERIA 333 by governmental measures designed to secure the social advancement of the Moslem population in accordance with its numerical importance. The principal Jewish communities were Algiers, with 30,000 Jews, Oran, with 30,000, and Constantine, with 15,000. In the Algiers area Blida had 2,000; in the Oran area, Tlemcen had 5,000, Sidi-Bel-Abbes 3,000, and Mostaganem 2,000; in the Constantine area, Bone had 4,000 and Setif 1,500, and in the Sahara, Colomb-Be'char had 2,000 and Chardaia 1,000. Other communities scattered through the country had Jewish populations ranging from 50 to 1,000, and accounted for some 60,000 in all. All these figures were approxima tions. This population was almost entirely Sephardic, the few Ashkenazim being mostly recent settlers. The usual language was French. The Judeo-Arabic dialect, in use for centuries, had practically disappeared even in the small communities.

POLITICAL ATTITUDES The attitude of the Jewish community toward developments in Algeria since 1954 was dearly denned in a public declaration by the Algerian Jewish Committee for Social Studies in November 1956, in response to certain allegations (AJYB, 1958 [Vol. 59], pp. 277-78). In summary, it declared that the Jewish community of Algeria was not a political entity and that Algerian Jews, who were loyal Frenchmen, sincerely wished to live in harmony with Christians and Moslems and enthusiastically supported equality of rights for Moslems. The events of May 13 did not directly affect the Jews as a group; their attitude towards these events and their authors was in general reserved. In the following months the leaders of the Jewish organizations of Algeria— "Frenchmen, republicans, liberals, Jews" in the words of one of them—sought to remain "true to themselves." To quote the conclusion of an article in the June 1958 issue of Information Juive over the signature of its editor, they remained "faithful to the teachings of their religion and to their age-old morality, which has commanded them to oppose all racism and all excesses, whoever their authors and whoever their victims may be; faithful to their attachment to Israel; determined to affirm, in freedom and dignity, the integrity of their Judaism and of their Jewish personality."

Community Organization Each community had a consistory on the French model, elected by the Jewish population. These consistories, having no official character, were merely required to file their statutes, like other associations. Their influence and authority were generally declining, particularly among the younger generation. They had been united in the Federation of Algerian Jewish Commu- nities, established in 1947 and affiliated to the Consistoire Central des Israelites de France et d'Algerie and WJC, and their functions were essentially religious. Like the consistories of France, they were charged with the administration of religious affairs. Grand Rabbi Jacob Kaplan of France and Algeria made two trips to 334 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK Algeria in the period under review, and attended the general assembly of the Federation of Algerian Jewish Communities at Algiers on March 31 and April 1, 1959. The new grand rabbi of Constantine, Isaac Zerbib, took up his office in September 1958. The communities of Constantine, Oran, and B&ne each had a grand rabbi. Though there were other rabbis as well, and a larger number of ministers without rabbinical ordination ("ministres officiants"), Algerian Jewry did not have enough spiritual leaders. The Federation of Communities therefore made the establishment of a rabbinical school one of its main objectives. A modern building for this purpose was erected in Algiers with the assistance of JDC, which contributed half the cost. This school's opening was announced for October 1959. A first school had already been functioning for some years in a suburb of Algiers, and had trained a small number of young rabbis. The Federation of Jewish Communities was assisted by the Superior Rabbin- ical Council, consisting of the four grand rabbis, which dealt with religious problems. An organization called the Algerian Jewish Committee for Social Studies, established in 1918 and reorganized in 1948, undertook the task of defending the rights of Jews as a group, in agreement with the principal local Jewish organizations. Beginning in 1948 it published the monthly Information Juive, the only Jewish organ currently appearing in all North Africa. It had a large circulation. The North African office of WJC in Algeria dated from 1949. ORT established itself in Algeria in October 1946, and JDC opened an office in Algiers in February 1957. The Jewish Agency's departments of organization, economics, and education also had offices, and the Alliance Israelite Universelle had a regional committee with headquarters in Algiers. Numerous informational meetings in the various communities, organized in particular by the North African office of WJC, kept them in touch with international Jewish activities. These meetings were particularly successful in the year under review, regularly attracting audiences of several hundred, often including officials and other non-Jews. A large number of communities held annual memorial meetings on the anniversary of the Warsaw Ghetto uprising. There were also celebrations in honor of Israel independence day and frequent lectures on cultural topics.

YOUTH AcnvrrY The great majority of Jewish youth took no part in any Jewish activity. The youth movements of halutzim (Bene 'Akiva, Deror, Gordoniah, and ha- Shomer ha-Tzair) totaled about 800 members throughout the country. In addition, the scout movement, Eclaireurs Israelites de France, had about a thousand members. These movements continued their traditional activities and organized camps in France during vacation periods. Some youth centers were established in recent years. A theater group from the Oran center presented Rabi's Warsaw in Oran, Sidi-Bel-Abbes, and Tlemcen on the 16th anniversary of the Warsaw Ghetto uprising. The Constantine center, among its other activities, published a widely circulated internal bulletin called ClartL ALGERIA 335 The Algerian section of the Union of Jewish Students of France had only a few dozen members, although hundreds of Jewish students attended the University of Algiers.

WELFARE ACTIVITIES ORT's vocational schools in Algiers, Constantine, and Oran had a total of 325 pupils (261 boys and 64 girls) in the 1958-59 school year, including some Christians and Moslems. ORT received substantial government subsidies. Welfare activities were conducted on a much reduced scale by local organizations such as Elijah the Prophet, Bikkur-Holim, the Society for the Apprentice- ship of Young Girls, and the Visiting Ladies. Algeria had no Jewish orphanage, kindergarten, home for the aged, or organized medical-social service. Jews benefited together with the rest of the population from public social services, but Jewish institutions would have been of great service to a group which, while its poverty was certainly not comparable with that of the Jews of Morocco and Tunisia, nevertheless included a large number of the indigent, some of whom had to turn to Christian welfare societies. Many were rather easily converted to Christianity in this manner. Christian missions to the Jews, seeing this, increased their activity.

CULTURAL ACTIVITIES Although religious sentiment remained strong among the masses, a considerable decline in Jewish thought and values had been observable in recent decades. The growing number of mixed marriages, the weakness of religious instruction, the absence of institutions, the increasingly general Jewish ignorance of Judaism, the total lack of interest of the intellectuals in Jewish activities, the paucity of rabbis and religious and lay educators—all of these were contributing factors. In most of the communities a Talmud Torah under the supervision of the consistory gave the rudiments of religious education, in a few hours on Fridays and Sundays, until bar mitzvah. On the same basis as the rest of the population, Jewish children attended the secular state schools. In the 1958-59 school year a relatively high percentage of them passed the final examinations, especially in the upper classes of the lycdes. The situation facing Algerian Jews in the cultural field was discussed at the "Assises du judaisme alg&rien," held for the first time in March 1958. A plan of action was prepared which, in the absence of means and personnel, was on a modest scale. In December 1958 the North African office of WJC and the Jewish Agency's department of education and culture circularized all the consistories with a proposal for the development of Jewish cultural centers. The two organizations offered to help towards this goal by supplying libraries with books on Judaism, record collections on Jewish themes, films, assistance in arranging lectures, and subsidies. They asked the community leaders to provide the assistance of the consistories. A number of cultural centers were thus established in the course of the period under review, in particular at Tlemcen, Relizane, Geryville, and Philippeville. Other centers had been 336 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK started during the previous year at Algiers, Constantine, Oran, and Sidi-Bel- Abbes. In Algiers a Jewish cultural center sponsored jointly by the Jewish Cultural Commission of Algeria, the North African office of WJC, and the Jewish Agency, opened in December 1958, to the accompaniment of press and television publicity. This center became quite active, starting in February 1959 to broadcast a Jewish cultural program every Sunday morning over Radiodiffusion Franchise in Algiers. The Jewish Cultural Commission of Algeria and WJC continued to organize lecture circuits for lecturers brought from France. They invited the literary critic and dramatist Rabi to give a series of lectures in May in Oran, Tlemcen, Algiers, Philippeville, and Bdne, on "Pasternak, or the path of flight." This series was all the more successful because it was organized in centers where for four years, as a result of the political situation, there had been no public cultural lectures, Jewish or non-Jewish. Public exhibitions of works on Judaism were sponsored jointly by WJC, the Jewish Agency, and the local cultural centers in Oran, Ain-Temouchent, Mostaganem, and Sidi-Bel-Abbes, and were well-attended by non-Jews as well as Jews. The North African office of WJC also supplied the three Jewish military chaplaincies with a large number of brochures and books for the estimated 3,000 Jewish soldiers.

ZIONIST ACTIVITIES AND RELATIONS WITH ISRAEL The Zionist Federation of Algeria, the only one active in North Africa, continued its activities in close collaboration with the Jewish Agency's representatives in Algeria. It was a territorial federation, no Zionist parties existing in Algeria. A delegation from the federation took part in the European Zionist Conference in Amsterdam in January 1959. During the year it was particularly concerned with the integration of Algerians and North Africans in Israel. In November it launched a campaign to raise funds for the seven orphaned children of the two Jewish Agency representatives, Jacob Hassan and Raphael Benghera, killed by fellaghas early in 1958 (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 279). The federation planned to open an office in Israel, in cooperation with the organization of Algerian immigrants. The only women's Zionist organization was the Women's International Zionist Organization (WIZO), •which conducted its activities in close collaboration with the federation. It had numerous branches. Keren Kayyemet maintained an office in Algiers, and Keren ha-Yesod sent a representative each year for Magbit—the Israel fund-raising campaign. On the initiative of the Jewish Agency, concerts of Israeli music were organized for the first time in January 1959, and had considerable success. The consul-general of Israel in France also paid an official visit for the first time to Algeria in May 1959. Emigration to Israel was very small—from July 1, 1958, to June 30, 1959, only 159 (113 adults and 46 children and adolescents), half of whom were of Moroccan origin. ALGERIA 337

Antisemitism Antisemitism and racism had always been rampant in Algeria. After World War II, however, its public expression declined, and Jewish relations with other sections of the population were by and large normal. During the period under review there were a number of antisemitic incidents, especially in Constantine, a city which had in the past seen such troubles as the pogroms of 1934. Incidents were especially numerous during the period of the referendum, in September. European antisemites spread rumors about the attitude of the Jewish population towards General de Gaulle and France. The Algerian Jewish Committee for Social Studies denounced this malicious campaign. The number of terrorist attacks whose victims, whether by intention or by chance, were Jews, decreased during the year. On September 28, 1958, a grenade was thrown into the synagogue of Boghari, about 100 miles south of Algiers. This attack was condemned by the whole population. Nobody was seriously injured and the culprit, a stranger in the city, was arrested within 24 hours. In October 1958 a number of attacks were directed at Jewish merchants in the rue de la Lyre, an important Jewish and Moslem business district. The proprietor of one store, his wife, and his clerk were killed. Here, as in other localities, the attacks may have been motivated by a desire to eliminate competitors. Grenades were thrown into stores and bars operated by Jews in Oran, Constantine, and Orle"ansville. A Jew was murdered in his store at Sidi-Bel-Abbes. Grenades were thrown in Constantine in streets near the Jewish quarter.

Personalia The following died: Charles Le"vy, former president of the General Agri- cultural Federation of Algeria, former member of the Algerian assembly, and a pioneer in housing, agriculture, and large-scale development, April 1959; Samuel Lebar, president of the regional committee of the Alliance Israelite Universelle and administrator of the Bank of Algeria, October 1958, and Bension Becache, former president of Le Travail, the Algerian Jewish society for the placement of apprentices, and former president of the Algiers branch of B'nai B'rith, August 1958. JACQUES LAZARUS Union of South Africa #

pE economic recession that began during the preceding year (AJYB, J_ 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 284), became more pronounced, but seemed to be easing at the time of writing. The government's apartheid policy of increased racial segregation continued to provoke political controversy. Both Jews and non- Jews were divided on the government's program, and Jewish organizations refrained from political action except on matters directly affecting Jewish interests.

Political Developments As part of the apartheid program, Premier Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd introduced in parliament's 1959 session legislation to create a number of self- administering Bantu territories within the Union, under the authority of the central government, in which Natives (those of unmixed African descent) would elect their own tribal administrations and in general manage their affairs; at the same time, the existing representation of Natives, on a restricted franchise, by seven European (white) members of the Union parliament (four in the upper and three in the lower house), would be terminated. A bill was also introduced to create separate university colleges for Natives and bar them from white universities, where a number had hitherto studied. Although government majorities in both houses assured passage of this legislation, the government's "Bantustan" policy was strenuously fought by the opposition parties and by large sections of the public and press, on the ground that it was politically undesirable and economically impracticable to split South Africa into autonomous black and white areas, and that the plan deprived Natives of existing rights. One member, Japie Basson, was expelled from the government caucus because, while supporting the bill's general principle, he opposed withdrawal of the existing limited Native representation from the Union parliament. Later he was also expelled from the party. Out- side parliament there was also some dissent within the National party about aspects of this legislation, and also criticism of Premier Verwoerd. Despite these rumblings—notably in Nationalist intellectual circles—the party remained united behind its policy and leader. In August 1959 the opposition United party, led by Sir De Villiers Graaff, split over the government's policy. Twelve of its parliamentary members seceded in protest against a party decision to oppose government purchase of land for the "Bantustans." The dissidents opposed the "Bantustan" policy even more strongly than the party's conformist majority, but held that pur-

* For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. 338 UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA 339 chase of land for settlement of Natives was a continuing obligation, whatever government was in power, and should not be opposed. They formed themselves into the new Progressive party, with a policy of constitutional reform.

CONSCIENCE CLAUSE As reported last year (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 286-87), concern was felt in the Jewish community at the omission of the so-called conscience clause from the bill to create separate Bantu university colleges. (This traditional provision in South African university legislation prohibited any test of religious belief in the appointment of staff or the admission of students.) The South African Jewish Board of Deputies made representations to the government in August 1958, urging the retention of the clause. In February 1959 the concern of the Jewish community was again brought to the prime minister's notice by a Jewish member of the National party, Joseph Nossel. Premier Verwoerd, in a letter to Nossel, held that the bill did not affect the interests of the Jewish community, since Bantu education had always been associated with Christian religious teaching and missionary work and there had been "no attempt by Jewry to convert the Bantu to the Jewish faith." He added: "The existing universities, which all European students including Jews attend, and will continue to attend, have accepted the 'conscience clause,' with the exception of the Potchefstroom University. There is no legislation intending to change this." When the bill came before parliament in April, the Board of Deputies issued a statement reiterating the Jewish community's concern at the omission of the conscience clause, declaring it to be "a cause of disquiet not only to persons of the Jewish faith and other religious groups, but also to all who are concerned to safeguard religious and academic freedom at our universities," and expressing the hope that the government would restore it. A similar attitude was taken by several university councils, some Christian bodies, and many newspapers. In the parliamentary debate, Minister of Education Jonathan Serfontein mentioned the Jewish community's concern, but said that fear of discrimination was unwarranted: "The record of this Government is their warranty, and it is a warranty which is also valid for these institutions which we are now engaged upon." An opposition party amendment to insert the conscience clause was voted down, and the bill was passed without the clause.

FARM-LABOR ALLEGATIONS The Jewish community was also concerned when, during the parliamentary debate on the so-called farm-labor issue in June 1959, two Nationalist members made remarks which were at first thought hostile to Jews. The debate arose out of a government plan under which Natives arrested for certain offenses were given the option of serving a period of farm labor in lieu of prosecution. Court proceedings had taken place which had occasioned widespread concern. A number of Transvaal farmers had been ordered to produce Natives who had disappeared from their homes and were alleged to be working on the farms as "induced" labor. Evidence was based on allegations of maltreatment and degrading living and working conditions. 340 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK Some of the farmers involved were Jews. After the trials, Chief Rabbi Louis I. Rabinowitz called on the Jewish farmers involved to release Native laborers sent to them under this scheme, and to cease using this source of labor. He announced in a Shavu'ot sermon in Johannesburg that "all Jewish farmers except one" had agreed. The opposition attacked the farm-labor plan in parliament and demanded a judicial inquiry into the allegations made in court Minister for Bantu Administration Daan de Wet Nel, while defending the plan and asserting that the abuses had been exaggerated, agreed to institute a commission of inquiry (but not a judicial commission) and to suspend the plan pending the result of the inquiry. The opposition's attack was largely led by two Jewish members of the United party, Mrs. Helen Suzman and Boris Wilson. What they said was misinterpreted by some government supporters as an attack on Afrikaner farmers, and in replies from the government side, two Nationalist members, F. E. Martins and J. F. Schoonbee, made pointed reference to the fact that several of the farmers alleged to be guilty were "not Afrikaners." Schoonbee added: "If I had been of Jewish extraction, I would have been the last person to raise this question in this House." Martins, when attacking Wilson, implied that his name had formerly been Benjamin Woolfson, who had avoided military service during the war. The press highlighted this sharp exchange, and there was an impression that an antisemitic outburst had occurred. The South African Jewish Board of Deputies issued a statement which deplored the introduction of a "Jewish angle" into the debate, defended the right of ministers of religion, members of parliament, and citizens to express their views without having their religion or community called into question, and appealed to all parties to "keep the Jew out of politics." The Board's statement was strongly supported by the Jewish press. In parliament, Wilson presented his birth certificate as evidence that he was born Boris Wilson and had never changed his name. Benjamin Woolfson, he said, had been previously mentioned in parliament in connection with Communist activities. Martins replied with a full apology to Wilson, together with a denial that his remarks were meant to reflect on Jews. Schoonbee also denied any antisemitic intent and claimed that the press had given a distorted version of what he had said, omitting a laudatory reference to Jewish farmers. These statements were welcomed as correcting an erroneous impression.

CANDIDATES FOR PARLIAMENT When it was reported that the Transvaal synods of the Dutch Reformed church had urged members to support "only persons of unimpeachable Chris- tian character and behavior" for parliamentary and other public office, an exchange of letters took place between the Board of Deputies and the church. The latter adopted a clarifying resolution emphasizing that "it did not in the least intend to discriminate against persons of a different religious opinion, least of all the Jewish community, which was held in high esteem," but only UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA 341 to stress the importance of an upright and God-fearing character in persons seeking public office.

TREASON TRIAL The treason trial (AJYB, 1958 [Vol. 59] p. 368; 1959 [Vol. 60] p. 287) reopened in January 1959, with the reindictment of the accused in two groups. The first group of 30 were indicted on a charge of high treason and their trial began in January 1959. The defense took certain questions of law to the Appeal Court, which in June 1959 accepted a Crown submission that it was not entitled to hear an appeal until the end of the trial. It was resumed in August 1959. The remaining group of 61 accused were divided into two groups, and in April 1959 were separately charged on new indictments. Legal argument secured the quashing of these indictments on technical grounds. Dependents of the accused were being supported by a public fund in aid of the defense, conducted under the chairmanship of Anglican Bishop Ambrose Reeves of Johannesburg.

Jewish Population No new figures for the Jewish population of South Africa were available since the 1951 census, which put the Jewish community at 108,496 persons out of a European (white) population of 2,588,933, and a total population (all races) of 12,437,277. It was estimated, however, that natural increase had since brought the Jewish community up to at least 110,000.

Civic and Political Status South African Jews continued to be full and equal citizens of the Union. Addressing a Transvaal regional conference of Jewish communities in Johannesburg on August 30, 1959, Gustav Saron, general secretary of the South African Jewish Board of Deputies, said that there was good cause for satisfaction especially when the situation today is contrasted with the difficult war and pre-war period. There are few or no public manifestations of antisemitism. The general reaction some months ago [in February 1959] on the occasion of Mosley's short visit to this country reflected public repugnance to antisemitism. There are no Jewish issues in politics. The goodwill shown towards Israel has its reflection in the attitudes to South African Jewry.

APPOINTMENTS Several Jews were appointed to high positions during the year. Oscar Galgut was appointed a judge of the Transvaal division of the Supreme Court. Ted Mauerburger was elected president of the Cape Town chamber of commerce. Joel Mervis was appointed editor of the Sunday Times, South Africa's largest weekly newspaper. Ian Maltz became Johannesburg's seventh Jewish mayor, and Alec Gorshel was elected deputy mayor. Jewish citizens also served as mayors in 14 other towns. 342 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

Antisemitism

There was little antisemitic agitation. Occasional isolated incidents reported in the press appeared upon investigation to have scant substance. When British fascist leader Oswald Mosley visited South Africa, he said that he had come on private business and without political intent. Never- theless, he received a hostile press, which criticized two cabinet ministers for having received him when he paid them courtesy calls. Ray Rudman of Pietermaritzburg, who for years had been issuing antisemitic pamphlets, made an attempt to revive his so-called Boeranasie organization and spoke of "putting up candidates in the next election."

Communal Organization

Communal activities increased, notably in Jewish education and in a program to foster Jewish commitment among university students. This program was sponsored by the Board of Deputies, concerned for many years over trends towards assimilation at the universities and the small proportion of graduate students who took an active part in Jewish communal life. At the invitation of the Board of Deputies, and with the assistance of the B'nai B'rith Hillel Foundations in the United States, Leo W. Schwarz came to South Africa in December 1958, on an 18-month assignment to initiate counseling and other services for Jewish students at the universities. Schwarz visited all the university centers, finding that his work involved some 3,000 Jewish students—1,700 in Johannesburg, nearly 1,000 in Cape Town, and 300 scattered in small numbers over Durban, Grahamstown, Pretoria, and Stellenbosch. He arranged for the establishment of Hillel houses in Johannes- burg and Cape Town. Progress was retarded at one point by differences between the South African Zionist Federation and the Board of Deputies over the respective roles of Schwarz and Samuel Almog, whom the Zionist Federation brought at the same time from Israel as a student adviser in the specifically Zionist sphere. At a conference of Jewish students in Durban in July 1959, it was agreed that Schwarz would direct Johannesburg's Hillel house and Almog Cape Town's Hillel house. The Board of Deputies' youth department continued its program for non- student Jewish youth. A number of Jewish youth clubs were formed in Johan nesburg. Dwindling Jewish communities in small rural towns continued to require assistance in carrying on organized Jewish activities. This was supplied by the country-communities committee of the Board of Deputies, in which the Federation of Synagogues and the Yiddish Cultural Federation collabo- rated. Financial aid came from the Country Communities Fund, which helped to ensure for such communities the services of a minister-teacher wherever possible. South African Jewry was represented at CJMCAG sessions in London in October 1958 and in New York in January 1959. Johannesburg's monument to martyred European Jewry was dedicated at UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA 343 the Westpark Jewish cemetery in May by Rabbi Mordecai Nurock, who came from Israel for the ceremony. Several communities celebrated jubilees or other notable anniversaries. They included Durban (75th anniversary), East London, Kingwilliamstown, and Standerton (diamond jubilees), and Benoni (golden jubilee). The Cape Town Jewish Chronicle ended 57 years of publication in August 1959, when it was amalgamated with the Zionist Record, which celebrated its golden jubilee in 1958.

FUND RAISING Shortage of funds to finance communal expansion (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 288) was a continuing problem. The fifth campaign for the United Communal Fund (UCF), a national Jewish fund-raising effort for South African Jewry's major domestic organizations, closed in July 1959, substantially short of its £500,000 (about $1.5 million) target, and allocations to participating organizations had to be cut by 30 per cent. In the face of continuing deficiencies, it was necessary to decide whether UCF should continue. After exhaustive discussions, its participating bodies concluded that it was better to maintain the structure of united campaigning than to break up the partnership and leave each participant to fend for itself. This view was strengthened by resolutions from the provinces in favor of UCF. It was therefore decided to go ahead with a sixth and more ambitious UCF campaign. The Union of Jewish Women's campaigns for UCF continued to be increasingly successful. The union also undertook a major financial commitment to the youth program initiated by the Board of Deputies. The Israeli United Appeal (IUA) campaign did not encounter similar difficulties. The troubled situation in the Middle East, the potent reality of Israel, and the need to bring in many thousands of new immigrants afforded arguments which IUA workers found little difficulty in emphasizing. Launched in September 1958, the campaign made excellent progress.

RELIGIOUS LIFE In the religious field, consolidation went on steadily, and was highlighted at the silver jubilee of the Federation of Synagogues of the Transvaal and Orange Free State in a banquet at Johannesburg in January 1959. Guests of honor included the minister of the interior and the administrator of the Transvaal, both of whom praised Jewish contributions to South Africa. Representatives of the Anglican and Dutch Reformed churches brought fraternal greetings. Both in Johannesburg and Cape Town, some progress was made in developing facilities for the training of rabbis and ministers in South Africa. New synagogues, Talmud Torahs, and communal halls were opened during the year in a number of centers. The annual meetings of Reform congregations reflected an increased membership. 344 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

JEWISH EDUCATION Jewish education, while still handicapped by insufficient funds, expanded significantly. Work began on the establishment of a second Jewish day school in Johannesburg, in addition to the King David school. A day school was opened in Pretoria. Port Elizabeth also began organizing a day school. Existing day schools in Durban and Cape Town expanded their work. Further expansion took place in the network of Hebrew nursery schools —now totaling 40—promoted by the Board of Jewish Education. The board's Rabbi Zlotnik Seminary continued to train Hebrew teachers. Since the Board of Jewish Education was not able to obtain all the necessary money for its expanded education programs from UCF, it was again permitted to receive UCF funds for its national budget, while campaigning separately in Johannesburg for its institutions in that city (AJYB, 1959 [Vol. 60], p. 289). A building-fund drive was also started by Yeshiva College, which planned new premises in Johannesburg.

ZIONIST ACTIVITIES At the Zionist conference, held in Johannesburg from May 28 to June 1, 1959, the Board of Jewish Education asked that it be subsidized from IUA funds. The conference, however, voted against any diversion of funds contributed for Israel and asserted that South African Jewry must meet the bill for Hebrew education from its own resources. In reports on the South African Zionist Federation's Tel-Aviv office, it was stated that some 2,000 former South Africans had successfully settled in Israel. Israel Dunsky resigned as chairman of the South African Zionist Federation to settle in Israel with his family. He was succeeded by Edel Horwitz. Zionist work proceeded during the year on a wide front, with distinguished personalities visiting South Africa for the Haifa Technion, Keren Kayyemet le-Yisrael, and other Israeli causes. Women's work went forward at its accustomed tempo, through the various women's Zionist societies and the local branches of the Union of Jewish Women. Two hundred and twenty delegates attended the 13th Women's Zionist conference in Johannesburg in May 1959. Gertrude Kark was elected president of the council, succeeding Inez Gordon, who resigned after five years of office.

SOCIAL SERVICES The economic recession brought increased calls for aid to the various Hevra Kaddisha and Gemillut Hasadim organizations, which successfully met the need, stressing rehabilitation rather than charity. The Johannesburg Hevra Kaddisha, largest organization in the Jewish welfare field, spent £75,966 (about $217,000) on rehabilitation and relief work during the year. The Witwatersrand Jewish Aged Home and Our Parents' Home in Johannesburg, UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA 345 and the Cape Jewish Aged Home in Cape Town, continued their work. Jewish orphanages in Cape Town and Johannesburg cared for orphans and children from broken homes. The Board of Deputies and South African ORT-OSE maintained employment placement services. ORT-OSE also furnished vocational guidance and vocational-training grants and scholarships. The Transvaal Jewish Welfare Council coordinated much of the welfare work.

CULTURAL ACTIVITY Cultural activity during the year included the Peoples College programs, which were an established part of South African Jewish life; the work of the Yiddish Cultural Federation and the Histadrut 'Ivrit; the observance of the Sholem Aleichem centenary and the promotion of Jewish book month in August 1959 by the Jewish Board of Deputies, and a lecture tour by Yudel Mark. Books by South African Jewish writers published during the year included Sabbath Light (sermons), by Chief Rabbi Louis I. Rabinowitz; Jewish Hori- zons (essays), by Rabbi Solomon Rappaport; The Untold Story of Latvian Jewry (history), by Isaac Levinson; Speak Unto the Children of Israel (sermons for children), by Rabbi Jacob Newman; Cantorial Compositions, by Chief Cantor Israel Alter; A World of Strangers (novel), by Nadine Gordi- mer; The Zulu and the Zeide (short stories), by Dan Jacobson; Market Street (novel), by Arthur Markowitz; South African Personalities and Places (essays), by Bernard Sachs; The Rains Came Late (Yiddish stories), by Nathan Levinsky; / Recall (reminiscences), by Morris Kentridge; Trader on the Veld (reminiscences), by Albert Jackson; Here Comes the Alabama (history), by Frank and Edna Bradlow, and Kimberley Train (a play), by Lewis Sowden.

EDGAR BERNSTEIN Australia #

URING the period under review (July 1, 1958, to June 30, 1959) the Australian economy recovered from the previous year's slight recession. DPrices tended to level off, the balance of payments improved, and overseas investment increased. Immigration and industrial expansion continued, but some unemployment persisted. The Liberal and Country parties' coalition under Prime Minister Robert G. Menzies continued its record term of office. The Democratic Labor party, which in 1956 had split from the Labor party led by Herbert V. Evatt, lost some of its already slight support, but it remained doubtful whether the Labor party could regain power in the near future.

Jewish Population In 1958 Australia's population passed ten million. The exact Jewish population was unknown, but the Executive Council of Australian Jewry (ECAJ) estimated it to be close to 65,000. Melbourne (Victoria) had some 30,000 Jews, Sydney (New South Wales) 28,000, Brisbane (Queensland) 1,750, Adelaide (South Australia) 1,300, Perth (Western Australia) 3,000, Canberra (Australian Capital Territory) 90, and Hobart and Launceston (Tasmania) 100. A few Jews were to be found in other provincial centers.

Immigration In 1958-59 Poland replaced Hungary as the main source of Jewish immigration, followed by Israel, Hungary, Rumania, Egypt, and other countries, in that order. Of 1,500 Jews known to have arrived during the year, 70 per cent settled in Melbourne and 30 per cent in Sydney. Many English Jews were thought to have arrived, but no figures were available. Most of the recent Hungarian and Polish immigrants were of a different type from those of the immediate postwar influx, and it was too early to assess their integration in the community. Close cooperation and sympathy were received from the Federal government. Permits had been granted previously to some North African and Egyptian Jews of European origin with relatives in Australia. For the first time, 25 permits for Egyptian refugee families in Europe without relatives were granted. President Sydney D. Einfeld of the Australian Federation of Jewish Welfare Societies visited Poland on behalf of the government to investigate Polish emigration policy and problems. Except for some Egyptians who went to Adelaide and a few who went

* For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. 346 AUSTRALIA 347 to Brisbane, most of the Jewish immigrants settled in Melbourne and Sydney. The Jewish welfare societies tried to help them to find jobs.

Community Organization and Activity The Jewish communities in each state—except Tasmania, which was represented by Hobart congregation—were organized in boards of deputies, which in turn elected ECAJ. Delegates to the boards came from congregations and Zionist, welfare, educational, ex-service, sporting, and social organizations. In Sydney and Melbourne some deputies were elected by direct franchise. The boards coordinated communal activities and appeals and relations with state governments, besides referring matters of general Aus- tralian Jewish concern to ECAJ for discussion with the Federal government or overseas Jewish organizations. CJMCAG provided a total of A£107,700 (|242,325), of which about A£91,700 ($206,325) went for social services and A£16,000 ($36,000) for education. ECAJ was a constituent member of WJC and of the Consultative Committee of Jewish Organizations. The Zionist Federation of Australia and New Zealand maintained close links with WZO and the Jewish Agency. Many other organizations kept in close contact with parent bodies overseas. Australia was represented at meetings of the executive of WJC and CJMCAG, and the actions committee of the Jewish Agency. Australian representatives also participated in the world convention of B'nai B'rith in Jerusalem in May 1959 and in the first World Jewish Youth Conference in Jerusalem in July 1958.

YOUTH AcnvmES Youth activities were intensive and varied. The National Union of Aus- tralian Jewish Students was active in all states. Zionist youth movements, including ha-Bonim, Betar, Bene 'Akiva, and ha-Shomer ha-Tzair, formed the Australian Zionist Youth Council. There were many active and well-organized sporting organizations in all states, and some synagogues also had youth groups. In Melbourne there was a Bundist youth group. In Melbourne and Sydney there were Jewish scout groups. Intermarriage was negligible in Melbourne and Sydney, but presented problems in other centers. There was a dearth of organizations serving men and women between 25 and 40.

SOCIAL SERVICES Major social services were handled by welfare societies in each state, which were united in the Australian Federation of Jewish Welfare Societies. Many other organizations were also active. Hostels run by the welfare societies for persons awaiting permanent housing accommodated approximately 125 in Melbourne and 45 in Sydney, and homes for the aged housed approximately 80 in Sydney and 90 in Melbourne. In Sydney a successful Migrants Co- operative Housing Society was established, and loans were granted to acquire businesses and houses. The welfare societies also supplied trained social 348 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK workers to help migrants with problems of rehabilitation, family relations, mental health, and adjustment to their new environment. In Sydney a sheltered workshop, which had operated for five years, employed approximately 90 aged men and women, providing them with social activities and a supplement to their income. During 1958-59 a similar workshop employing 22 persons was established in Melbourne. The Australian branch of the United Restitution Organization continued to process claims against the West German government.

JEWISH EDUCATION In Queensland, with the assistance of the Zionist Federation, a husband and wife arrived from Israel to teach in the part-time Hebrew school (160 pupils), assist in youth work, and provide kindergarten services. Available periods of instruction rose to nine per week. Perth had a kindergarten and a small day school (11 pupils), as well as one-day-a-week schools attached to the Orthodox (120 pupils) and Liberal (65 pupils) congregations. Adelaide's one congregation had 118 pupils in Sunday-morning classes and 45 in each of two other classes during the week. In Melbourne the community's Mount Scopus College, with about 900 pupils, began building a new wing. Altogether 1,280 attended day schools, including also Moriah College, the Adass Israel day school, and the Lubavitcher yeshivah, which opened the Moses and Lea Feiglin memorial wing. Two out of every three children reaching school age in Melbourne were enrolled in Jewish day schools. There were nine kindergartens. The (Liberal) Temple Hebrew school taught 540 children once a week. The Orthodox United Jewish Education Board provided part-time education for 255 pupils once a week and for another 300 pupils for six to ten periods weekly. It conducted a radio session and gave correspondence courses for 71 children throughout Australia and the Pacific area. Other part-time schools, with a total of 780 pupils, included the Bialik School, with 110 students, and a Yiddish school, with 460 students. For the first time a state high school taught Hebrew as part of the school curriculum. Sydney had one private Jewish day school, Moriah College, with 160 pupils. The Orthodox New South Wales Board of Jewish Education taught 1,800 pupils once a week and some 50 pupils three times a week. Adass Israel had 60 pupils four times a week and Temple Emanuel (Liberal) approximately 300 once a week. The New South Wales Jewish Board of Deputies planned to create a communal day school. Hebrew classes were conducted by the State Zionist Council of New South Wales. In Melbourne and Sydney the Jewish Board of Education provided a weekly period of religious instruction to 6,000 children in classes at state schools under the "right of entry" system. An emissary of the Jewish Agency conducted an extended teachers' seminar in Melbourne, and a short seminar in Perth. AUSTRALIA 349

RELIGIOUS LIFE Suburban Orthodox congregations in Melbourne and Sydney continued to grow. Liberal congregations in Sydney, Melbourne, and Perth extended their activities. In Sydney the Orthodox Central synagogue started work on the largest synagogue building in Australia. Large additions to Temple Beth Israel in Melbourne were completed. The St. Kilda Hebrew congregation (Melbourne) appointed Simon Herman of London as its chief minister; he was to arrive in September 1959. The Newcastle Hebrew congregation in New South Wales engaged a new minister, Rabbi Azriel Tarsis. In Sydney initial steps were taken to unify shehitah and kashrut administration. Leading rabbis in Melbourne and Sydney formed the Melbourne Beth Din (chairman, Rabbi Isaac Rapaport) and the Sydney Beth Din (chairman, Rabbi Israel Porush). The Adass Israel congregations in Melbourne and Sydney maintained their own rabbinical courts.

CULTURAL ACTIVITY The four principal Jewish weeklies were the Australian Jewish News and Jewish Herald in Melbourne and the Jewish News and Australian Jewish Times in Sydney, the first three having Yiddish supplements or subsidiary publications. There were small papers in Adelaide and Perth, and many organizations and congregations maintained their own periodicals. Rabbi L. M. Goldman continued his series on the history of Australasian Jewish communities and published a History of New Zealand Jewry. ECAJ maintained a book club. Rabbi Rudolph Brasch published The Eternal Flame. Melbourne had three Jewish bookshops, and Sydney one. There were continuous discussions, lectures, symposia, and quizzes organized by synagogues, youth organizations, the National Council of Jewish Women, WIZO, and Zionist groups. Kadimah in Melbourne and the Folk Center in Sydney provided lectures and cultural activities in Yiddish, and there were several dramatic groups, both English and Yiddish. The Sholem Aleichem centenary was marked by extensive cultural activities.

Antisemitism Australian Jews continued to enjoy full civic and political rights. Baron D. Snider, a member of the Victoria legislative assembly, represented all Australian states at the interparliamentary conference in Barbados in Janu- ary 1959. Abram Landa was New South Wales minister for housing. There were Jewish judges in New South Wales and Victoria. Israel enjoyed great prestige and favorable comment in all organs of opinion. But isolated discrimination persisted. A few social and golf clubs did not admit Jews. Groups of recent immigrants from Eastern and Central Europe seemed inclined to antisemitism. Eric Butler, leader of a Social Credit group in Melbourne, engaged in anti-Israel and anti-Jewish activity, and D. W. DeLouth in Queensland distributed antisemitic literature received from Swedish and other sources. These activities, while carefully scrutinized by the community, did not give cause for alarm. 350 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK Renewed efforts by small pressure groups to ban shehitah in Melbourne on humane grounds met with no public or government response. Public relations were largely in the hands of the state boards of deputies and ECAJ, which cooperated with the Zionist movement and other interested bodies. Left-wing organizations against antisemitism existed in Melbourne and Sydney but attracted little support.

Zionism and Relations with Israel There was a Zionist council in every state except Tasmania. With its headquarters in Melbourne, the Zionist Federation of Australia and New Zealand exercised, as a "territorial organization," complete jurisdiction over the Zionist movement. Its president was Joseph Solvey. In Melbourne Po'ale Zion, Mizrahi, Revisionists, and General Zionists carried on political and cultural activities. In other states Zionist party politics was limited or nonexistent. In all states WIZO was extremely strong, with a total of 6,000 members. Friends of the Hebrew University and Magen David Adom maintained branches in most states. Israel's independence day was enthusiastically celebrated in all communities; the 1959 Melbourne celebration attracted approximately 5,000 people to hear American Rabbi Israel Goldstein, who also addressed rabbis in Sydney, Perth, and Adelaide and together with David Ha-Cohen led the 1959 United Israel Appeal (UIA). The community's commitment to Israel was shown by the 17,000 JNF boxes in homes and offices and approximately 7,500 individual pledges received by UIA, which raised approximately A£200,000 ($450,000). The annual income of JNF and WIZO totalled A£185,000 ($416,250). Four youth emissaries of the Jewish Agency continued training Zionist youth groups in leadership, organization, and culture, and the Zionist Federation maintained a training farm (hakhsharah) at Shepparton, near Melbourne. Since 1948 the number of Australian and New Zealand settlers in Israel reached approximately 275, of whom some 100 were graduates of the hakhsharah. Thirty other halutzim had departed for Israel without passing through the hakhsharah. The Israel legation remained in Sydney, but plans to build a legation in Canberra progressed. Moses Yuval arrived in September 1958 as Israel's minister to Australia, and during the year was joined by First Secretary and Consul Hayyim Raphael, replacing Zeev Dover. Oswald Sharef became Israel's first commercial attache in Australia. Lord Mayor Henry F. Jensen of Sydney visited Israel as guest of the Israel government and returned profoundly impressed by Israel's achievements, speaking of it many times to the Australian public

Personalia Gerald De Vahl Davis, a former president of the New South Wales Jewish Board of Deputies, vice-president of ECAJ, and holder of many other offices, died in Sydney in November 1958 at the age of 61. ARNOLD BLOCH •!• •!• .f •!•»•> •»• •> •!•» »•!• -t< >t- •!• •!• >t> »t< »^< >t< »t< >l< >t' '1' »t' 'I' 't- •!• 't'»-t- •!• »t- -t- -1' -

World Jewish Population *

'•"•""'HE figures in this summary are mainly estimates by local communal J. bodies and informed persons. Changes brought about by emigration and natural increase were taken into consideration only to the extent that they were reflected in the figures supplied by local communities. During the period under review (July 1, 1958, to June 30, 1959) there was little that could be called Jewish mass migration. Distribution by Continents There were no substantial changes in the geographic distribution of the world Jewish population. There were about 12,300,000 Jews in all, of whom some 6,300,000 were in North, Central, and South America. About 3,440,000 were in Europe, 1,970,000 in Asia, including Israel, 550,000 in Africa, and 68,000 in Australia and New Zealand.

EUROPE In Europe 2,000,000 were estimated to be in the Soviet Union and 390,000 in the other countries of the Soviet bloc, while over 1,000,000 were in non- Communist countries. There were still no precise data on the number of Jews in the Soviet Union,1 and some students estimated their number at 2,500,000 or even 3,000,000. Hopes for freer emigration from Rumania were disappointed. After 15,000 Jews left for Israel (see p. 274) the Rumanian Jewish community of some 220,000 was still the second largest in the Soviet area. Hungary was next, with 100,000. Fewer than 600 Jews returned to Germany in the first half of 1959.

TABLE 1

ESTIMATED JEWISH POPULATION IN EUROPE, BY COUNTRIES « General Jewish Country Population Population Albania 1,507,000 300 Austria 7,021,000 10,500 Belgium 9,053,000 35,000 Bulgaria 7,728,000 7,000 Czechoslovakia 13,469,000 18,000 Denmark 4,515,000 6,500 England 51,680,000 450,000 Finland 4,376,000 1,900 France 44,500,000 350,000 * For meaning of abbreviations, see p. 359. TT1.EarJX in 1960> Soviet census data disclosed that there were 2,268,000 Tews in the Soviet Union. These data will be evaluated in the AJYB, 1961 (Vol. 62). 351 352 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK General Jewish Country Population Population Germany 71,533,000 30,000 Gibraltar 22,500 650 Greece 8,173,000 6,500 Hungary 9,857,000 100,000 Ireland 2,853,000 5,400 Italy 48,735,000 32,000 Luxembourg 320,000 1,000 Netherlands 11,186,000 26,000 Norway 3,526,000 1,000 Poland 28,783,000 41,000 Portugal 8,981,000 750 Rumania 18,059,000 220,000 Spain 29,662,000 3,000 Sweden 7,415,000 13,000 Switzerland 5,185,000 19,050 Turkey 25,932,000 60,000* Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 200200,000 2,000,000 »> Yugoslavia 18,189,000 7,000 TOTAL 642,460,500 3,445,550 a Data on general population were taken from the Statistical Office of the United Na- tions, Monthly Bulletin of Statistics, XIII, October 1959. They represent census figures or available estimates, mostly for 1957 and 1958. Where necessary, use was made also of other sources, including local publications. b Including Asian regions; for Turkey, see p. 282; for the Soviet Union, see p. 351, n. 1. NORTH, CENTRAL, AND SOUTH AMERICA The Jewish population of the United States was currently estimated at 5,367,000 (see p. 3). There were 250,000 Jews in Canada, and an estimated 680,000 in Latin America. Estimates of the number of Jews in various Latin American countries, however, seemed likely to need revision when more adequate data were available. In particular, some Argentine observers believed that the actual number of Jews in that country might be considerably above the current estimate of 400,000.

TABLE 2 ESTIMATED JEWISH POPULATION IN NORTH, CENTRAL, AND SOUTH AMERICA, BY COUNTRIES » General Jewish Country Population Population Canada 17,048,000 250,000 Mexico 32,348,000 25,700 United States 174,064,000 5,367,000 TOTAL North America 223,460,000 5,642,700 Costa Rica 1,072,000 1,500 Cuba 6,466,000 11,000 Curacao 148,000 1,000 Dominican Republic 2,797,000 600 Guatemala 3,546,000 1,000 Haiti 3,424,000 200 Honduras 1,828,000 150 Jamaica 1,630,000 2,200 WORLD JEWISH POPULATION 353 General Jewish Country Population Population Nicaragua 1,578,000 200 Panama 995,000 2,500 Trinidad 789,000 400 TOTAL Central America and West Indies 24,273,000 20,750 Argentina 20,248,000 400,000 Bolivia 3,311,000 4,000 Brazil 62,725,000 125,000 British Guiana 532,000 130 Chile 7598,000 30,000 Colombia 13,522,000 9,000 Ecuador 4,007,000 2,000 El Salvador 2,434,000 250 Paraguay 1,677,000 2,000 Peru 10,213,000 3,500 Surinam 223,000 1,000 Uruguay 2,700,000 50,000 Venezuela 6,320,000 8,000 TOTAL South America 135,210,000 634,880 GRAND TOTAL 382,943,000 6,298,330 » See Table 1, note a. ASIA AND AUSTRALIA-NEW ZEALAND The estimated 1,970,000 Jews in Asia included some 1,837,000 in Israel (as of June 1959). In Australia the Jewish population was 64,000, and in New Zealand 4,500. TABLE 3 ESTIMATED JEWISH POPULATION IN ASIA, BY COUNTRIES * General Jewish Country Population Population Aden 730,000 800 Afghanistan 12,000,000 4,000 Burma 20,255,000 500 China 640,000,000 400 Cyprus 549,000 170 Hong Kong 2,748,000 200 India 397,540,000 25,400 Indonesia 86,900,000 500 Iran 19,723,000 80,000 Iraq 4,842,000 5,000 Israel 2,062,000 1,837,000 Japan 91,760,000 1,000 Lebanon 1,525,000 6,000 Pakistan 85,635,000 400 Philippines 24,010,000 500 Singapore 1,515,000 1,000 Syria 4,280,000 5,500 Yemen 3,500,000 3,500 TOTAL 1,399,574,000 1,971,870 a For Turkey and USSR see Table 1; see also Table 1, note a. 354 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

TABLE 4 ESTIMATED JEWISH POPULATION IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND » General Jewish Country Population Population Australia 9,846,000 64,000 New Zealand 2,282,000 4,500 12,128,000 68,500 TOTAL a See Table 1, note a.

AFRICA Of about 550,000 Jews in Africa, some 200,000 were in Morocco. Morocco's situation did not change substantially, as the small emigration was easily offset by natural increase. The number of Jews in Algeria was estimated at 135,000, in Tunisia 65,000, and Egypt 15,000. The Jewish population of South Africa was about 110,000.

TABLE 5 ESTIMATED JEWISH POPULATION IN AFRICA, BY COUNTRIES a General Jewish Country Population Population Algeria 10,265,000 135,000 Belgian Congo 13359,000 2,500 Egypt 24,781,000 15,000 Ethiopia 15,000,000 12,000 Kenya 6,351,000 1,000 Libya 1,072,000 3,750 Morocco (including Tangiers)... 10,330,000 200,000 Northern Rhodesia 2,128,000 1,500 Southern Rhodesia 2,399,000 5300 Tunisia 3,815,000 65,000 Union of South Africa 14,418,000 110,000 TOTAL 104,118,000 551,250 a See Table 1, note a. Countries with Largest Jewish Population The United States, the Soviet Union, and Israel had about three quarters of the total Jewish population of the world. Six countries had Jewish communities between 200,000 and 450,000. WORLD JEWISH POPULATION 355

TABLE 6 COUNTRIES WITH LARGEST JEWISH POPULATIONS Jewish Country Population United States 5,367,000 Soviet Union 2,000,000 Israel 1,837,000 England 450,000 Argentina 400,000 France 350,000 Canada 250,000 Rumania 220,000 Morocco 200,000

TABLE 7 ESTIMATED JEWISH POPULATION, SELECTED CITIES * Jewish Jewish City Population City Population Amsterdam . 14,000 Manila 300 Ankara .... 1,000 Marrakech . . . 18,500 Antwerp ... 12,000 Melbourne . .. 25,000 Athens 3,000 Milan 6,000 Basle 2,471 Montreal .... 102,000 Belgrade . .. 1,451 Oslo 620 Berlin 6,000 Paris 175,000 Berne 792 Rio de Janeiro 45,000 Bombay .... 18,000 Rome 12,000 Salonika 1,200 Bordeaux .. 5,000 Brussels 20,000 Santiago 25,000 Calcutta 2,500 Sao Paulo . . , 40,000 Casablanca . 65,000 Stockholm 6,000 Cochin 500 Sydney 22,000 Florence ... 1,500 Teheran .... 30,000 Geneva 2,642 Tel-Aviv-Jaffa 365,000 Glasgow ... 13,400 Tokyo 250 Haifa 160,000 Toronto 82,000 Havana . 9,000 Trieste 1,500 Helsinki 1,333 Tunis .... 55,000 Ismir 5,000 Valparaiso 2,000 Istanbul 33,000 Vancouver 7,500 Jerusalem 149,000 Vienna .. 9,230 Johannesburg 50,000 Warsaw . . 5,000 Leeds 2,500 Winnipeg 21,000 London (Greater) 280,000 Zagreb ... 1,286 Luxembourg 800 Zurich ... 6,169 Manchester 31,000 a Mostly for I9S7-S8.

LEON SHAPIRO

DIRECTORIES LISTS NECROLOGY

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List of Abbreviations

AAJE American Association for educ education, educator Jewish Education educl educational acad. academy Eng English, England act active, acting estab established ADL Anti-Defamation League exec executive admin administrative, administration adv advisory fd fund ami affiliated fdn foundation agr agriculture fdr founder agric agriculturist, agricultural fed federation AJCongress .. American Jewish Congress for foreign AJYB AMERICAN JEWISH YEAK BOOK Am America, American gen general amb ambassador Ger German apptd appointed gov governor, governing assoc associate, association, associated govt government asst assistant atty attorney au author Heb Hebrew hist historical, history b born hon honorary bd. board hosp hospital Bib Bible HUC-JIR Hebrew Union College- bibliog bibliography, bibliographer Jewish Institute of Religion Bklyn Brooklyn Hung Hungarian Bur Bureau incl including Can Canada ind independent CCAR Central Conference of inst institute American Rabbis instn institution chmn chairman instr instructor CJFWF Council of Jewish Federations internat international and Welfare Funds Ital Italian CJMCAG .... Conference on Jewish Material Claims Against Germany JDA Joint Defense Appeal coll collector, collective, college JDC American Jewish Joint Distribu- Colo Colorado tion Committee com committee •f F Jewish National Fund comdr commander PA Joint Palestine Appeal comm commission TA Jewish Telegraphic Agency commr commissioner TS Jewish Theological Seminary of comp composer, composed America cond. conductor JWB National Jewish Welfare Board conf conference JWV Jewish War Veterans of America cong congress, congregation constr construction, constructed lang language contrib contributor leg legal, legislation corr correspondent lit literature, literary d. died mag magazine dem democrat med medical dept department mem member dir director metrop metropolitan dist district mfr. manufacture, manufacturer div division mng managing mngr manager econ economic, economist ms manuscript ed editor edit edited nat national editl editorial NCCJ National Conference of edn edition Christians and Jews 359 360 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

NCRAC National Community Relations techr teacher Advisory Council theol theological N. Y.C New York City tr translator, translated trav travel, traveler off office, officer treas treasurer org organized, organizers orgn organization UAHC Union of American ORT Organization for Rehabilitation Hebrew Congregations Through Training UAR United Arab Republic OSE Oeuyre de Secours aux Enfants UHS United HIAS Service Israelites UIA United Israel Appeal UJA United Jewish Appeal Pal Palestine UN United Nations phar pharmacist, pharmaceutical UNESCO United Nations Educational, Sci- phys physician entific and Cultural Organization pres president univ university prin principal UNRRA United Nations Relief and Re- prod producer, production, producing habilitation Administration prof professor UOJC Union of Orthodox Jewish Con- pseud pseudonym gregations of America pub publish, publication, publisher UPA United Palestine Appeal rabb rabbinate, rabbinical USO United Service Organizations, RCA Rabbinical Council of America Inc. reed received rel religion; religious vol volume reorg reorganize v.pres vice president rep representative west western ret retired WIZO Women's International Zionist Rum Rumania Organization Russ Russian WJC World Jewish Congress RZA Religious Zionists of America WZO World Zionist Organization SCA Synagogue Council of America sch school Yid Yiddish sci scientific YIVO YIVO Institute for Jewish sec secretary Research sect section YMHA Young Men's Hebrew Asociation sem seminary yrs years soc society Y WHA Young Women's Hebrew Sp Spanish Association spec special, specialist subj subject Zion Zionist supt superintendent ZOA Zionist Organization of America National Jewish Organizations1

UNITED STATES COMMUNITY RELATIONS, St., N. Y. C, 28. Pres. Mrs. Thelma Rich- man; Exec. Dir. Mrs. Betty Weir Alder- POLITICAL son. Committed to the preservation and extension of the democratic way of life, AMBRICAN COUNCIL FOR JUDAISM, INC. and the unity and creative survival of the (1943). 201 E. 57 St., N. Y. C, 22. Pres. Jewish people throughout the world. Clarence L. Coleman Jr.; Exec. V. Pres. ANTI-DBFAMATION LEAGUE OF B'NAI B'RITH Elmer Berger. Seeks to advance the uni- (1913). 515 Madison Ave., N. Y. C, 22. versal _ principles of a Judaism free of na- Nat. Chmn. Henry E. Schultz; Nat. Dir. tionalism, and the national, civic, cultural, Benjamin R. Epstein. Seeks to eliminate and social integration into American insti- defamation of Jews, counteract un-Ameri- tutions of Americans of Jewish faith. Brief; can and antidemocratic propaganda, and Education in Judaism; Growing Up; Issues. promote better group relations. ADL Bul- AMERICAN JEWISH COMMITTEE (1906). In- letin; ADL Christian Friends' Bulletin; stitute of Human Relations, 165 E. 56 St., ADL Research Reports; Facts; Rights; Free- N Y. C, 22. Pres. Herbert B. Ehrmann; dom Pamphlets; One Nation Pamphlets. Exec. V. Pres. John Slawson. Seeks to prevent infraction of the dvil and religious ASSOCIATION OF JEWISH COMMUNITY RELA- rights of Jews in any part of the world and TIONS WORKERS (1950). 55 W. 42 St., to secure equality of economic, social, and N. Y. C, 36. Pres. Sidney Z. Vincent; educational opportunity through education Sec. Samuel Katz. Aims to encourage co- and civic action. Seeks to broaden under- operation between Jewish community rela- standing of the basic nature of prejudice tions workers and communal workers; to and to improve techniques for combating it. encourage among Jewish community rela- Promotes a philosophy of Jewish integra- tions workers the fullest possible under- tion by projecting a balanced view with standing of Jewish life and values. Com- respect to full participation in American munity Relations Papers. life and retention of Jewish identity. AMER- CONSULTATIVE COUNCIL OF JEWISH OR- ICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK (with Jewish GANIZATIONS—CCJO (1946). 61 Broad- Publication Society of America); Com- way, N. Y. C, 6. Hon. Chmn. Rene Cassin mentary; Committee Reporter; Report of (Alliance Israelite Universelle); Co-Chmn. Annual Meeting. Jules Braunschvig (Alliance Israelite Uni- AMERICAN JEWISH CONGRESS (1917; reorg. verselle), Herbert B. Ehrmann (American 1922,1938). Stephen Wise Congress Jewish Committee), Robert N. Carvalho House, 15 E. 84 St., N. Y. C, 28. Pres. (Anglo-Jewish Association); Sec-Gen. Joachim Prinz; Exec. Dir. Isaac Toubin. Moses Moskowitz. Cooperates and consults Seeks to protect the rights of Jews in all with, advises and renders assistance to the lands; to strengthen the bonds between Economic and Social Council of the United American Jewry and Israel; to promote the Nations on all problems relating to human democratic organization of Jewish com- rights and economic, social, cultural, edu- munal life in the United States, to foster cational, and related matters pertaining to the affirmation of Jewish religious, cultural, Jews. and historic identity, and to contribute to COORDINATING BOARD OF JEWISH ORGANI- the preservation and extension of the demo- ZATIONS (1947). 1640 Rhode Island Ave., cratic way of life. Congress Bi-Weekly; N. W., Washington 6, D. C. Co-Chmn. Folk un Veil; Judaism; Program Notes and Label A. Katz (B'nai B'rith), Barnett Jan- Leads. ner (Board of Deputies of British Jews), ., WOMEN'S DIVISION OF (1933). Edel J. Horwitz (South African Jewish Stephen Wise Congress House, 15 E. 84 Board of Deputies); Sees. Gen. Maurice 1 Includes national Jewish organizations in existence for at least one year prior to June 30, 1959 based on replies to questionnaires circulated by the editors. Inclusion in this list does not necessarily imply approval of the organizations by the publishers, nor can they assume responsibility for the accuracy of the data. An asterisk (*) indicates that no reply was received and that the information, which includes title of organization, year of founding, and address, is reprinted from AJYB, 1959 (Vol. 60). 361 362 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

Bisgyer (U.S.), A. G. Brotman (U.K.), 300 W. 43 St., N. Y. C, 36. Nat. Exec. J. M. Rich (S.A.). As an organization in Dir. Abner J. Kupperman. Fund-raising consultative status with the Economic and arm of the American Jewish Committee and Social Council of the United Nations, rep- the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith; resents the three constituents (B'nai B'rith, supports programs of constituent agencies. the Board of Deputies of British Jews, and Campaign Briefs; National Council Briefs. the South African Jewish Board of Depu- NATIONAL COMMUNITY RELATIONS ADVIS- ties) in the appropriate United Nations ORY COUNCIL (1944). 55 West 42 St., bodies with respect to advancing and pro- N. Y. C, 36. Chmn. David L. Ullman; tecting the status, rights, and interests of Exec. Dir. Isaiah M. Minkoff. To study, Jews as well as related matters bearing analyze, and evaluate the policies and activi- upon the human rights of peoples. ties of the national and local agencies; to INTERNATIONAL JEWISH LABOR BUND (In- ascertain the problem areas from time to corporating WORLD COORDINATING COM- time; to ascertain the areas of activities of MITTEB OF THE BUND) (1897; re-org. these organizations and to conduct a con- 1947). 25 E. 78 St., N. Y. C, 21. Nat. tinuous inventory of their projects; to serve Sec. Emanuel Nowogrudsky; N. Y. Sec. as a coordinating and clearance agency for Emanuel Scherer. Coordinates activities of projects and policies, to eliminate duplica- the Bund organizations throughout the tion and conflict of activities, and to recom- world and represents them in the Socialist mend further projects to member agencies; International; spreads the ideals of Jewish to seek agreement on and formulate policies. Socialism as formulated by the Jewish In the Common Cause; Screenings. Labor Bund; publishes booklets, pamphlets, WORLD COORDINATING COMMITTEE OF THB periodicals on the ideology of Jewish Social- BUND. See INTERNATIONAL JEWISH LABOR ism. I]riser Tsait (U.S.); Faroys (Mex- BUND. ico); Lebns Pragn (Israel); Unser Ge- WORLD JEWISH CONGRESS (1936; org. in dank (Argentina); Unser Gedank (Aus- U.S. 1939). Stephen Wise Congress House, tralia); Unser Stimme (France). 15 E. 84 St., N. Y. C, 28. Pres. Nahuxn JEWISH LABOR COMMITTEE (1933). Atran Goldmann; Dir. Interaat. Affairs Dept. Center for Jewish Culture, 25 E. 78 St., Maurice L. Perlzweig. Seeks to secure and N. Y. C, 21. Nat. Chmn. Adolph Held; safeguard the rights, status, and interests Exec. Sec Jacob Pat. Aids Jewish and non- of Jews and Jewish communities through- Jewish labor institutions overseas; aids vic- out the world; represents its affiliated or- tims of oppression and persecution; seeks ganizations before the United Nations, gov- to combat anti-Semitism and racial and ernmental, intergovernmental, and other religious intolerance abroad and in the U.S. international authorities on matters which in cooperation with organized labor and are of concern to the Jewish people as a other groups. Facts and Opinions; Jewish whole; promotes Jewish cultural activity Labor Committee Outlook; Labor Reports. and represents Jewish cultural interests be- , WOMEN'S DIVISION OF (1947). fore UNESCO; organizes Jewish communal Atran Center for Jewish Culture, 25 E. 78 life in countries of recent settlement; pre- St., N. Y. C, 21. Nat. Chmn. Eleanor pares and publishes surveys on contem- Schachner; Exec. Sec. Mina Goldman. Sup- porary Jewish problems. Congress Digest; ports the general activities of the Jewish Current Events in Jewish Life; Folk un Labor Committee; maintains child welfare Velt; Information Series; Information and adoption program in Europe and Israel Sheets; Institute of Jewish Affairs Reports; on a foster-parent plan; aids educational Jewish Cultural Affairs; Periodical Reports; and cultural organizations. World Jewry. , WORKMEN'S CIRCLB DIVISION OF (1940). Atran Center for Jewish Culture, 25 E. 78 St., N. Y. C, 21. Chmn. S. Sil- verberg; Dir. Zelman Lichtenstein. Pro- CULTURAL motes aims of and raises funds for the Jewish Labor Committee among the Work- ALBXANDER KOHUT MEMORIAL FOUNDA- men's Circle branches. TION, INC. (1915). 3080 Broadway, JBWISH SOCIALIST VERBAND OF AMBRICA N. Y. C, 27. Pres. Harry A. Wolfson; Sec (1921). 175 E. Broadway, N. Y. C, 2. Shalom Spiegel. Furthers original research Chmn. Max Gaft; Nat. Sec. I. Levin- and publishes works mainly in the fields of Shatzkes. Promotes and organizes the ideals Talmudic lore, lexicography, and archeol- of social democracy among the Jewish work- ogy. ing people. Der Wecker. AMBRICAN ACADEMY FOR JEWISH RESBARCH, * JEWISH WAR VETERANS OF THE UNITED INC. (1920). 3080 Broadway, N. Y. C, STATES OF AMERICA (1896). 1712 New 27. Pres. Salo W. Baron; Sec. Abraham S. Hampshire Ave., N. W., Washington, 9, Halkin. Encourages research by aiding schol- D. C. ars in need and by giving grants for the JOINT DBFENSB APPEAL OF THE AMERICAN publication of scholarly works. Proceedings JEWISH COMMITTEE AND ANTI-DEFAMA- of the American Academy for Jewish Re- TION LEAGUE OF B'NAI B'RITH (1941). search. NATIONAL JEWISH ORGANIZATIONS 363

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF ENGLISH JBW- N. Y. C, 21. Sec Hyman B. Bass, L. ISH NEWSPAPERS. See AMERICAN JBWISH Spizman. Promotes and coordinates the PRESS ASSOCIATION. work of the Yiddish and Hebrew-Yiddish • AMERICAN BIBLICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA SO- schools in the United States and abroad. CIBTY (AMERICAN TORAH SHBLBMAH Bletter far Yiddisher Dertsiung; Bulletin COMMITTEB) (1930). H4 Liberty St., fun Veltsenter far der Yiddisher Shul. FRANZ ROSENZWEIG SOCIBTY (1958). 379 AMERICAN JBWISH HISTORICAL SOCIETY School St., Watertown 72, Mass. Pres. (1892). 3080 Broadway, N. Y. C, 27. Nahum N. Glatzer; Sec. Katherine S. Falk. Pres. Bertram W. Kom; Librarian-Ed. Isi- Maintains study groups on Rosenzweig and dore S. Meyer. Collects and publishes ma- promotes publication of his writings in terial on the history of the Jews in Amer- English; cooperates with the Franz Rosen- ica. Publication of the American Jewish zweig Archives. Historical Society. HISTADRUTH IVRITH OF AMERICA (1916; AMERICAN JEWISH INSTITUTE, INC. (1947). reorg. 1922). 120 W. 16 St., N. Y. C, 250 W. 57 St., N. Y. C, 19. Pres. Bernard 11. Pres. Simon Federbush, Samuel K. G. Richards; Hon. Sec. Herman W. Bern- Mirsky, Morris B. Newman, Joseph Tenen- stein. Seeks the advancement of Jewish baum; Gen. Sec. Yerachmiel Weingarten. knowledge and culture through the dis- Seeks to promote Hebrew language and semination of data on Jews and Judaism, literature in the United States and to publication of essential literature, speakers, strengthen the cultural relations between and library services. Current Jewish the United States and Israel; conducts edu- Thought. cational activities in connection with this , JEWISH INFORMATION BUREAU, work. Hadoar; Hadoar Lanoar; Musaf ING (1932). 250 W. 57 St., N. Y. C, 19. Lakore Hatzadr; Niv; Perakim; Shvilei Chmn. Bernard G. Richards; Hon. Sec. Hachinuch; "Ogen" publications. Morris I. Goldman. Serves as clearing house , HEBREW ARTS FOUNDATION of information on Jewish subjects. Index. (1939). 120 W. 16 St., N. Y. C, 11. AMERICAN JEWISH PRESS ASSOCIATION Pres. Robert Zabelle; Exec. V. Pres. Mrs. (formerly AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF Lucy D. Manoff. Seeks to promote an ENGLISH JEWISH NEWSPAPERS ) (1943). understanding and appreciation of the He- 1702 S. Halsted St., Chicago 8, 111. Pres. brew language and Hebrew culture in the J. I. Fishbein; Sec. Jimmy Wisch. Seeks to American Jewish community through such raise and maintain the standards of pro- educational projects as the Hebrew Arts fessional Jewish journalism and to create Film House and the Hebrew Arts School instruments of information for American for Music and the Dance. Jewry; maintains news service. American JEWISH ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES, Jewish Press. INC. (1927). 46 W. 83 St., N. Y. C, 24. CENTRAL YIDDISH CULTURB ORGANIZATION Pres. Leo Jung; Exec. Sec. Abraham Bur- (CYCO), INC. (1938). 25 E. 78 St., stein. Honors Jews distinguished in the arts N. Y. C, 21. Pres. Nathan Chanin; Dir. and professions; encourages and publishes Iser Goldberg. Publishes Yiddish books. Jewish achievement in scholarship and the COL. DAVID MARCUS MEMORIAL FOUNDA- arts by its members and fellows. Bulletin. TION, INC. (1948). 19 E. 70 St., N. Y. C, JBWISH BOOK COUNCIL OF AMERICA 21. Pres. Arthur H. Schwartz; Sec. Mrs. (1940) (sponsored by National Jewish Emma C. Marcus. Dignifies and properly Welfare Board). 145 E. 32 St., N. Y. C, recognizes only worthwhile projects formed 16. Pres. Alan A. Steinbach; Exec. Sec. in memory of David Marcus. Philip Goodman. Seeks to spread knowl- CONFERENCE ON JEWISH SOCIAL STUDIES, edge of Jewish books. In Jewish Bookland INC (formerly CONFERENCE ON JBWISH (supplement of the JWB Circle); Jewish RELATIONS, INC.) (1935). 1841 Broad- Book Annual. way, N. Y. C, 23. Pres. Koppel S. Pinson; JBWISH LIBRARIANS ASSOCIATION (1946). Sec. Bernard H. Goldstein. Engages in and c/o Stern College for Women, 253 Lexing- supervises scientific studies and factual re- ton Ave., N. Y. C, 16. Pres. Abraham search with respect to sociological prob- Berger; Sec. Max Celnik. Advances the in- lems involving contemporary Jewish life. terests of Jewish libraries and the profes- Jewish Social Studies. sional status of Jewish librarians; promotes CONGRESS FOR JEWISH CULTURE, INC. publications of Jewish bibliographical in- (1948). 25 E. 78St.,N. Y. C, 21. Chmn. terest. Exec Com. H. Leivick; Exec. Sec. Hyman JEWISH MUSBUM (1947) (under the aus- B. Bass. Seeks to centralize and promote pices of The Jewish Theological Seminary Jewish culture and cultural activities of America). 1109 Fifth Ave., N. Y. C, throughout the world, and to unify fund 28. Dir. Simon Greenberg; Curator and raising for these activities. Bulletin fun Dir. of Exhibits Stephen S. Kayser. Displays Kultur Kongres; Fun Noentn Ovar; Jewish art treasures and temporary exhibits Zukunft. of Jewish artists; maintains sculpture gar- WORLD BUREAU FOR JEWISH EDU- den; conducts educational activities in con- CATION OF, (1948). 25 E. 78 St., nection with exhibits; conducts guided 364 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

tours. Catalogues of Special Exhibits; Jew- YIDDISHER KULTUR FARBAND YKUF ish Museum Bulletin. (1937). 189 Second Ave., N. Y. C, 3. JEWISH MUSIC FORUM-SOCIETY FOR THB Exec. Sec. Abraham Jenofsky. Advances ADVANCEMENT OF JEWISH MUSICAL CUL- Jewish culture through publishing a TURE (1939). 39-40 Greenpoint Ave., monthly magazine, books of contemporary Long Island City 4, N. Y. Pres. Gershon and classical Jewish writers, conducting Ephros; Cor. Sec. Leah M. Jaffa. Promotes cultural forums, and exhibiting works of Jewish music through presentation of lec- contemporary Jewish artists and materials tures, forums, and new music. of Jewish historical value. Yiddishe Kultur. JBWISH PUBLICATION SOCIETY OF AMBRICA Yivo INSTITUTE FOR JEWISH RESEARCH, (1888). 222 N. 15 St., Philadelphia 2, INC. (1925). 1048 Fifth Ave., N. Y. C, Pa. Pres. Horace Stern; Exec. Sec. Lesser 28. Chmn. Bd. of Dir. Nathan Reich; Exec. Zussman. Publishes and disseminates books Dir. Pinkhos Schwartz. Engages in Jewish of Jewish interest on history, religion, and social research; collects and preserves doc- literature for the purpose of preserving the umentary and archival material pertaining Jewish heritage and culture. AMERICAN to Jewish life, and publishes the results of JEWISH YEAR BOOK (with American Jew- its findings in books and periodicals. Yedies ish Committee); Annual Catalogue; JPS fun YIVO—News of the YIVO; Yidishe Bookmark. Shprakh; Yidisher Folklore; YIVO Annual LEO BABCK INSTITUTE, INC. (1955). 1239 of Jewish Social Science; Yivo Bleter. Broadway, N. Y. C, 1. Pres. Max Gruene- wald; Sec. Max Kreutzberger. Engages in historical research, the presentation and OVERSEAS AID publication of the history of German- speaking Jewry, and in the collection of AMERICAN COMMITTBB OF OSE, INC books and manuscripts in this field; pub- (1940). 24 W. 40 St., N. Y. C, 18. lishes a year book as well as monographs. Chmn. Dr. Bela Schick; Exec. Dir. Dr. Bulletin. Leon Wulman. Aims to improve the health Louis LAMBD LITERARY FOUNDATION FOR of the Jewish people by means of health THE ADVANCEMENT OF HEBREW AND education and popularization of hygiene; YIDDISH LITERATURB (1939). 980 Whit- and by implementation of medical and pub- more Rd., Detroit 3, Mich. Fdr. Louis lic health programs among Jews, with par- LaMed; Pres. S. Margoshes. Seeks to bring ticular emphasis on children, youth, and about unity and cooperation between Yid- migrants. American OSE Review; American dish and Hebrew writers and readers. OSE Newsletter. MENORAH ASSOCIATION, INC. (1929). 20 E. AMBRICAN FRIENDS OF THB ALLIANCB IS- 69 St., N. Y. C, 21. Chancellor Henry RAELITB UNIVBRSELLB, INC. (1946). 61 Hurwit2; Sec Harry Starr. Seeks to study Broadway, N. Y. C, 6. Pres. Marcel Franco; and advance Jewish culture and ideals. Exec. Dir. Saadiah Cherniak. Serves as Menorah Journal. liaison between American Jewry and the • NATIONAL HAYM SALOMON MEMORIAL Alliance Israelite Universelle; familiarizes COMMITTEE, INC. (1950). 299 Madison the public in the U. S. and other countries Ave., N. Y. C, 17. in the Western Hemisphere with conditions NATIONAL JBWISH MUSIC COUNCIL (1944) in and problems of the Sephardic Oriental (sponsored by National Jewish Welfare communities in the old world. Alliance Re- Board). 145 E. 32 St., N. Y. C, 16. view; Revista de la Alliance. Chmn. Emanuel Green; Exec. Sec. Leah AMBRICAN JEWISH JOINT DISTRIBUTION M. Jaffa. Promotes Jewish music activities COMMITTBB, INC—JDC (1914). 3 E. 54 nationally and encourages participation on St., N. Y. C, 22. Chmn. Edward M. M. a community basis. Jewish Music Notes Warburg; Exec. V. Chmn. and Sec. Moses (supplement to JWB Circle). A. Leavitt. Organizes and administers wel- OFFICE FOR JEWISH POPULATION RB- fare, medical, and rehabilitation programs SEARCH (1949). 165 E. 56 St., N. Y. C, and distributes funds for relief and recon- 22. Pres. Salo W. Baron; Sec.-Treas. Morris struction on behalf of needy Jews overseas. Fine. Aims to gather population and other JDC Annual Report; JDC Digest; Statis- statistical data on the Jews of U. S.; to tical Abstract. provide such data to Jewish agencies and AMBRICAN ORT FEDERATION, INC.—OR- the general public and to stimulate national GANIZATION FOR REHABILITATION interest in Jewish population research THROUGH TRAINING (1924). 222 Park through publications and other media. Ave. So., N. Y. C, 3. Pres. William Haber; UNITED FUND FOR JEWISH CULTURE Exec. Dir. Paul Bernick. Trains Jewish men (1950). 25 E. 78 St., N. Y. C, 21. Chmn. and women in the technical trades and agri- B. Tabachinski; Exec. Sec. Hyman B. Bass. culture; organizes and maintains vocational Centralizes fund raising of the constituent training schools throughout the world. ORT organizations (Congress for Jewish Cul- Bulletin, ORT Yearbook. ture, CYCO, Zukunft) which are devoted , AMBRICAN AND EUROPEAN FRIENDS mainly to the promotion of Yiddish cul- OF ORT (1941). 222 Park Ave. So., ture, education, and literature. N. Y. C, 3. Pres. Jacob Frankel; Chmn. NATIONAL JEWISH ORGANIZATIONS 365

Exec. Comm. Jacques Zwibak. Promotes tween the Conference and the Federal Re- the ORT idea among Americans of Euro- public, and utilizes these funds for the pean extraction; supports the Litton Auto- relief, rehabilitation, and resettlement of Mechanics School in Jerusalem. needy victims of Nazi persecution residing AMERICAN LABOR ORT (1937). outside of Israel on the basis of urgency of 222 Park Ave. So., N. Y. C, 3. Chmn. need. Adolph Held; Exec. Sec. Samuel Milman. FREELAND LEAGUE FOR JEWISH TERRITO- Promotes ORT program of vocational train- RIAL COLONIZATION (1937; in U. S. ing among Jews in labor unions, AFL-CIO, 1941). 310 W. 86 St., N. Y. C, 24. Pres. and the Workmen's Circle. Nathan Turak; Exec. Sec. Mordkhe Schaech- , BUSINESS AND PROFESSIONAL ORT ter. Plans large-scale colonization in some (formerly Young Men's and Women's sparsely populated territory for those who ORT) (1937). 222 Park Ave So., N. Y. seek a home and cannot or will not go to C, 3. Pres. Mildred M. Braunstein, Finan- Israel. Boletin; Frayland; Freeland; Oifn cial Sec. Fay Dubrow. Promotes the work Shvel. of the American ORT Federation. Year HIAS—HEBREW SHELTERING AND IMMI- Book. GRANT AID SOCIETY (1884). See UNITED NATIONAL ORT LEAGUB (1941). HIAS SERVICE. 222 Park Ave. So., N. Y. C, 3. Chmn. JEWISH RESTITUTION SUCCBSSOR ORGAN- Herman Hoffman; Exec. Dir. Chaim Wein- IZATION (1947). 3 E. 54 St., N. Y. C, traub. Promotes ORT idea among Jewish 22. Pres. Monroe Goldwater; Exec. Sec. fraternal landsmannschaften, national and Saul Kagan. Acts to discover, claim, receive, local organizations, congregations; helps to and assist in the recovery of Jewish heir- equip ORT installations and Jewish artisans less or unclaimed property; to utilize such abroad, especially in Israel. assets or to provide for their utilization for -, WOMEN'S AMERICAN ORT (1927). the relief, rehabilitation, and resettlement 222 Park Ave. So., N. Y. C, 3. Nat. Pres. of surviving victims of Nazi persecution. Mrs. Joseph C Gayl; Nat. Exec. Dir. Na- UNITED JEWISH APPEAL, INC. (1939). 165 than Gould. Represents and advances the W. 46 St., N. Y. C, 36. Gen. Chmn. Mor- program and philosophy of ORT among ris Berinstein; Sec. Moses A. Leavitt. Na- the women of the American Jewish commu- tional fund-raising instrument for Amer- nity through membership and educational ican Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, activities; supports materially the vocational United Israel Appeal, and New York Asso- training operations of World ORT Union; ciation for New Americans. Report to contributes to the American Jewish community through participation in its author- Members; Women's Division Record. ized campaigns and through general educa- VAAD HATZALA REHABILITATION COMMIT- tion to help raise the level of Jewish con- TEE, INC. (1939). 132 Nassau St., N. Y. sciousness among American Jewish women. C, 38. Pres. Eliezer Silver; Exec. Dir. Jacob Highlights; Women's American ORT Karlinsky. Assists needy rabbis, talmudical News. scholars, and laymen, especially in Israel. YOUNG MBN'S AND WOMEN'S ORT. See BUSINBSS AND PROFESSIONAL ORT. RELIGIOUS, EDUCATIONAL A.R.I.F.—ASSOCIATION POUR LB RETAB- LISSEMBNT DBS INSTITUTIONS ET OBUVRES ACADEMY FOR HIGHER JEWISH LEARNING ISRAELITES EN FRANCE, INC (1943). 119 (formerly ACADEMY FOR LIBBRAL JUDA- E. 95 St., N. Y. C, 28. Pres. Baroness ISM) (1955; reorg. 1956). 320 W. 86 St., Robert de Gunzburg; Sec. Simon Langer. N. Y. C, 24. Dir. David Neiman; Dean Helps Jewish religious and cultural institu- Felix A. Levy. Maintains a rabbinical sem- tions in France. inary and research institute where students COMMITTEE FOR JEWISH CLAIMS ON AUS- of all persuasions of Judaism may study for TRIA (1953). 3 E. 54 St., N. Y. C, 22. rabbinical ordination. Catalogue. Chmn. Joint Exec. Bd. Nahum Goldmann; AGUDAS ISRABL WORLD ORGANIZATION Sec. Saul Kagan. Deals with problems of (1912). 2521 Broadway, N. Y. C, 25. compensation to Jewish victims of Nazi Chmn. Central Com. American Section persecution from and in Austria, in order Isaac Lewin; Hon. Sec. Salomon Gold- to improve the benefits to individual vic- smith. Represents the interests of Orthodox tims under compensation legislation and to Jewry both on the national and interna- obtain funds for relief of needy Jewish vic- tional scene. tims of Nazi persecution in and from Aus- AGUDATH ISRABL OF AMERICA, INC. (1912). tria. 5 Beekman St., N. Y. C, 38. Admin. Pres. CONFERENCE ON JEWISH MATERIAL CLAIMS Michael G. Tress; Exec. V. Pres. Morris AGAINST GERMANY, INC. (1951). 3 E. 54 Sherer. Seeks to organize religious Jewry St., N. Y. C, 22. Pres. Nahum Goldmann; in the Orthodox spirit, and in that spirit Sec. Saul Kagan. Receives funds from the to solve all problems facing Jewry in Israel Government of the German Federal Repub- and the world over. Agudah News Reporter; lic under the terms of the agreement be- Dos Yiddishe Vort. 366 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

, CHILDREN'S DIVISION—PIRCHEI Hillel Newsletter; Hillel "Little Book" AGUDATH ISRABL (1925). 5 Beekman St., series. N. Y. C, 38. Chmn. Wolf Karfiol. Edu- B'NAI B'RITH YOUTH ORGANIZATION cates Orthodox Jewish children according (1924). 1640 Rhode Island Ave., N. W., to the traditional Jewish way. Darkeinu; Washington 6, D. C. Nat. Dir. Max F. Inter Talmud Torah Boys; Leaders Guide. Baer. Helps Jewish youth achieve personal -, GIRLS' DIVISION—BNOS AGUDATH growth through a program of cultural, reli- ISRAEL. 5 Beekman St., N. Y. C, 38. Pres. gious, interfaith, community service, social, Susan Falig, Chaya Hamm, Chaya Korb; and athletic activities. Shofar. Exec. Sec. Sivia Kotler. Aims to lead Jew- BRANDEIS YOUTH FOUNDATION, INC. ish youth to the realization of the historic (1941). Brandeis (Santa Susana), Calif. nature of the Jewish people as the people Pres. Abraham Goodman; Nat. Dir. Shlomo of the Torah; to strengthen their devotion Bardin. Maintains summer camp institutes to and understanding of the Torah; and to for college students and teenagers and year- train them to help solve all the problems round adult weekend institutes to instill an of the Jewish people in Israel in the spirit appreciation of Jewish cultural heritage and of the Torah. Kol Basya; Kol Bnos. to create a desire for active leadership in , YOUNG AGUDAH WOMEN— the American Jewish community. Brandeis N'SHEI AGUDATH ISRAEL (1941). 5 Beek- Institute News. man St., N. Y. C, 38. CANTORS ASSEMBLY OF AMERICA (1947). -, YOUTH DIVISION-ZEIREI AGUDATH 3080 Broadway, N. Y. C, 27. Pres. Isaac ISRAEL (1921). 5 Beekman St., N. Y. C, Wall; Exec. V. Pres. Samuel Rosenbaum. 38. Chmn. Menachem Shayovich; Exec. Dir. Seeks to elevate the general status and stand- Boruch Borchardt. Aims to lead Jewish ards of the cantorial profession. Annual youth to the realization of the historic na- Proceedings; Cantors Voice. ture of the Jewish people as the people of CENTRAL CONFERENCE OF AMERICAN RAB- the Torah; to strengthen their devotion to BIS (1889). 40 W. 68 St., N. Y. C, 23. and understanding of the Torah; and to Pres. Bernard J. Bamberger; Exec. V. Pres. train them to help solve all the problems Sidney L. Regner. Seeks to conserve and of the Jewish people in Israel in the spirit promote Judaism and to disseminate its of the Torah. Agudah Youth; Leaders teachings in a liberal spirit. CCAR Journal; Guide; Orthodox Tribune. CCAR Yearbook. ALBERT EINSTEIN COLLEGE OF MEDICINE. CENTRAL YESHTVAH BETH JOSEPH RAB- See YESHIVA UNIVERSITY. BINICAL SEMINARY (in Europe 1891; in AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR JEWISH EDU- U. S. 1941). 1427 49 St., Brooklyn 19, CATION (1939). 1261 Broadway, N. Y. N. Y. Pres. Henry L. Kraushar; Exec. Sec. C, 1. Pres. Philip W. Lown; Exec. Dir. and Administrator Kurt Klappholz. Main- Judah Pilch. Coordinates, promotes, and tains a school for the teaching of rabbis and services Jewish education nationally through teachers as well as yeshivah instructors. a community program and special projects. COLLEGE OF JEWISH STUDIES (1924). 72 Audio-Visual Review; Jewish Education E. 11 St., Chicago 5, 111. Pres. Abraham G. Newsletter; Pedagogic Reporter; Trends and Duker; Pres. Bd. of Trustees Samuel Katzin. Development; Jewish Education (in co- Offers courses in history, language, litera- operation with the National Council for ture, and religion of the Jews; provides Jewish Education). professional training for Hebrew school AMERICAN CONFERENCE OF CANTORS teachers, Sunday School teachers, cantors, (1953). 40 W. 68 St., N. Y. C, 23. Pres. and supplementary training for social Robert M. Miller; Exec. Sec. Marshall M. workers and group workers; conducts gradu- Glatzer. Devotes itself to the highest ideals ate school leading to the degrees of Master of the cantorate, enhancing status, dignity, and Doctor of Hebrew Literature. Alon; and security of individual cantors. Amer- Student Annual. ican Conference of Cantors Bulletin. COMMISSION ON STATUS OF JBWISH WAR ASSOCIATION OF JEWISH CHAPLAINS OF ORPHANS IN EUROPE. AMERICAN SEC- THE ARMED FORCES (1946). 145 E. 32 TION (1945). 120 W. 42 St., N. Y. C, St., N. Y. C, 16. Pres. Alfred J. Kolatch; 36. Pres. and Hon. Sec. Moses Schonfeld. Sec. Simeon Kobrinetz. Seeks to promote Seeks to restore Jewish orphans to their fellowship among and advance the common former families and to the Jewish faith and interests of all chaplains in and out of the environment. service. DROPSIE COLLEGE FOR HEBREW AND COG- B'NAI B'RITH HlLLEL FOUNDATIONS, INC. NATE LEARNING (1907). Broad and York (1923). 1640 Rhode Island Ave., N. W., Sts., Philadelphia 32, Pa. Pres. Abraham Washington 6, D. C. Chmn. Nat. Hillel A. Neuman; Exec. V. Pres. Samuel B. Comm. William Haber; Nat. Dir. Benja- Finkel. A nonsectarian institution under min M. Kahn. Provides cultural, religious, Jewish auspices; trains scholars in higher educational, social, and counseling service Jewish and Semitic learning; offers only to Jewish students in colleges and uni- postgraduate degrees. Jewish Quarterly Re- versities in the United States, Canada, Eng- view. land, Holland, and Israel. Clearing House; , ALUMNI ASSOCIATION (1925). NATIONAL JEWISH ORGANIZATIONS 367

Broad and York Sts., Philadelphia 32, Pa. HUC—JIR Catalogue; Hebrew Union Col- Pres. Abraham P. Gannes; Sec. Treas. Frank lege Annual. Zimmerman. Fosters the interests of Drop- -, ALUMNI ASSOCIATION OF THE sie College. Annual Newsletter. (1884; merged 1949). 11 Eton St., Spring- FEDERATION OF JEWISH STUDENT ORGAN- field 8, Mass. Pres. Stanley Brav; Sec- IZATIONS (1937). 3010 Broadway, N. Y. Treas. Herman E. Snyder. Aims to promote C, 27. Pres. Frank Tuerkheimer; Sec. the welfare of Judaism, of the Hebrew Eileen Thaler. Provides knowledge and ap- Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion, preciation of Judaism and encourages par- and of its graduates. ticipation in the Jewish community; serves -, AMERICAN JEWISH ARCHIVES as a clearing house for the exchange of in- (1947). 3101 Clifton Ave., Cincinnati 20, formation about Jewish student activities in Ohio. Dir. Jacob R. Marcus. Assembles, N. Y. C classifies, and preserves Jewish Americana GRATZ COLLEGE (1895). 1338 Mt. Vernon manuscript material and photographs. St., Philadephia 23, Pa. Pres. Bd. of American Jewish Archives. Overseers Louis E. Levinthal; Dean Elazar -, AMERICAN JEWISH PERIODICAL Goelman; Administrator Daniel Isaacman. CENTER (1956). 3101 Clifton Ave., Cin- Trains teachers for Jewish religious schools; cinnati 20, Ohio. Dir. Jacob R. Marcus; provides studies in Judaica and Hebraica; Exec. Dir. Herbert C. Zafren. Microfilms maintains a Hebrew high school and a Jewish newspapers and periodicals, and school of observation and practice; pro- makes them available on interlibrary loan. vides Jewish studies for adults. Alumni Jewish Newspapers and Periodicals on News Letter; Hamitborer; Neir Talmid. Microfilm. HEBREW TEACHERS COLLEGE (1921). 43 -, CALIFORNIA SCHOOL, West Coast Hawes St., Brookline 46, Mass. Pres. Branch (1957). 8745 Appian Way, Los George Michelson; Dean Eisig Silberschlag. Angeles 46, Calif. Pres. Nelson Glueck; Offers higher Jewish learning to prospec- Dean Alfred Gottschalk. Trains students tive Hebrew teachers and rabbis; maintains for the Reform rabbinate, cantorate, and Hebrew high school; serves the community the field of Jewish education. with its large collection of Hebraica and -, SCHOOLS OF EDUCATION AND SA- Judaica. Hebrew Teachers College Bulletin; CRED MUSIC (1947). 40 W. 68 St., Eyal. N. Y. C, 23. Dean Emeritus Abraham N. HEBREW TBACHERS FEDERATION OF AMER- Franzblau; Acting Dean Paul M. Steinberg. ICA. See NATIONAL FEDERATION OF HB- Trains cantors for all congregations, Ortho- BREW TEACHERS AND PRINCIPALS. dox, Conservative, and Reform; trains HEBREW THEOLOGICAL COLLEGE (1922). musical personnel for all congregations; 7135 N. Carpenter Rd., Skokie, 111. Pres. trains principals, teachers and directors of Oscar Z. Fasman; Admin. Officer Melyin religious education for Reform religious Goodman. Offers studies in higher Jewish schools. learning along traditional lines; trains HERZLIAH HEBREW TEACHERS INSTITUTE, rabbis, teachers, and religious function- INC. (1921). 314 W. 91 St., N. Y. C, 24. aries; postgraduate school for advanced Pres. David Morgenstern; Fdr. and Dean degrees in Hebrew literature. Journal; Moses Feinstein. Trains teachers of Bible, Scribe. Hebrew language, and Jewish religion for , TEACHERS' INSTITUTE OF (1927). Hebrew elementary schools, parochial 7135 N. Carpenter Rd., Skokie, 111. Pres. schools, and high schools; conducts a Oscar Z. Fasman; Dean Joseph Babad. junior high school, high school, teachers Trains teachers for Hebrew schools; offers institute, graduate division, and adult ex- traditional Jewish education. tension courses. Abba-lmma; Beneinoo -, YESHTVA WOMEN (1949). 7135 L'Vein Azmenoo; Bulletin for Graduates; N. Carpenter Rd., Skokie, 111. Pres. Mrs. Bulletin for Parents. Joseph Ticktin; Rec. Sec. Mrs. Sam JEWISH CHAUTAUQUA SOCIETY, INC. See Lazovsky. Sponsors scholarship and wel- NATIONAL FEDERATION OF TEMPLE fare funds for students of Hebrew Theo- BROTHERHOODS OF THE UNION OF logical College; serves as clearing house for AMERICAN CONGREGATIONS. traditional synagogue sisterhoods. Yeshtva JBWISH MINISTERS CANTORS ASSOCIATION Women Bulletin. OF AMERICA, INC. (1898). 236 Second HEBREW UNION COLLEGE—JEWISH INSTI- Ave., N. Y. C, 3. Pres. Zalmon Yavneh; TUTE OF RELIGION of Cincinnati, New Sec. Benjamin Alpert. Administers insti- York, and Los Angeles (1875, 1922; tute for cantors, home for aged cantors, merged 1950). Clifton Ave., Cincinnati 20, library; sponsors lectures. Bulletin. Ohio; 40 W. 68 St., N. Y. C, 23. Pres. JEWISH RECONSTRUCTIONS FOUNDATION, Nelson Glueck; Provost Samuel Sandmel. INC. (1940). 15 W. 86 St., N. Y. C, 24. Prepares students for rabbinate, cantorate, Pres. Ira Eisenstein; Chmn. Bd. of Dir. religious school teaching, community serv- Herman Levin. Dedicated to the advance- ice; promotes Jewish studies; maintains a ment of Judaism as a religious civilization, library and museum; offers Ph.D. and to the upbuilding of Eretz Yisrael, and to D.H.L. degrees in graduate department. the reconstruction of Jewish life every- 368 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

where; sponsors the Reconstructionist Press. Serves as a center of research and study Reconstructionist, for graduate students; trains teachers JEWISH TEACHERS' SEMINARY AND PBO- for Jewish schools; serves as a center for PLE'S UNIVERSITY (1918). 154 E. 70 adult Jewish studies; promotes the arts St., N. Y. C, 21. Pres. Meyer L. Brown; through its fine arts department, art gal- Dean Herman Carmel. Trains men and lery, and theater. Register; University women in the light of scientific knowledge News. and historical ideals for the Jewish LEAGUE FOR SAFEGUARDING THE FIXITY OF teaching profession, research, and com- THE SABBATH AGAINST POSSIBLE EN- munity service. Jewish Review; Seminar CROACHMENT BY CALENDAR REFORM Yedioth; Seminarist. (1929). c/o Isaac Rosengarten, 305 Broad- JEWISH THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY OF AMER- way, N. Y. C, 7. Pres. Herbert S. Gold- ICA (1887; re-org. 1902). 3080 Broad- stein; Hon. Sec. Isaac Rosengarten. Seeks way, N. Y. C, 27. Chancellor of Seminary to safeguard the fixity of the Sabbath and Pres. of Faculties Louis Finkelstein; against introduction of the blank-day device Chmn. Bd. of Dir. Alan M. Stroock. Or- in calendar reform. ganized for the perpetuation of the tenets • MESIVTA YESHIVA RABBI CHAIM BBRLIN- of the Jewish religion, the cultivation of RABBINICAL ACADEMY (1905). 350 Hebrew literature, the pursuit of biblical Stone Ave., Brooklyn 12, N. Y. and archeological research, the advance- MIRRER YESHIVA CENTRAL INSTITUTE (in ment of Jewish scholarship, the mainte- Poland 1817; in U. S. 1947). 1791 Ocean nance of a library, and the training of Parkway, Brooklyn 23, N. Y. Pres. and rabbis, teachers, cantors, and lay leaders; Dean Abraham Kalmanowitz; Sec. Hersh maintains the Ramah camps. Seminary Feldman. Engages in higher Jewish educa- Beacon; Seminary Register. tion, rescue and rehabilitation of young , AMERICAN JEWISH HISTORY CBN- scholars from all parts of the world, and TER (1953). 3080 Broadway, N. Y.C., 27. more recently from the Middle East Chmn. Sol Satinsky; Dir. Allan Nevins; countries. Co-Dir. Moshe Davis. Promotes the writ- MIZRACHI-HAPOEL HAMIZRACHI NATIONAL ing of regional and local Jewish history in EDUCATION COMMITTEE. See NATIONAL the context of the total American and Jew- COUNCIL FOR TORAH EDUCATION OF ish experience. MIZRACHI-HAPOEL HAMIZRACHI. , ETERNAL LIGHT (1944). 3080 Broadway, N. Y. C, 27. Prod. Milton E. NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE Krents; Supvr. Frances R. Weinberg. Pro- (1896). Doylestown, Pa. Pres. James duces weekly radio programs devoted to Work; Sec. Elsie M. Belfield. Confers subjects of Jewish and universal interest Bachelor of Science degrees in seven fields by means of dramatic scripts; also produces of professional agriculture and in chem- ten television programs per year. istry and biology. Bulletins; Catalogue. INSTITUTE FOR RELIGIOUS AND NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF HILLEL DI- SOCIAL STUDIES (N. Y. C, 1938; Chicago RECTORS (1949). 317 Memorial Drive, 1944; Boston 1945). 3080 Broadway, Cambridge 39, Mass. Pres. Herman Pol- N. Y. C, 27. Dir. Louis Finkelstein; lack; Sec. Samuel Perlman. Aims to fa- Exec. Dir. Jessica Feingold. Aims to serve cilitate exchange of experience and opinion as a scholarly and scientific fellowship of among Hillel directors and counselors, clergymen and other religious teachers who develop personnel standards, and promote desire authoritative information regarding the welfare of the B'nai B'rith Hillel some of the basic issues now confronting Foundations and their professional per- spiritually-minded men. sonnel. -, Louis M. RABINOWITZ RESEARCH NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR JEWISH EDUCA- INSTITUTE IN RABBINICS (1951). 3080 TION (1926). 1261 Broadway, N. Y. C, Broadway, N. Y. C, 27. Co-Dir. Louis 1. Pres. Harry L. Woll; Gen. Sec. Samuel Finkelstein, Saul Lieberman. Fosters re- J. Borowsky. Seeks to further the cause of search in Rabbinics; prepares scientific Jewish education in America; to raise pro- editions of early Rabbinic works. fessional standards and practices; to pro- , TEACHERS INSTITUTB-SBMINARY mote the welfare and growth of Jewish COLLEGE OF JEWISH STUDIES (1909). educational workers; and to improve and 3080 Broadway, N. Y. C, 27. Chancellor strengthen Jewish life generally. Jewish Louis Finkelstein; Chmn. of Faculty Hillel Education; Sheviley Hachinuch. Bavli. Trains teachers and offers a course NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR TORAH EDUCA- in Jewish studies at the college level to TION OF MIZRACHI-HAPOEL HAMIZRACHI students desiring such a course although (1939). 80 Fifth Ave, N. Y. C, 11. Pres. not intending to use it professionally. Henry Raphael Gold; Exec. Dir. Isidor Alumni News. Margolis. Organizes and supervises yeshi- UNIVERSITY OF JUDAISM, West vot and Talmud Torahs; prepares and Coast Branch of JTSA (1947). 6525 trains teachers; publishes textbooks and Sunset Blvd., Los Angeles 28, Calif. Pres. educational material; conducts a placement Simon Greenberg; Dean Samuel Dinin. agency for Hebrew schools. Day School NATIONAL JEWISH ORGANIZATIONS 369

Principals' Monthly Bulletin; FT A Monthly Fosters youth work in Young Israel Bulletin; Yeshiva Education. branches and in Israel. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF BETH JACOB -, YOUTH DEPARTMENT (1912). 3 SCHOOLS, INC (1943). 150 Nassau St., W. 16 St., N. Y. C, 11. Dir. Stanley W. N. Y. C, 38. Pres. Ira Rosenzweig; Exec. Schlessel; Co-chmn. Reuben Davidman, Dir. David Ullmann. Operates traditional Aaron Krumbein. Organizes youth groups all-day schools and a summer camp for designed to train future leaders; plans and girls. Beth Jacob Journal. executes policies for all Young Israel syn- NATIONAL COUNCIL OF YOUNG ISRABL agogue youth groups; supervises Young (1912). 3 W. 16 St., N. Y. C, 11. Nat. Israel day and resident camps. Arts and Pres. Elijah Stein; Nat. Dir. Ephraim H. Crafts Manual; Bulletin Board; Holiday Sturm. Maintains a program of spiritual, Manuals; Organization and Leadership cultural, social, and communal activity to- Manual. wards the advancement and perpetuation NATIONAL COUNCIL ON JEWISH AUDIO- of traditional, Torah-true Judaism; seeks VISUAL MATERIALS (sponsored by the to instill into American youth an under- American Association for Jewish Educa- standing and appreciation of the high tion) (1949). 1261 Broadway, N. Y. C, ethical and spiritual values of Judaism and I. Exec. Sec. Zalmen Slesinger. Offers in- demonstrate that Judaism and American- formation on and evaluates available audio- ism are compatible. Armed forces View- visual materials; publishes these evalua- point; Newsletter; Women's League Man- tions annually; offers advice and guidance uals; Young Israel Viewpoint (newspaper in the planning of new Jewish audio-visual and magazine); Youth Department Pro- materials. Jewish Audio-Visual Review. gram Services. NATIONAL FEDERATION OF HEBRBW , ARMED FORCES BUREAU (1939). TEACHERS AND PRINCIPALS (1944). 120 3 W. 16 St., N. Y. C, 11. Chmn. J. David W. 16 St., N. Y. C, 11. Pres. Shemeon Delman; Dir. Stanley W. Schessel. Advises Pollack; Exec. Dir. Zevi Glatstein. Aims and counsels the inductees into the Armed to improve the professional status of Forces with regard to Sabbath observance, Hebrew teachers in the United States; to kashrut, and Orthodox behavior; supplies intensify the study of Hebrew language kosher food packages, religious items, etc., and literature in Jewish schools; and to to servicemen; aids veterans in readjusting organize Hebrew teachers nationally in to civilian life. Armed Vorces Viewpoint; affiliated groups and associations. Yediot Guide for the Orthodox Servicemen. Hamerkaz. EMPLOYMENT BUREAU (1914). NATIONAL WOMEN'S LBAGUB OF THB 3 W. 16 St., N. Y. C, 11. Chmn. Simeon UNITED SYNAGOGUE. See UNITED SYN- H. F. Goldstein; Dir. Dorothy Stein. Helps AGOGUE. secure employment with particular em- NER ISRAEL RABBINICAL COLLEGE (1933). phasis given to Sabbath observers; offers 4411 Garrison Blvd., Baltimore 15, Md. vocational guidance. Pres. Jacob I. Ruderman; Exec. Dir. Her- man N. Neuberger. Provides full secular ERETZ ISRAEL DIVISION (1926). and religious high school training; prepares 3 W. 16 St., N. Y. C, 11. Chmn. Elijah students for the rabbinate and the field of Stein. Offers nonpolitical aid and services Hebrew education; maintains a graduate to the State of Israel; encourages members school which grants the degrees of Master to support and work for Israel; aims to and Doctor of Talmudic Law; maintains inculcate a spirit of reverence and dedica- a bureau of community service for syn- tion to the Holy Land in American youth. agogue programming and placement. INSTITUTE FOR JEWISH STUDIES P'EYLIM-AMERICAN YESHIVA STUDENT (1947). 3 W. 16 St., N. Y. C, 11. Dir. UNION (1951). 3 W. 16 St., N. Y. C, Ephraim H. Sturm. Aims to acquaint its II. Pres. Dov Schwartzman; Chmn. Exec. students with Jewish learning and knowl- Bd. Shlomo Freifeld. Aids and sponsors edge; helps form adult branch schools; pioneer work by American graduate teach- aids Young Israel synagogues in their adult ers and rabbis in the new villages and education programs. towns in Israel; does religious, organiza- INTERCOLLEGIATE COUNCIL OF tional, counseling, and educational work YOUNG ADULTS (1950). 3 W. 16 St., among new immigrant youth; maintains N. Y. C, 11. Pres. Joseph Lauer, Dir. summer camps for poor immigrant youth Stanley W. Schlessel. Fosters and main- in Israel; belongs to world wide P'eylim tains a program of spiritual, cultural, so- movement which has groups in England, cial, and communal activity towards the Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, France, advancement and perpetuation of tradi- and Israel. Ha'Chever Ha'Torati. tional Judaism among American college- RABBINICAL ALLIANCE OF AMERICA level youth. The Collegian; Portion of the (1944). 154 Nassau St., N. Y. C, 38. Week. Pres. Samuel A. Turk; Exec. V. Pres. Ber- , WOMEN'S LEAGUE (1937). 3 W. nard Weinberger. Seeks to further tradi- 16 St., N. Y. C, 11. Pres. Mrs. Samuel N. tional Judaism; helps support the Mesivta Levy; Exec. V. Pres. Mrs. M. Marian. Rabbinical Seminary and other institutions 370 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

of higher learning; seeks to maintain pro- SYNAGOGUE COUNCIL OF AMERICA (1926). fessional competency among members; 110 W. 42 St., N. Y. C, 36. Pres. Max helps to establish Jewish modern Orthodox D. Davidson; Exec. Dir. Marc H. Tanen- communities throughout the United States baum. Acts as the overall Jewish religious and supply all Jewish communities with representative body of Orthodox, Conserva- all religious functionaries. Igud Newsletter; tive, and Reform Judaism in the United Torah and Sermon Manual; Torah Per- States vis-a-vis the Catholic and Protestant spective. national agencies, the U. S. government, RABBINICAL ASSEMBLY OF AMERICA and the United Nations. Synagogue Coun- (1900). 3080 Broadway, N. Y. C, 27. cil of America Highlights. Pres. Isaac Klein; Exec. V. Pres. Wolfe Kel- THEODOR HERZL FOUNDATION (1954). man. Serves as the professional organiza- 250 W. 57 St., N. Y. C, 19. Chmn. tion of Conservative rabbis. Conservative Emanuel Neumann; Sec. Mordecai Kirsh- Judaism; Proceedings. blum. Serves as an educational agency to RABBINICAL COLLEGE OF TELSHE, INC. promote the study and discussion of prob- (1941). 28400 Euclid Ave., Widdiffe, lems confronting Jews in the world today. Ohio. Pres. C. M. Katz; Exec. V. Pres. Midstream. Aaron Paperman. College for higher Jew- THEOLOGICAL SBMINARY YESHIVATH CHA- ish learning, specializing in Talmudic stud- CHMEY LUBLIN (1942). 25870 Fairfax ies and Rabbinics; offers possibility for St., Detroit 35, Mich. Pres. M. Rothen- ordination to students interested in the berg; Sec. Harry Stolsky. Maintains school active rabbinate; also maintains a prepara- for higher Jewish learning and prepares tory academy including secular high school, students for the rabbinate. a post graduate department, and a teachers TORAH UMESORAH—NATIONAL SOCIETY training school. Pri Etz Chaim—Journal FOR HEBREW DAY SCHOOLS (1944). for Talmudic Research; Semiannual News 5 Beekman St., N. Y. C, 38. Nat. Pres. Bulletin. Samuel C. Feuerstein; Nat. Dir. Joseph RABBINICAL COUNCIL OF AMERICA, INC. Kaminetsky. Establishes and services Jew- (1923; re-org. 1935). 331 Madison Ave., ish day schools throughout U. S.; places N. Y. C, 17. Pres. Emanuel Rackman; teachers and administrators in these schools; Exec. V. Pres. Israel Klavan. Promotes conducts teaching seminar and workshops Orthodox Judaism in the community; sup- for in-service training of teachers; publishes ports institutions for study of Torah; textbooks and supplementary reading stimulates creation of new traditional agen- material. Annual Report; Hamenahel; cies. Record; Sermon Manual; Hadorom; Monthly Report; Olomeinu—Our World. Tradition. , NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF HE- RECONSTRUCTIONIST FELLOWSHIP OF CON- BREW DAY SCHOOL PARENT-TEACHER GREGATIONS (1954). 15 W. 86 St., ASSOCIATIONS (1948). 5 Beekman St., N. Y. C, 24. Pres. Louis Borins; Sec. N. Y. C, 38. Pres. Charles M. Batt; Exec. Myron Greisdorf. Seeks to implement Re- Sec. Mrs. Samuel Brand. Organizes PTA constructionism in the life and activities of groups in day-school communities; serves the constituent synagogues. as clearing house for PTA programs RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF RELIGIOUS JEWRY and local community problems; publishes INC. (1941; re-org. 1954). 1133 Broad- aids to PTA's for programming, parent way, N. Y. C, 10. Chmn. Bd. of Dir. education, child guidance, and parent- Salomon Goldsmith; Sec. Marcus Levine. teacher meetings and conferences. Bulletin; Engages in research and publishes studies Jewish Parent; Program Newsletter. concerning the situation of religious Jewry -, NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF YE- and its problems all over the world. SHIVA PRINCIPALS (1956). 5 Beekman SHOLEM ALEICHEM FOLK INSTITUTE, INC. St., N. Y. C, 38. Pres. David Stern; Exec. (1918). 41 Union Square, N. Y. C, 3. Sec. Meir Belsky. A professional organiza- Pres. Jacob D. Berg; Exec. Dir. Saul Good- tion of yeshiva principals which seeks to man. Aims to imbue children with Jewish make yeshiva education more effective. values through teaching Yiddish language Hamenahel. and literature, Hebrew and the Bible, UNION OF AMBRICAN HEBREW CONGREGA- Jewish history, Jewish life in America and TIONS (1873). 838 Fifth Ave., N. Y. C, Israel, folk songs and choral singing, prep- 21. Pres. Maurice N. Eisendrath; Chmn. aration for bar mitzvah and celebration Bd. of Trustees Emil N. Baar. Serves as the of Jewish holidays. Kinder Journal; P.T.A. central congregational body of Reform Supplement; Sholem Aleichem Bulletin. Judaism in the western hemisphere; serves SOCIETY OF FRIENDS OF THE TOURO SYNA- its 600 affiliated temples and membership GOGUE, INC. (1948). 85 Touro St., New- with religious, educational, cultural, and port, R. I. Pres. Bernard C. Friedman; administrative programs. American Juda- Exec. Sec. Theodore Lewis. Maintains ism; Jewish Teacher; Keeping Posted; So- Touro Synagogue as a national historic cial Action in Review; Synagogue Service site. Bulletin. STERN COLLEGE FOR WOMEN. See YESHTVA , COMMISSION ON SOCIAL ACTION UNIVERSITY. OF REFORM JUDAISM (1949). 838 Fifth NATIONAL JEWISH ORGANIZATIONS 371

Ave., N. Y. C, 21. Chmn. I. Cyrus Gordon; in the United States and the world; serves Dir. Albert Vorspan. Develops materials to Jewish and humanitarian causes; cooperates assist Reform synagogues in setting up so- with UAHC in the execution of its aims; cial-action programs relating the principles publishes many sisterhood study and proof Judaism to contemporary social prob- gram aids. American Judaism; Catalog of lems; assists congregations in studying the Aids for Sisterhoods; President's Packet. moral and religious implications in various -, NATIONAL FEDERATION OF TEM- social issues such as civil rights, civil lib- PLE YOUTH (1939). 838 Fifth Ave., erties, church-state relations; guides con- N. Y. C, 21. Pres. Robert Miller; Nat. Dir. gregational social-action committees. Social Samuel Cook. Unites youth of Reform con- Action in Review; Issues of Conscience. gregations in national youth projects, pro- -, Los ANGELES COLLEGE OF JEWISH grams, institutes and camp conferences. STUDIES OF. See HEBREW UNION COL- NPTYMES; Program-of-tbe-Montb. LEGE—JEWISH INSTITUTE OF RELIGION, -, AND CENTRAL CONFERENCE OF CALIFORNIA SCHOOL. AMERICAN RABBIS, COMMISSION ON JBW- -, NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF TEM- ISH EDUCATION OF (1923). 838 Fifth PLE ADMINISTRATORS OF (1941). 838 Ave., N. Y. C, 21. Chmn. Roland B. Git- Fifth Ave., N. Y. C, 21. Pres. Nathan telsohn; Dir. Eugene B. Borowitz. Seeks to Emanuel; Admin. Sec. Frank J. Adler. Fos- clarify aims and objectives of Jewish edu- ters Reform Judaism; prepares and dissem- cation as Reform Judaism sees them; evalu- inates administrative information and pro- ates and changes its program in light of the cedures to die member synagogues of experience of its schools; publishes mate- UAHC; provides and encourages proper rials, trains teachers, principals, and lay and adequate training of professional syna- committees to carry out the programs. An- gogue executives; formulates and estab- nual Catalogue of Publications; Curricula lishes professional ideals and standards for for the Jewish Religious School; Jewish the synagogue executive. NATS Quarterly. Teacher; Keeping Posted; Religious Educa- -, NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF TEM- tion Newsletter. PLB EDUCATORS (1955). 838 Fifth Ave., -, AND CENTRAL CONFERENCE OF N. Y. C, 21. Pres. James J. Levbarg; 1st AMERICAN RABBIS, COMMISSION ON V. Pres. Heinz Warschauer. Represents the SYNAGOGUB AcnvrnBS (1932). 838 temple educator within the general body of Fifth Ave., N. Y. G, 21. Chmn. Harold Reform Judaism, and fosters and encour- M. Faigenbaum; Dir. Eugene J. Lipman; ages the full-time profession of the temple OFFICE OF WORSHIP. Dir. Eugene J. Lip- educator; encourages the growth and devel- man. Assists congregations in the areas of opment of Jewish religious education con- worship and ceremonies. OFFICE OF SYNA- sistent with the aims of Reform Judaism; GOGUE ADMIN. Dir. Myron E. Schoen. Aids develops a philosophy of Jewish education in the areas of an and architecture, financ- for children and adults; stimulates coming, and management. Synagogue Service. munal interest and responsibility for the UNION OF ORTHODOX JEWISH CONGREGA- educational program. NATE News. TIONS OF AMERICA (1898). 305 Broad- -, NATIONAL FEDERATION OF TEM- way, N. Y. C, 7. Pres. Moses I. Feuer- PLE BROTHERHOODS (1923). 838 Fifth stein; Exec. V. Pres. Samson R. Weiss. Ave., N. Y. C, 21. Pres. J. Robert Arkush; Serves as the national central body of Or- Exec. Dir. Sylvan Lebow. Comprises 400 thodox synagogues; provides educational, Reform temple brotherhoods in the U. S., religious, and organizational guidance to Canada, and the Union of South Africa; congregations, youth groups, and men's fosters religious, social, and cultural activi- clubs; represents the orthodox Jewish com- ties; sponsors the Jewish Chautauqua munity in relationship to governmental Society. American Judaism; NFTB Service and civic bodies, and the general Jewish Bulletin. community; conducts the national authori- -, JBWISH CHAUTAUQUA SOCIETY-, tative ©Kashruth certification service. Jew- INC (sponsored by National Federation of ish Action; Jewish Life; ©News Reporter; Temple Brotherhoods) (1893). 838 Fifth ©Kosher Products Directory. Ave., N. Y. C, 21. Pres. J. Robert Arkush; , NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF SYNA- Exec. Dir. Sylvan Lebow. Disseminates au- GOGUB YOUTH (1954). 305 Broadway, thoritative knowledge about Jews and Juda- N. Y. C, 7. Nat. Pres. Albert Cohen; Nat. ism to universities and colleges in the U. S. Dir. Pinchas Stolper. Nurtures loyalty to and Canada and to Christian church sum- Orthodox Judaism and love for Torah mer camps and institutes and on television among Jewish youth; aids Orthodox syna- and radio. American Judaism; NFTB Serv- gogues in their youth programs; conducts ice Bulletin. national and regional conventions, rallies, -, NATIONAL FEDERATION OF TBM- and camp sessions; sponsors annual Youth PLE SISTERHOODS (1913). 838 Fifth Ave., Torah Pilgrimage. Leader's Manual; NCSY N. Y. G, 21. Pres. Mrs. Henry Monsky; Newsletter; Youth Program Memo. Exec. Dir. Jane Evans. Brings sisterhoods , WOMEN'S BRANCH OF (1923). 305 into closer cooperation; stimulates spiritual Broadway, N. Y. C, 7. Nat. Pres. Mrs. and educational activity; advances Judaism Allen I. Edles; Exec Sec Mrs. David K. 372 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK Schafer. Seeks to unite all Orthodox administration and to integrate all activity; women, girls, and their organizations; conducts placement bureau and administra- seeks to spread the knowledge necessary tive surveys. N. A. S. A. News Bulletin. for the understanding and practice of or- -, NATIONAL FEDERATION OF JEWISH thodox Judaism; publishes educational and MEN'S CLUBS, INC. (1929). 3080 Broad- cultural material; organizes new sisterhoods. way, N. Y. C, 27. Nat. Pres. Bernard Convention Proceedings; Hachodesh; Man- Rackmil; Nat. Sec. Joseph L. Blum. Main- ual for Sisterhoods; Newsletter; Leadership tains a national organization of synagogue- Guide; Speakers Guide; Speakers Hand- affiliated Jewish men's clubs or brother- book; Yearbook. hoods dedicated to the ideals and principles UNION OF ORTHODOX RABBIS OF THE of traditional Judaism; seeks to help build a UNITED STATES AND CANADA, INC dynamic Judaism through social, cultural, (1902). 132 Nassau St., N. Y. C, 38. and religious activities and programs. Torch. Chmn. Eliezer Silver; Exec. Dir. Meyer -, NATIONAL WOMEN'S LEAGUE OF Cohen. Seeks to foster and promote Torah- (1918). 3080 Broadway, N. Y. C, 27. true Judaism in America; assists in the Nat. Pres. Mrs. Herbert Rossman; Exec. Dir. establishment and maintenance of yeshivot Noami Flax. Seeks to advance traditional in the United States; disseminates knowl- Judaism by furthering Jewish education edge of traditional Jewish rites and prac- among women and children; services sister- tices. hoods of the Conservative movement; ar- UNION OF SEPHARDIC CONGREGATIONS, ranges annual regional conferences for ex- INC. (1929). 8 W. 70 St., N. Y. C, 23. change of ideas; sponsors Torah Fund for Pres. David de Sola Pool; Sec. Victor Tarry. Jewish Theological Seminary, and a resi- Promotes the religious interests of Sephar- dence hall for girls. Leagnotes; National dic Jews. Women's League Outlook. UNITED SYNAGOGUE OF AMERICA (1913). -, UNITED SYNAGOGUB YOUTH OF 3080 Broadway, N. Y. C., 27. Pres. Ber- (1951). 1123 Broadway, N. Y. C, 10. nath L. Jacobs; Exec. Dir. Bernard Segal. Pres. Jim Lebeau; Nat. Dir. Morton Sie- Services affiliated Conservative congregations gel. Offers opportunities to the adolescent and their auxiliaries, in all their religious, to continue and strengthen his identifica- educational, cultural, and administrative tion with Judaism and with the synagogue; needs. Adult Jewish Education; Judaism in seeks to develop a program based on the Social Action; Synagogue School; United personality development, needs, and inter- Synagogue Review. ests of the adolescent. Advisor's Newsletter; , COMMISSION ON JEWISH EDUCA- News and Views; Program Notes; Presi- TION (c. 1930). 3080 Broadway, N. Y. C, dent's Newsletter. 27. Chmn. Henry Goldberg; Educ. Dir. YOUNG PEOPLE'S LBAGUE OF Abraham E. Millgram. Aims to promote (1921). 1123 Broadway, N. Y. C, 10. higher educational standards in Conservative Nat. Pres. Irwin Siderman; Nat. Dir. Mor- congregational schools and to publish mate- ton Siegel. Seeks to bring Jewish youth rial for the advancement of their educational closer to Conservative Judaism, the syna- program. Synagogue School. gogue, and the Jewish community. Akiba -, EDUCATORS ASSBMBLY OF (1951). Reader; News Chat. 3080 Broadway, N. Y. C, 27. Pres. Alfred WORLD UNION FOR PROGRESSIVE JUDAISM, Weisel; Sec. Norman Schanin. Promotes, U. S. OFFICE (1926). 456 Webster Ave., extends, and strengthens the program of New Rochelle, N. Y. Pres. Solomon B. Jewish education on all levels in the com- Freehof; Am. Dir. Jacob K. Shankman; munity in consonance with the philosophy Sec. Jane Evans. Promotes and coordinates of the Conservative movement. Annual Pro- efforts of Reform Jewish congregations in ceedings; Educators Assembly Newsletter. the United States on behalf of Liberal Juda- -, NATIONAL ACADEMY FOR ADULT ism; supports newly organized Interna- JEWISH STUDIES (1940). 1109 Fifth Ave., tional Institute for Jewish Studies in Paris N. Y. C, 28. Chmn. Bd. of Gov. Max J. for the education of Reform rabbis in Paris, Routtenberg; Dir. Marvin S. Wiener. Pro- France. Biennial Conference Reports. vides guidance and information on resources, YAVNE JEWISH THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, courses, and other projects in adult Jewish INC., (1926). 510 Dahill Rd., Brooklyn education; prepares and publishes pam- 18, N. Y. Pres. Jacob M. Shapiro; Exec. phlets, syllabi, study guides, and texts for Dir. Solomon K. Shapiro. Maintains a sem- use in adult education programs; distributes inary for higher Jewish education; trains kinescopes of "Eternal Light" TV programs rabbis and teachers as Jewish leaders for on Jewish subjects. Adult Jewish Education. American Jewish communities; maintains -, NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SYNA- branch in Jerusalem for an exchange stu- GOGUE ADMINISTRATORS OF (1948). 3080 dent program. Yavne Newsletter. Broadway, N. Y. C, 27. Pres. Gerald N. YESHIVA UNIVERSITY (1886). 186 St. and Schoem; Sec. Joseph Hurwitz. Aids congre- Amsterdam Ave., N. Y. C, 33. Pres. Sam- gations affiliated with the United Syna- uel Belkin; Chmn. Bd. of Trustees Max J. gogue of America to further aims of Con- Etra. An accredited institution of higher servative Judaism through more effective learning with 17 schools and divisions, pro- NATIONAL JEWISH ORGANIZATIONS 373 viding undergraduate and graduate degree Dir. Milton Furst. Fosters aims and ideals programs in the arts and sciences and Jew- of Yeshiva College; provides activities of ish studies; situated at six different teaching mutual interest for alumni. Bulletin. centers in N. Y. C, it offers preparations YESHIVATH TORAH VODAATH AND MESIVTA for careers in the rabbinate, medicine, edu- RABBINICAL SEMINARY (1918). 141 S. cation, social work, and other fields; spon- 3 St., Brooklyn 11, N. Y. Pres. Charles A. sors several community service agencies, a Saretsky; Chmn. Bd. of Dir. Louis J. Sep- program of research and experimentation, timus. Offers complete Hebrew and secular and publishes scholarly books and periodi- education from elementary level through cals in various fields. Commentator; Elchan- rabbinical ordination and post-rabbinical ite; Horeb; Kocbavia; Masmid; Nir; Ob- work; maintains a teachers institute and server; Script a Matbematica; Sura; Talpioth; community service bureau; operates a non- Y. U. News. profit summer camp for boys. Chronicle; ALBBRT EINSTEIN COLLEGE OF Mesivta Vanguard; Scroll; Thought of the MEDICINE (1953). 1300 Morris Park Ave., Week; Torah Vodaath News. N. Y. C, 61. Dean Dr. Marcus D. Kogel. , ALUMNI ASSOCIATION (1941). Operates a medical school under Jewish aus- 141 S. 3 St., Brooklyn 11, N. Y. Pres. pices; devoted to training young people of Daniel B. Sukenik; Exec. Sec. Mendel all races and creeds for medical careers; Weinbach. Promotes social and cultural provides opportunity for advanced research. ties between the alumni and the school; Bulletin; Pulse. supports the school through fund raising; , ALUMNI WIVES (1948). 186 St. offers vocational guidance to the students. and Amsterdam Ave., N. Y. C, 33. Pres. Alumni News; Annual Journal. Mrs. Judah Washer; Sec. Mrs. Ralph Schu- -, BETH MEDROSH ELYON (ACADEMY chalter. Social; cultural; philanthropic. Bul- OF HIGHER LEARNING AND RBSBARCH) letin. (1943). Main St., Monsey, N. Y. Bd. ASSOCIATED ALUMNI OF THE Chmn. Meyer A. Schatz; Exec. Dir. H. TEACHERS INSTITUTES OF (1942). 186 Waxman. Provides postgraduate courses St., and Amsterdam Ave., N. Y. C, 33. and research work in higher Jewish studies; Pres. Morris Benathen; Dir. Milton Furst. offers scholarships and fellowships. Seeks to advance the ideals of Yeshiva Uni- -, WEST COAST TALMUDICAL SEM- versity and its Teachers Institutes for men INARY, MESIVTA BETH MEDROSH ELYON, and women, especially in its service_ in the INC. (1953). 11027 Burbank Blvd., North field of Jewish education; maintains ties Hollywood, Calif. Pres. S. Wasserman; Sec. with its alumni and fosters Jewish learn- Harry Fried. Provides facilities for intensive ing and scholarship. Torah education and rabbinical training; BERNARD REVEL GRADUATB maintains a yeshiva day school, Mesivta SCHOOL ALUMNI OF (1949). 186 St. and junior and senior college preparatory high Amsterdam Ave., N. Y. C, 33. Pres. Ber- school, rabbinical division and advanced nard Bergman; Dir. Milton Furst. Fosters yeshivot; maintains dormitories for out-of- ideals of Yeshiva University; seeks to en- town students. courage scholarship among its members. -, NATIONAL COUNCIL OF ORGANIZA- TIONS FOR (1943). 110 W. 57 St., N. Y. SOCIAL, MUTUAL BENEFIT C, 19. Nat. Sec. Samuel A. Doctorow. Advances the program of Yeshiva Univer- ALPHA EPSILON PI FRATERNITY (1913). sity. 6651 Enright Ave., University City 30, STERN COLLEGE FOR WOMBN Mo. Pres. Louis Sherr; Exec. Sec. George (1954). 253 Lexington Ave.,N. Y. C, 16. S. Toll. Educational; fraternal; philan- Pres. Samuel Belkin; Act. Dean Dan Vogel. thropic; cultural; for undergraduate college Liberal arts college for women with a broad men. Lion; Newsletter. program of Jewish and general studies. ALPHA OMEGA FRATERNITY (1907). 147 STERN COLLEGE ALUMNAE ASSO- W. 42 St., N. Y. C, 36. Professional den- CIATION (1958). 186 St. and Amsterdam tal fraternity. Alpha Omegan. Ave., N. Y. C, 33. Pres. Barbara Gross; AMERICAN FEDERATION OF JEWS FROM Sec. Roberta Daina. Seeks to foster aims CENTRAL EUROPE, INC., (1941). 1241 and ideals of Stern College and Yeshiva Broadway, N. Y. C, 1. Pres. Max Gruene- University; seeks to maintain friendship wald; Exec. V. Pres. Herman Muller. Seeks among its graduates. to safeguard the rights and interests of Cen- -, SYNAGOGUE COUNCIL OF (1936). tral European Jews now living in the U. S., 110 W. 57 St., N. Y. C, 19. Pres. Max especially in reference to restitution and J. Etra; Exec. Dir. Max Halpert. Seeks to indemnification; engages in cultural activ- unify congregations and promote traditional ity by research in and publications on the Judaism; maintains Yeshiva University. history of Central European Jewry, and by , WOMEN'S ORGANIZATION OF participation in the work of the Leo Baeck (1928). 250 W. 57 St., N. Y. C, 19. Institute; sponsors a social program for , YESHIVA COLLEGE ALUMNI ASSO- needy Nazi victims in the U. S. in coopera- CIATION (1934). 186 St. and Amsterdam tion with United Help, Inc. Information Ave., N. Y. C, 33. Pres. Joseph Sokolow; Bulletins. 374 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

ASSOCIATION OF YUGOSLAV JBWS IN THB Pres. Larry Block. Cultural; religious; phil- UNITED STATES, INC. (1940). 170 W. anthropic; social. Pitaupian. 81 St., N. Y. C, 24. Pres. Roman Smucer; PROGRESSIVE ORDER OF THE WEST, GRAND Sec. Mile Weiss. Seeks to tighten relations LODGE (1896). 705 Chestnut St., St. between Jews of Yugoslav extraction in the Louis 1, Mo. Grand Master Harold E. United States and fraternal organizations in Friedman; Grand Sec. Sam Novack. Be- Yugoslavia and Israel. Bulletin. nevolent. Progressive Order of the West BNAI ZION—THE AMERICAN FRATERNAL Bulletin. ZIONIST ORGANIZATION (1910). 225 W. SEPHARDIC JEWISH BROTHERHOOD OF 57 St., N. Y. C, 19. Pres. Hyman J. Flie- AMERICA, INC. (1915). 116 E. 169 St., gel; Nat. Sec. Herman Z. Quittman. Fosters Bronx 52, N. Y. Pres. Irwin A. Nathan; principles of Americanism, fraternalism, Exec. Sec. Solomon A. Shaloum. Promotes and Zionism; promotes the spread of He- the industrial, social, educational, and reli- brew culture in America; offers insurance gious welfare of its members. Sephardic and other benefits to its members; in Israel Brother. sponsors 3 settlements and various medical TAU EPSILON RHO FRATERNITY (1919). clinics and youth centers. Bnai Zion Voice. 1420 Walnut St., Philadelphia 2, Pa. BRITH ABRAHAM (1887). 37 E. 7St.,N. Y. Pres. Robert Marks; Supreme Master of C, 3. Pres. Maurice Goldstein: Grand Sec. the Rolls Eli N. Donsky. Professional; Adolph Stern. Zionist; civic defense; mu- legal. Summons. tual aid; philanthropic. Beacon. UNITED GALIOAN JEWS OF AMERICA, INC. BRITH SHOLOM (1905). 506 Pine St., Phila- (1904; re-org. 1937). 175 Fifth Ave., delphia 6, Pa. Nat. Pres. Abraham Levin; N. Y. C, 10. Pres. Sigmund I. Sobel; Nat. Exec. Dir. Albert Liss. Devoted to Exec. V. Pres. Benjamin Friedman. Raises service of community, civic welfare, and funds for Jewish charitable organizations. defense of minority rights. Brith Sholom Our Voice. News; Community Relations Digest. UNITED HUNGARIAN JBWS OF AMERICA, • CENTRAL SEPHARDIC JEWISH COMMUNITY INC. (1944). 242 W. 76 St., N. Y. C, OF AMERICA, INC. (1940). 225 W. 34 23. Pres. Joseph Brownfield; Exec. Sec. St., N. Y. C, 1. Ernest Lendway. Maintains rehabilitation FARBAND—LABOR ZIONIST ORDER (1913). center in Israel; aids needy Jews all over 575 Sixth Ave., N. Y. C, 11. Pres. Meyer the world; assists young immigrant coming L. Brown; Gen. Sec. Louis Segal. Seeks to in to the U. S. strengthen Jewish life in the U. S.; sup- UNITED ORDER TRUE SISTERS, INC. (1846). ports the State of Israel in keeping with 150 W. 85 St., N. Y. C, 25. Nat. Pres. the ideals of labor Zionism; seeks to en- Mrs. Lou Simon; Nat. Sec. Mrs. Herman hance Jewish culture; seeks to further Simon. Philanthropic; cancer treatment; care liberal causes in the U. S. and throughout of orthopedically handicapped and under- the world; provides members and families privileged children. Echo. with low-cost fraternal benefits. Farband UNITED RUMANIAN JEWS OF AMERICA, News. INC (1909). 31 Union Square W., N. Y. FREE SONS OF ISRAEL (1849). 257 W. 93 C, 3. Pres. I. Glickman; Sec. Samuel Lon- St., N. Y. C, 25. Grand Master Milton M. schein. Seeks to further, defend, and pro- Meyer; Grand Sec. Joseph C. Seide. Benev- tea the interests of the Jews in Rumania; olent, fraternal. Free Son Reporter. to work for their civic and political HEBREW VETERANS OF THE WAR WITH emancipation and for their economic re- SPAIN (1899). 87-71 94 St., Woodhaven habilitation; and to represent and further 21, N. Y. Commander Ralph Knaster; the interests of the Rumanian Jews in the Adjutant and Quartermaster Samuel J. United States. Record. Semler. Social and fraternal. UPSILON LAMBDA PHI FRATERNITY, INC. JEWISH PEACE FELLOWSHIP (1941). P.O.B. (1917). 74 Brighton Ave., Perth Amboy, 223, Lenox Hill Station, N. Y. C, 21. N. J. Pres. Lawrence Choper; Chmn. of Bd. Chmn. Sam Grand. Unites those who be- David Linett. Seeks to promote and per- lieve that Jewish ideals and experience petuate the spirit of fraternalism among provide inspiration for a pacifist philosophy young men of the Jewish faith throughout of life; advises conscientious objectors of the world, and to better their moral, mental, their legal rights; seeks to exert influence social, and physical standing. Hourglass. in the direction of disarmament. Tidings. WORKMEN'S CIRCLE (1900). 175 E. Broad- MAGEN DAVID FEDERATION. See UNITED way, N. Y. C, 2. Pres. Israel Breslow; MAGEN DAVID ORGANIZATIONS. Gen. Sec. Nathan Chanin. Benevolent aid; Mu SIGMA FRATERNITY, INC. (1906). 140 educational; fraternal. Culture and Educa- Nassau St., N. Y. C, 38. Pres. Arthur P. tion; Der Freind; Kinder Zeitung; Work- Fisch. Sponsors a spirit of brotherhood and men's Circle Call. fraternalism through varied organizational, , ENGLISH-SPEAKING DIVISION social, and athletic activities; fosters pro- (1927). 175 E. Broadway, N. Y. C, 2. grams of community service. Lamp. Chmn. Nat. Orgn. Com. Yechiel Eberil; Pi TAU PI FRATERNITY (1909). 1147 Rydal Nat. Dir. William Stern. Performs social, Rd., Rydal Pa., c/o Charles Kahn, Jr. cultural, and educational activities within NATIONAL JEWISH ORGANIZATIONS 375

the program of a Jewish labor and fraternal B'nai B'rith Women's World; Jewish Heri- organization. Workmen's Circle Call. tage; National Jewish Monthly; Shofar. -, YOUNG CIRCLE LBAGUB—YOUTH -, ANTI DEFAMATION LEAGUE. See SECTION OF THE (1927). 175 E. Broad- COMMUNITY RELATIONS, POLITICAL. way, N. Y. C, 2. Dir. Nat. Peskin. En- -, HILLEL FOUNDATIONS. See RE- gages children in the program of the LIGIOUS, EDUCATIONAL. Workmen's Circle. Triangle. -, LEO N. LEVI MEMORIAL HOSPITAL WORLD SEPHARDI FEDERATION, AMERICAN at Hot Springs National Park, Arkansas BRANCH (1951). 152 W. 42 St., N. Y. C, (sponsored by B'nai B'rith) (1914). 343 36. Pres. Denzil Sebag-Montefiore, Bohor So. Dearborn St., Chicago 4, 111. Pres. Mrs. Chitrit, Simon S. Nessim. Seeks to pro- Louis H. Harrison; Dir. Nat. Exec. Office mote religious and cultural interests of Louis R. Hochberg. Maintains a free, non- Sephardic communities throughout the sectarian, international arthritis medical world; assists them morally and materially; center for men, women, and children re- assists Sephardim who wish to settle in gardless of race, creed, color, religion, or Israel. Judaisme Sephardi Kol-Sepbarad; geographic location. Sbevet Vaam; World Sephardi. -, VOCATIONAL SERVICE (1938). 1640 Rhode Island Ave., N. W., Washing- ton 6, D. C. Chmn. Maurice Jacobs; Nat. Dir. S. N. Feingold. Aids in educational SOCIAL WELFARE and occupational adjustment of Jewish youth and adults; carries out research in AMERICAN JEWISH PUBLIC RELATIONS SO- problems of educational and occupational CIETY (1957). Room 308, 40 W. 68 St., adjustment and discrimination. Catalogue N. Y. C, 23. Pres. Benjamin Hanft; Treas. of Publications; Counselors Information Dorothy Millstone. Re-emphasizes and ad- Service. vances professional status of men and wom- -, YOUTH ORGANIZATION. See RB- en in the public relations field in Jewish LIGIOUS, EDUCATIONAL. communal service; upholds a professional B'NAI B'RITH WOMEN (1909). 1640 Rhode code of ethics and standards; serves as a Island Ave., N. W., Washington 6, D. C. clearing house for employment opportuni- Pres. Mrs. Charles D. Solovich; Asst. Exec. ties; exchanges professional information and Dir. Miss Miriam Albert. A Jewish wom- ideas; presents awards for excellence in en's service organization dedicated to professional attainments. Handout. philanthropic efforts which encompass the • AMERICAN JEWISH SOCIETY FOR SERVICE, sick, the needy, the orphaned, and the aged INC. (1950). 120 Broadway, N. Y. C, 5. on a nonsectarian basis; maintains chil- AMERICAN MEDICAL CENTBR AT DENVER dren's home in Israel; engages in volunteer (formerly JEWISH CONSUMPTIVES' RELIBF services to help rehabilitate victims of SOCIETY) (1904). P. O. Box 537, Denver disaster, war, and other catastrophes. B'nai 1, Colo. Pres. Charles C. Winocur; Nat. B'rith Women's World. Exec. Dir. Manfred L. Minzer, Jr. Free, CITY OF HOPE—A NATIONAL MEDICAL nonsectaxian, nationwide medical and treat- CENTER UNDER JEWISH AUSPICES. ment center for cancer, tuberculosis, and (1913). 208 W. 8 St., Los Angeles 14, chest diseases. Bulletin; Developments. Calif. Pres. Louis Tabak; Exec. Dir. Ben , NATIONAL COUNCIL OF AUXILIA- Horowitz. Operates a free national non- RIES (1904; re-org. 1936). P. O. Box 537, sectarian medical center under Jewish Denver 1, Colo. Pres. Mrs. Philip F. Lich- auspices for treatment, research, and medi- tenstein; Exec. Dir. Mrs. Joseph Zeenkov. cal education of diseases including cancer, Coordinates work of the constituent auxil- blood diseases, tuberculosis and allied chest iaries and aids in the formation of new diseases and heart ailments amenable to auxiliaries. Bulletin. surgery. City of Hope Reporter; Torch- BARON DE HIRSCH FUND, INC. (1891). 386 bearer. Fourth Ave., N. Y. C, 16. Pres. George CONFERENCE COMMITTEE OF NATIONAL W. Naumburg; Mng. Dir. George Book- JEWISH WOMEN'S ORGANIZATIONS staver. Supports the Jewish Agricultural (1925). 15 E. 84 St., N. Y. C, 28. Chmn. Society; aids Americanization of Jewish Mrs. Solomon Abelow; Sec.-Treas. Mrs. immigrant and their instruction in trades Louis I. Brill. Promotes interorganizational and agriculture. understanding and good will among the B'NAI B'RITH (1843). 1640 Rhode Island cooperating organizations; brings to atten- Ave. N. W., Washington 6, D. C. Pres. tion of constituent organizations matters Label Katz; Exec. V. Pres. Maurice Bisgyer. of Jewish communal interest for their con- Seeks to unite Jews in work promoting sideration and possible action. their highest interests and those of human- COUNCIL OF JEWISH FEDERATIONS AND ity; fosters a program of service activities WELFARE FUNDS, INC. (1932) 729 in such fields as youth work, defense of Seventh Ave., N. Y. C, 19. Pres. Irving Jewish rights, adult education, civic affairs, Kane; Exec. Dir. Philip Bernstein. Provides Israel projects, and other philanthropic and national and regional services in Jewish social service endeavors. ADL Bulletin; community organization, campaigns and 376 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

interpretation, budgeting, planning for search. Program and Information Bulletin; health and welfare, and cooperative action Vocational Service Abstracts. by the associated community organizations LEO N. LBVI MEMORIAL HOSPITAL at Hot in the U. S. and Canada. Aged and Child Springs National Park, Arkansas. See B'NAI Care; Campaign Manual; Guidelines for B'RITH. Family Service; Jewish Community. NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF JEWISH CEN- EX-PATIENTS' SANATORIUM FOR TUBBRCU- TER WORKERS (1918). 55 Cedarhurst LOSIS AND CHRONIC DISEASB (1908). Ave., Cedarhurst, N. Y. Pres. Myron C. 8000 E. Montview Blvd., Denver 8, Colo. Blanchard; Sec. Carl Urbont. Seeks to pro- Pres. John E. Streltzer; Sec. Samuel J. mote the welfare, training, and professional Frazin. Provides free treatment and reha- standards of center workers. News and bilitation for needy patients with tubercu- Notes. losis and other chronic diseases and provides free psychiatric treatment to mentally ill NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF JEWISH COM- MUNAL SERVICE (1899). 150 E. 35 St., patients. N. Y. C, 16. Pres. Herbert H. Aptekar; FAMILY LOCATION SERVICE (formerly NA- Exec. Sec. Preston David. Discusses prob- TIONAL DESERTION BUREAU, INC.) lems and developments in the various fields (1905). 31 Union Sq. W., N. Y. C, 3. of Jewish communal service on a profes- Pres. Walter H. Liebman; Exec. Dir. and sional level. Journal of Jewish Communal Chief Counsel Jacob T. Zukerman. Provides Service. location, casework, and legal aid services in connection with problems arising out of • NATIONAL COUNCIL OF JEWISH PRISON family desertion or other forms of marital CHAPLAINS, INC. (1935). 10 E. 73 St., breakdown; when advisable, assists families N. Y. C, 21. in working out plans for reconciliation; in NATIONAL COUNCIL OF JEWISH WOMEN, some cases helps to arrange for support INC. (1893). 1 W. 47 St., N. Y. C, 36. payments, preferably on a voluntary basis. Nat. Pres. Mrs. Charles Hymes; Exec. Dir. JEWISH AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY, INC. Miss Hannah Stein. Sponsors a program (1900). 386 Park Ave. So., N. Y. C, 16. of service and education for social action Pres. Philip H. Naumburg; Gen. Mgr. in fields of social legislation, international Theodore Norman. Helps Jews to settle on affairs, contemporary Jewish affairs, com- farms and aids those already settled. Jewish munity welfare, overseas service, and service Farmer. to the foreign-born. Council Leader; Coun- JEWISH BRAILLE INSTITUTE OF AMERICA, cil Platform; Council Woman; New Hori- INC. (1931). 48 E. 74 St., N. Y. C, 21. zons in Community Services. Pres. Mrs. Louis J. Bieber; Exec. Dir. NATIONAL JEWISH COMMITTEE ON SCOUT- Jacob Freid. Seeks to further cultural, edu- ING (1926). Boy Scouts of America, New cational, and religious welfare of the Jew- Brunswick, N. J. Chmn. Jeffrey L. Laza- ish blind; publishes Hebrew and English rus; Exec. Sec. Harry Lasker. Seeks to prayer books; teaches Hebrew Braille. Jew- stimulate Boy Scout activity among Jew- ish Braille Review. ish boys. Ner Tamid Guide for Boy Scouts JEWISH CONCILIATION BOARD OF AMERICA, and Explorers; Scouting and the Jewish INC. (1930). 225 Broadway, N. Y. C, 7. Boy. Pres. Israel Goldstein; Exec. Sec. Ruth NATIONAL JEWISH HOSPITAL AT DENVER Richman. Adjusts and conciliates disputes (1899). 3800 E. Colfax Ave., Denver 6, involving Jewish individuals and organiza- Colo. Pres. Walter M. Simon; Exec. Dir. tions; social service department settles Philip Houtz. Offers nationwide, free, non- family problems privately. sectarian care for needy tuberculosis and JEWISH NATIONAL HOME FOR ASTHMATIC chest disease patients, including asthma CHILDREN AT DENVER (formerly NA- and heart ailments amenable to surgery; TIONAL HOME FOR JEWISH CHILDREN AT conducts research, education, and rehabili- DENVER) (1907). 3447 W. 19 Ave., tation. News of the National. Denver 4, Colo. Pres. Arthur B. Lorber; NATIONAL JEWISH WELFARE BOARD Exec. Dir. Israel Friedman. Maintains a (1917). 145 E. 32 St., N. Y. C, 16. Pres. free, nonsectarian medical and research Solomon Litt; Exec. V. Pres. S. D. Ger- center for children from all parts of the showitz. Serves as national association of U. S. and Israel who are suffering from Jewish community centers and YM- chronic intractable asthma and other aller- YWHAs; authorized by the government gic diseases. News from the Home Front. to provide for the religious and welfare JBWISH OCCUPATIONAL COUNCIL, INC. needs of Jews in the armed services and (1939). 150 E. 35 St., N. Y. C, 16. Pres. in veterans hospitals; sponsors Jewish Leonard H. Cohn; Exec. Dir. Roland Baxt. Book Council, National Jewish Music Serves as the central national advisory, co- Council, Jewish Center Lecture Bureau; ordinating, and research facility in the field represents American Jewish community in of Jewish vocational guidance, job place- USO. JWB Circle (of which In Jewish ment, training, vocational rehabilitation, Bookland and Jewish Music Notes are sheltered workshops, and occupational re- supplements); JWB Year Book; Jewish NATIONAL JEWISH ORGANIZATIONS 377

Community Center Program Aids; Person- ZIONIST AND PRO-ISRAEL nel Reporter; Women's Division Bulletin. -, COMMISSION ON JEWISH CHAP- AMERICA-ISRAEL CULTURAL FOUNDATION, LAINCY (1940). 145 E. 32 St., N. Y. C, INC. (formerly AMERICAN FUND FOR 16. Chmn. Morris Lieberman; Dir. Aryeh ISRAEL INSTITUTIONS, INC.) (1939). 2 Lev. Represents Reform, Orthodox, and W. 45 St., N. Y. C, 36. Pres. Samuel Conservative rabbinates on matters relat- Rubin; Exec. V. Pres. Ralph I. Goldman. ing to chaplaincy; is the only government Supports about 40 cultural institutions in recognized agency authorized to recruit, Israel including the Israel Philharmonic ecclesiastically endorse, and serve all Jew- Orchestra, the Habimah theater, the Inbal ish military chaplains. Newsletter. dancers, Bezalel National Museum, and -, WOMEN'S ORGANIZATIONS' DIVI- the Rubin Academy of Music; sponsors a SION OF (1942). 145 E. 32 St., N. Y. C, two-way program of cultural exchange be- 16. Chmn. Mrs. Leonard H. Bernheim; tween the United States and Israel; awards Dir. Diana Bernstein. Provides morale and scholarships in the performing arts to tal- recreational services for hospitalized vet- ented young Israelis for study in Israel and erans and GIs and Jewish chaplains at abroad. remote areas in U. S. and overseas. Annual AMERICAN COMMITTEE FOR BAR-ILAN UNI- Report; Guideposts; Women's Division VERSITY IN ISRAEL, INC. (1952). 527 Bulletin. Madison Ave., N. Y. C, 22. Pres. Bd. of SOCIETY OF THE FOUNDERS OF THE ALBERT Govs. Joseph H. Lookstein; Chmn. Am. EINSTEIN COLLEGE OF MEDICINB OF Trustees Philip Stollman; Dir. of Devel- YESHTVA UNIVERSITY (1953). 110 W. 57 opment M. Morton Rubenstein. Sponsors St., N. Y. C, 19. Chmn. George Alpert; Bar-Ilan University, an American-patterned Sec. Samuel Abrams. To perpetuate the in- university for liberal arts, sciences, and terest and association of the founders of humanities located at Ramat Gan, Israel. the college and their families in the Albert Bar-Ilan University Beacon. Einstein College of Medicine. AMERICAN COMMITTEE FOR NATIONAL UNITED HIAS SERVICE, INC (1954). 425 SICK FUND OF ISRAEL, INC. (1946). 55 Lafayette St., N. Y. C, 3. Pres. Carlos L. W. 42 St., N. Y. C, 25. Chmn. H. L. Israels; Exec. Dir. James P. Rice. World- Gordon; Exec. V. Chmn. Morris Giloni. wide organization with offices, affiliates, Provides medical equipment, drugs, instru- committees in United States, Europe, North ments, chemicals, and other supplies for Africa, Latin America, Canada, Australia, the health centers, dispensaries, and medical Israel, and Hong Kong. Services Jewish institutions of the National Sick Fund of migrants in pre-immigration planning, visa Israel. production, visa documentation, consular AMERICAN COMMITTEE FOR THE WEIZ- representation and intervention, transporta- MANN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCB, INC tion, reception, sheltering, initial adjust- (1944). 515 Park Ave., N. Y. C, 23. ment and reunion of families; carries on Pres. Abraham Feinberg; Exec. V. Pres. adjustment of status, naturalization, and Joseph Brainin. Supports the Weizmann Americanization programs; provides pro- Institute of Science for scientific research tective service for aliens and naturalized in Rehovoth, Israel. citizens threatened with deportation or de- AMERICAN FRIENDS OF ICHUD (1956). naturalization; assists in locating persons Room 706, 112 E. 19 St., N. Y. C, 3. abroad for friends and relatives in the Chmn. Don Peretz; Exec. Sec. Ian Michael United States, and persons in this country Wright. Provides American education and sought by friends and relatives overseas; support for Ichud and other organizations succors needy Jewish families in Europe in Israel working for Arab-Jewish under- and Israel through funds sent by friends standing and cooperation. Ner. AMERICAN FRIENDS OF THE HEBREW UNI- and relatives; works in the United States VERSITY (1931). 9 E. 89 St., N. Y. C, 28. through local community agencies to inte- Pres. Philip M. Klutznick; Exec. V. Pres. grate the immigrant into American life Frederick R. Lachman. Represents and through a planned program of resettle- publicizes the Hebrew University in the ment. Rescue; Statistical Abstract Quarterly. U. S.; serves as fund-raising arm and pur- UNITED SERVICE FOR NEW AMERICANS, chasing agent; processes American students INC. See UNITED HIAS SERVICE. and arranges exchange professorships in the WORLD FEDERATION OF YMHAS AND JEW- United States and Israel. AFHU Bulletin; ISH COMMUNITY CENTERS (1947). 145 Highlights; Scopus. E. 32 St., N. Y. C, 16. Pres. Irving Edison; AMERICAN FUND FOR ISRAEL INSTITU- Admin. Sec. Philip Goodman. Fosters YM- TIONS. See AMBRICA-ISRAEL CULTURAL YWHA and Jewish community center FOUNDATION, INC. movement in all countries where feasible AMERICAN - ISRAELI LIGHTHOUSE, INC and desirable; provides opportunities for (PALESTINE LIGHTHOUSE) (1928; re-org. training and interchange of ideas and ex- 1955). 654 Madison Ave., N. Y. C, 21. periences among the national organizations. Pres. Mrs. Joseph H. Cohen; Exec. Dir. Ys of the World. Leonard Neleson. Provides education and 378 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

rehabilitation aid for blind adults and chil- Youth Council and Student Zionist Organi- dren in Israel with the purpose of effecting zation. their social and vocational integration into -, STUDENT ZIONIST ORGANIZA- the seeing community. Tower; Year Book. TION (sponsored by Youth Department of • AMERICAN JEWISH LEAGUE FOR ISRABL American Zionist Council) (1954). 515 (1957). 200 W. 57 St., N. Y. C, 19. Park Ave., N. Y. C, 23. Pres. Peter Krausz; AMERICAN JEWISH PHYSICIANS' COMMIT- Sec. Rachel Max. Interprets to the general TBB (1921). 11 E. 69 St. N. Y. C, 21. community, college students, and faculty Pres. Dr. John H. Garlock; Sec. Dr. Milton the history, meaning, and promise of Zion- L. Kramer. Seeks to assist the building and ism and the State oflsrael; encourages Jew- maintenance of the medical school of the ish students in the study of and participa- Hebrew University and medical libraries tion in all aspects of affirmative Jewish liv- in Israel; raises funds for medical educa- ing. Student Zionist; Zionist Collegiate. tion and research in Israel. -, ZIONIST YOUTH COUNCIL (spon- AMERICAN PHYSICIANS FELLOWSHIP, INC. sored by Youth Department of American FOR THE ISRAEL MEDICAL ASSOCIATION Zionist Council) (1951). 515 Park Ave., (1950). 1330 Beacon St., Brookline 46, N. Y. C, 23. Chmn. Michael Fields. Mass. Pres. I. Jerome Sobel; Sec. Manuel Coordinates and initiates Zionist youth M. Glazier. Seeks to foster and aid medical activities of mutual interest to the constitu- progress in the State of Israel; to secure ent members of the council; acts as spokes- financial aid for the completion of the man and representative of Zionist youth in Jerusalem Academy of Medicine. APP interpreting Israel to the youth of America. Newsletter. AMERICANS FOR A MUSIC LIBRARY IN AMERICAN RED MOGEN DOVTD FOR ISRAEL, ISRAEL (1950). 425 S. Wabash Ave., INC. (1941). 225 W. 57 St., N. Y. C, 19. Chicago 5, 111. Pres. Max Targ; Rec. Sec. Pres. Louis Rosenberg; Exec. Dir. Charles Fannie Targ. Seeks to promote, encourage, W. Feinberg. Functions as the national and render financial and other assistance to membership organization in support of the musical education in the State of Israel. Magen David Adom, Israel's first aid AMU News. agency and official Israel Red Cross serv- AMERICANS FOR PROGRESSIVE ISRAEL ice. Action; Adventure in Aid; In the (1950). 112 Park Ave. So., N. Y. C, 3. Service of Mankind. Nat. Chmn. Avraham Schenker; Chmn. AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TECHNION-ISRAEL Nat. Council Abe Berniker. Promotes a INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, INC. Socialist Zionist program; encourages Amer- (1940). 1000 Fifth Ave., N. Y. C, 28. ican community support for Israel kibbutz Pres. David Rose; Exec. Dir. William H. movement; engages in fund raising for Is- Schwartz. Supports the Technion-Israel In- rael, particularly on behalf of halutz (pio- stitute of Technology, and promotes the neer) movement; encourages and supports technical and industrial development of aliyab to Israel, particularly to the kibbutz; Israel. Technion Review; Technion Year- participates in the fight for Jewish rights book. everywhere. API Month; Background Bul- letin; Israel Horizons; Sentinel. AMERICAN TECHNION SOCIETY. See AMER- • AMPAL—AMERICAN ISRAEL CORPORA- ICAN SOCIETY FOR TECHNION, above. TION (1942). 17 E. 71 St., N. Y. C, 21. AMERICAN ZIONIST COMMITTEE FOR PUB- BACHAD ORGANIZATION OF NORTH AMER- LIC AFFAIRS (1954). 1737 H St. N. W., ICA (1950). 80 Fifth Ave., N. Y. C, 11. Washington 6, D. C. Chmn. Philip S. Exec. Dir. Nachum Pessin; Sec. Shlomo Bernstein; Exec. Dir. I. L. Kenen. Con- Levy. Fosters and promotes ideals of re- ducts and directs public action on behalf ligious pioneering in Israel; maintains of the American Zionist movement bearing hachsharah agricultural training farm and upon relations with governmental au- school in Israel, as well as a professional thorities with a view to maintaining and department to guide and assist those in- improving friendship and goodwill be- terested in pioneering and professions in tween the United States and Israel. Israel. Hamevaser. AMERICAN ZIONIST COUNCIL (1939- re- BNEI AKXVA OF NORTH AMERICA (1934). org. 1949). 515 Park Ave., N. Y. C, 80 Fifth Ave., N. Y. C, 11. Exec. Dir. 23- Chmn. Irving Miller; Exec. Dir. Jerome Nachum Pessin; Sec. Shlomo Levy. Seeks Unger. Conducts an Israel-Middle East to awaken the interest of members in re- informational program on the American ligious labor Zionism through self-realiza- scene; stresses the fostering of Jewish cul- tion in Israel; maintains training farms, ture and the Hebrew language in Ameri- leadership seminars, and summer camps. can Jewish life, and carries on an intensive Akivon; Hamevaser; Ohalenu; Pinkos Zionist youth program. L'madrich. , YOUTH DEPARTMENT (1954) 515 FEDERATED COUNCIL OF ISRAEL INSTITU- Park Ave., N. Y. C, 23. Chmn. Avra- TIONS—FCII (1940). 38 Park Row, N. ham Schenker; Dir. Theodore Comet. Co- Y. C, 38. Pres. David L. Meckler; Exec. ordinates and implements Zionist activities V. Pres. David Winograd. Central fund- among American youth; sponsors Zionist raising organization for independent re- NATIONAL JEWISH ORGANIZATIONS 379

ligious, educational, and welfare institutions C, 11. Pres. Mrs. Sidney Feine; Exec. Dir. in Israel which are not maintained by Mrs. Abraham Bernstein. Helps to maintain the various fund-raising agencies of the 115 institutions consisting of nurseries, kin- Zionist Organization. Annual Financial Re- dergartens, homes for children and girls, port. loan organizations, and training schools in FOUNDATION FOR THE JEWISH NATIONAL Israel. Menorah Bulletin. FUND (1951). 42 E. 69 St., N. Y. C, 21. HASHOMER HATZAIR ZIONIST YOUTH OR- Chmn. Bernard A. Rosenblatt; Act. Exec. GANIZATION (1925). 112 Park Ave. So., Dir. Hanan R. Yarden. Seeks to assure a N. Y. C, 3. Pres. Avraham Schenker; Exec. constant flow of funds through bequests, Sec. Valia Hirsch. Educates youth and assignments of insurance, or transfer of provides agricultural training for pioneering securities to the Jewish National Fund and collective life in Israel; maintains the (Keren Kayemeth Lelsrael), Inc. Land only pioneer training farm in North and Life. America; has established nine kibbutzim in HABONIM, LABOR ZIONIST YOUTH (1920). Israel. Igeret Hagalil; Sentinel; Young 200 Fourth Ave., N. Y. C, 3. Nat. Sec. Guard. Allen Pollack. Trains Jewish youth to be- HEBREW UNIVERSITY - TECHNION JOINT come halutzim in Israel; stimulates study MAINTENANCE APPEAL (1954). 9 E. 89 of Jewish life, history, and culture; spon- St., N. Y. C, 28. Chmn. Joint Comra. sors work-study programs in Israel and Elias Fife; Dir. Maurice Eigen. Conducts summer camps in America; prepares Jew- maintenance campaigns formerly conducted ish youth for active participation in Amer- by the American Friends of the Hebrew ican Jewish community life. Furrows; Ha- University and the American Technion boneh. Society; participates in community cam- HADASSAH, THE WOMEN'S ZIONIST ORGAN- paign throughout the country excluding IZATION OF AMERICA, INC. (1912). 65 New York City. E. 52 St., N. Y. C, 22. Pres. Miriam HECHALUTZ ORGANIZATION OF AMER- Freund; Exec. Dir. Hannah L. Goldberg. In ICA, INC. (1935). 112 Park Ave. So., N. America helps interpret Israel to the Ameri- Y. C, 3. Pres. David Beinin; Exec. Officer can people; provides basic Jewish education Avraham Schenker. Seeks to help in the as a background for intelligent and creative upbuilding of Israel as the Jewish national Jewish living in America; carries on a home; trains Jewish youth for a productive project for American Jewish youth; in life in Israel and in other countries; edu- Israel supports Hadassah's countrywide cates Jewish youth in the spirit of Zionism medical and public health system, its child and social justice; maintains the Shomria welfare and vocational education projects; training farm at Hightstown, N. J. provides maintenance and education for ISRABL Music FOUNDATION (1948). 731 youth newcomers through Youth Aliyah, Broadway, N. Y. C, 3. Pres. Oscar Regen; of which Hadassah is the official American Sec. Oliver Sabin. Supports and stimulates representative; participates in a program of the growth of music in Israel, and dissem- Jewish National Fund land purchase and inates Israel music in the U. S. and through- reclamation. Hadassah Headlines; Hadassah out the world in recorded form. Newsletter. JERUSALEM INSTITUTIONS FOR THE BLIND- , JUNIOR HADASSAH, YOUTH DIVI- KEREN-OR, INC. (1956). 1133 Broadway, SION OF (1920). 65 E. 52 St., N. Y. C, N. Y. C, 10. Pres. Ira Guilden; Exec. 22. Chmn. Nat. Council Beverly Steinhart; Dir. Shlomoh Dov London. Raises funds Dir. Aline Kaplan. Conducts education pro- for the maintenance and expansion of the gram for creative Jewish living, and public- Israel Institute for the Blind and its four relations program to help interpret Israel branch homes in Jerusalem. Torch of the to American youth; in Israel aids varied Jewish Blind. projects in the fields of nurses training, JEWISH AGENCY FOR ISRAEL (1929). 515 child rescue and rehabilitation, land re- Park Ave., N. Y. C, 23. Chmn. Nahum demption through Jewish National Fund Goldmann; Act. Chmn. Mrs. Rose L. Hal- and the kibbutz. Junior Hadassah World. prin; Exec. Dir. Gottlieb Hammer. Recog- HAGDUD HATVRI LEAGUE, INC (AMERICAN nized by the State of Israel as the authorized JBWISH LEGION LEAGUE) (1929). 150 agency to work in the State of Israel for Crown St., Brooklyn 25, N. Y. Nat. the development and colonization of that Comdr. Elias Gilner; Sec. James G. Matin. country, for the absorption and settlement Seeks to uphold the ideals of the Jewish of immigrants there and for the coordina- Legion which fought for the liberation of tion of the activities in Israel of Jewish Palestine in World War I; to assist legion institutions and associations operating in veterans in settling in Israel and to help these fields; conducts a world-wide He- establish in Israel a Legion House (Bet brew cultural program which includes spe- Hagdudim) for veterans. cial seminars and pedagogic manuals; dis- HAPOEL HAMIZRACHI OF AMERICA, INC perses information about Israel and assists in See RELIGIOUS ZIONISTS OF AMERICA. research projects concerning that country; HAPOEL HAMIZRACHI, WOMEN'S ORGANI- promotes, publishes, and distributes books, ZATION OF (1948). 80 Fifth Ave., N. Y. periodicals and pamphlets concerning de- 380 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK velopments in Israel, Zionist, and Jewish ducts extensive sodal service, child care, history; sponsors a radio program, "Pano- and vocational education programs in Israel ramas de Israel," in the Latin-American in an environment of traditional Judaism; countries. Israel y America Latina. conducts cultural activities for the purpose JEWISH NATIONAL FUND, INC. — KEREN of disseminating Zionist ideals and strength- KAYBMBTH LEISRAEL (1910). 42 E. 69 ening traditional Judaism in America. Cul- St., N. Y. C, 21. Pres. Harris J. Levine; tural Guide; Mizrachi Woman. Sec-Exec. Dir. Mendel N. Fisher. Raises NATIONAL COMMITTEB FOR LABOR ISRAEL funds to purchase, develop, and reclaim the (ISRAEL HISTADRUT CAMPAIGN) (1923). soil of Israel. JNP Bulletin; Land and Life. 33 E. 67 St., N. Y. C, 21. Pres. Joseph JUNIOR HADASSAH, YOUNG WOMEN'S Schlossberg; Nat. Chmn. Jacob J. Wein- ZIONIST ORGANIZATION OF AMERICA. stein. Provides funds for the various social See HADASSAH, THE WOMEN'S ZIONIST welfare, vocational, health, cultural, and ORGANIZATION OF AMERICA. similar institutions and services of His- KEREN-OR, INC., THE ISRAEL INSTITUTE tadrut for the benefit of workers and FOR THE BLIND. See JERUSALEM INSTI- immigrants and to assist in the integration TUTIONS FOR THE BLIND-KEREN-OR, INC of newcomers as productive citizens in Is- LABOR ZIONIST ORGANIZATION OF AMER- rael; promotes an understanding of the ICA—POALE ZION (1905). 200 Fourth aims and achievements of Israel labor Ave., N. Y. C, 3. Pres. Pinchas Cruso; among Jews and non-Jews in America. Exec. Sec. Jacob Katzman. Supports labor Histadrut Foto-News. and progressive forces in Israel, democrati- , AMERICAN TRADE UNION COUN- zation of American Jewish community life, CIL OF (1947). 33 E. 67 St., N. Y. C, and American pro-labor legislation. Jewish 21. Chmn. Moe Falikman; Exec. Dir. Greg- Frontier; LZOA News Letter; Yiddisher ory J. Bardacke. Collects funds, educates, Kemfer. and solicits moral and political assistance LBAGUE FOR NATIONAL LABOR IN ISRAEL, from trade union organizations and mem- INC. (1935). 55 W. 42 St., N. Y. C, bers for the Histadrut and the State of 25. Pres. Beinesh Epstein; Sec. Morris Gi- Israel. Histadrut Campaign News. loni. Extends moral and financial help to NATIONAL YOUNG JUDABA (1909). 116 the non-socialist National Labor Federation W. 14 St., N. Y. C, 11. Pres. Peter Preuss. of Israel (Histadrut Haovdim Haleumit), Seeks to develop in the U. S. a Jewish and acquaints the American public with its youth rooted in its heritage Zionistically aims and activities. and dedicated to serving the Jewish people LEAGUE FOR RELIGIOUS LABOR IN ERETZ in America and Israel. Judaean Leaves; ISRAEL, INC. (1941). 80 Fifth Ave., N. Y. Leaders' Bulletin; Senior; Young Judaean. C, 11. Pres. Jesse Eisen; Exec. Dir. Isaac PALESTINB ECONOMIC CORPORATION B. Rose. Promotes the ideals of the Torah (1926). 18 E. 41 St., N. Y. C, 17. Pres. Vavodah (religious labor) movement in Joseph Meyerhoff; Sec. Albert Seiffer. Fos- the United States; assists the religious pio- ters economic development of Israel on a neers in Israel. business basis through investments. Annual MIZRACHI HATZAIR-MIZRACHI YOUTH OF Report. AMERICA (1952). 242 Park Ave. South, PALESTINB FOUNDATION FUND (KEREN N. Y. C, 3. Nat. Pres. Bernard Berger; HAYESOD), INC. (1922). 515 Park Ave., Exec. Dir. Sherman D. Siff. Aims to aid N. Y. C, 23. in the upbuilding of Israel in accordance PALESTINE PIONEER FOUNDATION, INC. with the Torah and traditions of Israel; (1946). 55 W. 42 St., N. Y. C, 36. spreads the religious Zionist ideal among Chmn. Morris J. Mendelsohn; Exec. Dir. the youth of America through varied cul- Morris Giloni. Aids in building, coloniza- tural and educational programs. Inter-Ac- tion, and social welfare activities of the tion Newspaper; Israel News; Junior Ha- National Labor Federation in Israel and its magid; Leaders Guides; Mizracba; Mizracbi various institutions. Hatzair Newsletter; Religious Guides; PALESTINE SYMPHONIC CHOIR PROJECT Torah Discussion Guides. (1938). 3143 Central Ave., Indianapolis MIZRACHI ORGANIZATION OF AMERICA. See 5, Ind. Chmn. Myro Glass; Treas. James RELIGIOUS ZIONISTS OF AMERICA. G. Heller. Seeks to settle cantors and Jew- MIZRACHI PALESTINE FUND (1928). 80 ish artists and their families in Israel; Fifth Ave., N. Y. C, 11. Chmn. Mordecai seeks to establish a center for festivals of Kirshblum; Sec. Henry H. Rubins. Acts as Biblical musical dramas. financial instrument of the World Mizrachi PIONEER WOMEN, THE WOMEN'S LABOR organization to collect funds in the United ZIONIST ORGANIZATION OF AMERICA, States for the activities of Mizrachi and INC. (1925). 29 E. 22 St., N. Y. C, 10. Hapoel Hamizrachi in Israel and to dis- Pres. Clara Leff; V. Pres. Blanche Fine burse these funds in Israel. and Ray Levitt. In America promotes a MIZRACHI WOMEN'S ORGANIZATION OF dynamic program of Jewish cultural activi- AMBRICA (1925). 242 Fourth Ave., N. Y. ties; participates actively in American civic C, 3. Nat. Pres. Mrs. Moses Dyckman; life as well as in all Israel fund campaigns; Nat. Exec. Sec. Helen Tannenbaum. Con- in Israel, though its sister organization the NATIONAL JEWISH ORGANIZATIONS 381

Working Women's Council, offers a pro- UNITED CHARITY INSTITUTIONS OF JBRU- gram of social services to youth through SALBM, INC. (1903). 154 Nassau St., agricultural training schools, to women and N. Y. C, 38, Pres. David L. Meckler; children through vocational training, kinder- Exec. Sec. Morris Eliach. Maintains 18 in- gartens and day nurseries, and to Arab wom- stitutions in Israel consisting of schools, en through special dubs and vocational hospitals, kitchens, clinics, and dispensaries. training; provides guidance and training UNITED ISRAEL APPEAL, INC. (1927). 515 centers for the new immigrant women. Park Ave., N. Y. C, 23. Nat. Chmn. Dewey Newsletter; Pioneer Women. D. Stone; Sec. Gottlieb Hammer. Raises POALB AGUDATH ISRAEL OF AMBRICA, INC. funds for Israel's immigration and resettle- (1948). 147 W. 42 St., N. Y. C, 36. ment program; chief beneficiary of the UJA Pres. Leo Jung, Samuel Schonfeld, Samuel campaign; fund-raising representative of all Walkin, Noah Chodosh; Exec. Dir. Shim- Zionist parties as well as the Palestine shon Heller. Aims to educate and prepare Foundation Fund and the Jewish Agency; youth throughout the world to become carries out interpretative and educational Orthodox chalutzim in Israel; to prepare program on Israel immigration and resettle- them for useful and creative labor in the ment projects. Israel Fotofacts. upbuilding of the land of Israel. Jewish UNITED LABER ZIONIST PARTY (ACHDUT Week. HAAVODAH-POALE ZlON) (1920; re-org. • , EZRA-lRGUN HANOAR HACHAREIDI 1947). 305 Broadway, N. Y. C, 7. Nat. (1953). 147 W. 42 St., N. Y. C, 36. Sec. Paul L. Goldman. Seeks to establish Pres. Gershon Kranzler; Sec. Tamar Paul. a democratic socialist order in Israel and Youth organization of the Poale Agudath strengthen the Jewish labor movement in Israel; aims to give children a religious, the U. S. Undzer Veg. agricultural education in order to enable UNITED STATES COMMITTEE FOR SPORTS IN them to become members of or build kib- ISRAEL, INC. (1950). 147 W. 42 St., butzim in Israel. Alonim LaGola. N. Y. C, 36. Chmn. Harry D. Henshel; , LEAGUE OF RELIGIOUS SETTLE- Admin. Sec. Samuel Sloan. Assists the peo- MENTS, INC.—CHEVER HAKIBBUTZIM ple of Israel to develop and maintain a (1951). 147 W. 42 St., N. Y. C, 36. To program of recreational facilities and enable Jewish youth to enter into a new physical education activities, including the life of true Judaism on Poale Agudath training of personnel in leadership in Israel kibbutzim in Israel. wholesome competitive sports. , WOMEN'S DIVISION OF (1948). UNITED ZIONIST REVISIONISTS OF AMER- 147 W. 42 St., N. Y. C, 36. Pres. Mrs. ICA, INC. (1925). 55 W. 42 St., N. Y. C, Rosaline Abramczyk; Sec. Mrs. Claire Stern. 25. Chmn. J. B. Schechtman; Exec. Dir. Assists Poale Agudath Israel in its efforts Beinesh Epstein. Advocates a free enterprise to build and support the children's homes, economy in Israel encouraging private in- kindergartens, and trade schools in Israel. vestment and liberal democracy with guar- PROGRESSIVE ZIONIST LEAGUE-HASHOMER antees for rights of the individual; continues HATZAm (1947). 112 Park Ave. So., N. Y. to claim the rights of the Jewish people C, 3. Pres. Avraham Schenker; Treas. to the historical territory of Eretz Israel. Yitzchak Frankel. Seeks to encourage WOMEN'S LBAGUB FOR ISRAEL, INC. American community support for Israel (1928). 1860 Broadway, N. Y. C, 23. kibbutz movement; engages in fund raising Pres. Mrs. Harry Cahane; Exec. Sec. Regina for Israel, particularly on behalf of cha- Wermiel. Provides shelter, vocational train- lutz (pioneering) movement; seeks to fight ing, and social adjustment services for for rights of Jews everywhere. Background young women newcomers to Israel; built Bulletin; Israel Horizons. women's dormitories and cafeteria at the RELIGIOUS ZIONISTS OF AMERICA, MIZ- Hebrew University in Jerusalem. Israel RACHI-HAPOEL HAMIZRACHI (1957). 80 News Digest; Women's League for Israel Fifth Ave., N. Y. C, 11. Nat. Pres. Isaac News Bulletin. B. Stollman; Exec. V. Pres. Samuel Spar. WORLD CONFEDERATION OF GENERAL Seeks to rebuild Israel as a Jewish common- ZIONISTS (1946). 11 W. 42 St., N. Y. C, wealth in the spirit of traditional Judaism 36. Co-chmn. Israel Goldstein, Mrs. Rose and to strengthen Orthodox Judaism in Halprin; Exec. Dir. Kalman Sultanik. the diaspora. Igeret; Jewish Horizon; Organized on a diaspora basis without Kolenu; Mizrachi Weg; Or Hamizrach. any identification with political parties in STUDENT ZIONIST ORGANIZATION. See Israel; promotes Zionist education and YOUTH DEPARTMENT, AMERICAN ZION- information and welfare activities on be- IST COUNCIL. half of Israel; in Israel encourages pri- TEL HAI FUND, INC. (1935). 55 W. 42 vate and collective industry and agri- St., N. Y. C, 25. Pres. J. B. Schechtman; culture; advocates the system of free and Exec. Dir. Beinesh Epstein. Serves as the universal education in Israel, under gov- financial instrument for the colonization, ernment control. Issues monthly bulletins, cultural, educational and social welfare in- pamphlets, booklets, and reports in Eng- stitutions of the Jabotinsky movement in lish, Yiddish, and Spanish. Zionist Informa- Israel. tion Views. 382 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

ZEBULUN ISRAEL SEAFARING SOCIETY, INC (1897). 145 E. 32 St., N. Y. C, 16. Pres. (1946). 31 Union Square W., N. Y. C, Abraham A. Redelheim; Sec, Exec. Dir. 3. Pres. Solomon S. Isquith; Sec. Sam- Sidney Marks. Seeks to safeguard the in- uel Lonschein. Encourages seamindedness tegrity and independence of Israel as a free among Jewish youth; assists training and democratic commonwealth by means schools for seamen in Israel; assists dis- consistent with the laws of the U. S.; to abled, sick, and old seamen. assist in the economic development of Is- ZIONIST ARCHIVBS AND LIBRARY OF PAL- rael; and to strengthen Jewish sentiment ESTINE FOUNDATION FUND (1939). and consciousness as a people and promote 515 Park Ave., N. Y. C, 23. Dir. and its cultural creativity. American Zionist; Librarian Sylvia Landless. Serves as an ar- Zionist Information Service; ZOA Re- chive and information service for material porter. on Israel, Palestine, the Middle East, and Zionism. Palestine and Zionism. ZIONIST YOUTH COUNCIL. See YOUTH DB- ZIONIST ORGANIZATION OF AMERICA PARTMENT, AMERICAN ZIONIST COUNCIL.

CANADA

CANADA-ISRAEL SECURITIES, LTD. (1953). gious groups; cooperates with other agen- 2025 University St., Montreal, 2. Nat. cies in efforts for improvement of social, Pres. Samuel Bronfman; Gen. Mngr. Mar- economic, and cultural conditions of Jewry tin Newmark. Parent organization for the and mitigation of their sufferings through- sale of State of Israel Bonds in Canada. out the world, and in helping to rehabili- CANADIAN ASSOCIATION FOR LABOR ISRAEL tate Jewish refugees and immigrants; as- (HISTADRUT) (1944). 5101 Esplanade sists Jewish communities in Canada in es- Ave., Montreal. Nat. Pres. Bernard M. tablishing central community organizations Bloomfield; Nat. Exec. Dir. Abraham M. to provide for the social, philanthropic, Shurem. Conducts fund-raising activities educational, and cultural needs of those for and disseminates information about the communities. Congress Bulletin; Bulletin Histadrut in Israel. Monthly News Letters. de Cercle Juif. CANADIAN ASSOCIATION OF HEBREW CANADIAN YOUNG JUDAEA (1917). 2025 SCHOOLS (IGUD). See KEREN HATAR- University St., Montreal, 2. Pres. Ray BUT. Havelock. Educates toward general Zion- CANADIAN COMMITTEB OF THE COUNCIL ism and creative Jewish living; stresses OF JEWISH FEDERATIONS AND WELFARE active and meaningful relationship between FUNDS (1942). 493 Sherbrooke St., W., Canadian Jews and Israel. Dug-ma; Judaean; Montreal, 2. Pres. Arthur E. Gelber; Sec. Senior Judaean. Arthur S. Rosichan. Serves as a clearing CANPAL-CANADIAN ISRABL TRADING CO., house for Canadian federations, welfare LTD. (1949). 1231 St. Catherine St. W., funds, and central organizations and acts as Montreal, 25. Pres. Barney Aaron; Exec liaison with the Council of Jewish Federa- Dir. and Mngr. Joe Baumholz. Active in tions and Welfare Funds. promoting trade between Canada and Israel. CANADIAN FRIENDS OF THB ALLIANCE IS- Annual Report. RAELITE UNTVERSELLE (1958). 1434 St. COMMITTEE OF CANADIAN JEWISH FEDER- Catherine St. W., Suite 203, Montreal. ATIONS AND WELFARE FUNDS. See CA- Pres. Harry Batshaw; Sec-Gen. Anna NADIAN COMMITTEE OF THE COUNCIL Stearns. Serves as liaison between Canadian OF JEWISH FEDERATIONS AND WELFARE Jewry and the work of the Alliance Israelite FUNDS. Universelle. HADASSAH ORGANIZATION OF CANADA CANADIAN FRIENDS OF THE HEBREW UNI- (affiliated with WIZO) (1917). 2025 VERSITY (1945). 2025 University St., University St., Montreal, 2. Nat. Pres. Mrs. Montreal, 2. Nat. Pres. Allan Bronfman; William Riven; Nat. Exec Dir. Mrs. Joseph Exec. V. Pres. Samuel R. Risk; Nat. Dir. Adler. Seeks to foster Zionist ideals among Alex Mogelonsky. Represents and publicizes Jewish women in Canada; conducts child- the Hebrew University in Canada; serves as care, health, medical, and social-welfare fund-raising arm for the university in activities in Israel. Hadassah Highlights; Canada. Newsletter. Hadassah Supplement in Canadian Zionist; CANADIAN JEWISH CONGRESS (1919; re- Israel Today. org. 1934). 493 Sherbrooke St., W., Mont- JEWISH COLONIZATION ASSOCIATION OF real, 2. Nat. Pres. Samuel Bronfman; Exec. CANADA (1907). 493 Sherbrooke St. W., V. Pres. Saul Hayes. As the recognized Montreal. Pres. Samuel Bronfman; Mngr. national representative body of Canadian M. J. Lister. Assists and promotes Jewish Jewry, seeks to safeguard the status, rights, land settlement in Canada by aiding needy and welfare of Jews in Canada; to combat established farmers with loans; assists the antisemitism and promote understanding immigration of trained and experienced and goodwill among all ethnic and reli- farmers from Europe for settlement on NATIONAL JEWISH ORGANIZATIONS 383

farms owned by the association in Canada; tional, and educational program of Labor gives advice and supervision in farming Zionist groups in Canada. Dos Vort; View. methods. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF JEWISH WOMBN JEWISH IMMIGRANT AID SERVICES OF CAN- OF CANADA (1897). 152 Beverley St., ADA (JIAS) (1920). 4221 Esplanade Toronto, 2B. Nat. Pres. N. I. Zemans; Nat. Ave., Montreal Nat. Pres. George Hol- Sec. Mrs. Martin Bloom. Offers program lander; Nat. Exec. Dir. Joseph Kage. Serves of community welfare services and educa- as a national agency for immigration and tion for action in social legislation and immigrant welfare. JIAS News. welfare in Canada. Canadian Council JEWISH LABOR COMMITTEB OF CANADA Woman. (1936). 4848 St. Lawrence Blvd., Mont- real, 14. Nat. Chmn. Michael Rubinstein; PALESTINE ECONOMIC CORPORATION OP Nat. Dir. Sid Blum. Aids Jewish and non- CANADA, LTD. (1947). 88 Richmond St. Jewish labor institutions overseas; pro- W., Toronto, 2. Pres. D. Lou Harris; Chmn. motes a civil rights program; seeks to of Bd. Samuel Bronfman. Fosters invest- combat anti-Semitism and racial and reli- ment in and economic development of gious intolerance. Canadian Labour Reports. Israel. JBWISH NATIONAL FUND OF CANADA UNITED JEWISH RBLIBF AGENCIES OF CAN- (1902). 2025 University St., Montreal, 2. ADA (affiliated with the AMERICAN JOINT Nat. Chmn. Charles Bender; Nat. Exec. DISTRIBUTION COMMITTEE) (1939). 493 Dir. Jacob Gottlieb. Raises funds for re- Sherbrooke St. W., Montreal. Pres. Sam- demption of land and afforestation in Israel. uel Bronfman; Exec. Dir. Saul Hayes. A subsidiary of the Canadian Jewish Con- JOINT PUBLIC RELATIONS COMMITTBB OF gress; federates organizations extending CANADIAN JEWISH CONGRESS AND B'NAI relief to Jewish refugees and other war BRITH IN CANADA (1936). 150 Beverley victims. Congress Bulletin. St., Toronto. Pres. Fred M. Catzman Q.C.; Nat. Exec. Dir. Ben G. Kayfetz. Seeks to UNITED JEWISH TEACHERS SEMINARY prevent and eliminate anti-Semitism and (1945). 4099 Esplanade Ave., Montreal. promote better intergroup relations in Pres. Lavy M. Becker; Dir. Samuel Levine. Canada. Congress Bulletin. Trains treachers for all types of Jewish KEREN HATARBUT—CANADIAN ASSOCIA- and Hebrew schools. TION FOR HEBREW EDUCATION AND CUL- ZIONIST MEN'S ASSOCIATION OF CANADA TURE. 5234 Clanranald Ave., Montreal. (1923). 2025 University St., Montreal, 2. Pres. S. S. Gordon; Nat. Dir. Aron Horow- Nat. Pres. Ben Shaicovich; Nat. Sec. Harry itz. Seeks to promote maximum Hebrew Batshaw. Aims to foster among its members education; serves as a coordinating agency the principles of general Zionism, having for affiliated schools; serves as a unifying for its purpose assistance in the development factor in the spiritual and cultural life of the State of Israel, Jewish consciousness of Canadian Jewry; seeks to stimulate through the study, appreciation, and dis- knowledge of the Hebrew language and semination of the Hebrew language and Hebrew culture in Canada; to serve as a culture. Bulletin. cultural bridge between Canada and Israel. ZIONIST ORGANIZATION OF CANADA (1892; LABOR ZIONIST MOVEMENT OF CANADA re-org. 1919). 2025 University St., Mont- (1939). 5101 Esplanade Ave., Montreal, real, 2. Nat. Pres. Lawrence Freiman; Nat. 14. Nat. Pres. I. M. Bobrove; Exec. Dir. Exec. Dir. A. M. Melamet. Seeks to further Jacob Rabinovitch. Coordinates the activi- the cause of Zionism in Canada. Canadian ties and advances the political, organiza- Zionist. »I<»» » t> ******** * * * ****** » »

Jewish Federations, Welfare Funds, Community Councils

HIS directory is one of a series compiled called a community council in another. In the Tannually by the Council of Jewish Fed- main these central agencies have responsibil- erations and Welfare Funds. Virtually all of ity for some or all of the following functions: these community organizations are affiliated (a) raising of funds for local, national, and with the Council as their national associa- overseas services; (b) allocation and distri- tion for sharing of common services, inter- bution of funds for these purposes; (c) co- change of experience, and joint consultation ordination and central planning of local serv- and action. ices, such as family welfare, child care, health, These communities comprise at least 95 recreation, community relations within the per cent of the Jewish population of the Jewish community and with the general com- United States and about 90 per cent of the munity, Jewish education, care of the aged, Jewish population of Canada. Listed for each and vocational guidance, to strengthen these community is the local central agency—fed- services, eliminate duplication, and fill gaps; eration, welfare fund, or community council (d) in small and some intermediate cities, —with its address and the names of the presi- direct administration of local social services. dent and executive officer. In the directory, the following symbols are The names "federation," "welfare fund," used: and "Jewish community council" are not (1) Member agency of the Council of definitive and their structures and functions Jewish Federations and Welfare Funds. vary from city to city. What is called a fed- (2) Receives support from Community eration in one city, for example, may be Chest.

UNITED STATES

ALABAMA ARIZONA BIRMINGHAM i UNITED JEWISH FUND (ind. Ensley, PHOENIX Fairfield, Tarrant City) (1937); P. O. i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (ind. Box 9157; 3960 Montclair Rd. (13); surrounding communities) (1940); 1510 Pres. Julian Aland; Exec. Sec. Mrs. Benja- E. Camelback Road; Pres. Sam Fineberg; min A. Roth. Exec. Dir. Hirsh Kaplan. MOBILE TUCSON i. 2 JEWISH WELFARE FEDERATION; Pres. i. 2 JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (1942); Edwin A. Zelnicker, Jr.; Sec.-Treas. Sidney 102 N. Plumer; Pres. David N. Ginsburg; Simon, 459 Conti St. Exec. Dir. Benjamin N. Brook. MONTGOMERY i JEWISH FEDERATION (1930); Pres. Yale Friedlander; Sec. Hannah J. Simon, P. O. ARKANSAS Box 1150. TRI-CITIES i TRI-CITIES JEWISH FEDERATED CHARI- LITTLE ROCK TIES (incl. Florence, Sheffield, Tuscumbia) i. 2 JBWISH WELFARE AGENCY (ind. Levy, (1933); Pres. Philip Olin; Treas. Louis North Little Rock) (1911); 732 Pyramid Rosenbaum, c/o Rosenbaum Theaters, Life Bldg.; Pres. Louis B. Hoffman; Exec. Florence. Sec. Isabel Cooper. 384 JEWISH FEDERATIONS, WELFARE FUNDS, COMMUNITY COUNCILS 385 CALIFORNIA STOCKTON 1.2 JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (ind. BAKERSFIELD Lodi, Sonora, Tracy) (1948); 1345 N. IJBWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL OF Madison St. (3); Pres. Irving Corren; GREATER BAKERSFIELD (ind. Arvin, Sec. Mrs. Norine Goldstein. Delano, Shafter, Taft, Wasco) (1937); VENTURA P. O. Box 3211; Pres. Oscar Katz; Sec. i VENTURA COUNTY JBWISH COUNCIL Jerry Lobel. (ind. Camarillo, Fillmore, Moorpark, Ojai, FRESNO Oxnard, Port Hueneme, Santa Paula, Santa i UNTTBD JEWISH WELFARB FUND (ind. Susana, Ventura) (1938); 2500 Channel Fresno, Madera Counties) (1931); spon- Drive; Pres. Ralph Moses; Exec. Sec. Mrs. sored by JEWISH WELFARB FEDERATION; Lee L. Lizer. P. O. Box 1328 (15); Pres. Norman Rudy; Exec. Dir. David L. Greenberg. COLORADO LONG BEACH ILONG BEACH JEWISH COMMUNITY DENVER COUNCIL (1946); sponsored by the i ALLIED JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL UNTTBD JBWISH WELFARE FUND; 2601 (1936); sponsors ALLIED JEWISH CAM- Grand Ave. (15); Pres. Sam E. Leddel; PAIGN; 400 Kittredge Bldg. (2); Pres. Exec. Dir. Morton J. Gaba. Morris Miller; Exec. Dir. Nathan Rosen- LOS ANGELES berg. i. 2 JEWISH FEDERATION—COUNCIL OF GRBATBR LOS ANGBLES (1911; reorg. 1959); 590 N. Vermont Ave. (4); Pres. CONNECTICUT Steve Broidy; Co.-Exec. Dir. Julius Bisno and Martin Ruderman. BRIDGEPORT OAKLAND i BRIDGEPORT JEWISH COMMUNITY COUN- CIL (incl. Easton, Fairfield, Stratford, 1.2 JEWISH WELFARE FEDERATION (ind. Trumbull) (1936); sponsors UNITBD JEW- all of Alameda, Contra Costa Counties) ISH CAMPAIGN; 360 State St. (3); Pres. (1945); 3245 Sheffield Ave. (2); Pres. Joseph I. Spector; Exec. Dir. Mrs. Clara Milton J. Klegman; Exec. Dir. Oscar A. M. Stern. Mintzer. SACRAMENTO DANBURY i JEWISH FEDERATION OF DANBURY i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL OF SAC- (1945); P. O. Box 446; Pres. Arthur RAMENTO AND SUPERIOR CALIFORNIA Siegel; Treas. Jack Marcus. (1935); 1523-18 St.; Pres. Frank Gold- stein; Exec. Dir. Charles T. Shafrock. HARTFORD SALINAS i JEWISH FEDERATION (1945); 74 Niles MONTEREY COUNTY JEWISH COMMUNITY St. (5); Pres. Stanley Fisher; Exec. Dir. COUNOL (1948); 326 Park St.; Pres. Bernard L. Gottlieb. Leon Aidelberg; Sec. Mrs. A. Haselkorn. MERIDEN SAN BERNARDINO i MERIDEN JEWISH WELFARB FUND, INC. (1944); 127 E. Main St.; Pres. Selig ISAN BERNARDINO JEWISH WELFARB FUNDS, INC. (incl. Colton, Redlands) Schwartz; Sec. Harold Rosen. (1936); Pres. Leonard Becker; Treas. Her- NEW BRITAIN man Stelzer, 889 W. Marshall Blvd. INEW BRITAIN JEWISH FEDERATION SAN DIEGO (1936); 33 Court St.; Pres. Morton Mag; Exec. Dir. Ben Stark. i UNITED JEWISH FEDERATION (ind. San Diego County) (1935); 4079-54 St. (5); NEW HAVEN Pres. Walter Ornstein; Exec. Dir. Louis i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (ind. Leiblicb. Hamden, W. Haven) (1928); sponsors SAN FRANCISCO JEWISH WELFARE FUND (1939); 152 Temple St. (10); Pres. Jack Konowitz; i. 2 JEWISH WELFARE FEDERATION OF Exec. Dir. Benjamin N. Levy. SAN FRANCISCO, MARIN COUNTY, AND THE PENINSULA (1910; reorg. 1955); NEW LONDON 230 California St. (11); Pres. Walter Hel- JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL OF NBW ler; Exec. Dir. Sanford M. Treguboff. LONDON (1951); Pres. Alec R. Shapiro, Cor. Sec. Mrs. Arnold Cohen, 11 Wood- SAN JOSE lawn Rd. i. 2 JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL OF SAN JOSE (incl. Santa Clara County) NORWALK (1936; reorg. 1950); 57 East Santa Clara i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL OF NOR- St. (13); Pres. Mrs. Michael A. Garetz; WALK; Pres. Henry Appelbaum, 30 West Exec. Dir. Sidney Stein. Ave., S. Norwalk. 386 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

STAMFORD TAMPA i UNITED JEWISH APPEAL; 132 Prospect i JEWISH WELFARE FEDERATION OF St.; Co-Chmn. Louis J. Kuriansky, Louis TAMPA (1941); 325 Hyde Park Ave. Lotstein; Exec. Sec. Mrs. Leon Kahn. (6); Pres. Joseph Warshaw; Exec. Dir. WATERBURY Nathan Rothberg. i. 2 JEWISH FEDERATION OF WATERBURY WEST PALM BEACH (ind. Middlebury, Naugatuck, Watertown) i FEDERATED JEWISH CHARITIES OF PALM (1938); Jones Morgan Bldg., 108 Bank BEACH COUNTY (1938); 218 S. Olive St. (2); Pres. Eugene Kaplan; Exec. Dir. Ave.; Pres. Isidor Hammer; Exec. Sec. Ralph Segalman. Irving B. Cohen. DELAWARE GEORGIA WILMINGTON ATLANTA i JEWISH FEDERATION OF DELAWARB i. 2 JEWISH SOCIAL SERVICE FEDERATION (statewide) (1935); 900 Washington St. OF ATLANTA (1905); 41 Exchange PI. (99); Pres. Sol Zallea; Exec. Dir. Simon S. E., P. O. Box 855; Pres. Abe Schwartz; Krakow. Exec. Dir. Edward M. Kahn. i JEWISH WELFARE FUND (ind. Metro- DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA politan Atlanta Area) (1936); 41 Ex- change PI. S. E., P. O. Box 855; Pres. Abe WASHINGTON Goldstein; Exec. Sec. Edward M. Kahn. JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL OF JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (1945); GRBATER WASHINGTON (1938); 1420 41 Exchange PI. S. E., P. O. Box 855; New York Ave., N. W. (5); Pres. Albert Pres. Morton Weiss; Exec. Dir. Edward E. Arent; Exec. Dir. Isaac Franck. M. Kahn. UNITED JEWISH APPEAL OF GREATER AUGUSTA WASHINGTON, INC. (1935); 1529-16 i FEDERATION OF JEWISH CHARITIES St., N. W. (6); Pres. I. J. Turover; Exec. (1943); 207 Augusta-Richmond County Dir. Meyer H. Brissman. Courthouse; Chmn. Irvin Daitch; Sec Howard P. Jolles. FLORIDA COLUMBUS i JEWISH WELFARE FEDERATION (1941); HOLLYWOOD 309-4th National Bank Bldg.; Pres. Morris JBWISH WELFARE FEDERATION OF HOLLYWOOD; 2632 Hollywood Blvd., Robbins; Sec. Melvin G. Satlof. Forum Bldg., Rm. 300; Pres. Stanley M. MACON Beckerman; Exec. Dir. Israel Silver. FEDERATION OF JEWISH CHARITIBS JACKSONVILLE (1942); P. O. Box 237. i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (ind. SAVANNAH Jacksonville Beach) (1935); 425 Newman i SAVANNAH JEWISH COUNCIL (1943); St. (2); Pres. Max Leitman. sponsors UNITED JEWISH APPEAL AND MIAMI FEDERATION CAMPAIGN; 5111 Abercorn i GRBATBR MIAMI JEWISH FEDERATION St.; Pres. Raymond Rosen; Exec. Dir. (incl. Dade County) (1938); 424 Lin- Joseph M. Moseson. coln Lane, Miami Beadi (39); Pres. Aaron VALDOSTA Kanner; Exec. Dir. Arthur S. Rosichan. JEWISH JOINT COMMUNITIES CHARITY ORLANDO FUND OF THE FLORIDA BORDBR RBGION CENTRAL FLORIDA JEWISH COMMUNITY (ind. Homerville, Quitman); rhmn Louis COUNCIL (1949); P. O. Box 976; Pres. Gorod, Magnolia St. Mrs. S. C. Gluckman. HAWAII* PENSACOLA HONOLULU i PENSACOLA FEDERATED JEWISH CHARI- HAWAII JEWISH WELFARB FUND (1956); TIES (1942); Pres. H. Sodof, P. O. Box 328 Merchandise Mart Building (13); 493; Sec. Mrs. David N. Henriques. Pres. James Zukerkorn; Sec. Bernard H. ST. PETERSBURG Levinson. JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL; Pres. Leonard Lubin, Empire Bldg.; Exec. Dir. IDAHO William Cohen. SARASOTA BOISE 1 SARASOTA JEWISH COMMUNITY COUN- i SOUTHERN IDAHO JEWISH WELFARE CIL; P. O. Box 3927; Pres. Sidney Adler. FUND (1947); 922 Front; Pres. Kal Sarlat; Treas. Martin Heuman. UNITED JEWISH APPEAL OF SARASOTA; P. O. Box 3927; Pres. Sidney Adler. * This entry added by editors. JEWISH FEDERATIONS, WELFARE FUNDS, COMMUNITY COUNCILS 387 ILLINOIS FORT WAYNE i. 2 FORT WAYNE JEWISH FEDERATION AURORA (ind. surrounding communities) (1922); 1 AURORA JEWISH WELFARB FUND 408 Strauss Bldg. (2); Pres. Haskell B. (1935); 20 N. Lincoln Ave.; Pres. Harold Schultz; Exec Dir. Joseph Levine. Fink; Sec Lawrence Yellin. GARY CHICAGO i. 2 NORTHWEST INDIANA JEWISH WBL- i.s JEWISH FEDERATION (1900); 1 S. FARE FEDERATION (indudes Crown Point, Franklin St. (6); Pres. Samuel S. Hol- E. Chicago, Gary, Hammond) (1940; lender; Exec V. Pres. Samuel A. Gold- reorg. 1959); 708 Broadway; Pres. Benja- smith. min Saks; Exec. Dir. Alvin S. Levinson. i JEWISH WELFARB FUND (1936); 1 S. INDIANAPOLIS Franklin St. (6); Pres. Bernard Nath; i. 2 JEWISH WELFARE FEDERATION Exec V. Pres. and Sec Samuel A. Gold- (1905); 615 N. Alabama St. (4); Pres. smith. David M. Cook; Exec. Dir. Frank New- DECATUR man. i JEWISH FEDERATION (1942); Treas. LAFAYETTE Mrs. Gershon R. Cohn, 777 S. Monroe St. i FEDERATED JEWISH CHARITIBS (ind. ELGIN Attica, Crawfordsville) (1924); Pres. i JEWISH WBLFARB CHEST (ind. St. Matt Neuwelt. Charles) (1938); Pres. Maurice D. Kap- MICHIGAN CITY lan; Treas. Irvin Berman. i UNITBD JEWISH WELFARB FUND; 2800 JOLXET Franklin St.; Pres. Norman H. Wenig. i JOLIET JEWISH WELFARB CHEST (ind. MUNCIE Coal City, Dwight, Lemont, Lockport, MUNCIB JEWISH WBLFARB FUND; Beth Morris, Plainfield) (1938); 226 E. Clin- El Temple, 525 W. Jackson St.; Pres. Ben ton St.; Pres. Harold Brown; Sec Morris Hertz; Sec. Maurice Feuer. M. Hershman. PEORIA SOUTH BEND i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (ind. IJBWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL OF ST. Canton, E. Peoria, Morton, Pekin, Wash- JOSEPH COUNTY (1946); 308 Plan Bldg. ington) (1933); Citizen's Bldg., 225 (1); Pres. Frederick Baer; Exec Dir. Main St., Suite 613; Pres. Jacob W. Bernard Natkow. Rothbaum; Exec Dir. Abraham F. Gtron. JBWISH WELFARE FUND (1937); 308 ROCK ISLAND-MOLINE Platt Bldg. (1); Pres. Louis Wolfberg; 1 UNITED JEWISH CHARITIES OF ROCK Exec. Dir. Bernard Natkow. ISLAND COUNTY (1938); Pres. Benjamin TERRE HAUTE Friedman; Sec. Benjamin Goldstein, 2713 i JEWISH WELFARE FUND OF TBRRB 32 Ave. Court. HAUTB (incl. Marshall, Paris) (1922); ROCKFORD Pres. A. H. Kaufman; Sec Mrs. Leon L. 1.2 JEWISH COMMUNITY BOARD (1937); Blum, 3200 Ohio Blvd. 1502 Parkview; Pres. Benjamin Levinson; Exec. Dir. Allan Bloom. IOWA SOUTHERN ILLINOIS i JEWISH FEDERATION OF SOUTHERN IL- CEDAR RAPIDS LINOIS (ind. all of Illinois south of Carlin- i JEWISH WELFARE FUND (1941); Pres. ville) (1942); 417 Missouri Ave., Room Paul Rapoport; Sec. Mrs. A. L. Smulekoff, 1004, East St. Louis; Pres. Harry Wolff; 4424 C Ave. N. E. Exec Dir. Hyman H. Ruffman. DAVENPORT SPRINGFIELD i JEWISH CHARITIES (1921); 12th & Mis- 1.2 JEWISH FEDERATION (ind. Ashland, sissippi Ave.; Pres. Ben Comenitz. Athens, Atlanta, Jacksonville, Lincoln, DES MOINES Pana, Petersburg, Pittsfield, Shelbyville, i JEWISH WELFARE FEDERATION (1914); Taylorville, Winchester) (1941); 730 East 601 Empire Bldg. (9); Pres. M. O. Kahn; Vine St.; Pres. Albert Myers; Exec Dir. Exec. Dir. Samuel Soifer. Miss Dorothy Wolfson. SIOUX CITY INDIANA 1.2 JEWISH FEDERATION (1943); P. O. Box 1468 (2); Pres. Lynn Arkin; Exec. EVANSVILLE Dir. Oscar Littlefield. i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (1936); WATERLOO Pres. Meyer Siegel; Exec. Dir. Martin B. i WATERLOO JEWISH FEDERATION Ryback, c/o Washington Ave. Temple, (1941); Chmn. Dave Guralnik, 202 La- 100 Washington Ave. (13). fayette Bldg. 388 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

KANSAS land Ave.; Pres. Joseph Stillman; Exec. Dir. Jules Krems. TOPEKA i TOPEKA-LAWRENCE JEWISH FEDERA- MARYLAND TION (incl. Emporia, Lawrence, St. Marys) (1939); Sec. Louis Pozez, 626 Kansas BALTIMORE Ave. 1 ASSOCIATED JEWISH CHARITIES OF BAL- TIMORE (1920); 319 W. Monument St. WICHITA (1); Pres. Joseph Meyerhoff; Exec. Dir. i MID-KANSAS JEWISH WELFARE FEDER- Harry Greenstein. ATION, INC. (ind. Augusta, Dodge City, El Dorado, Eureka, Great Bend, Hosing- i JBWISH WELFARE FUND (1941); 319 ton, Hutchinson, McPherson) (1935); W. Monument St. (1); Pres. Julius Offit; Pres. Milton Glickman; Exec. Sec. Edward Exec. Dir. Harry Greenstein. Weil, 1104 Union National Bldg. CUMBERLAND JEWISH WELFARE FUND OF WESTERN KENTUCKY MARYLAND (ind. Frostburg and Oakland, Md., Keyser and Romney, W. Va.) LOUISVILLE (1939); Pres. Robert Goldfine; Sec. Rob- i CONFERENCE OF JEWISH ORGANIZA- ert Kaplon, P. O. Box 327. TIONS OF LOUISVILLE (ind. Jeffersonville, New Albany, Ind.) (1934); sponsors MASSACHUSETTS UNITED JEWISH CAMPAIGN; 702 Marion E. Taylor Bldg. (2); Chmn. Norbert BOSTON Friedman; Exec. Dir. Clarence F. Judah. i ASSOCIATED JEWISH PHILANTHROPIES, INC. (central planning, coordinating and LOUISIANA budgeting agency for 22 local health, welfare, educational, and group work agendes) ALEXANDRIA (1895); 72 Franklin St. (10); Pres. i JEWISH WELFARE FEDERATION AND Simon J. Helman; Exec. Dir. Benjamin B. COMMUNITY COUNCIL (1938); 14 N. Rosenberg. Drive; Pres. Nathan Kaplan; Sec. Mrs. i COMBINED JEWISH APPEAL OF GRBAT- Aaron Jortner. ER BOSTON, INC. (central fund-raising MONROE agency for support of local, national, over- i UNITED JBWISH CHARITIES OF NORTH- seas, and Israel agencies for Boston and EAST LOUISIANA (1938); P. O. Box 2503; surrounding communities) (1940); 72 Pres. Henry Gerson; Sec.-Treas. Mark H. Franklin St. (10); Pres. Louis P. Smith; Wilenzick. Exec. Dir. Benjamin B. Rosenberg. JBWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL OF MBT- NEW ORLEANS ROPOLITAN BOSTON (1944); 72 Franklin i. 2 JEWISH FEDERATION OF NBW OR- St. (10); Pres. Morris Michelson; Exec LBANS (1913); 211 Camp St. (12); Pres. Dir. Robert E. Segal. Nat Friedler; Exec. Dir. Harry I. Barron. BROCKTON i NEW ORLEANS JEWISH WELFARE FUND 1 (1933); 211 Camp St. (12); Pres. Mrs. UNITED JEWISH APPEAL OF THE BROCKTON AREA (ind. Roddand, Joseph Cohen; Exec. Sec. Harry I. Barron. Stoughton, Whitman) (1939); 66 Green SHREVEPORT St.; Chmn. Robert Green; Exec. Sec. 1 SHREVEPORT JEWISH FEDERATION Hyman Wilotsky. (1941); 404Y2 Marshall St.; Pres. Sylvian FALL RIVER W. Gamm; Exec. Dir. Morton Adell. !FALL RIVER JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL; Pres. Philip Goltz, 130 S. MAINE Main St. BANGOR !FALL RIVER UNITED JEWISH APPEAL, INC.; 41 N. Main St.; Treas.-Fin. Sec. 2 JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (ind. Old Town, Orono, and outlying towns) Louis Hornstein. (1949); 28 Somerset St.; Pres. Albert H. FITCHBURG Friedman; Exec. Dir. Milton Lincoln. i JEWISH FEDERATION OF FITCHBURG LEWISTON-AUBURN (1939); 66 Day St.; Pres. Philip Salny. JEWISH FEDERATION; C/O Jewish Com- HAVERHILL munity Center, 134 College St.; Pres. HAVERHILL UNITED JEWISH APPEAL Leonard Bell; Exec. Dir. Morris Kronen- COMMITTEB; 514 Main St.; Pres. Louis feld. Kleven; Exec. Sec. Abraham I. Jacobson. PORTLAND HOLYOKE i JEWISH FEDERATION (1942); sponsors i COMBINED JEWISH APPEAL OF HOL- UNITED JEWISH APPEAL; 341 Cumber- YOKE (ind. Easthampton) (1939); 378 JEWISH FEDERATIONS, WELFARE FUNDS, COMMUNITY COUNCILS 389

Maple St.; Pres. Harry D. Blum; Exec. SAGINAW Dir. Saul Silverman. JEWISH WELFARB FEDERATION (1939); LEOMINSTER 1424 S. Washington; Pres. Carl Leib; Fin. Sec. Isadore Lenick. i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (1939); Pres. Jack Berger; Sec.-Treas. Mrs. Edith Chatkis, 30 Grove Ave. MINNESOTA LYNN i JBWISH COMMUNITY FEDERATION OF DULUTH GREATER LYNN (ind. Lynnfield, Marble- i JEWISH FEDERATION AND COMMUNITY head, Nahant, Saugus, Swampscott) COUNCIL (1937); 416 Fidelity Bldg. (1938); 45 Market St.; Pres. Hyman (2); Pres. R. J. Benton. Addis. MINNEAPOLIS NEW BEDFORD i MINNEAPOLIS FBDBRATION FOR JEWISH JEWISH WELFARE FEDERATION; 388 SERVICE (1931); 512 Nicollet Bldg., County St.; Pres. Morris E. Rubin; Exec. Room 718 (2); Pres. I. D. Fink; Exec. Sec. Gerald Klein. Dir. Norman B. Dockman. PITTSFIELD ST. PAUL JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (ind. 1 UNITED JEWISH FUND AND COUNCIL Dalton, Lee, Lenox, Otis, Stockbridge) (1935); 522 Bremer Arcade (1); Pres. (1940); 235 East St.; Pres. Paul Aron- Ted Abramson; Exec. Dir. Dan S. Rosen- stein; Exec. Dir. Louis Brown. berg. SPRINGFIELD i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (1938); MISSISSIPPI sponsors UNITED JEWISH WELFARB FUND; 1160 Dickinson; Pres. George GREENVILLE Koplin; Exec. Dir. Benjamin Wolf. 1 JBWISH WELFARE FUND OF THE WORCESTER GREBNVILLB AREA (1952); 512 Main i JEWISH FEDERATION (1947); sponsors St.; Pres. Irving Sachs; Sec. Harry Stein. JEWISH WELFARE FUND; 274 Main St. (8); Pres. Samuel Seder; Exec. Dir. Mel- JACKSON vin S. Cohen. JEWISH WELFARE FUND (1945); P. O. Box 4401, Fondren Station; Pres. Julian Wiener; Exec. Sec. Perry E. Nussbaum. MICHIGAN VICKSBURG i JEWISH WELFARB FBDBRATION (1936); BAY CITY 1209 Cherry St.; Pres. Louis L. Switzer, NORTHEASTERN MICHIGAN JBWISH WBL- Exec Sec. Adolph Phillipsborn. FARE FEDERATION (ind. East Tawas, Midland, West Branch) (1940); Pres. Gerald Blumenau; Exec. Sec. Mrs. Dorothy MISSOURI B. Sternberg, 201 Cunningham Bldg. DETROIT JOPLIN i. 2 JEWISH WELFARE FEDERATION i JEWISH WELFARB FEDERATION, INC. (1926); sponsors ALLIBD JEWISH CAM- (ind. surrounding communities) (1938); PAIGN (includes JEWISH WBLFARE FED- P. O. Box 284; Pres. Jack Fleischaker; ERATION AND COUNCIL OF PONTIAC); Sec. Robert Klein. Fred M. Butzel Memorial Bldg., 163 KANSAS CITY Madison (26); Pres. Max M. Fisher; 2 Exec. V. Pres. Isidore Sobeloff. i. JBWISH FEDERATION AND COUNCIL OF GREATER KANSAS CITY (ind. Inde- FLINT pendence, Mo. and Kansas City, Kan.) i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (1936); (1933); 20 W. 9th St. Bldg. (5); Pres. 808 Sill Building (2); Pres. H. Maxwell Harry C. Feingold; Exec. Dir. Abe L. Golden; Exec. Dir. Irving Geisser. Sudran. GRAND RAPIDS ST. JOSEPH i JEWISH COMMUNITY FUND OF GRAND i FEDERATED JEWISH CHARITIES (1915); RAPIDS (1930); Pres. Leonard Newman; 2716 S. West Trail; Pres. Theodore M. Sec. Mrs. William Deutsch, 1121 Kene- Kranitz; Exec. Sec. Mrs. Burton H. Alberts. berry Way, S. E. ST. LOUIS LANSING i. 2 JEWISH FEDERATION OF ST. LOUIS i JEWISH WELFARE FEDERATION OF (incl. St. Louis County) (1901); 1007 LANSING (1939); Pres. Clarence Glad- Washington Ave. (1); Pres. Joseph F. stone; Sec. Leonard Silk, 2404 Hopkins. Ruwitch; Exec. Dir. Herman L. Kaplow. 390 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

NEBRASKA NEW BRUNSWICK i JEWISH FEDERATION OF NEW BRUNS- LINCOLN WICK, HIGHLAND PARK & VICINITY i. 2 JEWISH WELFARE FEDERATION (ind. (1948); 2 S. Adelaide Ave., Highland Beatrice) (1931); 1209 Federal Securi- Park; Pres. Gabriel Kirzenbaum; Exec. Dir. ties Bldg. (8); Pres. Samuel Chesnin; Dir. Fred A. Liff. Louis B. Finkelsteifl. NEWARK OMAHA i. 2 JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL OF ESSEX COUNTY (1922); sponsors UNITED i. 2 JEWISH FEDERATION OF OMAHA JEWISH APPEAL OF ESSEX COUNTY (1903); sponsors JEWISH WELFARE FUND (1937); 32 Central Ave. (2); Pres. Leo (1930); 101 N. 20 St. (2); Pres. Robert Yanoff; Exec. Dir. Herman M. Pekarsky. H. Kooper; Exec. Dir. Paul Veret. PASSAIC NEW HAMPSHIRE i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL OF PAS- SAIC-CLIFTON AND VICINITY (ind. Gar- MANCHESTER field, Lodi, Wallington) (1933); sponsors UNITED JEWISH CAMPAIGN; 184 Wash- i. 2 JEWISH COMMUNITY CENTER (1913); ington PL; Pres. Elmer Friedbauer; Exec sponsors UNITED JEWISH APPEAL; 698 Beech St.; Pres. Arthur E. Porter; Exec. Dir. Max Grossman. Dir. Ben Rothstein. PATERSON i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (1933); NEW JERSEY sponsors UNITED JEWISH APPEAL DRTVB; 390 Broadway (1); Pres. Charles Brom- berg; Exec. Dir. Max Stern. ATLANTIC CITY 1 FEDERATION OF JEWISH CHARITIES OF PERTH AMBOY ATLANTIC CITY (1924); sponsors UNITED i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (ind. JEWISH APPEAL OF ATLANTIC COUNTY; South Amboy) (1938); sponsors UNITED Medical Science Bldg., 101 S. Indiana JEWISH APPEAL; 316 Madison Ave.; Pres. Ave.; Pres. Edward R. Knight; Exec. Dir. Raymond Safran; Exec. Dir. Martin E. Irving T. Spivack. Danzig. BAYONNE PLAINFIELD 2 JBWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (1938); i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL OF THB sponsors UNITED JEWISH CAMPAIGN; PLAINFIELDS (1937); sponsors UNITBD 1050 Boulevard; Pres. Henry Abramson; JEWISH APPEAL; 403 W. 7 St.; Pres. Mac Exec. Dir. Barry Shandler. Tarnoff; Exec. Dir. Rubin Lefkowitz. BERGEN COUNTY TRENTON BERGEN COUNTY WELFARB COUNCIL i JEWISH FEDERATION OF TRENTON (includes all of Bergen County); 211 (1929); 18 S. Stockton St. (10); Pres. Essex St., Hackensack; Exec. Dir. Max Joseph Fishberg; Exec. Dir. Milton A. Kleinbaum. Feinberg. CAMDEN NEW MEXICO i. 2 JEWISH FEDERATION OF CAMDEN COUNTY (ind. all of Camden County) (1922); sponsors ALLIBD JEWISH AP- ALBUQUERQUE PEAL; Marlton Pike, Route 70 (10); Pres. i JBWISH WELFARE FUND (Albuquerque Samuel L. Rosenberg; Exec. Dir. Bernard and vidnity) (1938); Pres. Samuel A. Dubin. Epstein; Exec. Sec. Mrs. Rana Adler, 2416 Pennsylvania St. N. E. ELIZABETH i EASTERN UNION COUNTY JBWISH NEW YORK COUNCIL (ind. Elizabeth, Roselle, Roselle Park, Union) (1940); sponsors EASTERN ALBANY UNION COUNTY UNITED JEWISH APPEAL; 1034 E. Jersey St.; Pres. Milton B. Levin; i JBWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL INC Exec. Dir. Louis Kousin. (1938); 90 State St. (7); Pres. Joseph H. Einhorn; Exec. Dir. Max C. Gettinger. HACKENSACK JBWISH WELFARB FUND (ind. Rensse- i UNITED JEWISH APPEAL OF HACKEN- laer); 90 State St. (7); Chmn. William SACK, INC. (1940); 211 Essex St.; Pres. B. Barnet; Exec. Dir. Max C. Gettinger. Sidney Goldberg; Sec. Irving Waxshawsky. BINGHAMTON JERSEY CITY JEWISH FEDERATION OF BROOME COUNTY i UNITED JEWISH APPEAL (1939); 604 i19n7; incorporated 1959); 155 Front Bergen Ave. (4); Chmn. Harry A. Brody; St.; Pres. David Levene; Exec. Dir. Eugene Sec. Mrs. Jeanne Schleider. Karmnsky. JEWISH FEDERATIONS, WELFARE FUNDS, COMMUNITY COUNCILS 391

BUFFALO POUGHKEEPSIE i. 2 UNITED JBWISH FEDERATION OF BUF- JEWISH WELFARE FUND (1941); 54 N. FALO, INC. (1903); 615 Sidway Bldg., Hamilton St.; Chmn. Martin Siegel; Exec. 775 Main St. (3); Pres. David Diamond; Dir. Julius Dorfman. Exec. Dir. Sydney S. Abzug. ROCHESTER ELMIRA JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL; 129 East 1 ELMIRA JEWISH WELFARE FUND, INC. Ave. (4); Pres. Arthur M. Lowenthal; (1942); Federation Bldg.; Pres. David Exec. Dir. Elmer Louis, Solomon; Exec. Dir. Clifiord R. Josephson. i UNITED JBWISH WELFARE FUND GLENS FALLS (1937); 129 East Ave. (4); Pres. Hanon Berger; Exec. Dir. Elmer Louis. GLENS FALLS JEWISH WBLFARE FUND (1939); 68 Bay St.; Chmn. Arnold Russ. SCHENECTADY i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (ind. GLOVERSVILLE surrounding communities) (1938); spon- 2 JEWISH COMMUNITY CENTBR OF FUL- sors SCHENBCTADY UJA AND FEDBRATBD TON COUNTY (ind. Johnstown) (1919); 28 E. Fulton St.; Pres. Donald Schine; WELFARE FUND; 300 Germania Ave. Exec. Dir. Simon L. Cohen. (7); Pres. Philip M. Stark; Exec. Dir. HUDSON Mortimer Greenberg. i JEWISH WELFARE FUND (1947); 414 SYRACUSE Warren St.; Pres. Samuel Siegel. i JEWISH WELFARE FEDERATION, INC. (1918); sponsors JEWISH WELFARE FUND KINGSTON (1933); 201 E. Jefferson St. (2); Pres. i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL, INC.; Lewis R. Goldner; Exec. Dir. Norman 265 Wall St.; Pres. Arthur B. Ewig; Exec. Dir. Daniel Balsam. Edell. TROY MTDDLETOWN i TROY JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL, 1 UNITED JEWISH APPEAL OF MIDDLE- INC. (ind. Green Island, Mechanicville, TOWN, N. Y. (1939); c/o Middletown Waterford, Watervliet) (1936); 87 First Hebrew Association, 13 Linden Ave.; St.; Pres. Jerome Cohen; Exec. Dir. Irwin Chmn. Daniel Birnbaum; Treas. Mrs. Lasky. Israel Madoff. UTICA NEW YORK CITY i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (1933); BROOKLYN JEWISH COMMUNITY COUN- sponsors UNITED JEWISH APPEAL OF CIL, INC. (1939); 16 Court St., Brooklyn UTICA; 211 Foster Bldg., 131 Genesee St. (1); Pres. Maximilian Moss; Exec. Dir. (2); Pres. Mrs. Florence R. Sitrin; Exec. Chaim I. Essrog. Dir. Robert I. Marcus. i. 2 FEDERATION OF JEWISH PHILANTHRO- NORTH CAROLINA PIES OF NEW YORK (ind. Greater New York, Westchester, Queens and Nassau Counties) (1917); 130 E. 59 St. (22); ASHEVILLE Pres. Gustave L. Levy; Exec. V.-Pres. JEWISH COMMUNITY CENTER; Exec Dir. Maurice B. Hexter, Joseph Willen. Sumner N. Greenberg, 236 Charlotte St. i UNITED JEWISH APPEAL OF GREATER CHARLOTTE NEW YORK (ind. New York City and i FEDERATION OF JEWISH CHARITIES metropolitan areas and Westchester, (1940); P. O. Box 2612; Pres. Albert A. Queens, Suffolk and Nassau Counties) Kossove; Sec. Ben Jaffa, Jr. (1939); 220 W. 58 St. (19); Pres. Mon- GASTONIA roe Goldwater; Exec. V.-Pres. Henry C. i JEWISH WELFARE FUND (1944); c/o Bernstein, Samuel Blitz. Temple Emanuel, 320 South St.; Pres. NEWBURGH Marshal Rauch; Sec. Joseph Utschen. i UNITED JEWISH CHARITIES (1925); 360 GREENSBORO Powell Ave.; Pres. Dan Becker, David IGRBENSBORO JEWISH UNITED CHARI- O'Koon; Exec Dir. Murray Gunner. TIES, INC.; 6201 Summit Station; Pres. Milton Weinstein; Sec. Albert J. Jacobson. NIAGARA FALLS HIGH POINT 1 JEWISH FEDERATION, INC. (1935); 685 Chilton Ave.; Pres. Boris A. Golden; Exec i JEWISH FEDERATED CHARITIES; Congre- Dir. Mrs. May Chinkers. gation B'nai Israel; Chmn. Herman W. Bernard. PORT CHESTER WINSTON-SALEM 1 JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (1941); JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL OF WIN- sponsors UNITED JEWISH CAMPAIGN; 258 STON-SALEM, INC. (1937); 201 Oakwood Willett Ave.; Pres. Irving M. Granowitz; Dr. (5); Pres. Philip A. Michalove; Sec Exec. Dir. Aaron Grodsky. Ernst J. Conrad. 392 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK NORTH DAKOTA WARREN i JEWISH FEDERATION (ind. Niles) FARGO (1938); Pres. Abe Knofsky; Sec. Maurice FARGO JEWISH FEDERATION (incl. James- I. Brown, 600 Roselawn Ave., N. E. town, Moorhead, Valley City, Wahpeton, YOUNGSTOWN and Detroit Lakes, Minn.) (1939); P. O. i. 2 JEWISH FEDERATION OF YOUNGS- Box 1974; Pres. Julius Sgutt; Sec. Paul P. TOWN, INC (ind. Boradman, Campbell, Feder. Girard, Lowellville, Struthers) (1935); P. O. Box 447 (1); Pres. Ralph j. Lebo- OHIO witz; Exec. Dir. Stanley Engel. OKLAHOMA AKRON i JEWISH WELFARE FUND OF AKRON, ARDMORE INC. (ind. Barberton, Cuyahoga Falls) JEWISH FEDERATION (1934); Co-Chmn. (1935); Strand Theatre Bldg., 129 S. Sidney Yaffe, P. O. Box 1868 and Max Main St. (8); Pres. H. S. Subrin; Exec. Roberson, 412 I St., S. W. Dir. Nathan Pinsky. OKLAHOMA CITY CANTON i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (1941); i CANTON JEWISH COMMUNITY FEDERA- 312 Commerce Exchange Bldg. (1); Pres. TION, INC. (1935; reorg. 1955); 1528 Charles R. Flexner; Exec. Dir. Julius A. Market Ave. N. (4); Pres. Harry L. Gins- Graber. burg; Exec. Dir. Leonard Sebrans. TULSA CINCINNATI i TULSA JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL i. 2 ASSOCIATED JEWISH AGENCIES (1896; (1938); sponsors UNITED JEWISH CAM- reorg. 1956); 2905 Vernon PI. (19); Pres. PAIGN; Castle Bldg., 114 W. 3 St. (1), Sigmund M. Cohen; Exec. Dir. Martin M. P. O. Box 396; Pres. M. I. Taubman; Cohn. Exec. Dir. Irving Antell. i JEWISH WELFARE FUND (1930); 2905 Vernon PI. (19); Pres. James L. Magrish; OREGON Exec. Dir. Martin M. Cohn. CLENTLAND PORTLAND 2 i. 2 JEWISH COMMUNITY FEDERATION OF i- JEWISH WELFARE FEDERATION OF CLEVELAND (1903); 1001 Huron Rd. PORTLAND (ind. State of Oregon 8c ad- (15); Pres. L. W. Neumark; Exec. Dir. jacent Washington communities) (1920; Henry L. Zucker. reorg. 1956); 1643 S. W. 12 Ave. (1); Pres. Jack W. Olds; Exec. Dir. Milton D. COLUMBUS Goldsmith. UNITED JEWISH FUND AND COUNCIL (1925; reorg. 1959); 40 S. Third St. PENNSYLVANIA (15); Pres. Herbert S. Levy; Exec. Dir. Ben M. Mandelkorn. ALLENTOWN DAYTON i JEWISH FEDERATION OF ALLENTOWN i. - JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL OF (1948); 22nd and Tilghman Sts.; Pres. DAYTON (1943); Community Services Morris Senderowitz, Jr.; Exec. Dir. George Bldg., 184 Salem Ave., Room 240 (6); Feldman. Pres. William Leviton; Exec. Dir. Robert Fitterman. ALTOONA LIMA i. 2 FEDERATION OF JEWISH PHILAN- THROPIES (1920; reorg. 1940); 1308—17 i FEDERATED JEWISH CHARITIES OF LIMA St.; Pres. Sam Port; Exec. Dir. Irving H. DISTRICT (1935); P. O. Box 152; Pres. Linn. Sylvan H. Wise; Sec. Joseph E. Berk. STEUBENVTLLE BUTLER i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (ind. i BUTLER JEWISH WBLFARE FUND (ind. Mingo Junction, Toronto) (1938); First Butler County, Chicora) (1938); 225 E. National Bank Bldg., Room 601, Market Cunningham St.; Chmn. Saul J. Bernstein; St.; Pres. Morris Denmark; Treas. Berul Sec. Maurice Horwitz. Amstey. COATESVILLE TOLEDO COATESVILLE JEWISH FEDERATION i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (1936); (1941); Pres. Milton Margolis; Sec. Ben- 2247 Collingwood Blvd. (10); Pres. Burt jamin Rabinowitz, 1104 Sterling St. Silverman; Exec. Dir. Marvin G. Lerner. EASTON i UNITED JBWISH FUND (1948); 2247 i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL OF Collingwood Blvd. (10); Pres. Arthur H. EASTON AND VICINITY (1939); sponsors Edelstein; Exec. Dir. Marvin G. Lerner. ALLIED WELFARE APPEAL; 660 Ferry JEWISH FEDERATIONS, WELFARE FUNDS, COMMUNITY COUNCILS 393

St.; Pres. Joseph Rubenscein; Exec. Sec. SHARON Jack Sher. ISHBNANGO VALLEY JBWISH FEDBRA- ERIE TION (incl. Greenville, Grove City, Sharon, Sharpsville) (1940); 8 W. State St.; Sec. 1.2 JEWISH COMMUNITY WELFARE COUN- Bernard Goldstone. CIL (1946); 110 W. 10 St.; Pres. Gerson Berman; Exec. Dii. Herman Roth. UNIONTOWN i UNITED JEWISH FEDERATION (ind. HARRISBURG Masontown) (1939); Pres. Lester B. i UNITED JEWISH COMMUNITY (ind. Cohen; Sec. Morris H. Samuels, c/o Jew- Carlisle, Lykens, Middletown, Steelton) ish Community Center, 406 W. Main St. (1933); 100 Vaughn St.; Pres. Sondell Coleman; Exec. Dir. Albert Harsh. WILKES-BARRE i WYOMING VALLEY JEWISH COMMITTEB HAZLETON (1935); sponsors UNITED JEWISH AP- JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL; sponsors PBAL; 60 South River St.; Pres. Harold FEDERATED JEWISH CHARITIES DRIVE; Rosenn; Exec. Ser Louis Smith. Laurel and Hemlock Sts.; Pres. Isaac Figlin; YORK Exec. Dir. Isidore Kornzweig. JEWISH ORGANIZED CHARITIES (1928); JOHNSTOWN 120 E. Market St.; Pres. Mose Leibowitz; i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL; Pres. Exec. Sec. Joseph Sperling, Seymour S. Silverstone, 602 U. S. Bank i UNITED JBWISH APPEAL; 120 E. Market Bldg.; V. Pres. Samuel H. Cohen. St.; Sec. Joseph Sperling. LANCASTER i UNITED JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL RHODE ISLAND (ind. Lancaster County excepting Ephrata) (1928); 219 E. King St.; Pres. Leon PROVIDENCE Robbins; Exec. Dir. Nisson Pearl. i GENERAL JEWISH COMMITTEB OF PROV- LEVTTTOWN IDENCE, INC. (ind. Bristol, Cranston, East Greenwich, East Providence, West War- i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL OF wick) (1945); 203 Strand Bldg. (3); LOWER BUCKS COUNTY; Chmn. Harold Pres. Henry J. Hassenfeld; Exec. Dir. Tevelin, P. O. Box 74. Joseph Galkin. NORRISTOWN WOONSOCKET i. 2 JEWISH COMMUNITY CENTER (1936); WOONSOCKET UNITED JEWISH APPBAL, Brown and Powell Sts.; Pres. Stanley INC. (1949); P. O. Box 52; Chmn. Sam- Rieger; Exec Dir. Harold M. Kamsler. uel J. Medoff; Sec. Mrs. Paul Bernon. PHILADELPHIA i. 2 FEDERATION OF JEWISH AGENCIES OF SOUTH CAROLINA GREATER PHILADELPHIA (A consolidation of the former ALLIED JEWISH APPBAL CHARLESTON and FEDERATION OF JEWISH CHARITIES) i JEWISH WELFARE FUND; 58 St. Philip (1901; reorg. 1956); 1511 Walnut St. St. (10); Pres. Hyman Rephan; Exec. (2); Pres. Abraham L. Freedman; Exec. Sec. Nathan Shulman. Dir. Donald B. Hurwitz. PITTSBURGH SOUTH DAKOTA !• 2 UNITED JEWISH FEDERATION OF PITTSBURGH (1912; reorg. 1955); 200 SIOUX FALLS Ross St. (19); Pres. Herman Fineberg; i JEWISH WELFARE FUND (1938); Na- Exec. Dir. Robert I. Hiller tional Reserve Bldg; Pres. Isadore Pitts; Exec. Sec. Louis R. Hurwitz. POTTSVILLE i. 2 UNITED JEWISH CHARITIES (ind. Mi- TENNESSEE nersville, Pine Grove, St. Clair, Schuylkill Haven) (1935); 23 and Mahantongo Sts.; CHATTANOOGA Chmn. Phil Rosenkrantz; Exec. Sec. Gordon Berkowitz. i JEWISH WELFARB FEDERATION (1931); 511 E. 4 St. (3); Pres. Louis B. Marks; READING Exec. Dir. William L. Grossman. i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (1935); sponsors UNITED JEWISH CAMPAIGN; 134 KNOXVILLE N. 5 St.; Pres. Max Fisher; Exec. Sec. i JEWISH WELFARE FUND, INC. (1939); Harry S. Sack. Chmn. George Busch; Fin. Sec. Milton SCRANTON Collins, 621 W. Vine Ave., S. W. (2). i SCRANTON-LACKAWANNA JEWISH COUN- MEMPHIS CIL (incl. Lackawanna County) (1936); i. 2 JEWISH SERVICE AGENCY (ind. Shelby 601 Jefferson Ave.; Pres. Nat E. Levy; County) (1906); Ten North Main Bldg. Exec. Sec. George Joel. (3); Pres. Irvin Bogatin; Exec. Dir. Jack Lieberman. 394 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

i JEWISH WELFARE FUND (incl. Shelby WACO County) (1934); Ten North Main Bldg. i JEWISH WELFARE COUNCIL OF WACO (3); Pres. Philip Belz; Exec. Dir. Jack AND CENTRAL TEXAS (1949); P. O. Box Lieberman. 2214, Rm. 212, Liberty Bldg.; Pres. Nate NASHVILLE Chodorow; Exec. Dir. Jack Panitz. i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (ind. 19 communities in Middle Tennessee) UTAH (1936); sponsors JEWISH WELFARE FUND; 3500 West End Ave. (5); Pres. SALT LAKE CITY Morris Davis; Exec. Dir. Sam A. Hatow. i UNITED JEWISH COUNCIL AND SALT LAKE JEWISH WELFARE FUND (1936); TEXAS 72 West 2 South (1); Pres. Max Siegel; Exec. Dir. Philip M. Stillman. AUSTIN i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL OF AUS- VIRGINIA TIN (1939; reorg. 1956); P. O. Box 351; Pres. John Hurwitz. HAMPTON CORPUS CHRISTI JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (ind. i. 2 CORPUS CHRISTI JEWISH COMMUNITY Phoebus) (1944); 18 Armistead Ave., COUNCIL (1953); 750 Everhart Road; Phoebus; Pres. Milton Familant; Sec. Allan Pres. Edward L. Massman; Exec. Dir. Mirvis. Harold H. Benowitz. NEWPORT NEWS DALLAS i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (1942); i. 2 JEWISH WELFARE FEDERATION 98—26th St.; Pres. Mrs. William Diamon- (1911); 403 Southland Bldg., Annex 209 stein; Exec. Dir. Charles Olshansky. Browder St. (1); Pres. Sherman M. Kap- NORFOLK lan; Exec. Dir. Jacob H. Kravitz. i NORFOLK JEWISH COMMUNITY COUN- EL PASO CIL, INC. (1937); P.O. Box 11341 (17); i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (ind. Pres. Sydney J. Gates; Exec. Dir. Ephraim surrounding communities) (1939); 413 Spivek. Mills Bldg., P. O. Box 1485; Pres. Alfred PETERSBURG A. Blumenthal; Exec. Dir. Victor Grant. UNITED JEWISH COMMUNITY FUND FORT WORTH (1938); Co-Chmn. Louis Hersh and Mor- i. 2 JEWISH FEDERATION OF FORT ton Sollod; Sec. Alex Sadie, 1651 Fairfax WORTH (1936); P. O. Box 11145, Berry Ave. St. Station (10), 3033 Waits Ave. (9); PORTSMOUTH Pres. Frank Cohen; Exec. Dir. Eli Fahn. i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL; Rm. 419 GALVESTON New Kirn Bldg.; Pres. Robert D. Hechr, i GALVESTON COUNTY UNITED JEWISH Exec. Sec. Mrs. Ruth Silverman Scher. WELFARB ASSOCIATION (1936); P. O. RICHMOND Box 146 (5); Pres. Sol Forman; Sec i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (1935); Mrs. Ray Freed. 5403 Monument Ave. (26); Pres. Max O. HOUSTON Laster; Exec. Dir. Julius Mintzer. i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL OF MET- ROPOLITAN HOUSTON (ind. neighboring WASHINGTON communities) (1937); sponsors UNITED JEWISH CAMPAIGN; 2020 Hermann Drive (4); Pres. Bernard Weingarten; Exec. Dir. SEATTLE Albert Goldstein. i FEDERATED JEWISH FUND AND COUNCIL (ind. surrounding communities) (1937); PORT ARTHUR 725 Seaboard Bldg. (1); Pres. Harold I. FEDERATED JEWISH CHARITIES AND WEL- Poll; Exec. Dir. Samuel G. Holcenberg. FARE FUNDS (1936): P. O. Box 442; Pres. Harvey H. Goldblum; Treas. Sam SPOKANE Wyde. i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (ind. Spokane County) (1927); sponsors SAN ANTONIO UNITED JEWISH FUND (1936); 725- i. 2 JEWISH SOCIAL SERVICE FEDERATION 726 Paulsen Bldg. (1); Pres. Sam Rykus; (incl. Bexar County) (1924); 307 Aztec Sec. Robert N. Arick. Bldg. (5); Pres. Charles H. Browne; Exec Dir. Paul Kulick. TACOMA ITACOMA FEDERATED JBWISH FUND TYLER (1936); Co-Chmn. Herman Kleiner and FEDERATED JEWISH WELFARE FUND Jerry Spellman; Sec.-Treas. Norman Klein- (1938); Pres. Israel Smith, P. O. Box 934. man, 2406 N. 21. JEWISH FEDERATIONS, WELFARE FUNDS, COMMUNITY COUNCILS 395 WEST VIRGINIA KENOSHA IKENOSHA JEWISH WBLFARB FUND CHARLESTON (1938); 625—57 St., Pres. Robert New- i FEDERATED JBWISH CHARITIES OF man; Sec.-Treas. Burton Lepp. CHARLESTON, INC. (ind. Dunbat, Mont- MADISON gomery) (1937); 804 Quairier St., Rooms i MADISON JEWISH WELFARB FUND, INC. 407-8; Pres. Ivor F. Boiaisky; Exec. Sec (1940); 611 Langdon St. (3); Pres. Charles Cohen. Laurence Weinstein; Exec. Dir. Kenneth HUNTINGTON Wasser. i FEDERATED JBWISH CHARITIES (1939); MILWAUKEE P. O. Box 947 (13); Pres. Jack Cuttler; i MILWAUKEE JEWISH WELFARB FUND, Sec.-Treas. E. Henry Broh. INC. (1938); 135 W. Wells St. (3); WHEELING Pres. Bernard J. Sampson; Exec. Dir. Mel- i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL OF vin S. Zaret. WHEELING (ind. Moundsville) (1933); RACINE Treas. Isadore Rubinstein, 30 Poplar Ave. i JEWISH WELFARE COUNCIL OF RACINB (1946); Pres. Robert Goodman; Sec. Miss WISCONSIN Rose Kaminsky, 930 Racine St. SHEBOYGAN GREEN BAY i JBWISH WELFARE COUNCIL OF SHB- i GREEN BAY JBWISH WELFARE FUND; BOYGAN (1927); Pres. Ted Stern; Sec Exec Sec Sheldon Isco, 329 Main St. Mrs. Abe Alpert, 2119 N. 19 St.

CANADA

ALBERTA 26 Barrie St.; Pres. Sheldon J. Cohen; Sec- Treas. Jacob Bassan. EDMONTON LONDON i EDMONTON JEWISH COMMUNITY COUN- i LONDON JBWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL; CIL (1954); 407 Petroleum Bldg.; Pres. 216 Dundas Bldg.; Pres. Harold Vaisler; Wolfe Margolus. Exec. Sec. A. B. Gillick. NIAGARA FALLS BRITISH COLUMBIA JEWISH FEDERATION; Pres. Jos. Green- VANCOUVER span; Sec. I. I. Ackerman, 2295 Orchard Ave. i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL OF VAN- COUVER (ind. New Westminster) ST. CATHARINES (1932); 2675 Oak St. (9); Pres. Morris UNITED JEWISH WELFARE FUND OF ST. Salesman; Exec. Dir. Louis Zimmerman. CATHARINES; C/O Jewish Community Cen- ter, Church St.; Pres. Max Harris; Sec MANITOBA Dan Monson. TORONTO WINNIPEG i UNITED JEWISH WELFARE FUND OF i JBWISH WELFARB FUND (1938); 370 TORONTO (1937); 150Beverley St. (2B); Hargrave St.; Pres. Abe Steinberg; Exec. Pres. Mark A. Levy; Exec. V. Pres. Miss Dir. Aaron B. Feld. Florence Hutner. WINDSOR ONTARIO i JEWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (1938); HAMILTON 1641 Ouellette Ave.; Pres. Jacob D. Geller; Exec. Dir. Joseph Eisenberg. IUNTTBD JEWISH WBLFARB FUND (1939); 57 Delaware Ave.; Pres. Morley QUEBEC Goldblatt; Exec. Dir. Louis A. Kurman. COUNCIL OF JEWISH ORGANIZATIONS MONTREAL (1934); 57 Delaware Ave.; Pres. Jack i FEDERATION OF JEWISH COMMUNITY Taylor; Exec Dir. Louis A. Kurman. SERVICES (1916); 493 Sherbrooke St. W. KINGSTON (2); Pres. Abe Bronfman; Exec. Dir. JBWISH COMMUNITY COUNCIL (1947); Arthur S. Rosichan. •»!' •!• •!'» * »!• >X> »!• * » >!• »»• •»• »»• •> •!• •!• •»•»•!• * »!•» »»!• •!• •!• »

Jewish Periodicals1

UNITED STATES

ALABAMA COLORADO JBWISH MONITOR (1948). P.O.B. 9155 INTERMOUNTAIN JEWISH NBWS (1912). (4133 Montevallo Rd.)> Birmingham, 13. 626 Mining Exchange Bldg., Denver, 2. Joseph S. GaJlinger. Monthly. Robert S. Gamzey. Weekly.

ARIZONA CONNECTICUT PHOBNDC JEWISH NEWS (1947). 528 W. Granada Rd., Phoenix. Burton Fieiieich. CONNECTICUT JBWISH LEDGBR (1929). 179 Biweekly. Allyn St., Hartford, 1. Abraham J. Feld- man. Weekly. JEWISH ARGUS (1935). 62 Cannon St., CALIFORNIA Bridgeport, 3. Isidore H. Goldman. Monthly. BNAI BRITH MESSENGBR (1897). 739 S. Hope St., Los Angeles, 17. Joseph J. Cum- mins. Weekly. CALIFORNIA JEWISH RECORD (1945). 925 DELAWARE MacDonald Ave., Richmond. Albert Leh- man. Fortnightly. JEWISH VOICB (1931). 604 W. 38 St., Wil- CALIFORNIA JEWISH VOICE (1921). 406 S. mington, 2. Simon R. Krinsky. Monthly. Main St., Los Angeles, 13. L M. Lechtman. Weekly. HBRITAGE-SOUTHWEST JEWISH PRESS DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA (1954). 5322 Wilshire Blvd., Los An- geles, 36. Herb Brin. Weekly. AMERICAN JBWISH JOURNAL (1944). 996 JBWISH COMMUNITY BULLBTIN (1946). 40 National Press Bldg., Washington, 4. First St., San Francisco, 5. Eugene B. David Mondzac. Quarterly. Block. Weekly. San Francisco Jewish Com- JEWISH HERITAGB (1957). 1640 Rhode Is- munity Publications. Inc. land Ave., N. W., Washington. 6. Simon JBWISH COMMUNITY DIRECTORY (1957). Noveck. Quarterly. Dept. of Adult Jewish 5322 Wilshire Blvd., Los Angeles, 36. Education, Bnai B'rith. Herb Brin. Annual. JBWISH VETERAN (1930). 1712 New LITERARISHE HEFTN (1946). 10143 Mount- Hampshire Ave., N. W., Washington, 9. air Ave., Tujunga. Boris Dimondstein, Warren Adler. Monthly. Jewish War Vet- Dave Stallor. Quarterly; Yiddish. erans of the U.S.A. SOUTHWEST JEWISH PRESS-HBRITAGB NATIONAL JEWISH LEDGER (1930). 836 (1914). 4079 54 St., San Diego, 5. Tower Building, 14 & K Sts., N. W., Herb Brin. Weekly. Washington, 5. Kay C. Gerber. Weekly. VALLEY JEWISH NEWS (1942). 5509 Lan- NATIONAL JEWISH MONTHLY (1886). 1640 kershim Blvd., North Hollywood. Jess Rhode Island Ave., N. W., Washington, 6. Nathan. Weekly. Edward E. Grusd. Monthly. Bnai B'rith. 1 Periodicals which have been in existence at least one year prior to June 30, 1959, are included in this directory. Information is based upon answers furnished by the publications themselves, and the publishers of the YEAR BOOK assume no responsibility for the accuracy of die data presented; nor does inclusion in this list necessarily imply approval or endorsement of the periodicals. The information provided here includes the year of organization and the name of the editor, managing editor, or publisher; unless otherwise stated, the language used by the periodical is English. An asterisk (*) indicates that no reply was received and that the information, including name of publication, date of founding, and address, is reprinted from AJYB, 1959 (Vol. 60). For organizational bulletins, consult organizational listings. 396 JEWISH PERIODICALS 397 FLORIDA MASSACHUSETTS

AMERICAN JBWISH PRESS. See News Syndi- JEWISH ADVOCATB (1902). 251 Causeway cates, p. 402. St., Boston, 14. Alexander Brin, Joseph G. JEWISH FLORIDIAN (1928). 120 N.E. Sixth Weisberg. Weekly. St., Miami, 18. Fred K. Shochet. Weekly. JBWISH CIVIC LEADER (1923). 11 Norwich OUR VOICE (1932). 506 MalverneRd., West St., Worcester, 8. Conrad H. Isenberg. Palm Beach. Samuel A. Schutzer. Fort- Weekly. nightly. JBWISH TIMES (1945). 118 Cypress St., SOUTHERN JEWISH WEEKLY (1924). P. O. Brookline, 46. Michael Shulman. Weekly. Box 3297, Jacksonville, 6. Isadore Mosco- JBWISH WEEKLY NEWS (1945). 38 Hamp- vitz. Weekly. den St., Springfield, 8. Jeannette S. Smith. Weekly.

GEORGIA MICHIGAN SOUTHERN ISRAELITE NBWSPAPER AND MAGAZINE (1925). 390 Courtland St., AMBRICAN JEWISH PRBSS. See News Syn- N.E., Atlanta, 3. Adolph Rosenberg. dicates, p. 402. Weekly and Monthly. DBTROIT JBWISH NEWS (incorporating DB- TROIT JEWISH CHRONICLB) (1941). 17100 West Seven Mile Road, Detroit, 35. Philip Slomovitz. Weekly. ILLINOIS CHICAGO ISRAELITE (1884). 203 N. Wa- MINNESOTA bash Ave., Chicago, 1. M. £. Osherman. Weekly. AMERICAN JBWISH WORLD (1912). 735 CHICAGO JBWISH FORUM (1942). 179 W. Palace Bldg., 40 S. 4 St., Minneapolis, 1; Washington St., Chicago, 2. Benjamin 709 Pioneer Bldg., St. Paul, 1. L. H. Weintroub. Quarterly. Frisch. Weekly. JEWISH WAY-UNZBR WEG (1945). 179 W. ST. PAUL JBWISH NBWS (1953). 2196 Hart- Washington St., Chicago, 2. Nathan Kra- ford Ave., St. Paul, 16. Toby L. Neren- vitz. Monthly; English-Yiddish. berg. Fortnightly. NATIONAL JEWISH POST AND OPINION— Chicago Edn. (1953). 130 N. Wells St., Chicago, 6. Eve Duskin. Weekly. MISSOURI SENTINEL (1911). 1702 S. Halsted St., Chi- cago, 8. J. I. Fishbein. Weekly. KANSAS CITY JBWISH CHRONICLB (1920). 1003 Main St., Suite 633, Kansas City, 5. Victor Slone. Weekly. * NATIONAL JEWISH POST AND OPINION— INDIANA Missouri Edn. (1948). 8235 Olive Blvd., INDIANA JEWISH CHRONICLE (1921). 152 St. Louis, 24. N. Alabama St., Indianapolis, 4. Morris Strauss. Weekly. NEBRASKA NATIONAL JEWISH POST AND OPINION— Indiana Edn. (1935). Box 1633, Indian- JBWISH PRESS (1921). 101 N. 20 St., apolis, 6. Gabriel M. Cohen. Weekly. Omaha, 2. Frances Klein. Weekly. Jewish Federation of Omaha. KENTUCKY NEW JERSEY •NATIONAL JEWISH POST AND OPINION— Kentucky Edn. (1931). 423 Citizens Bldg., JBWISH NBWS (1947). 32 Central Ave., Louisville, 2. Newark, 2. Harry Weingast. Weekly. Jew- ish Community Council of Essex County. JBWISH RECORD (1939). 1537 Atlantic Ave., LOUISIANA Atlantic City. Theodor I. Sandier. Weekly. JBWISH STANDARD (1931). 924 Bergen Ave., JBWISH LEDGER (1893). 608 Dryades St., Jersey City, 4. Morris J. Janoff. Weekly. New Orleans, 12. Abraham Slabot. Weekly. NEW YORK

MARYLAND BUFFALO JBWISH RBVIBW (1912). 35 Pearl St., Buffalo, 2. Elias Rex Jacobs. Weekly. JBWISH TIMES (1919). Ill N. Charles St., JEWISH LEDGER (1924). P. O. Box 795 Baltimore, 1. Bert F. Kline. Weekly. Rochester, 3. Donald Wolin. Weekly. 398 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

LONG ISLAND JEWISH PRBSS (1944). 129 CONGRBSS BI-WBEKLY (1935). 15 E. 84 W. 52 St., N. Y. C, 19. Eugene J. Lang. St., 28. Samuel Caplan. Fortnightly. Amer- Monthly. ican Jewish Congress. WBSTCHBSTBR JEWISH TRIBUNB (1948). CIA BULLBTIN (1956). 15 E. 84 St., 28. 129 W. 52 St., N. Y. C, 19. Eugene J. Phil Baum. Bimonthly. Commission on In- Lang. Monthly. ternational Affair*, American Jewish Con- gress. THB DAY—JBWISH JOURNAL (1914). 183 NEW YORK CITY E. Broadway, 2. Solomon Dingol, David L. Medder. Daily; Yiddish. ADULT JEWISH EDUCATION (1955). 1109 ECONOMIC HORIZONS. See AMERICAN-IS- Fifth Ave., 28. Marvin S. Weiner. Quar- RAEL ECONOMIC HORIZONS. terly. National Academy for Adult Jewish FARBAND NBWS (1912). 575 Sixth Ave., Studies of the United Synagogue of Amer- 11. Si Wakesberg. Bimonthly; English- ica. Yiddish. Farband-Labor Zionist Order. ADULT JBWISH LBADBRSHIP (1954). 1776 FRBBLAND MAGAZINB (1944). 310 W. 86 Broadway, 19. Leon A. Feldman. Quar- St., 24. Editl. Bd. Erich Fromm, Leybl terly. Dept. of Adult Education, Jewish Kahn, M. Schaechter. Quarterly. Freeland Education Committee of New York. League for Jewish Territorial Colonization. •AGUDAH NBWS RBPORTBR (1955). 5 • FRBIB ARBEITER STIMMB (1890). 33 Beekman St., 38. Union Sq., 3. AMERICAN EXAMINER (combining AMERI- FURROWS (1942). 200 Park Ave. S., 3. CAN HBBREW and JEWISH EXAMINER) Benjamin Frank. Monthly; English-He- (1956). 239 Park Ave S., 3. Albert Fried- brew. Habonim Labor Zionist Youth. man. Weekly. GROWING UP (1953). 201 E. 57 St., 22. AMERICAN HBBREW. See AMERICAN EX- Leonard R. Sussman. Semimonthly. Ameri- AMINER. can Council for Judaism. AMBRICAN-ISRABL ECONOMIC HORIZONS HABONBH (1935). 200 Park Ave. S., 3. (1949). 250 W. 57 St., 19. Zechariahu Brenda Levine. Monthly. Habonim Labor Sitchin. Monthly. American-Israel Cham- Zionist Youth. ber of Commerce and Industry. HADASSAH NBWSLETTER (1921). 65 E. 52 AMBRICAN ISRABL REVIBW (1957). 200 W. St., 22. Mrs. Judith G. Epstein. Monthly. 57 St., 19- Leo M. Glassman. Bimonthly. Hadassah, the Women's Zionist Organiza- American Jewish League for Israel. tion of America. AMERICAN JBWISH HOMB (1949). 3920 HADOAR HEBREW WEBKLY (1921). 120 Laurel Ave., Brooklyn, 24. Arnold Posy. W. 16 St., 11. Moshe Maisels. Weekly; Irregular. Brooklyn and L. I. Kosher Meat- Hebrew. Hadoar Association of Histadruth dealers Association. Ivrith, Inc. AMBRICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK (1899). 165 E. 56 St., 22. Morris Fine, Milton HADOAR LANOAR (1926). 120 W. 16 St., Himmelfarb. American Jewish Committee 11. Simcha Rubinstein. Biweekly; Hebrew. and Jewish Publication Society. Annual. Hadoar Association of Histadruth Ivrith, AMERICAN JUDAISM (formerly LIBBRAL JU- Inc. DAISM; re-org. 1951). 838 Fifth Ave., 21. HADOROM (1957). 331 Madison Ave., 17. Paul Kresh. Quarterly. Union of American Charles B. Chavel. Quarterly; Hebrew. Hebrew Congregations. Rabbinical Council of America, Inc. AMERICAN ZIONIST (1921). 145 E. 32 St., HAROFB HAIVRI-HEBREW MBDICAL JOUR- 16. Ernest E. Barbarash. Monthly. Zionist NAL (1927). 983 Park Ave., 28. Moses Organization of America. Einhorn. Semiannual; Hebrew-English. AUFBAU-RBCONSTRUCnON (1934). 2121 HISTADRUT FOTO-NEWS (1948). 33 E. 67 Broadway, 23. Manfred George. Weekly; St., 21. Nahum Guttman. Monthly. Na- English-German. New World Club, Inc. tional Committee for Labor Israel. BITZARON, THE HEBREW MONTHLY OF HISTORIA JUDAiCA (1938). 40 W. 68 St., AMERICA (1939). 1141 Broadway, 1. 23. Guido Kisch. Semiannual. Maurice E. Chernowitz. Monthly; Hebrew. HORBB (1935). Yeshiva University. 186 St. BROOKLYN JBWISH CENTER REVIEW and Amsterdam Ave., 33. Abraham Weiss. (1933). 667 Eastern Parkway, Brooklyn, Annual; Hebrew. Teachers Institute, Ye- 13. Joseph Kaye. Quarterly. Brooklyn Jew- shiva University. ish Center. IN THE COMMON CAUSE (1954). 55 W. 42 CCAR JOURNAL (1953). 40 W. 68 St., 23. St., 36. Samuel Spiegler. Quarterly. Na- Joseph Klein. Quarterly. Central Confer- tional Community Relations Advisory ence of American Rabbis. Council. CENTRAL CONFERENCE OF AMERICAN RAB- IN JEWISH BOOKLAND (supplement of the BIS YEARBOOK (1889). 40 W. 68 St., 23. JWB CIRCLE) (1945). 145 E. 32 St., 16. Sidney L. Regner. Annual. Central Confer- Solomon Grayzel. Monthly. Jewish Book ence of American Rabbis. Council of America. COMMENTARY (1945). 165 E. 56 St., 22. INTBRRELIGIOUSNEWSLETTER (1955). 165 Norman Podhoretz. Monthly. American E. 56 St., 22. Morris N. Kertzer, Arthur Jewish Committee. Gilbert. Irregular. American Jewish Com- JEWISH PERIODICALS 399

mirtee and B'nai B'rith Anti-Defamation JEWISH PRESS (1947). 2427 Surf Ave., League. Brooklyn, 24. Chaim U. Lipschitz. Weekly. ISRABL ECONOMIC HORIZONS. See AMBRI- JEWISH SOCIAL SERVICE QUARTERLY. See CAN-ISRABL ECONOMIC HORIZONS. JOURNAL OF JEWISH COMMUNAL SERV- ISRABL HORIZONS (1952). 112 Park Ave. S., ICE. 3. Richard Yaffe. Monthly. Progressive JEWISH SOCIAL STUDIES (1939). 1841 Zionist League-Hashomer Hat2air and Broadway, 23. Meir Ben-Horin. Quarterly. Americans for Progressive Israel. Conference on Jewish Social Studies, Inc. ISSUES (1958). 201 E. 57 St., 22. Bill JEWISH SPECTATOR (1935). 520 Fifth Ave., Gottlieb. 3 times a year. American Council 36. Trade Weiss-Rosmarin. Monthly. for Judaism. JBWISH TEACHER (1932). 838 Fifth Aye., JEWISH AUDIO-VISUAL REVIEW (1951). 21. Eugene B. Borowitz. Quarterly. Union 1261 Broadway, 1. Samuel D. Freeman. of American Hebrew Congregations. Annual. National Council on Jewish Audio- JEWISH TELEGRAPHIC AGENCY DAILY NEWS Visual Materials. BULLETIN (1919). 660 First Ave., 16. JEWISH BOOK ANNUAL (1942). 145 B. 32 Boris Smolar. Daily. St., 16. Alexander Alan Steinbach. Annual; JBWISH TELEGRAPHIC AGENCY WEEKLY English-Hebrew-Yiddish. Jewish Book NEWS DIGEST (1933). 660 First Ave., 16. Council of America. Boris Smolar. Weekly. JEWISH BRAILLE REVIEW (1931). 48 E. 74 JEWISH WAY (1941). 870 Riverside Dr., St., 21. Jacob Freid. Monthly: English 32. Alice Oppenheimer. Monthly; German. Braille. Jewish Braille Institute of America. JEWISH WEEK (1956). 154 Nassau St., 38. JEWISH CURRENTS (formerly JEWISH LIFE) Hillel Seidman. Weekly; Hebrew-Yiddish. (1946). 22 E. 17 St., 3. Morris U. JWB CiRCLB (1946). 145 E. 32 St., 16. Schappes. Monthly. Bernard Postal. Monthly. National Jewish JEWISH DAILY FORWARD (1897). 175 E. Welfare Board. Broadway, 2. Harry Rogoff. Daily; Yiddish. JEWISH WORLD. See MIDDLE EAST AND THB Forward Association. WEST. JBWISH DAILY YIDDISH BULLETIN. See YID- JOURNAL OF JEWISH COMMUNAL SBRVICB DISHE TELEGRAPHIN AGENTUR, TEGLI- (1924). 150 E. 35 St., 16. Sanford N. CHBR BULLETIN. Sherman. Quarterly. National Conference of JEWISH EDUCATION (1928). 1261 Broad- Jewish Communal Service. way, 1. Louis L. Ruffman. 3 times a year. JUDAISM (1952). 15 E. 84 St., 28. Felix A. National Council for Jewish Education. Levy. Quarterly. American Jewish Congress. JEC BULLETIN (1943). 1776 Broadway, 19. KINDER JOURNAL (1920). 22 E. 17 St., 3. Samuel J. Citron. Bimonthly. Jewish Edu- Lipa Lehrer. Bimonthly; Yiddish. Farlag cation Committee of New York. Matones Assoc, Sholem Aleichem Folks JEWISH EDUCATION NEWSLETTER (1940). Institute, Inc. 1261 Broadway, 1. Judah Pilch. Bimonthly. KINDER ZEITUNG (1930). 175 E. Broadway, American Association for Jewish Education. 2. Z. Yefroikin. 5 times a_jear; Yiddish. JBWISH EXAMINER. See AMERICAN EX- Educational Dept., Workmen's Circle. AMINER. KOSHER FOOD GUIDB (1935). 105 Hudson JBWISH FARMER (1908). 386 Park Ave. S., St., 13. George Goldstein. Quarterly. 16. Benjamin Miller. Monthly; English- ©KOSHER PRODUCTS DIRECTORY (1926). Yiddish. Jewish Agricultural Society, Inc. 305 Broadway, 7. Abraham H. Eisenman. JBWISH FORUM (1917). 305 Broadway, 7. Quarterly; Annual special Passover edition. Isaac Rosengarten. Monthly. Kashruth Division, Union of Orthodox JBWISH FRONTIER (1934). 45 E. 17 St., 3. Jewish Congregations of America. Marie Syrkin. Monthly. KULTUR UN DERTZIUNG-CULTURE AND JEWISH HORIZON (1938). 80 Fifth Ave., 11. EDUCATION (1930). 175 E. Broadway, 2. J. J. Yoshor. Monthly. Religious Zionists Z. Yefroikin, N. Chanin. 7 times a year; of America, Mizrachi-Hapoel Hamizrachi. Yiddish. Educational Dept., Workmen's • JLC OUTLOOK (1954). 25 E. 78 St., 21. Circle. JEWISH LIFE. See JEWISH CURRENTS. LABOR IN ISRAEL NEWSLETTER (1953). JEWISH LIFE (1946). 305 Broadway, 7. 33 E. 67 St., 21. Ephraim Evron. Monthly. Saul Bernstein. Bimonthly. Union of Ortho- Histadrut (General Federation of Labor in dox Jewish Congregations of America. Israel). JEWISH MUSIC NOTES (supplement of the MENORAH JOURNAL (1915). 20 E. 69 St., JWB CIRCLE) (1946). 145 E. 32 St., 16. Ario S. Hyams. Semiannual. National Jew- 21. Henry Hurwitz. Quarterly. Menorah ish Music Council. Association, Inc. JBWISH NEWSLBTTER (1948). P. O. Box MIDDLE EAST AND THE WBST (formerly 117, Washington Bridge Station, 33. Wil- JEWISH WORLD) (re-org. 1957). 55 W. liam Zukerman. Fortnightly. Friends of the 42 St. Mordechai Katz. Fortnightly. United Jewish Newsletter, Inc. Zionists Revisionists of America. JBWISH PARENT (1949). 5 Beekman St., 38. MIDSTREAM (1955). 250 W. 57 St., 19. Joseph Kaminetsky. 5 times a year. Na- Shlomo Katz. Quarterly. Theodor Herzl tional Association of Hebrew Day School Foundation, Inc. PTA's. MIZRACHI OUTLOOK (formerly JBWISH OUTLOOK). See JEWISH HORIZON. 400 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

DER MIZRACHI WEG (1936). 80 Fifth Aye., St., 24. Ira Eisenstein. Fortnightly. Jewish 11. Aaron Pechenick. Bimonthly; Yiddish. Reconstructionist Foundation. Religious Zionists of America (Mizrachi - SEVEN ARTS FEATUHB SYNDICATE. See News Hapoel Hamizrachi). Syndicates, p. 402. MORNING FREIHBIT, INC (1922). 35 E. 12 SHEVILEY HACHINUCH (1939). 1261 Broad- St., 3. Paul Novick. Daily; Yiddish. way, 1. Zvi Scharfstein. Quarterly; He- MUSAF LAKORB HATZAIR (1945). 120 W. brew. National Council for Jewish Educa- 16 St., 11. Hayim Leaf. Fortnightly; He- tion. brew. Hadoar Assoc, Inc. STUDENT ZIONIST (1954). 342 Madison NATIONAL JEWISH POST AND OPINION— Ave., 17. David B. Saltzman. Annual. Stu- Nat. Edn. (1946). 110 W. 40 St., 18. dent Zionist Organization. Charles Roth. Weekly. SURA (1954). Amsterdam Ave. and 186 St., OIFN SHVEL (1941). 310 W. 86 St., 24. 33. Samuel K. Mirsky. Annual; Hebrew. Editl. Bd. M. Astour, A. Chobotsky, A. Sura Institute and Yeshiva University. Kin, M. Schaechter, E. Shulman. Bi- SYNAGOGUE LIGHT (1933). 47 Beekman St., monthly; Yiddish. Freeland League for 38. Joseph Hager. Monthly. Jewish Territorial Organization. SYNAGOGUE SCHOOL (1942). 3080 Broad- OLOMEINU-OUR WORLD (1945). 5 Beek- way, 27. Samuel Schafler. Quarterly. United man St., 38. Murray Friedman. Monthly; Synagogue Commission on Jewish Educa- English-Hebrew. Torah Umesorah. tion. OPINION. See NATIONAL JBWISH POST. SYNAGOGUE SERVICE (1933). 838 Fifth OR HAMIZRACH (1954). 80 Fifth Ave., 11. Ave., 21. Eugene J. Lipman, Myron E. Aaron Pechenick. Quarterly; Hebrew. Reli- Schoen. 6 times a year. Commission on gious Zionists of America (Mizrachi- Synagogue Activities, Union of American Hapoel Hamizrachi). Hebrew Congregations. • ORTHODOX TRIBUNE (1936). 5 Beekman TALPIOTH (1943). 186 St. and Amsterdam St., 38. Ave., 33. Samuel K. Mirsky. Irregular; He- OUR TEACHERS (1958). 1261 Broadway, 1. brew. Yeshiva University. Hyman Chanover. Semiannual. American TBCHNION YEARBOOK (1942). 1000 Fifth Association for Jewish Education. Ave., 28. David C. Gross. Annual. Ameri- OUR VOICE. See UNZER SHTIMMB. can Technion Society. PALESTINB AND ZIONISM (1946). 250 W. TRADITION (1958). 331 Madison Ave., 17. 57 St., 19. Sylvia Landress. Annual. Zion- Norman Lamm. Semiannual. Rabbinical ist Archives and Library of Palestine Council of America, Inc. Foundation Fund. UNDZER VEG (1925). 305 Broadway, 7. Ye- PBDAGOGIC REPORTER (1949). 1261 Broad- way, 1. Zalmen Slesinger. Bimonthly. huda Tyberg. Monthly; Yiddish. United American Association for Jewish Education. Labor Zionist Party. UNITED SYNAGOGUB REVIEW (1943). 3080 PBDAGOGISHER BULLETIN (1941). 1776 Broadway, 19. Yudel Mark. Fortnightly; Broadway, N. Y. C, 27. Bernard Segal. Yiddish. Committee for the Yiddish Quarterly. United Synagogue of America. Schools, Jewish Education Committee of UNZER TSAIT (1941). 25 E. 78 St., 21. New York. Emanuel Scherer. Monthly; Yiddish. Jewish PIONEER WOMAN (1926). 29 E. 22 St., 10. Labor Bund. Helen Atkin. Monthly & Bimonthly; Eng- DER WECKER (1921). 175 E. Broadway, 2. lish-Yiddish-Hebrew. Pioneer Women, the I. Levin-Shatzkes. Monthly; Yiddish. Jew- Women's Labor Zionist Organization of ish Socialist Verband of America. America. WESTCHESTER JEWISH TRIBUNE. See New PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY York State. FOR JEWISH RESEARCH (1930). 3080 WORLD OVER (1940). 426 W. 58 St., 25. Broadway, 27. Abraham S. Halkin. Annual; Ezekiel Schloss, Morris Epstein. Fort- English-Hebrew. American Academy for nightly. Jewish Education Committee of Jewish Research. New York. PROCEEDINGS OF THE RABBINICAL AS- YBDIES FUN YIVO—NEWS OF TH2 Yrvo SEMBLY OF AMERICA (1927). 3080 (1925; re-org. 1943). 1048 Fifth Ave., Broadway, 27. Alex J. Goldman. Annual; 28. Leibush Lehrer. Quarterly; Yiddish- Hebrew-English. Rabbinical Assembly of English. YlVO Institute for Jewish Re- America. search, Inc. PROGRAM EXCHANGE (1958). 55 W. 42 St., YESHIVA EDUCATION (1957). 80 Fifth 36. Samuel Spiegler. Irregular. National Ave., 11. Isidor Margolis. Quarterly. Na- Community Relations Advisory Council. tional Council for Torah Education, Miz- PUBLICATION OF THE AMERICAN JEWISH rachi-Hapoel Hamizrachi. HISTORICAL SOCIETY (1893). 3080 YIDDISHE KULTUR (1938). 189 Second Broadway, 27. Isidore S. Meyer. Quarterly. Ave., 3. Nachman Mayzel. Monthly; Yid- American Jewish Historical Society. dish. Yiddisher Kultur Farband—YKUF. RABBINICAL COUNCIL RECORD (1954). 331 YIDDISHE TELEGRAPHEN AGENTUR, TEG- Madison Ave., 17. Louis Bernstein. Bi- LICHBR BULLBTIN (1922). 660 First monthly. Rabbinical Council of America. Ave., 10. Aleph Katz. Daily; Yiddish. Jew- RECONSTRUCTIONS (1934). 15 W. 86 ish Telegraphic Agency. JEWISH PERIODICALS 401

* Dos YIDDISHB VORT (1949). 5 Beekman cinnati, 2. Samuel M. Schmidt. Weekly. St., 38. Jewish Heritage Foundation. YIDDISHER KEMFBR (1905). 45 E. 17 St., HEBREW UNION COLLBGE ANNUAL 3. Mordechi Shtrigler. Weekly; Yiddish. (1924). 3101 Clifton Ave., Cincinnati, 20. Labor Zionist Organization—Poale Zion of Sec. Editl. Bd. Elias L. Epstein. Annual; America. English - French - German - Hebrew -Yiddish. •YIDISHE SHPRAKH (1941). 1048 Fifth Hebrew Union College—Jewish Institute of Ave., 28. Religion. YIDISHER FOLKLOR (1954). 1048 Fifth JEWISH INDEPENDENT (1906). 216 Film Ave., 28. Editl. Bd. Chaneh Gordon- Bldg., 2108 Payne Ave., Cleveland, 14. Mlotek, Bina Silverman-Weinreich, Wolf Leo Weidenthal. Weekly. Younin. Irregular; Yiddish. Yrvo Insti- * JEWISH REVIEW AND OBSERVER (1888). tute for Jewish Research, Inc. 1104 Prospect Ave., Cleveland, 15. Yivo ANNUAL OF JEWISH SOCIAL SCIENCE JEWISH VOICE PICTORIAL (1938). 2821 (1946). 1048 Fifth Ave., 28. Editl. Bd. Mayfield Rd., Cleveland, 18. Leon Wiesen- Leibush Lehrer, Shlomo Bickel, Philip feld. Semiannual. Friedman. Annual. Yrvo Institute for Jew- * OHIO JEWISH CHRONICLE (1922). 35 E. ish Research, Inc. Livingston Ave., Columbus, 15. Yrvo BLETER (1931). 1048 Fifth Ave., 28. STUDIES IN BIBLIOGRAPHY AND BOOKLORE Editl. Bd. Leibush Lehrer, Shlomo Noble, (1953). 3101 Clifton Ave., Cincinnati, Philip Friedman. Annual; Yiddish. YlVO 20. Chmn. Editl. Bd. Herbert C. Zafren. Institute for Jewish Research, Inc. Biannual; English-Hebrew-German. Li- YOUNG GUARD (1934). 112 Park Ave. S., brary, Hebrew Union College—Jewish In- 3. Chana Buchweitz. Monthly; English-He- stitute of Religion. brew. Hashomer Haczair. TOLEDO JEWISH NEWS (1952). 310-311 YOUNG ISRAEL VIEWPOINT (1937). 3 W. Gardner Bldg., 506 Madison Ave., Toledo, 16 St., 11. Joseph Lauer. Bimonthly. 4. Irvin L. Edelstein. Monthly. National Council of Young Israel. YOUNGSTOWN JEWISH TIMES (1935). P. O. YOUNG JUDAEAN (1910). 116 W. 14 St., Box 1195, Youngstown, 1. Harry Alter. 11. Ahron Gelles. 8 times a year. National Weekly. Young Judaea. YOUTH BULLETIN (1955). P. O. Box 63, Vanderveer Station, Brooklyn, 10. Allan OKLAHOMA C. Brownfeld. Bimonthly. ZIONIST COLLEGIATE (1954). 342 Madison SOUTHWEST JEWISH CHRONICLE (1929). Ave., 17. Peter Krausz. Bimonthly; Eng- 420 Braniff Bldg., Oklahoma City, 2. E. F. lish-Hebrew. Student Zionist Organization. Friedman. Quarterly. ZOA PROGRAM AND EDUCATION BULLETIN. TULSA JEWISH REVIEW (1930). P. O. Box See ZOA REPORTER. 396, Tulsa, 1. Emil Salomon. Monthly. ZOA REPORTER (1957). 145 E. 32 St., 16. Tulsa Section, National Council of Jewish David E. Hirsch. Monthly. Zionist Organi- Women. zation of America. ZUKUNFT (1892). 25 E. 78 St., 21. Jacob Glatstein, H. Leivick, A. Menes, Jacob PENNSYLVANIA Pat. Monthly; Yiddish. Congress for Jewish Culture and CYCO. AMERICAN JEWISH OUTLOOK (1934). 1037 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, 19. Albert W. Golomb. Weekly. NORTH CAROLINA JEWISH CRITERION (1892). 422 First Ave., Pittsburgh, 17. Milton K. Susman. Weekly. AMERICAN JEWISH TIMES—OUTLOOK JEWISH EXPONENT (1887). 1518 Walnut (1935, re-org. 1950). 530 Southeastern St., Philadelphia, 3. Bernard B. Bergman. Bldg., Greensboro. Chester A. Brown. Weekly. Federation of Jewish Agencies of Monthly. Greater Philadelphia. CAROLINA ISRAELITE (1942). P. O. Box JEWISH PICTORIAL LEADER (1887). 1929 2505, Charlotte, 1. Harry L. Golden. Bi- Murray Ave., Pittsburgh, 17. Louis Yale monthly. Borkon. Monthly. JPS BOOKMARK (1954). 222 N. 15 St., Philadelphia, 2. Solomon Grayzel. Quar- OHIO terly. Jewish Publication Society of Amer- ica. AMERICAN ISRAELITE (1854). 626 Broad- JEWISH QUARTERLY REVIEW (1910). Broad way, Gncinnati, 2. Henry C. Segal. Weekly. and York Sts., Philadelphia, 32. B. Ne- AMERICAN JEWISH ARCHIVES (1948) .3101 tanyahu, Abraham A. Neuman, Solomon Clifton Ave., Cincinnati, 20. Jacob R. Zeitlin. Quarterly. Dropsie College for He- Marcus. Semiannual. American Jewish brew and Cognate Learning. Archives, Hebrew Union College—Jewish PHILADELPHIA JEWISH TIMES (1925). Institute of Religion. 1530 Spruce St., Philadelphia, 2. Arthur EVBRY FRIDAY (1927). 906 Main St., Cin- Klein. Weekly. 402 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

TORCH (1941). 1904 Girard Trust Building, TEXAS JEWISH POST (1947). P. O. Box 742, Philadelphia, 2. Milton Berger. Quarterly. Fort Worth, 1; 627 Fidelity Bldg., Dallas, National Federation of Jewish Men's Clubs, 1. Jimmy Wisch. Weekly. Inc. WASHINGTON RHODE ISLAND TRANSCRIPT (1942). 727 Seaboard Bldg., JEWISH HBRALD (1929). 1117 Douglas Seattle, 1. Frances Posner. Fortnightly. Ave., Providence. Celia Zuckerberg. Weekly. RHODB ISLAND JEWISH HISTORICAL NOTBS WISCONSIN (1951). 52 Power St., Providence, 6. David C. Adelman. Semiannual. Rhode Is- ' JEWISH PRESS—MILWAUKER WOCHEN- land Jewish Historical Assn. BLAT (1915). 1721 N. 12 St., Milwau- kee, 5. WISCONSIN JEWISH CHRONICLE (1921). TENNESSEE 120 E. Detroit St., Milwaukee, 2. Edwarde F. Perlson. Weekly. HEBREW WATCHMAN (1925). 277 Jefferson Ave., Memphis, 3. Leo I. Goldberger. Weekly. NEWS SYNDICATES OBSERVER (1934). 311 Church St., Nash- ville, 3. Jacques Back. Weekly. AMERICAN JEWISH PRESS (AJP) (1943). 311 Church St., Nashville, 3. Tenn. JEWISH TELEGRAPHIC AGENCY, INC.—JTA TEXAS (1917). 660 First Ave., New York, 16, N. Y. Boris Smolar. Daily; English-Yid- JEWISH DIGEST (1955). 1719 Caroline St., dish. Houston, 1. Bernard Postal. Monthly. SBVEN ARTS FEATURE SYNDICATE, INC. JBWISH HBRALD-VOICE (1908). 1719 Caro- (1922). 660 First Ave., New York, 16, line St., Houston, 1. D. H. White. Weekly. N. Y. Nathan Ziprin. Semiweekly.

CANADA

BULLETIN DU CERCLE JUIF (1954). 493 lege St., Toronto, Ont. M. J. Nurenberger. Sherbrooke St., W., Montreal, P.Q. Nairn Daily; Yiddish-English. Kattan. Monthly; French. Canadian Jewish ISRAELITE PRESS—Dos YIDDISHE WORT Congress. (1910). 221 Flora Ave., Winnipeg, 2, CANADIAN JEWISH CHRONICLE (1897). Man. S. M. Selchen. Weekly; Yiddish-Eng- 4075 St. Lawrence Blvd., Montreal, P.Q. lish. Solomon Frank. Weekly. JEWISH DAILY EAGLE (1907). 4075 St. CANADIAN JEWISH MAGAZINB (1938). Lawrence Blvd., Montreal, 1, P.Q. Israel 5260 Queen Mary Road, Montreal, P.Q. Rabinovitch. Daily; Yiddish. Otto Scheffer. Monthly. JEWISH POST (1924). 1244 Main St., Win- • CANADIAN JEWISH REVIEW (1921). 265 nipeg, 4, Man. Melvin Fenson. Weekly. Craig St. W., Montreal, 1, P.Q. JEWISH STANDARD (1929). 53 Yonge St., CANADIAN JEWISH WEEKLY (VOCHEN- Toronto, 1, Ont. Julius Hayman. Semi- BLATT) (formerly DER KAMPF; re-org. weekly. 1941). 271 College St., Toronto, 4, Ont. JEWISH WESTERN BULLETIN (1929). 2675 Joshua Gershman. Weekly; Yiddish-Eng- Oak St., Vancouver, 9, B. C. Abraham J. lish. Arnold. Weekly. Jewish Community Coun- • CANADIAN ZIONIST (1934). 2025 Univer- cil of Vancouver. sity St., Montreal, 2, P.Q. •OTTAWA HEBREW NEWS (1928). 935 CONGRESS BULLETIN (1943). 493 Sher- Mountainview Ave., Ottawa. brooke St., W., Montreal, 2, P.Q. Mrs. WINDSOR JEWISH COMMUNITY BULLETIN Ruth R. Wisse. Monthly. Canadian Jewish (1933). 1641 OueUette Ave., Windsor, Congress. Ont. Joseph Eisenberg. Monthly. Windsor DAILY HEBREW JOURNAL (1911). 409 Col- Jewish Community Council. American Jewish Bibliography1

HISTORY TCHBRIKOVER, VICTOR A. Hellenistic civilization and the Jews; tr. [from the He- BARON, SALO WITTMAYER. A social and re- brew] by S. Applebaum. Philadelphia, Jew- ligious history of the Jews. 2d ed., rev. and ish Publication Society of America, 1959. enl. New York, Columbia Univ. Press; vii, 566 p. Philadelphia, Jewish Publication Society of A study of the relationship between Jews America, 1958. 3 v. and Greeks, and later Romans, after Alex- Vol. 6: Laws, homilies, and the Bible; ander; in Palestine and the diaspora. vol. 7. Hebrew language and letters; vol. 8. Philosophy and science. ARCHEOLOGY BLAU, JOSEPH L., and others, eds. Essays on Jewish life and thought; presented in honor GLUBCK, NELSON. Rivers in the desert; a of Salo Wittmayer Baron. New York, Co- history of the Negev. New York, Farrar, lumbia Univ. Press, 1959. xxx, 458 p. Straus, and Cudahy, 1959. xv, 302 p. Twenty-six essays by former students of By means of recent archeological discov- the eminent Jewish historian. Includes a eries Dr. Glueck reconstructs the successive bibliography of the writings of Professor civilizations which flourished and died over Baron. the centuries. EMERY, RICHARD WILDER. The Jews of Per- GOODENOUGH, ERWIN RAMSDELL. Jewish pignan in the thirteenth century; an eco- symbols in the Greco-Roman period; nomic study based on notarial records. New v. 7—8: Pagan symbols in Judaism. New York, Columbia Univ. Press, 1959. viii, York, Pantheon Books, 1958. 2 v. (Bol- 202 p. lingen series, v. 37, nos. 7—8) A historical study of the Jews of this sec- Deals with symbols in synagogues and tion in Southern France dealing with their on gravestones. occupations, business dealings with other GORDON, CYRUS HERZL. The world of the Jews and non-Jews, and ownership of prop- Old Testament. Rev., 2d. ed. Garden City, erty. N. Y., Doubleday, 1958. 312 p. HERTZ, J. S., comp. The Jewish Labor Bund; A revision of Introduction to Old Testa- a pictorial history, 1897-1957. New York, ment times, intended as a textbook on the Farlag Unser Tsait, 1958. 188 p. subject. To commemorate the sixtieth anniversary of the Jewish socialist organization. In ILTON, PAUL. The Bible was my treasure English and Yiddish. map. New York, Messner, 1958. 255 p. A personal account of archeological ex- NIRENSTEIN, ALBERT. A tower from the periences in Palestine and Egypt. enemy; contributions to a history of Jewish resistance in Poland. [Tr. from the Polish, JOIN-LAMBERT, MICHEL. Jerusalem; tr. by Yiddish and Hebrew by David Neiman; Charlotte Haldane. New York, Putnam, from the Italian by Mervyn Savill] New 1958. (Ancient cities and temples series. York, Orion Press, 1959- xiii, 372 p. 1) A collection of documents, diaries, let- A historical and archeological survey of ters, proclamations, excerpts from resistance the three major sections of Jerusalem, Jew- newspapers, and material from Nazi sources, ish, Christian, and Moslem. together providing a picture of the Warsaw KEYES, NELSON BEECHER. Story of the Bible ghetto. world; in map, word and picture. Maple- SHILSTONE, E. M. Monumental inscriptions wood, N. J., Hammond, 1959. 192 p. in the burial ground of the Jewish syna- A popular account, incorporating new gogue at Bridgetown, Barbados. New York, archeological finds. American Jewish Historical Society, 1958. PRITCHARD, JAMES BENNETT. Archeology xxxiii, 205 p. and the Old Testament. Princeton, N. J., The Jewish community in Barbados, Princeton University Press, 1958. xii, West Indies, is assumed to date from the 263 p. early years of the seventeenth century. Draws on finds in Israel, Jordan, Leba- i Books of Jewish interest published in English in the United States during the period July 1, 19S8, through June 30, 1959. 403 404 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

non, Syria, Iraq, Mesopotamia, Egypt, and SHINBDLING, ABRAHAM I. History of the Los modern Turkey to deepen understanding of Alamos Jewish Center, Los Alamos, New the Bible. Mexico (1944 to 1957). Los Alamos, N.M., The Author, 1958. 68 p. A story of the Jewish community from JEWS IN THE UNITED STATES 1944, when the first religious services were held in what at that time was a highly Essays in American Jewish history; to com- restricted area, to the present. memorate the tenth anniversary of the founding of the American Jewish Archives ISRAEL, ZIONISM, AND THE under the direction of Jacob Rader Marcus. MIDDLE EAST Cincinnati, American Jewish Archives, 1958. xvii, 534 p. (Hebrew Union Col- EBAN, ABBA. The tide of nationalism. New lege. American Jewish Archives. Publica- York, Horizon Press, 1959. 62 p. tion, no. 4) Shows that the Middle East is not, was Includes a biographical sketch and a bibliography of the publications of Jacob not, and cannot be entirely an Arab domain, Rader Marcus and essays on various aspects and argues that the destiny of the Arabs of American Jewish history. lies in individual states. FARRELL, JAMES THOMAS. It has come to FELDMAN, ABRAHAM JEHIEL. The American pass. New York, Herzl Press, 1958. Jew; a study of backgrounds. Rev. ed. v, 288 p. New York, Bloch, 1959. vii, 52 p. The well-known American novelist re- Chapters on the Spanish-Portuguese Jews, cords his impressions of Israel. the German Jews, the Russian-Polish Jews, and how these have merged into the Amer- HARMAN, AVRAHAM, and YADIN, YIGABL, ican Jew. eds. Israel; preface by David Ben-Gurion. Garden City, N. Y., Doubleday, 1958. n.p. GALB, JOSEPH, ed. Eastern Union; the devel- Photographs, many in color, with brief, opment of a Jewish community. Illus. by explanatory text. Louis Spindler. Elizabeth, N. J., Jewish HELLER, ABRAHAM MAYER. Israel's odyssey; Culture Council of Eastern Union County, a survey of Israel's renaissance, achieve- N. J., 1958. xvi, 122 p. ments and problems. New York, Farrar, A history of the Jews in Elizabeth, Straus, and Cudahy, 1959. ix, 310 p. Hillside, Linden, Rahway, Roselle, and Union, New Jersey, from the earliest days Based on several months of personal ob- to the present. servation in the country. HERTZBBRG, ARTHUR, ed. The Zionist idea; GOLDEN, HARRY LBWIS. Only in America; a historical analysis and reader. Introd. and foreword by Carl Sandburg. Cleveland, biographical notes; foreword by Emanuel World Pub. Co., 1958. 317 p. Neumann. Garden Gty, N. Y., Double- A collection of short essays, editorials, day; New York, Herzl Press, 1959. 638 p. and observations on a multitude of subjects Endeavors to present in English the en- culled from the author's newspaper The tire range of Zionist thought from the early Carolina Israelite. nineteenth century to the present. GUTSTEIN, MORRIS AARON. TO bigotry no Herzl year book, v. 1; ed. by Raphael Patai. sanction; a Jewish shrine in America, With a preface by Emanuel Neumann. 1658-1958. New York, Bloch, 1958. New York, Herzl Press, 1958. viii, 334 p. 191 p. Thirteen essays dealing with various A history of the Jews and the Touro phases of Herzl's activities on behalf of the Synagogue of Newport, Rhode Island, Zionist movement. which was designated a National Historic INSTITUTE FOR MEDITERRANEAN AFFAIRS. Site in 1946. The Palestine refugee problem; a new ap- KOHN, S. JOSHUA. The Jewish community proach and a plan for a solution. New of Utica, New York, 1847-1948. New York, The Institute, 1958. 133 p. York, American Jewish Historical Society, A report based on a study of the ref- 1959. xvi, 221 p. (American Jewish com- ugee problem by a panel of independent munal histories, no. 2) scholars and authorities on the Middle Based on source material and interviews. East. MARCUS, JACOB RADER, ed. American Jewry, JANOWSKY, OSCAR ISAIAH. Foundations of documents, eighteenth century; primarily Israel; emergence of a welfare state. New hitherto unpublished manuscripts. Cincin- York, Van Nostrand, 1959. 191 p. (Anvil nati, Hebrew Union College Press, 1959. books) xix, 492 p. (American Jewish Archives. The first portion of the book deals with Publication, no. 3) the origins and development of Israel, the A compilation of documents dealing with second part consists of documents and sta- the personal, religious, and business lives tistical tables. of the Jews in the American colonies and KNOHL, DOV, ed. Siege in the hills of Canada. Hebron; the battle of the Etzion bloc. In- AMERICAN JEWISH BIBLIOGRAPHY 405

trod, by Abba Eban; evaluations by Yigael 182 striking photographs. He tells of the Yadin and Yig'al Allon. [Abr. and ed. discovery of the scrolls, their background by Aryei Fishman; tr. [from the Hebrew] and history, and their significance to both by Isaac Halevy-Levin] New York, Yose- Christians and Jews. loff, 1958. 389 p. DANIELOU, JEAN. The Dead Sea scrolls and A documentary account of the siege of primitive Christianity; tr. from the French the Etzion bloc, composed of four agricul- by Salvator Attanasio. Baltimore, Helicon tural kibbutzim, during the Arab-Jewish Press, 1958. 128 p. conflict of 1948. Concentrates on the relation between LANNOY, RICHARD. Israel; introductory es- Essenism and Christianity. say, historical notes. New York, Studio- FREEHOF, SOLOMON BENNETT. Book of Crowell, 1958. 160 p., 132 pi. Job; a commentary. New York, Union of A pictorial presentation. American Hebrew Congregations, 1958. LEVINE, RAPHAEL H. Israel: a frank ap- xv, 261 p. (Union of American Hebrew praisal. Seattle, F. McCaffrey, 1959- 141 p. Congregations and Central Conference of An expansion of a series of articles orig- American Rabbis. Commission on Jewish inally written for the Seattle Post-Intelli- Education. Union adult series) gencer. Based on a three-month visit to A volume in the Jewish commentary for Israel. Bible readers intended primarily for the MARSHALL, SAMUEL LYMAN ATWOOD. layman. Sinai victory; command decisions in his- GOLDIN, HYMAN ELIAS. A treasury of Bible tory's shortest war, Israel's hundred-hour stories. New York, Twayne Publishers, conquest of Egypt, east of Suez, autumn 1958. 403 p. 1956. Maps and drawings by H. Garver A selection of Biblical narratives from Miller. New York, Morrow, 1958. 280 p. Genesis to the return from the Babylonian The author, an American brigadier gen- captivity. eral and military historian, reports on the HENSHAW, THOMAS. The latter prophets. rout of the Egyptian forces by the Israelis. New York, Macmillan, 1958. 341 p. His account is based on analysis of texts, A study of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and interviews with soldiers, and observation The Twelve (the so-called minor proph- of the terrain. ets). RUBIN, JACOB A., and BARKAI, MEYER. KASHBR, MBNAHEM M. Encyclopedia of Pictorial history of Israel. New York, biblical interpretation; a millennial an- Yoseloff, 1958. 320 p. thology: Genesis, v. 4. Tr. [into English] Commemorates the tenth anniversary of under the editorship of Hyman Klein. the proclamation of Israel's independence New York, American Biblical Encyclo- in pictures and brief text. pedia Society, 1959. xiv, 290 p. SPIRO, MELFORD ELLIOT, and SPIRO, AU- Selected from the Hebrew, Torah Sbele- DREY G. Children of the Kibbutz. Cam- mah. bridge, Mass., Harvard Univ. Press, 1958. MEDICO, HENRI ENRICO del. The riddle of xix, 500 p. the scrolls; tr. [from the French] by H. Continues the anthropological analysis of Garner. New York, McBride, 1959. 432 p. Kibbutz, here dealing primarily with the In three parts: Pt. 1. The riddle and its first kibbutz-born generation, the sabras. solution; pt. 2. Non-biblical texts from TAYLOR, ALAN R. Prelude to Israel; an anal- cave I; pt. 3. The Damascus document. ysis of Zionist diplomacy, 1897—1947. MlDRASH. TBHILLIM. The Midrash on New York, Philosophical Library, 1959. Psalms; tr. from the Hebrew and Aramaic 136 p. by William G. Braude. New Haven, Yale A critical examination of political Zion- Univ. Press, 1959. 2 v. (Yale Univ. Yale ism. Judaica series, v. 13) A scholarly text of the classical Jewish BIBLE, TALMUD, AND homiletic interpretation of Psalms. DEAD SEA SCROLLS ROTH, CECIL. The historical background of the Dead Sea scrolls. New York, Philo- sophical Library, 1959. viii, 87 p. ADLER, MORRIS. The world of the Talmud. Attempts to discuss the discovery and Washington, B'nai B'rith Hillel Founda- meaning of the scrolls from a purely his- tions, 1958. 148 p. (Hillel little books, torical viewpoint. no. 4) Intended primarily for the Jewish college student. RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY ALLEGRO, JOHN MARCO. The people of the Dead Sea scrolls in text and pictures. BAECK, LEO. God and man in Judaism; with Garden City, N. Y., Doubleday, 1958. a foreword by Leonard G. Montefiore. 192 p. New York, Union of American Hebrew A British scholar here offers a readable Congregations, 1958. 76 p. summary of the subject, accompanied by Reprint of an essay entitled "The Reli- 406 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

gion of the Hebrews" which first appeared New York, Abelard-Schumaa, 1958.112 p. in Religions of the World. (Ram's horn books) -Judaism and Christianity; essays. Tr., A Conservative rabbi analyzes and in- with an introd., by Walter Kaufmann. terprets the differences, seeming or real, Philadelphia, Jewish Publication Society among Reform, Orthodox, Conservative, of America, 1958. 292 p. and Reconstructionist Judaism. Five essays dealing with basic issues be- SANDMEL, SAMUBL. The genius of Paul; tween the two religions. a study in history. New York, Farrar, BAKAN, DAVID. Sigmund Freud and the Jew- Straus, and Cudahy, 1958. xiii, 239 p. ish mystical tradition. Princeton, N. J., Intended for the layman, this study con- Van Nostrand, 1958. xix, 326 p. siders Paul's life as a Jew, as a convert, Attempts to show the influence of Jew- and as an apostle, and discusses the New ish mysticism on the development of Freud- Testament literature attributed to him. ian psychoanalysis. SCHBCHTER, SOLOMON. Studies in Judaism; BUBBR, MARTIN. Hasidism and modern man; a selection. New York, Meridian Books; ed. and tr. [from the German] by Maurice Philadelphia, Jewish Publication Society of Friedman. New York, Horizon Press, America, 1958. 372 p. 1958. 256 p. A compilation of some of the essays Brings together interpretations of Ha- originally published in three volumes. sidic wisdom, many of which appear in WALLMAN, JOSEPH. The Kabalah; from its English for the first time. inception to its evanescence. Brooklyn, 1 and thou. 2d ed., with a postscript by Theological Research Pub. Co., 1958. xii, the author added; tr. [from the German] 221, 10 p. by Ronald Gregor Smith. New York, A history of the movement and the Scribner, 1958. xii, 137 p. literature derived from it. Includes a chapter on Christian Cabalists. -To hallow this life; an anthology, ed., WAXMAN, MEYER. Judaism; religion and with an introd., by Jacob Trapp. New ethics. New York, Yoselofi, 1958. xv, York, Harper, 1958. xiv, 174 p. 411 p. Selections from the writings of the great religious philosopher. Part one deals with creed and ritual, part two with ethics. COHEN, BOAZ. Law and tradition in Juda- ism. New York, Jewish Theological Sem- SERMONS AND ESSAYS inary of America, 1959. xii, 243 p. Eight essays attempting to provide a GREENBERG, SIDNEY. Adding life to our philosophy of Jewish religious law from years; with a foreword by Morris Adler. the point of view of "historical-traditional New York, J. David, 1959. xiv, 205 p. Judaism." A collection of sermons preached over DAVIS, DANIEL L. Understanding Judaism. the years from the author's ordination to New York, Philosophical Library, 1958. the present. 119 p. MARK, JULIUS. Reaching for the moon, and A Reform rabbi discusses the basic con- other addresses. New York, Farrar, Straus, cepts, institutions, and practices of Juda- and Cudahy, 1959. xiv, 177 p. ism. Sermons and addresses on such topics as GOLDMAN, ALEX J. A handbook for the a faith for modern times, Jews and Juda- Jewish family; understanding and enjoy- ism, Christianity and Judaism, and reli- ing the Sabbath and holidays. New York, gion and society. Bloch, 1958. xix, 420 p. NEWMAN, JULIUS. Speak unto the children A guide to the customs, prayers, and of Israel; sermons for every Sabbath and songs, for observance both in the home festival of the year for Jewish children. and in the synagogue. Includes a ten-year New York, Bloch, 1958. 164 p. calendar. The Rabbinical Council manual of holiday GROSS, LEONARD. God and Freud. New and Sabbath sermons; Philip Harris Sing- York, McKay, 1959. vii, 215 p. er, ed.; William A. Orentlicher, associate A discussion of how ministers, priests, ed. New York, Rabbinical Council Press, and rabbis are combining religion and 1958. 344 p. psychiatry to help the troubled. The seventeenth annual compilation of HESCHEL, ABRAHAM JOSHUA. Between God sermons by Orthodox rabbis. and man; an interpretation of Judaism, SINGER, JOSEPH I. Margin for triumph; time- from [his] writings. Selected, edited and less answers to timely questions. New introd. by Fritz A. Rothschild. New York, York, Bloch, 1958. 270 p. Harper, 1959. 279 p. Pt. 1. Festival sermons; pt. 2. Sermons Selections from the author's books, arti- on the weekly Bible reading. cles, and addresses. TEPLITZ, SAUL I., ed. Best Jewish sermons LEVINTHAL, ISRAEL HERBERT. Point of of 5717-5718. New York, J. David, 1958. view; an analysis of American Judaism. x, 245 p. AMERICAN JEWISH BIBLIOGRAPHY 407

The fourth volume in a series of ser- PATAI, RAPHAEL. Sex and family in the mons preached by a cross section of the Bible and the Middle East. Garden City, American rabbinate. N. Y., Doubleday, 1959- 282 p. WEINSTEIN, JACOB JOSEPH. The place of Attempts to provide a fuller understand- understanding; comments on the portions ing of how Biblical characters behaved, of the week and the holiday cycle. New spoke, and thought through observing the York, Bloch, 1959. x, 181 p. behavior, speech, and thinking of "folk Sermons and essays. societies" of the contemporary Middle East. SHOULSON, ABRAHAM B., ed. Marriage and LITURGY family life; a Jewish view. New York, Twayne Publishers, 1959. 299 p. Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform BARISH, LOUIS. High holiday liturgy. New rabbis contribute their views on success- York, J. David, 1959. x, 174 p. ful marriage and family life. An explanation of the Rosh ha-Shanah and Yom Kippur prayers. BOSNIAK, JACOB, ed. An anthology of pray- INTERGROUP RELATIONS ers; pulpit and public prayers for all occasions. Rev. and enl. ed. New York, PFEFFER, LEO. Creeds in competition; a J. David, 1958. xxii, 271 p. creative force in American culture. New BRIN, RUTH F. A time to search; poems and York, Harper, 1958. x, 176 p. prayers of our day. New York, J. David, Catholic, Jewish, and Protestant posi- 1959. 56 p. tions on such important subjects as the Some of the poems have been recited as celebration of Christmas, church and responsive readings at Sabbath services of state, religion and the public schools, and the Adath Jeshurun Synagogue in Minne- federal aid to private schools. apolis. RAAB, EARL, and SELZNICK, GERTRUDB The Haggadah of Passover; line by line JAEGER. Major social problems. Evanston, with a new translation into English, by 111., Row, Peterson, 1959. xvi, 582 p. Saadyah Maximon and a supplement on Includes two chapters on group preju- the story of Passover, by Charles B. Chavel' dice, the first analyzing the problem and Illus. by Siegmund Forst. New York, the second suggesting solutions. Shulsinger Bros., 1958. 63, 32 p. In English and Hebrew. WAGLEY, CHARLES, and HARRIS, MARVIN. Minorities in the new world; six case SOLTES, AVRAHAM. Invocation; a sheaf of studies. New York, Columbia Univ. Press, prayers. New York, Bloch, 1959. 54 p. 1958. xvi, 320 p. Eighteen original prayers for use on pub- A comparison of the Indians in Mex- lic occasions. ico and Brazil, the Negroes in the French WERNER, ERIC The sacred bridge; the inter- West Indies and in the United States, the dependence of liturgy and music in syna- Jews in the United States, and the French gogue and church during the first mil- Canadians. lennium. New York, Columbia Univ. Press, 1959. xx, 618 p. ZERIN, EDWARD. Our Jewish neighbors. An examination of historical, philologi- Nashville, Abingdon Press, 1959. 96 p. cal, and musicological evidence. A brief introduction to Jewish life, religion, and customs, by the rabbi of Tem- ple B'nai Jeshurun, Des Moines, Iowa. FAMILY LIFE Intended primarily for non-Jews.

BRAV, STANLEY ROSENBAUM. Since Eve; a Bible-inspired sex ethic for today. New ART York, Pageant Press, 1959. 204 p. Uses Old Testament sources as a guide CASSOU, JBAN. [Enrico] Glicenstein. New to social hygiene and family life for pres- York, Crown, 1958. 12 p., 37 plates, ent-day society. 19 drawings. DRAZIN, NATHAN. Marriage made in Includes an essay on the work of the heaven. New York, Abelard-Schuman, late sculptor. 1958. 144 p. (Ram's horn books) GOLDSTEIN, ROSE B. Light from our past; a A rabbi who has had extensive experi- spiritual history of the Jewish people ex- ence in marriage counseling offers sugges- pressed in 12 stained glass windows de- tions to those contemplating marriage and signed by Louise D. Kayser for Har Zion those already married. Temple, Philadelphia. Introd. by Stephen KlRSCHENBAUM, DAVID. Mixed marriage S. Kayser. New York, Shengold Publish- and the Jewish future. New York, Bloch, ers, 1959. n.p. 1958. ix, 144 p. Reproductions, in color, of the windows, A rabbi warns against intermarriage as together with an explanation of the theme a threat to Jewish home and family life. of each. 408 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK LITERATURE Goldman. New York, Abelard-Schuman, 1959. 135 p. ANGOFF, CHARLES. Between day and dark. A classic tale by a 19th-century Rus- New York, Yoseloff, 1959. 620 p. sian Hebrew writer about the spiritual The fourth volume in the saga of a crisis of his generation. family who emigrated from Russia to IKOR, ROGER. The sons of Avrom; tr. [from Boston. The son, who became a reporter the French] by Leonard M. Friedman and and a writer, is the central figure of this Maxwell Singer. New York, Putnam, narrative. 1958. 383 p. ASCH, SHOLEM. Kiddush Ha-shem; an epic A chronicle of three generations of a of 1648, and Sabbatai Zevi; a tragedy. Jewish family who fled from pogroms in New York, Meridian Books; Philadelphia, Russia and settled in France. Jewish Publication Society of America, LEVIN, MEYER. Compulsion; a play. New 1959. 249 p. York, Simon and Schuster, 1959. xlii, A reprinting of two classics, the first a 132 p. novel and the other a play. A dramatization of the author's novel BEHRMAN, SAMUEL NATHANIEL. The cold of the Leopold and Loeb case. wind and the warm; a play. New York, MALCOLM, JEAN. Discourse with shadows. Random House, 1959. 142 p. Garden City, N. Y., Doubleday, 1958. Based on episodes in the author's early 215 p. life in Worcester, Massachusetts, as re- An American Jew of German origin called in a series of articles in The New returns to Frankfurt to try to locate his Yorker and his book The Worcester missing family. Account. MARK, DAVID. The neighborhood. Garden BETSKY, SARAH ZWEIG, ed. Onions and cu- City, N. Y., Doubleday, 1959. 332 p. cumbers and plums; 46 Yiddish poems in Life in a Jewish neighborhood in English. Detroit. Wayne State Univ., Brooklyn during the depression years of Press, 1958. xxiii, 259 p. the 193O's. Poems by seventeen 20th-century poets RIBALOW, HAROLD URIEL, ed. The chosen. printed in Yiddish, in transliteration, and New York, Abelard-Schuman, 1959. in English translation. 352 p. BILENKISS, GASTON. Beggar's paradise. New A compilation of 23 short stories por- York, Pageant Press, 1958. 422 p. traying Jewish life in the United States. Southwestern Russia during the later A treasury of American Jewish stories; years of the 19th century is the setting for with an introduction, New York, Yoseloff, a novel in which the central character is a 1958. 724 p. man who is unfortunate in all of his un- Forty-nine stories on Jewish themes. dertakings. RIBALOW, MENACHBM. The flowering of BLANK, AMY KIRCHBERGER. The spoken modern Hebrew literature; a volume of choice. Cincinnati, Hebrew Union College; literary evaluation. Ed. and tr. [from the New York, University Publishers, 1959- Hebrew] by Judah Nadich. New York, 115 p. Twayne Publishers, 1959. 394 p. A collection of lyrics and dramatic dia- Essays selected from the five volumes of logues between Biblical characters. literary criticism written by the late CABRIES, JEAN. Jacob; tr. from the French author. Includes selections from the ten by Gerard Hopkins. New York, Dutton, writers who have most decisively influ- 1958. 509 p. enced Israeli culture and thought. Based on events in the Book of Genesis, ROTH, PHILIP. Goodbye, Columbus, and this deals with Jacob's flight to escape his five short stories. Boston, Houghton, 1959. brother Esau's wrath, his long service in 298 p. the house of his uncle Laban, and his re- Prosperity as it affects Jews living in turn home. suburban New Jersey and New York is CHINN, LAURENE CHAMBERS. The unan- the theme of most of the stories in this nointed; a novel. New York, Crown, collection. 1959. vii, 376 p. SHAMIR, MOSHB. The king of flesh and A historical novel about Joab, com- blood; tr. from the Hebrew by David mander of King David's armies. Patterson. New York, Vanguard Press, ELMAN, RICHARD M. A coat for the Tsar; 1958. 542 p. drawings by Bubi Jessen. Austin, Univ. The principal character in this historical of Texas Press, 1958. 65 p. novel is Alexander Jannaeus, the power- A young Jew returns to the ghetto to hungry Hasmonean king who was op- confess a sin to his friends; he is be- posed by the Pharisees. trayed by one of them. URIS, LEON M. Exodus. Garden City, N. Y., FEIERBERG, MORDECAI ZEEB. Whither? Tr. Doubleday, 1958. 626 p. from the Hebrew by Ira Eisenstein; with Attempts to recreate the recent tragic a foreword about the author by Solomon history of the Jews of Europe by means AMERICAN JEWISH BIBLIOGRAPHY 409 of the stories of some of the survivors who Illus. by Frederick E. Banbery. New York, succeeded in reaching Israel, where they Simon and Schuster, 1958. 184 p. aided in the war of independence. Nineteen short stories, most of which appeared originally in The New Yorker. THE JEW IN RECENT FICTION LACOUR, JOSE ANDRE. Death in that garden; tr. [from the French] by Humphrey Hare. ANDERSCH, ALFRED. Flight to afar; tr. from New York, Rinehart, 1959. 310 p. the German by Michael Bullock. New A Jew is among a strangely assorted York, Coward-McCann, 1958. 192 p. group of people assembled in a diamond Among the people in a small Baltic port mining town on the Amazon River. seeking means of escaping from both the LIEFERANT, SYLVIA, and LlEFERANT, Communists and the Nazis is a young HENRY. The gentile; a novel. Philadel- German Jewish girl. phia, Muhlenberg Press, 1958. 279 p. BARTHOLOMEW, CECILIA. The risk. Garden A non-Jewish girl goes to work for a City, N. Y., Doubleday, 1958. 285 p. Jewish firm in the garment industry. Depicts the tragedy that comes to a LlPSKY, ELEAZAR. The scientists. New York, family during the long months in which Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1959. 375 p. the father, a scientist, who is suspended A scientist who has developed a new from his government position, is waiting miracle drug is attacked by his former for a hearing on his case. teacher and other scientists who claim that BERGER, THOMAS. Crazy in Berlin. New he is attempting to take sole credit for an York, Scribner, 1958. 438 p. achievement not entirely his own. The central character of this novel deal- OLDENBOURG, ZOE. The chains of love; tr. ing with American troops in occupied from the French by Michael Bullock. New Berlin is a physician of German descent York, Pantheon Books, 1959. 327 p. who is obsessed by the Nazi crimes against The Paris art world of the postwar years the Jews. Another is an American Jewish is the setting in which three people try to Communist. reconstruct their lives. The heroine is torn BLACKER, IRWIN R. Westering. Cleveland, between a man who has returned from World Pub. Co., 1958. 282 p. years of imprisonment in a German ramp The members of a Conestoga wagon and a Polish Jewish artist. train heading for Oregon in 1845 include O'NEAL, COTHBURN. Hagar. New York, a Jew. Crown, 1958. 245 p. DIBNER, MARTIN. Showcase. Garden City, A historical novel about Abraham, N. Y., Doubleday, 1958. 383 p. Sarah, and Hagar. The story of a young man whose job it PALEY, GRACE. The little distutbances of is to put ailing department stores back on man. Garden City, N. Y., Doubleday, their financial feet. He is aided by a Jew 1959. 189 p. who is a power in the garment industry. Ten short stories dealing with various DURRELL, LAWRENCE. Mountolive; a novel. aspects of love. New York, Dutton, 1959. 318 p. PAUL, LOUIS. Dara, the Cypriot. New York, The third of a projected quartet of Simon and Schuster, 1959. 434 p. novels, the first two being Justine and A historical novel set in the period of Balthazar. In this, the author goes back the prophet Elijah. in time to the period in which Nessim, a Copt, married to Justine, a Jewess, is SlEGEL, BENJAMIN. The sword and the secretly working to help the Jews in Pales- promise. New York, Harcourt, 1959. tine. 311 p. A historical novel of the Jewish war GARDNER, HERB. A piece of the action. New York, Simon and Schuster, 1959. 313 p. against Rome, 132-135. A story about the toy and novelty busi- VEEN, ADRIAN VAN DER. The intruder; tr. from the Dutch by James S. Holmes and nesses. Hans van Marie. New York, Abelard- GORN, LESTER H. The Anglo-Saxons. New Schuman, 1958. 166 p. York, Sagamore Press, 1958. 446 p. A young Dutchman, spending the war The story of a volunteer brigade in the years in the United States, falls in love Israeli army in 1948—Jews and non-Jews with a Dutch Jewish refugee, who is hav- from England, Canada, and the United ing difficulty in adjusting to her new life. States. JACOBSON, DAN. The Zulu and the zeide; WILLIAMS, JAY. Solomon and Sheba. New short stories. Boston, Little, 1959. 247 p. York, Random House, 1959. 248 p. (Atlantic Monthly Press book) A historical novel. Short stories of South African and English life. The title story deals with a BIOGRAPHY Jewish grandfather in his second childhood who is cared for by a Zulu servant. ARMITAGE, MERLE. George Gershwin; man KOBER, ARTHUR. Oooh, what you said! and legend. With a note on the author by 410 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

John Charles Thomas. New York, Duell, HURST, FANNIE. Anatomy of me; a won- Sloane and Pearce, 1958. 188 p. derer in search of herself. Garden City, Reminiscences which deal mainly with N. Y., Doubleday, 1958. 367 p. the composer's last years, as a composer of The personal narrative of a very suc- serious music. cessful writer of novels and short stories BERLIN, SIR ISAIAH. Chaim Weizmann. New from her childhood in St. Louis to the York, Farrar, Straus, and Cudahy; Herzl present. Press, 1958. 60 p. (Herbert Samuel lec- ISSERMAN, FERDINAND MYRON. A rabbi ture, 2d) with the American Red Cross. New York, A biographical tribute to the first presi- Whittier Books, 1958. 334 p. dent of Israel, by the famous Oxford pro- An account of service in North Africa fessor. during World War II. Rabbi Isserman was BRISCOE, ROBERT, with HATCH, ALDEN. For responsible for the establishment of a Red the life of me. Boston, Little, 1958. 340 p. Cross Town Hall which became part of Recollections of the first Jewish Lord the recreational program for American Mayor of Dublin, who fought for Ireland's soldiers. independence and the Zionist movement. JABLONSKI, EDWARD, and STEWART, LAW- COHEN, A. B. Memories at eighty-five. Scran- RENCE DBLBERT. The Gershwin years; ton, Pa., The Author, 1958. xv, xvii, 219 p. with an introd. by Carl Van Vechten. A Lithuanian-born immigrant tells the Garden City, N. Y., Doubleday, 1958. story of his early days in Europe, his life 313 p. in the United States, and his contributions A pictorial biography of the composers to the civic betterment of his community George and Ira Gershwin, based largely and his country. on the archives of Ira Gershwin. Includes COHEN, ISRAEL. Theodor Herzl; founder of a complete listing of compositions by political Zionism. New York, Yoseloff, George Gershwin. 1959. 399 p. JUNG, LEO, ed. Guardians of our heritage The life and career of the Zionist leader (1724-1953). New York, Bloch, 1958. based on personal acquaintanceship and viii, 728 p. (Jewish library, v. 7) access to private papers. Essays by 28 scholars and journalists COHN, ART. The nine lives of Michael Todd. from various parts of the world, each por- New York, Random House. 1958. xviii, traying the life and work of a great reli- 396 p. gious leader and rabbinical authority. A biography of one of the world's most flamboyant showmen, written by an asso- LlSITZKY, EPHRAIM E. In the grip of cross- ciate who was killed in a plane crash currents; tr. from the Hebrew by Moshe with his subject. Kohn and Jacob Sloan, and rev. by the FREUD, MARTIN. Sigmund Freud; man and author. New York, Bloch, 1959. xiii, father. New York, Vanguard Press, 1958. 305 p. 218 p. A Hebrew poet and educator tells of Personal glimpses by the great psy- his early years in Czarist Russia and of chiatrist's oldest son. his life in Canada and the United States. FROMM, ERICH. Sigmund Freud's mission; MITCHELL, DONALD. Gustav Mahler; the an analysis of his personality and influence. early years. New York, Macmillan, 1958. New York, Harper, 1959. xvi, 120 p. 275 p. (World perspectives, v. 21) The first of two projected volumes on Attempts to show that psychoanalysis the life of the composer, this deals with had its roots in the personality of its Mahler's childhood in Bohemia and stu- originator. dent days in Vienna. GOLDBERG, ISAAC. George Gershwin; a MODIGLIANI, JEANNE. Modigliani: man and study in American music. Supplemented myth. Tr. from the Italian by Esther Row- by Edith Garson; with foreword and land Clifford. New York, Orion Press, discography by Alan Dashiell. New York, 1958. xviii, 116 p., 100 pi. Ungar, 1958. xviii, 387 p. The daughter of the famous Italian Revision of the first biography of the Jewish painter presents a portrait of her composer which appeared during his life- father. time. MOLK, ISADOR. The making of an oilman. GOLDBLOOM, ALTON. Small patients; the New York, Citadel Press, 1958. 252 p. autobiography of a children's doctor. A businessman recalls events in his past Philadelphia, Lippincott, 1959. 316 p. life from Talmudic scholar in Lithuania to The first Jewish physician to hold a owner of an oil company in the Midwest. chair in a Canadian university tells of his RABINOWICZ, OSKAR KWASNIK. Herzl; life as a pediatrician. Includes incidents architect of the Balfour declaration. New of discrimination against Jewish physi- York, Herzl Press, 1958. iv, 111 p. cians, both in the United States and in A short biography of the founder of Canada. political Zionism. AMERICAN JEWISH BIBLIOGRAPHY 411 ROSBNBHRG, JAMES NAUMBURG. Painter's BOOKS FOR CHILDREN AND self-portrait; ed., with an introd., by Mil- YOUNG PEOPLE ton S. Fox. New York, Crown, 1958. 203 p. ABRAHAMS, ROBERT DAVID. The uncom- An illustrated autobiography of the mon soldier; Major Alfred Mordecai. Illus. lawyer, now a well-known artist, which by Morton Garchik. New York, Farrar, includes discussions of service with the Straus, and Cudahy; Philadelphia, Jewish American Jewish Joint Distribution Com- Publication Society of America, 1959.178p. mittee in Europe and the emotional effect (Covenant books) of a visit to Israel. A biography for young people of a West ROSINGBR, SAMUEL. My life and my mes- Point graduate, born in North Carolina, sage. Atlanta, The Author, 1958. 536 p. who resigned from the army during the Includes an autobiography of the rabbi Civil War because his conscience would of Congregation Temple Emanuel in Beau- not permit him to fight against either the mont, Texas, and selections from his ser- North or the South. mons, addresses, and essays. BORUCH, BEHN. In the beginning; the story ST. JOHN, ROBERT. Ben-Gurion; the biog- of Abraham. Illus. by Bernard Springsteel. raphy of an extraordinary man. Garden New York, Hebrew Pub. Co., 1958. n. p. City, N. Y., Doubleday, 1959. 336 p. A retelling of the life of the Biblical An informal portrait of the prime min- patriarch for young children. ister of Israel. BRICHTO, MIRA. The God around us; a child's garden of prayer. Illus. by Clare SCHILDKRAUT, JOSEPH. My father and I; Romano Ross and John Ross. New York, as told to Leo Lania. New York, Viking Union of American Hebrew Congregations, Press, 1959. 246 p. 1958. n. p. The author recalls episodes in the life Poems and prayers adapted from ancient of his father, who was an idol of the Jewish sources. In English and Hebrew. European stage, as well as some of his own CHANOVER, HYMAN, and ZusMAN, EVE- experiences in the theater. LYN. My book of prayer; holidays and SCHNABEL, ERNST. Anne Frank; a portrait holy days. Illustrations by Leonard Weis- in courage. Tr. from the German by Rich- gard. New York, Commission on Jewish ard and Clara Winston. New York, Har- Education, United Synagogue of America, court, 1958. 192 p. 1959. 108 p. The life of the young Jewish girl who My book of prayer; Sabbath and week- died in a Nazi concentration camp, recon- days. Illustrations by Leonard Weisgard. structed from the testimony of witnesses New York, Commission on Jewish Educa- who had known her at one period or another, documents relating to the German tion, United Synagogue of America, 1959. occupation of the Netherlands, and from 96 p. some of her previously unpublished writ- For young children. ings. DOANE, PELAGIE. The story of Moses; illus. by the author. Philadelphia, Iippincott, SCHWARTZ, SAMUEL. Tell thy children. New 1958. 119 p. York, Exposition Press, 1959. 98 p. For children ten to twelve. The rabbi emeritus of Oak Park Temple EISENBERG, AZRIEL Louis. The story of the in Chicago tells about bis early life in Jewish calendar; wood engravings by Elisa- Hungary, later education at Hebrew Union beth Friedlander. New York, Abelard- College in the United States, and his serv- Schuman, 1958. 62 p. ice in the rabbinate. How the Jewish calendar began, how SIMONHOFF, HARRY. Saga of American and why it differs from the general calen- Jewry, 1865-1914. New York, Arco, dar, and how the Jewish months received 1959. xi, 403 p. their names. The second in a series of biographical Voices from the past; stories of great sketches, begun with Jewish Notables in Biblical discoveries, fllus. by Laszlo Matu- America, 1776-1865 (New York, Green- lay. New York, Abelard-Schuman, 1959. berg, 1956). 160 p. Seventeen stories, based on true facts SINGER, KURT DEUTSCH. The Danny Kaye story. New York, Nelson, 1958. 241 p. and events, each dealing with an archeo- The story of Danny Kaye from his be- logical discovery which has yielded insight ginnings in show business to his present into Biblical life and times. success as the famous comedian. GUMBINER, JOSEPH H. Isaac Mayer Wise; pioneer of American Judaism. [Illus. by WEINSTOCK, EARL. The seven years; as told M. Yadi] New York, Union of Amer- to Herbert Wilner. New York, Dutton, ican Hebrew Congregations, 1959. x 1959. 254 p. 187 p. Experiences of a young Rumanian Jew A biography of the rabbi who led in during both the Nazi and Communist oc- the establishment of Reform Judaism on cupations of Rumania. American soil. 412 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

HYMAN, FRIBDA CLARK. Jubal and the A biography of the famous experimental prophet; illus. by Bernard Krigstein. New physicist whose father was a German Jew- York, Farrar, Straus, and Cudahy; Phila- ish drygoods merchant in Virginia City, delphia, Jewish Publication Society of Nevada. America, 1958. vi, 175 p. (Covenant books) TEXTBOOKS The son of a priest of the first Temple decides to follow the prophet Jeremiah rather than his father when the Jews are ABRAMSON, LILLIAN S., and ROBINSON, conquered by the Babylonians. JESSIE B. Join us for the holidays. New York, National Women's League, United KBIR, LEOTA HARRIS. Freckle-face Frankel; Synagogue of America, 1958. 63 p. illus. by Leonard Shortall. New York, An activity book for children under Coward-McCann, 1959. 158 p. ten, illustrating the celebration of the holi- A young tomboy, who is always being days in various countries. compared unfavorably with her ladylike cousin, discovers that there are compensa- EISENSTBIN, IRA. What we mean by religion; tions to being a girl. a modern interpretation of the Sabbath and festivals, based on The meaning of God KUHN, Lois HARRIS. The world of Jo David- in modern Jewish religion, by Mordecai son; illus. by Leonard Everett Fisher. New M. Kaplan. Rev. and enl. New York, Re- York, Farrar, Straus, and Cudahy; Phila- constructionist Press, 1958. 173 p. delphia, Jewish Publication Society of For young people. America, 1958. 181 p. (Covenant books) A biography of the noted sculptor who EPSTEIN, MORRIS. All about Jewish holidays portrayed many of the famous people of and customs; illus. by Arnold Lobel. New his time. York, Ktav Pub. House, 1959. 128 p. For elementary schools. MBRRIAM, EVE. The voice of liberty; illus. by Charles W. Walker. New York, Far- FINE, HELEN. G'dee; illus. by Hal Just. New rar, Straus, and Cudahy; Philadelphia, Jew- York, Union of American Hebrew Con- gregations, 1958. ix, 163 p. (Union of ish Publication Society of America, 1959. American Hebrew Congregations and Cen- 179 p. (Covenant books) tral Conference of American Rabbis. Com- A biography of Emma Lazarus, the mission on Jewish Education. Union American Jewish poet, who was a vigor- graded series) ous champion of oppressed peoples. The story of the Jewish holidays told ORLEANS, ILO. This wonderful day; poems through incidents involving twins and their of prayer and thanksgiving. Illus. by Pela- pet goat, a gift to the children from their gie Doane. New York, Union of American uncle in Israel. Hebrew Congregations, 1958. xii, 52 p. FRANK, ANNE. Anne Frank; the diary of a For children of all faiths. young girl. Ed. by M. H. Lewittes. New SCHARFSTEIN, EDYTHE, and SCHARFSTEIN, York, Globe Book Co., 1958. 323 p. SOL. Chanukah surprise; illus. by Ezekiel A school edition. Schloss and Cyla London. New York, Ktav HOLLENDER, BETTY RoSBTT. Bible stories Pub. House, 1958. n. p. for linle children, bk. 2; illus. by William -Chanukah treasure chest; illus. by Eze- Steinel. New York, Union of American Hebrew Congregations, 1958. n. p. (Union kiel Schloss and Cyla London. New York, of American Hebrew Congregations and Ktav Pub. House, 1958. n. p. Central Conference of American Rabbis. Intended for young children. Commission on Jewish Education. Union My first book of prayers; illus. by Eze- graded series) kiel Schloss and Arnold Lobel. New York, A retelling of the principal Bible stories Ktav Pub. House, 1958. n. p. from Joshua to Solomon's Temple. Original prayers suitable even for pre- KLAPERMAN, GILBERT, and KLAPERMAN, school children. LlBBY. The story of the Jewish people; v. 3: From the golden age in Spain through SUHL, YURI. Ernestine L. Rose and the bat- the European emancipation. Illus. by Lor- tle for human rights. New York, Reynal, ence F. Biorklund. New York, Behrman, 1959. ix, 310 p. 1958. 256 p. Born in Poland, the daughter of an Orthodox rabbi, Ernestine Rose was a pi- For young people. oneer of women's rights, an advocate of a SCHARFSTEIN, EDYTHE, and SCHARFSTEIN, free public-school system, and an aboli- SOL. My magic dictionary; illus. by Cyla tionist. London. 2d rev. ed. New York, Ktav Pub House, 1958. 66 p. WILSON, JOHN HENRY, Jr. Albert A. Intended as a supplement to the study Michelson; America's first Nobel prize of the Hebrew language, for young chil- physicist. New York, Messner, 1958.190 p. dren. AMERICAN JEWISH BIBLIOGRAPHY 413

SCHWARTZMAN, SYLVAN DAVID. Once upon Contents.—The message of Deutero- a lifetime; illus. by Maurice Rawson. New Isaiah in its sequential unfolding, by Julian York, Union of American Hebrew Congre- Morgenstern.—-Contributions to neo-Su- gations, 1958. ix, 134 p. (Union of Amer- merian, by W. W. Hallo.—Alalakhiana, ican Hebrew Congregations and Central by Matitiahu Tsevat.—The Habiru-Hebrew Conference of American Rabbis. Commis- problem in the light of the source material sion on Jewish Education. Union graded available at present, by Mary P. Gray.— series) Lexicographical notes, 1, by J. C. Green- Intended to acquaint boys and girls with field.—Studies in the Septuagint of the the fundamental observances of Reform Book of Job, by H. M. Orlinsky.—The Judaism both at home and in the religious description of the Essenes in Josephus and school. the Philosophumena, by Morton Smith.— A German Torah ornamentation, by Franz Landsberger.—Mulla Ibrahim Nathan (1816-1868), Jewish agent of the Brit- REFERENCE AND ANNUALS ish during the first Anglo-Afghan war, by W. J. Fischel.—A psychoanalytic comment AMERICAN ACADEMY FOR JEWISH RE- on Job 3.25, by R. L. Katz.—Eliyahu ha- SEARCH. Proceedings, v. 27, 1958. New Tishbi, by Raphael Hallevy [in Hebrew} York, The Academy, 1958. xxxii, 105 p. In addition to reports, lists, etc., includes: Mis hie Sendebar: new light on the Jewish book annual; v. 16, 5719: 1958-59. transmission of folklore from East to West, New York, Jewish Book Council of Amer- by Morris Epstein.—A link between Has- ica, 1958. vii, 213 p. idism and Hellenistic and patristic litera- Text in English, Hebrew, and Yiddish. ture (continued), by Joshua Finkel.—The Besides bibliographies and tributes to Jew- three pillars of Simeon the righteous, by ish authors, includes articles on literature Judah Goldin.—Moritz Steinschneider as in Israel in commemoration of the tenth a student of medieval Europe, by P. O. anniversary, The Jewish writer, his work Kristeller.—Steinschneider's contribution to and his public, by Meyer Levin, and the study of Muslim civilization, by Franz Themes for Jewish writing, by A. A. Stein- Rosenthal.—Population problems of Mar- bach. ranos and Sephardim in France, from the 16th to the 20th centuries, by Zosa Szaj- The junior Jewish encyclopedia. Naomi Ben- kowski. Asher and Hayim Leaf, eds. Louis L. Ruff- man, educational consultant; Jacob Sloan, American Jewish year book, v. 60, 1959. Pre- editorial consultant; Alfred Werner, art pared by the American Jewish Committee: consultant. 3d rev. ed. New York, Shen- Morris Fine and Milton Himmelfarb, edi- gold Publishers, 1959- 350 p. tors. New York, American Jewish Com- Intended primarily for young students, mittee; Philadelphia, Jewish Publication but useful for parents and teachers as Society of America, 1959. x, 411 p. well. Includes population data, reviews of the year for the United States and other coun- RABBINICAL ASSEMBLY OF AMBRICA. Pro- tries, and lists of national Jewish organiza- ceedings, v. 21, Fifty-eighth annual con- tions, social agencies, and Jewish periodi- vention, April 27-May 1, 1958, Concord cals for the United States and Canada. Hotel, Kiamesha Lake, N. Y. New York, Rabbinical Assembly of America, 1959. CENTRAL CONFERENCE OF AMERICAN RAB- 229 p. BIS. Yearbook, v. 68, 1959. Sixty-ninth In addition to lists, reports, resolutions, annual convention, June 24-June 29, 1958. etc., the following addresses and papers Chicago, 111. Ed. by Sidney L. Regner. are included: Evaluating Jewish law, by [New York] 1958. xxxi, 394 p. Jacob Agus.—Halakhah and the life of Besides proceedings, reports, memorial holiness, by J. J. Cohen.—An attitude to tributes, membership lists, etc., includes: halakhah, by Isaac Klein.—Ideological The moral law as halacha in Reform Juda- evaluation of Israel and the diaspora, by ism, by Alexander Guttmann.—The devel- A. J. Heschel and M. M. Kaplan.—Prac- oping philosophy of Reform Judaism, by tical evaluation of Israel and the diaspora, B. J. Bamberger.—The non-informational by M. M. Fenster and Gershon Winer.— aspects of religion, by Abraham Cron- The Seminary Center in Jerusalem, by bach.—Science challenges the spirit of Simon Greenberg. man, by Joseph Kaplan.—The problems which lie ahead, by A. H. Silver.—Israel ROBINSON, NEHBMIAH, and others. Diction- amongst the nations, by Abba Eban. ary of Jewish public affairs and related matters. New York, Institute of Jewish HEBREW UNION COLLEGE. Annual, v. 29, Affairs, World Jewish Congress, 1958. 1958. Cincinnati, Hebrew Union College- 231 p. Jewish Institute of Religion, 1958. 383, Attempts to provide concise information 9 p. on organizations, persons, and countries 414 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK which have figured in one way or another MISCELLANEOUS in Jewish life. RUNES, DAGOBERT DAVID, ed. Concise dic- DnUNGER, DAVID. The story of the aleph tionary of Judaism. New York, Philo- beth. New York, Philosophical Library, sophical Library, 1959. 237 p. 1958. 195 p. Attempts to provide a quick reference Gives the background and history, and source for Jewish history, literature, philos- development of the Hebrew alphabet. ophy, and religion. RIBALOW, HAROLD URIEL. The Jew in The standard Jewish encyclopedia; Cecil Roth, American sports. Rev. and enl. ed. New editor-in-chief. Garden City, N. Y., Dou- York, Bloch, 1959. xvii, 371 p. bleday; New York, Monde Publishers, Includes names that have come into 1959. 30, 1978 p. prominence since 1955, the date of the last Intended basically as a work of con- previous revision. temporary reference. IVA COHEN Necrology: United States1

ACKBRMAN, SIMON, merchant; b. 1879 (?); mem. exec com. JDC, 1915-36; pres. d. Palm Beach, Fla., Feb. 14, 1959; former and pub. American Hebrew, 1930—35. trustee, endowed a dormitory, Yeshiva CHANUKOFF, LEON, Yid. au., educ; b. Univ., 1928; delegate to World Zion. Olchovo, Russia, Feb. 3, 1893; d. N. Y. C, Congress, Zurich, Switzerland; mem. com. Sept. 24, 1958; in U. S. since 1914; instr. which directed econ. boycott of Germany, Yid. lang. and lit., Sholem Aleichem 1933; act. in Fed. of Jewish Philanthropies sch. system, N. Y. C. since 1924; au. of N. Y., UPA. several Yid. books incl. Shvere himlen BBN-MBIR, MOSHB S., educ, Heb. poet, au.; (1923), Submarin ZI (1932); contrib. b. Bialystok, Poland, Oct. 26, 1900; d. short stories and literary criticism to Yid. N. Y. C, Jan. 17, 1959; in U. S. since pubs. 1940; instr. Heb., Bib., and lit. Teachers COHEN, ELLIOT E., ed.; b. Des Moineg, lust., Yeshiva Univ. since 1948; instr. Iowa, March 14, 1899; d. N. Y. C, May Heb. Folk Schs. and adult courses of Zion. 28, 1959; ed. Commentary since 1945; Fed., Belgium, 1926-39; au- several vols. 1925-31, mng. ed. Menorab Journal, of poems and prose ind. Tzelil va-tzel where through his columns entitled "Notes (1959). for a Modern History of the Jews," and BBINSTEIN, JAMBS, phys., social worker; b. "Marginal Annotations," which appeared Nesin, Russia, May 18, 1875; d. Bklyn., under the pseud, of "an elder of Zion," N. Y., June 28, 1959; in U. S. since and in articles, became brilliant commen- 1891; European dir. UHS, 1925-46; tator on the Am. Jewish scene, introducing orgn. UHS bureaus throughout Europe; a voice in Jewish journalism unique in its act. in resettling German refugees from criticism and independence, his position Nazi Germany, 1932-42; mem. bd. of dir. being that a higher degree of quality, sen- UHS since 1930. sitivity, and self-awareness should prevail BLOCK, MAX H., bus. exec.; b. Seattle, in Jewish life; during the early 193O's act. Wash., Aug. 15, 1901; d. Seattle, Wash., in pro-labor and anti-Communist writing June 5, 1959; a nat. v. pres. Am. Jewish and education; as dir. public relations, Fed. Com. since 1958, mem. nat. exec, com., of Jewish Philanthropies of N. Y., 1934- 1950-53; mem. nat. bd. United Service 45, helped project an image of the chang- for New Americans, 1944—49; nat. v. ing character of the welfare needs served chmn. JDA, 1948-51; former mem. nat. by private philanthropy in an age of ex- bd. CJFWF. panding public welfare activity; in 1945, BLUMENTHAL, LOUIS H., social worker, when Am. Jewish Com. expanded its bi- orgn. exec; b. N. Y. C, Dec. 19, 1893; monthly Contemporary Jewish Record into d. San Francisco, April 24, 1959; a fdr. Commentary, apptd. ed., first issue appear- and since 1933 exec dir. Jewish Com- ing Nov. 1945; under his editorship munity Center, San Francisco; mem. nat. Commentary became distinguished by its adv. com. on camping to the Nat. Park concern for large problems in Am. and Service; consultant Nat. Conf. on Juvenile world politics and its nonparochial air; its Delinquency; former mem. Calif. Youth authoritative articles on problems of de- Authority; au. Group Work in Camping velopments within the Am. Jewish com- (1937), Administration of Group Work munity and on Jewish communities abroad (1948), How to Work with Boards and were placed within a context of concern Committees (1957). for human rights, civil liberties, the developing struggle between world Communism BROWN, DAVID A., bus. exec, banking con- and the West, the fate of religion in the sultant; b. Edinburgh, Scotland, Nov. 23, modern world, the assessment of the reli- 1875; d. N. Y. C, Dec. 22, 1958; in gious revival in contemporary thought, the U. S. since 1879; mem. bd. Pal. Econ. impaa of new knowledge and of the so- Corp., 1926-^36; headed comm. to inves- cial sciences; from the beginning Com- tigate conditions of European Jews in mentary was a controversial mg., but the 1922; nat. chmn. Pal. Emergency Fund, ed. continued to solicit articles dealing 1929-30; nat. chmn. ORT, 1935-36; with matters he felt to be central, inde- chmn. finance com. UAHC, 1924-36; 1 Including Jewish residents of the United States who died between July 1, 1958, and June 30, 415 416 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

fatigably striving to have those articles Labor Zion. Org. of Am.-Poale Zion; mem. express what he felt to be the truth; while nat. com. Jewish Folk Schs.; mem. staff his name rarely appeared at the head of Jewish Daily Forward; former ed. Die articles, the mg. itself was a remarkable Zeit; co-au. of several Yid. plays; tr. into expression of the mind and commitments Yid. plays by Ibsen, Oscar Wilde, and of the ed.; he also saw it as an essential Chekhov. pan of his responsibility to educate and EPSTEIN, ALTER, Yid. au., journalist; b. train talented young writers and editors. Russia, April 20, 1879; d. Bklyn., N. Y., COHEN, FRANK, industrialist, philanthropist; June 6, 1959; in U. S. since 1908; mem. b. N. Y. C, June 1, 1893; d. Tel Aviv, editl. staff Day and Day-Jewish Journal Israel, May 2, 1959; estab. Esco Musical since 1914; au. several short stories and Fdn. in Israel; supported many other Jew- novels. ish cultural and edud. insts. in Israel and ESKOLSKY, MlTCHEL S., rabbi; b. Kazan- in the U. S.; v. pres. Am. Assoc. for Jew- Hordok, Russia, June 10, 1906; d. N. Y. ish Education since 1940; au. Democratiza- C, Feb. 3, 1959; in U. S. since 1906; tion of the Factory (1920). rabbi, Bialystoker synagogue since 1931; DAVIDSON, GABRIBL, orgn. exec; b. N. Y. mem. exec. com. Rabb. Council of Am., C, Jan. 23, 1879; d. Flushing, N. Y., 1950^54; mem. exec. com. N. Y. Bd. of Nov. 8, 1958; mng. dir. Jewish Agric. Rabbis, 1951-53; former chmn. religious Soc., 1939-51, asst. mngr., 1907-17, gen. group dept. State of Israel Bonds; former mngr., 1917—39; dir. Nat. Council on mem. nat. admn. com. Religious Zion. of Agric. Life and Labor since 1951; panel Am. mem. Jewish Conciliation Bd. since 1948; FEUCHTWANGER, LION, au.; b. Munich, Ger- former mem. Am. Bd. of Arbitration; many, July 7, 1884; d. Los Angeles, Calif., apptd. by Gov. Franklin D. Roosevelt as Dec. 21, 1958; in U. S. since 1940; reed. mem. N. Y. State Bureau of Farm Informa- Ger. natl. prize for art and lit., 1953; au. tion, 1930; act. in NCCJ; au. Our Jew- novels, plays, short stories, poetry, and an ish Farmers (1943) and many articles autobiography (The Devil in France, on Jewish agric. movement in U. S. 1941); best known for his historical DlNKELSPlEL, LLOYD W., atty., communal novels ind. Jud Suess (Ger. 1925) pub- leader; b. San Francisco, Calif., Nov. 19, lished in U. S. as Power (1926), the 1899; d. San Francisco, Calif., May 15, Josephus trilogy: Josephus (Ger., U. S., 1959; pres. JWB since 1958, v. pres., 1932), The Jew of Rome (Ger. 1935, 1941-53; pres. bd. of trustees Stanford U. S. 1936), and Josephus and the Em- Univ., Calif., since 1953; former mem. peror (Ger. 1945, U. S. 1942), Success, exec. com. USO; a v. chmn. JDC; mem. a novel on social injustice in postwar I nat. campaign cabinet, UJA. Germany, published in Germany (1927) DROB, MAX, rabbi; b. Mlawa, Poland, Sept. and sharply attacked there (U. S. 1930), 23, 1887; d. Wingdale, N. Y., June 4, The Oppermans (Ger. 1933, U. S. 1934), 1959; rabbi, Concourse Center of Israel, Raquel, the Jewess of Toledo (1956), Bronx, N. Y. since 1929; chaplain, Man- Jephta and His Daughter (1958), and hattan State Hosp., Ward's Island, 1936— others; almost all his books published in 56; mem. bd. of dirs. JTS since 1922; more than 24 languages. former nat. chmn. endowment fund JTS; FlNEMAN, HAYIM, educ, Zion. leader; b. pres. N. Y. Bd. of Rabbis, 1933-34; head Obelon, Russia, Feb. 12, 1886; d. Phila- Beth Din (ecclesiastical court), Rabb. As- delphia, Pa., April 18, 1959; in U. S. sembly of Am., 1923-41; ores. Rabb. since 1890; prof. English, Temple Univ., Assembly, 1925—27; a fdr. and mem. nat. 1911-56; a fdr. Am. Poale Zion, 1904, council United Synagogue of Am.; mem. nat. sec. 1906, 1920-21, pres. 1947-48; nat. council Boy Scouts. sec. Internat. Poale Zion Comm. for Pal. DUBROW, BENJAMIN, restaurateur; b. Rus- 1920-21; a fdr., Am. Jewish Cong., WJC, sia, 1876 (?); d. Bklyn., N. Y., July 19, Nat. Com. for Labor Israel, JNF (and 1958; in U. S. since 1914; act. in Jewish hon. pres.), Israeli Labor Orgn. (and for- philanthropic work ind. UJA. mer nat. chmn.), Farband-Labor Zion. DYMOW, OSSIP (pseud, for Joseph Perlman), Order; delegate World Zion. Cong, since Yid. playwright; b. Bialystok, Poland, Feb. 1906; mem. presidium Zion. Actions 17, I878; d. N. Y. C, Feb. 2, 1959; in Com., 1953; au. What is Poale Zionism? U. S. since 1913; former stage dir. for the (1917). Jewish Daily Forward radio program; au. FISCHMAN, WILLIAM, mfr.; b. Drohobicz, numerous plays ind. Shema Yisrael (1907), Austria-Hungary, March 15, 1867; d Nju (1917), Der eibeker vanderer (1922), N. Y. C, Jan. 18, 1959; dir. JTS since and novels inch Haschen nach dem wind. 1915; mem. exec. com. Union of Orthodox ENTEEN, JOEL, Yid. au., Zion. leader; b. Jewish Congs. of Am.; act. in UJA and Russia, Oct. 30, 1875; d. N. Y. C, Feb. Fed. of Jewish Philanthropies of N. Y. 26, 1959; in U. S. since 1891; a fdr. FLOWERMAN, SAMUEL H., psychologist; b. and former dean, Jewish Teachers Sem. N. Y. C, May 2, 1912; d. N. Y. C, July (now Jewish Teachers Sem. and Peoples 29, 1958; mem. faculty Postgraduate Cen- Univ.); a fdr. and former v. pres. Farband- ter for Psychotherapy since 1949, dir. of Labor Zion. Order; mem. central com. research, 1952-55, research advisor, 1957- NECROLOGY: UNITED STATES 417

58, supervising psychologist in adult ther- Jewish Middle Ages (1937), The Golden apy since 1953; instr. Grad. Sch. of Educ, Dawn (1942), co. au. Short History of Coll. of City of N. Y., 1940-47; dir. dept. the Jews (1944); contributed numerous of sci. research, Am. Jewish Com., 1945- articles to edud. and religious pubs. 51; consultant, intercultutal educ. and HENDRICKS, HENRY S., atty.; b. N. Y. C, race relations workshops at Rutgers Univ., Aug. 25, 1892; d. N. Y. C, March 13, Fisk Univ., Goddard Coll., N. Y. Univ. 1959; mem. bd. of trustees JTS, 1927-59, Center for Human Relations Studies, hon. sec, 1931—44, chmn. exec, com., Consultation Mental Health Sect, of 1944-47, hon. mem. bd., 1947-59; pres. U. S. Pub. Health Service, and others.; Cong. Shearith Israel, N. Y. (Spanish au. numerous articles in professional jour- and Portuguese synagogue), 1927—30, nals; co-ed. "Studies in Prejudice" (1950). 1934-35, 1939-51, hon. pres. since 1952; FRANKLIN, PEARL, educ, Zion. leader; b. mem. bd. Jewish Family Service 1929-59, Huntington, Ind., May 1, 1885; d. Chi- pres., 1941-45, hon. trustee, 1954-59; cago, 111., July 10, 1958; instr. political mem. bd. Am. Jewish Hist. Soc, 1916, science, Wright Jr. Coll., Chicago, 1935- mem. exec. com. and treas., 1922—44, hon. 51; nat. v. pres. Hadassah, 1921-38, mem. mem. exec, com., 1950-59; former treas. nat. bd. and council since 1938; delegate and dir. Family Welfare Assoc. of Am. to six World Zion. Congs.; mem. exec, HBRSHMAN, ABRAHAM MOSBS, rabbi; b. bd. Am. Assoc. for UN since 1949; au. Neustadt, Lithuania, May 16, 1880; d. Introduction to Social Science (1942). N. Y. C, April 6, 1959; in U. S. since FREDMAN, J. GBORGE, atty.; b. Weehawken, 1896; rabbi Cong. Sha'arey Zedek, De- N. J., Aug. 31, 1895; d. North Bergen, troit, Mich., 1907—47, rabbi emeritus N. J., July 2, 1958; former chief counsel since 1947; mem. nat. bd. ZOA; mem. Hudson County Bd. of Elections; com- bd. of dir. United Jewish Charities, 1908— mander-in-chief Jewish War Veterans, 25; mem. bd. Jewish Soc. Service 1932—33; an organizer of econ. boycott Bureau, 1925—39, hon. mem. bd. since against Nazis, 1933, and a v. pres. world 1939; mem. bd. of gov. Jewish Welfare conf. on the boycott in Amsterdam; former Fed. since 1926; a fdr. and mem. exec. mem. bd. of delegates Am. Jewish Com.; council United Synagogue of Am.; mem. former ed. Jewish Veteran; co-au. Jews in exec com. Rabb. Assembly of Am.; mem. American Wars (1942); compiled book- bd. Keren ha-Yesod (Pal. Fdn. Fund); let of important Am. documents, frame- mem. Nat. Com. for Bar-Ilan Univ., in work of Democracy (1954). Israel, since 1954; au. two collections of FRISCHWASSER, BENJAMIN F., insurance sermons: Israel's Fate and Faith (1952) broker; b. Austria, 1883 (?); d. Bronx, and Religion of the Age and of the Ages N. Y., July 30, 1958; sec. bd. of dir. (1953), a historical study, Rabbi Isaac Jewish Daily Forward since 1929; a fdr. Perfet and His Times (1943); tr. and an- and former v. pres. Internat. Ladies Gar- notated part of the legal code of Mai- ment Workers Union. monides, The Book of Judges, in Yale GELBART, GERSHON, educ; b. Lodz, Poland, Judaica series (1949). Dec 25, 1908; d. Bklyn., N. Y., Jan. 7, JAFFE, JEAN, Yid. journalist; b. Poland, 1959; in U. S. since 1928; mem. bd. of April 21, 1900; d. high seas, Nov. 20, professional consultants Am. Assoc. for 1958; mem. editl. staff Day-Jewish Jour- Jewish Educ; research dir. comm. on nal; mem. editl. bd. and contrib. Pioneer role of science in Jewish education of Woman. WJC; former dir. Jewish educ. in Italy JOEL, GEORGE W., pub.; b. Syracuse, N. Y., for JDC; former instr. history, Gratz Coll.; Dec. 21, 1902; d. N. Y. C, April 28, instr. Bib. hist., N. Y. Univ., 1954-56; 1959; pres. and pub. Dial press since mem. exec. com. Nat. Council for Jewish 1951, ed.-in-chief, 1939-51; a dir. Am. Educ; mem. com. of examiners Nat. Bd. Book Pub. Council; former ed. Seven Arts of License for Heb. Tchrs. and Principals. Feature Syndicate; contrib. articles and lit. GOLUB, JACOB S., educ, librarian; b. Bialy- criticism to several pubs. stok, Poland, Nov. 11, 1895; d. Riverdale, JOSEPH, SAMUEL, educ; b. Russia, 1881; N. Y., March 27, 1959; in U. S. since d. New Rochelle, N. Y., Feb. 8, 1959; 1906; librarian emeritus Jewish Educ. assoc. prof, sociology Coll. of the City Com. of N. Y., mem. of staff since 1939; of N. Y., 1936-52, asst. prof., 1929-36, educ dir. Central Jewish Inst., N. Y., chmn. sociology dept., 1941—47, fdr. and 1920—24; supervisor Cong. Schs., Chicago dir. soc. research laboratory, 1929—47; dur- Bd. of Jewish Educ, 1925-28: exec dir. ing World War I chmn. N. Y. C. Fed. Cincinnati Bureau of Jewish Educ, 1928- Food Admn. and N. Y. dir. Am. Relief 36; educ. dir. ZOA, 1936-39; mem. exec, Comm.; chmn. com. on Puerto Rican com. Nat. Council for Jewish Educ since community services of the Welfare Coun- 1936, pres. 1934-36; mem. editl. bd. cil, N. Y. C, 1934-35; au. Jewish Immi- Reconstructionist; mem. editl. staff Jewish gration to the United States from 1881— Education; a nat. dir. Nat. Young Judaea; 1910 (1914), Baron de Hirsch Fund au. In the Days of the Second Temple (1935). (1929), Israel in Canaan (1930), In the KAMINSKY, JOSHUA, Yid. au., ed.; b. Malin- Days of the First Temple (1932), The Kiev, Russia, Aug. 15, 1883; d. N. Y. C, 418 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK Nov. 30, 1958; in U. S. since 1906; ed. June 3, 1959; in U. S. since 1935; au. Kinder Zeitung; a fdr. Sholem Aleichem poetry, short stories, plays, novels incl. schools and the Matones pub. house; au. Und er kehrte heim (1936), Gezang fun numerous Yid. children's books incl. Mayn doyres (1936), Khezvoynes (1940), The alef beyz (1926), Ikb lern zikh Yidish Impatient Sages: A Legend (1948), (1948), In der beym un in shule (1952). Zvishn zvey thomem (1959); contrib. to KAPLAN, HYMAN, social worker; b. N. Y. C, many periodicals ind. Yiddishe Kultur, April 26, 1893; d. San Francisco, Calif., Zukunft; works tr. into Ger., French, Eng., Sept. 5, 1958; exec. dir. Jewish Wel- Dutch, Heb., and Pol. fare Fed. of San Francisco, 1929-58; for- LIPSKY, CHARLOTTB, decorator, sculptor; b. mer exec. dir. Jewish Family Service Riga, Latvia, Dec. 1879; d. N. Y. C, Agency and Jewish Com. for Personal March 15, 1959; in U. S. since 1895; Service, San Francisco; charter mem. Calif. wife of Louis Lipsky, Zion. leader; a Conf. of Social Work; act. in obtaining fdr. and act. in Women's Am. ORT; also certification of social workers in Calif. act. in Hadassah, ZOA. KATCHKO, ADOLPH, cantor; b. Poland, April MALLER, JULIUS B., educ; b. Vobolniki, 10, 1895; d. N. Y. C, Sept. 16, 1958; Lithuania, April 15, 1901; d. Bronx, former cantor and musical dir. Temple N. Y., May 8, 1959; in U. S. since 1921; Anshe Chesed, N. Y. C; a fdr. Cantors dir. municipal research and statistics N. Y. Assembly, JTS; advisor, Sch. of Sacred state dept. of audit and control since 1955; Music, HUC-JIR; composed an original since 1949 prof, psychology Yeshiva Univ. Friday evening service, 'Avodat Aharon and former dir. psychology clinic, dir. re- (1953); au. Cantorial Anthology (1953). search com. on state aid for education, KOBER, ADOLF, rabbi, historian; b. Beuthen, N. Y. C. Bd. of Educ. since 1952; re- Germany, Sept. 3, 1879; d. N. Y. C, Dec. search psychologist, War Dept. and the 29, 1958; in U. S. since 1939; research Office of Strategic Services during World fellow Am. Acad. for Jewish Research War II; dir. research and pubs., Am. Jew- since 1943; rabbi, Cologne, Germany, ish Com., 1943—46; senior psychologist, 1918-39; mem. bd. Am. Fed. of Jews dept. Nat. Defense, 1947-49; au. several from Central Europe; au. several histories vols. ind. Cooperation and Competition of German Jewish communities incl. (1929), School and Community (1937), Cologne (1940); contrib. to several en- State Aid to Education (1954); contrib. cyclopedias incl. Universal Jewish Encyclo- numerous articles to sd. journals. pedia; also contrib. to hist, journals and MARGARETEN, REGINA, mfr.; b. Barbona, pubs. incl. Historia Judaica. Hungary, Dec. 25, 1863; d. L. I. City, LANGNBR, RUTH L., tr.; b. N. Y. C, April N. Y., Jan. 15, 1959; in U. S. since 6, 1898; d. N. Y. C, April 3, 1959; 1884; treas. and dir. Horowitz Bros, and former foreign play adv. and official tr., Margareten, mfrs. of matzot and other Theater Guild; mem. bd. dir. N. Y. Sea. kosher foods; act. in many philanthropic Nat. Council of Jewish Women; chain, and Zion. orgs. motion picture evaluating com. Am. Jewish MESTBL, JACOB; actor, dir. ed.; b. Zloczow, Com., 1950—59; former mem. mass media Poland, Feb. 25, 1884; d. N. Y. C, Aug. com. and bd. of delegates Am. Jewish 6, 1958; in U. S. since 1920; co-ed. Com. Lexikon fun yidishen teyater; mem. editl. LEFKOWITCH, HENRY, composer and music bd. Yiddishe Kultur since 1938; dir. Artef pub.; b. 1892 (?); d. N. Y. C, Jan. 31, Theater since 1926; mem. Yid. Art 1959; composed many Jewish art songs Theater since 1923; appeared on radio and Heb. liturgical music; former sec. Soc. and TV programs ind. "The Goldbergs"; of Jewish Composers; lectured on music au. several books of Yid. poetry, fiction, on radio. and the history of the Yid. theater ind. LEVIN, JACOB L., educ, au.; b. Tolochin, Soldatn un payatzen lider (poetry, 1928), Russia, Aug. 16, 1884; d. Bronx, N. Y., Lukretzias toyt (fiction, 1936), Unzer Dec. 6, 1958; in U. S. since 1915; instr. teyater (Yid. theater, 1943); tr. plays Yid. lang. and lit. and Bib. studies, edu- from Ger., Pol., Eng. into Yid. cational dept. Workmen's Circle; mem. MUKDONI-KAPPEL, ALBXANDER, Yid. au., exec. bd. Cong, for Jewish Culture, journalist, dramatic critic; b. Lechowitz, Freeland League for Jewish Territorial Russia, March 15, 1877; d. Pine Plains, Colonization, Central Yid. Culture Orgn.; N. Y., Sept. 7, 1958; in U. S. since mem. bd. of dir. YPVO; mem. editl. adv. 1924; mem. editl. staff Naye Velt, War- bd. Jewish Book Council; au. numerous saw, Poland, 1909-16; ed. Nayes, Kovno, Yid. textbooks for Yid. schs. and other Lithuania, 1920-22; mem. editl. staff vols. incl. Kultur Geshichte (1920); tr. Jewish Morning Journal, 1923-53, Day- many children's stories from Ger., Russ., Jewish Journal, 1953-57; au. many stories Pol., and Eng. into Yid.; ed. Oifn Weg, and works on the theater ind. Peretz un 1956—58; contrib. to many pubs. ind. dos yidishe teyater (1949), Oisland Zukunft, Pedagogical Journal, Yivo Wetter, (1951), Teyater (1927); contrib. to and Kultur un Derziung. Algemetne entsiklopedie and Entsiklo- LEWIN, SAMUEL, Yid. au.; b. Konska Wola, pediah ha-'Ivrit; contrib. numerous articles Poland, March 12, 1890; d. Bronx, N. Y., to Zukunft and other Yid. pubs. NECROLOGY: UNITED STATES 419

OYSHER, MOISHB, cantor, singer; b. Lipkon, and Yid. ind. 'Im Sheki'at ba-Hammah Bessarabia, Mar. 8, 1907; d. New (1906), Shirim u-Foemot (1914), Pirke Rochelle, N. Y., Nov. 27, 1958; in U. S. ya'ar (1933), Noah Pandre (1936), Song since 1921; during his career was guest of the Dnieper (1945), Downfall (1944) cantor in many congs.; composed and (the last three tr. into Eng.), Anshe recorded Yid. folk songs and liturgical Shklov (1944), Lubot Genuzim (1951), music; appeared on concert stages all over Bialik u-Vene Doro (1953). the world; starred on radio program SONNEBORN, HELEN, communal worker; b. "American Jewish Caravan," 1952-56; ap- Washington, D. C, 1876 (?); d. N. Y. C, peared in several Yid.- and Eng.-lang. mo- Nov. 22, 1958; former chmn. women's tion pictures. div. UJA; with her husband estab. scholar- PETT, CHAIM, Yid. au., journalist; b. Wolpe, ships at Heb. Univ. and the Technion, Russia, May 1902; d. N. Y. C, June 11, 1959; former ed. Yidish Leben; contrib. to Israel Inst. of Technology in Haifa; before Yid. newspapers and mgs. ind. Zukunft, World War II aided in bringing Jewish Unzer Zait, Day-Jewish Journal, since children out of Germany to Pal.; act. in 1922; au. many books of Yid. fiction ind. Fed. of Jewish Philanthropies of N. Y. Zvisben faiern (1937), A hois oifn feld WARBURG, FRIEDA, philanthropist, communal (1940), Fun Hudson bizn Yarden (1953). worker; b. N. Y. C, Feb. 3, 1876; d. PROSKAUBR, ALICB, dvic leader; b. N. Y. C, White Plains, N. Y., Sept. 14, 1958; mem. April 19, 1881; d. N. Y. C, March 18, bd. of dir. JTS since 1938; hon. pres. 1959; wife of Joseph M. Froskauer; a fdr. Am. Friends of the Heb. Univ.; chmn. and hon. chmn. women's div. JDA; hon. women's div. Fed. of Jewish Philanthropies chmn. women's div. UJA; mem. bd. Fed. of N. Y., 1930, hon. chmn. since 1936; of Jewish Philanthropies of N. Y., Am. hon. v. ptes. Welfare Coundl, N. Y. C, Assoc. for the United Nations; former 1943-45; hon. v. pres. Internat. Youth chmn. housing sec. Welfare Council of Aliyah Comm.; hon. chmn. JDC since N. Y.; former dir. Citizens Housing and 1937; estab. a $100,000 fund for med. Planning Coundl of N. Y. scholarships at the Heb. Univ.-Hadassah RADIN, PAUL, anthropologist; b. Lodz, Po- Hosp. in Jerusalem, 1949; created a land, April 2, 1883; d. N. Y. C, Feb. $500,000 fund for the support of the 21, 1959; in U. S. since 1884; prof, and Visiting Nurse Service of N. Y., 1924; v. chmn. anthropology dept. Brandeis Univ. pres. JWB since 1937; contrib. $650,000 since 1957; former mem. faculties several to UJA for housing and education of new univs. and colls, ind. Univ. of Calif., Cam- immigrants to Israel, 1951; donated bridge Univ., and Kenyon Coll.; authority N. Y. C. home to JTS for its Jewish on Am. Indians; au. numerous vols. ind. Museum, 1944; act. in Hadassah; honored The Winnebago Tribe (1923), Crashing by World Brotherhood movement, 1956. Thunder: The Autobiography of an Amer- WEIL, LEAH A., communal worker; b. 1874 ican Indian (1926), The Story of the (?); d. Stamford, Conn., May 28, 1959; American Indian (1927), Primitive Man former sec. and mem. bd. of dir. N. Y. as Philosopher (1927), Primitive Reli- sea. Nat. Coundl of Jewish Women; for- gion: Its Nature and Origin (1937), and mer dir. and sec. Pal. Lighthouse; fdr. The World of Primitive Man (1953). N. Y. Guild for the Jewish Blind. SEMEL, BERNARD, merchant, philanthropist; WHITE, LAWRENCB, org. exec, arty.; b. b. Bolechow, Austria-Hungary, Nov. 17, New Haven, Conn., March 16, 1901; d. 1878; d. Atlantic Beach, N. Y., June 30, New Haven, Conn., July 27, 1958; since 1959; in U. S. since 1890; act. chmn. 1928 admn. sec. District One of B'nai Kehillah (Jewish community), N. Y. C, B'rith (indudes N. Y., New England, 1909; apptd. mem. comm. on unemploy- and Eastern Canada). ment, N. Y. C, 1917; co-fdr. Day, 1914; WILE, HERMAN, mfr.; b. Germany, 1864 leader in promotion of Jewish educ. for (?); d. Buffalo, N. Y., Dec. 28, 1958; in many years; helped org. Jewish Educ. As- U. S. since 1880 (?); v. pres. and trustee soc, hon. sec. since 1918; mem. exec, Nat. Jewish Hosp. at Denver since 1901; com. ZOA, 1909; mem. exec. com. JWB; mem. exec. bd. UAHC since 1908. mem. bd. of trustees Fed. of Jewish Philan- WISE, JONAH B., rabbi; b. Cindnnati, O., thropies of N. Y. Feb. 21, 1881; d. N. Y. C, Feb. 1, 1959; SHATZKES, MOSES, rabbi, talmudic scholar; son of Isaac Mayer Wise, fdr. of Reform b. Vilna, Lithuania, 1881; d. Bklyn., N. Y., Judaism in U. S.; rabbi Central Synagogue, Dec. 29, 1958; in U. S. since 1941; prof, N. Y. C. since 1925; a fdr. and since of Talmud, mem. ordination bd., Rabbi 1939 a nat. chmn. UJA, hon. nat. chmn. Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary, since 1958; nat. chmn. fund-raising cam- Yeshiva Univ. since 1941; former prof., paign JDC, 1931-32; initiated radio pro- Yeshiva of Vilna, Lithuania. gram "Message of Israel," 1934; apptd. by SHNEOUR, ZALMAN, poet, au.; b. Shklov, Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt as delegate to Russia, Feb. 11, 1887; d. N. Y. C, Feb. Internat. Refugee Conf. in France, 1938; 20, 1959; in U. S. since 1941; contrib. ed. American Israelite since 1928. Jewish Daily Forward since 1937; au. more WOLFSON, LEO, arty., Zion. leader; b. Husi, than 60 vols. of poetry and prose in Heb. Rumania, July 4, 1882; d. N. Y. C, June 420 AMERICAN JEWISH YEAR BOOK

3, 1959; in U. S. since 1900; a fdr. June 1, 1959; pioneer in the development United Rumanian Jews of Am., 1907, of foster-home care for orphans; former pres., 1909-42, hon. pres. since 1943; nat. superintendent of Jewish orphanages and chmn. United Zion. Revisionists of Am., child-care institutions in Newark, N. J., 1951-54, pres., since 1954; delegate to or- Rochester, N. Y., Los Angeles, Calif., and ganizing convention Am. Jewish Cong., Atlanta, Ga.; former mem. exec. com. 1916, mem. gov. council, exec, com., N. Y. State Conf. of Social Workers; admn. com., 1916-40; dir. JNF, 1950-53, contrib. articles to Nation, Survey, and men. admn. com. 1951—53; co-fdr. Keren Anglo-Jewish periodicals. Hayesod, bd. mem. since 1950; pres. Coun- ZARITSKY, MAX, labor leader: b. Petrikov, cil of Orgn. for Pal., 1936-39; mem. exec, Russia, April 15, 1885; d. Boston, Mass., admn. com., ZOA, 1922—43; mem. nat. May 10, 1959; in U. S. since 1905; pres. council JDC since 1918; former counsel, United Hatters, Cap, and Millinery Workers mem. admn. com., B'nai Zion; au. The Internat. Union, 1936-50, hon. pres. since Jews in Rumania (1914); contrib. many 1950; pres. Cloth Hat, Cap, and Millinery articles to Jewish and Anglo-Jewish periodi- Union, 1919-34; a fdr. Am. Labor Party, cals. 1936; a fdr. N. Y. State Liberal Party, WYLE, ARMAND, social worker; b. Danville, 1944; former treas. Nat. Labor Com. for Pa., Dec. 30, 1875; d. Katonah, N. Y., Pal.; act. in Jewish Nat. Workers Alliance. 4 > CALENDARS

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~~3.s s MONTHLY CALENDAR 423 CONDENSED MONTHLY CALENDAR 1960, Jan. 30—Feb. 28] SHEVAT 30 DAYS [S72O~~

~~Day Civil of the Jewish SABBATHS, PENTATEUCHAL PROPHETICAL Date Week Date FESTIVALS, FASTS READING READING~~

~~Jan. Shevat J Exod. 6 -.2-9:35 30 Sa r Wa-era; New Moon 1 Num. 28 :9-15 Isaiah 66:1-24~~

~~Feb. 6 Sa 8 Bo Exod. 10:1-13:16 Jeremiah 46:13-28~~