The Japanese Legal System and the Pro Homine Principle in Human Rights Treaties*

Home , Constitution of Japan

Esta revista forma parte del acervo de la Biblioteca Jurídica Virtual del Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas de la UNAM www.juridicas.unam.mx http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx

El sistema jurídico japonés y el principio pro homine en los tratados sobre derechos humanos

Valerio de Oliveira Mazzuoli** Dilton Ribeiro***

Sumario: I. Introduction. II. International Law and the Conflict of Norms. III. Japan’s Legal System and International Human Rights Trea- ties. IV. The Pro Homine Principle. V. Feasibility of the Pro Homine Principle in Japanese Law. VI. Conclusion. VII. Bibliography.

* We are in great debt to a number of people who read early drafts and helped us shape this article. We would love to especially thank Saki Urushi (PhD, Keio University) for her great comments and immensurable help with Japanese law. We are also grateful to Yozo Yokota and Sharry Aiken for all the help and indispensable comments and support. As usual, the views expressed herein are those of the authors. ** International Law and Human Rights Professor (Federal University of Mato Grosso, Brazil), Postdoctoral Fellow in Law and Political Sciences (University of Lisbon, Portugal), PhD summa cum laude in International Law (Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil), LLM (São Paulo State University, Brazil). E-mail: [email protected]. *** PhD Candidate (Queen’s University, Canada), LLM (University of Manitoba, Canada), LLB (Southwest Bahia State University, Brazil). E-mail: [email protected]. Artículo recibido el 13 de mayo de 2014 Aprobado para publicación el 24 de septiembre de 2014

VALERIO DE OLIVEIRA MAZZUOLI / DILTON RIBEIRO www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca Mots-clés: ouleur hiérarchie.ou international leur statutmieux protéger national les individusdansune situation spécifique sansimporter cette provision un permet être des droits unguide pouranalyser de l’homme. les omissions des normes En conséquence, droits —leslimitations des droits doivent restrictivement— être et celui-ci peut interprétées 11,Constitution japonaisedanssonarticle restrictive lequel interdit une interprétation des À notre avis, ce cadre de droit international the for the humanperson. This theory, system, the entire humanrights underpins iscalled which and principles. Accordingly, seek the best possible protection instruments allhumanrights norms and addressees of humanrights human person. concern Individuals are the primary A japonais qui soutient entièrement le système des droits de l’homme, est appeléeprincipe lameilleure humaine. protection pourlapersonne de l’homme cherchent Cette théorie, des droits de l’homme.et des principes Enconséquence, des droits tousles instruments humaine.personne Les individussontlapremière préoccupation et destinataires des normes R constitucional japonés. Palabras clave: odoméstico. suestatus ojerarquía internacional importar que mejor puedaproteger alosindividuosensituaciones específicasbuscando sin lanorma humanos. de derechos normas un En consecuencia, permite “diálogo de fuentes” este artículo humana alestablecer alapersona losparámetros yaplicación de las de interpretación prioriza del principio llena todosloscriterios humanos. dederechos normas Concordantemente,en 11 omisiones elartículo las analizar restrictivamente— ypuede ser unaguíapara deben interpretarse límites alosderechos 11.a través de suartículo Este prohíbe —los restrictiva unainterpretación de losderechos homine humanos,derechos es llamadaprincipio humanos. de derechos yprincipios normas Esta teoría, que apuntalael sistemacompleto de de la humana.persona preocupación delas ydestinatarios Losindividuossonlaprincipal R Key words: individuals inaspecific situation ordomestic status regardless orhierarchy. of itsinternational provision allows a could“dialogue better of sources” protect which seeking the best norm and apply norms. to interpret settinghumanrights the parameters Consequently,person this thehuman prioritizes public byof order thewhich pro atrue homine principle crystalizing line toanalyzenorms. omissionsinhumanrights Accordingly, 11fits allthe criteria Article must —limitation be restrictively of rights tion of rights anditcan be aguide interpreted— accepted by the Japanese Constitutionthrough its 11.Article It forbids restrictive interpreta esumen bstract ésumé pro homineprinciple. In ourview, this de derecho internacional fue completamente aceptado porlaConstitución Japonesa internacional de derecho : L’objectif etle propos est laprotection des droits de la de l’homme internationaux : : El objetivo y propósito de los derechos humanos internacionales esEl laprotección objetivo ypropósito humanos internacionales de losderechos The objective and purpose of international human rights isthe protection of the humanrights The objective of international andpurpose droits international humanrights,international treaties, comparative law, Japanese constitutional law. derechos humanosinternacionales,derechos tratados, comparado, derecho derecho

de l’homme internationaux, traités, droit comparé, droit constitutionnel “ dialogue de source pro homine pro homineframework law of international was fully pro homine. En nuestraperspectiva, este marco pro homineaété complétement accepté parla al cristalizar un verdadero alcristalizar orden público que ” en cherchant la meilleure norme qui peut lameilleure norme en cherchant Anuario Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx prohomine pro - - . ,

www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca on the hierarchical approach of the traditionalmonistordualisttheory. approach on the hierarchical mustter protects be applied. thehumanperson Consequently, itisnotbased thatby whenever informing there bet isaconflict of norms, the one which plying norms. humanrights a crystalizes monism”This principle “dialogical lawyers,guide toorient law-makers andap andjudges when interpreting asthe final objectivethe protection of the humanperson and purpose. human rights. In humanrights, the interpretative guide should promote However, these views might not present inthe area the best approach of be valid undermunicipal law. fied or, rather, to intoadomestic legislation they need tobe transformed or dualismtoacknowledge that treaties remain treaties when they are rati of traditionaltreaties. and notonly the regulation ofthe relation between States, asitisthe case relevant treaties individuals’ tohumanrights because they concern rights but withthe protection of the humanperson. In other words, thistopic is isultimately notwithState interests which concerned of humanrights domestic legal structure. topical inthe areaThis question isparticularly these treaties are and with which incorporated into the State’s legal system. and lawyers face the Scholars question of how rate methods varying from tocountry, country treaties must be integrated a hierarchy similarto that of astatute orhave infra-constitutional in the acknowledgment that treaties, treaties, including humanrights have vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario andmunicipal spheres.international level. Consequently, treaties are envisaged tobe legally effective at the toestablish detailed legal obligationsmain instruments at the international law subjects of international States are andtreaties the primary are the articles 26 and27. articles British British Yearbook Law ofInternational , 1936, p. 66. zuoli, “Dialogical”]. 3 2 1 Accordingly, the The traditionalpracticeof monism of States istoselect amoderate form

See generally J. C. Starke, in the and Dualism “Monism Law”, of International Theory 17 See generally Vienna Convention onthe Law of Treaties See V. Mazzuoli, Monism”, Dialogical “Internationalist 324 principle was developedpro homineprinciple asaninterpretative ,

I. 2 result normally These traditionalapproaches I ntroduction 1 At the domestic level, withincorpo , 1969, 1155UNTS331, especially status Consulex they enter aState’s http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx , 2010, p. 50[Maz status - - - - . - 3 241 THE JAPANESE LEGAL SYSTEM AND THE PRO HOMINE PRINCIPLE IN HUMAN RIGHTS TREATIES 242

VALERIO DE OLIVEIRA MAZZUOLI / DILTON RIBEIRO www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca arguably assists shapingJapanese law. law, humanrights seeks toembrace international which, inmany ways, East Asian context. Second, Japan, especially after the Second World War, stimulates, time, for the first adebate about the on acomparative analysis. for twoThis paper isimportant reasons. First, it frameworktween humanrights thisinternational andJapanese law based pro homine goal is, inmany ways, more modest. We want toexplain the source of the the Japanese constitutional system concerning international treaties. international the Japanese constitutional system concerning Japanese framework. It isnotourintent tofocus onadetailed analysis of of the ent theory monism”“dialogical inthe East Asian context withinthe the tional development. focuses onthe viability of ofthe article The final part norms. - anditsinterna the pro homineprinciple concerns The thirdpart of solvingconflicts andmunicipal between instruments these international treaties tothe hierarchy of humanrights anditstraditionalmethodproach by some States. focuses onthe Japanese ap of the article The second part andontheir variations adopted the traditionaldualistandmonisttheories man person. isthe protectionthe ultimate of the hu objective which of humanrights treaties, humanrights andinternational municipal andsupporting norms achieve two different but interconnected goals: solvingconflicts between anddomestic norms,edges theaimsto coexistence of both international to the Western world ingeneral. The of Japanese constitutional law, isstillafairly which unknown legal system law. humanrights ment of international Furthermore, itcould alsobe part Law anditsImpact inJapan”, 28 K. Shoichi, rights of womenrights andminorities, amongother beneficiaries, ibidem enced Japanese law. These developments have led tothe adoptionof lawsthe supporting 1979, itsratification ofthe Social RightsCovenant, andinparticular hasprofoundly influ and 152-154. that Japan’s Port affirms treaties humanrights since “accession tointernational 5 4 This paper, thus, aimstointroduce anovel the incipi debate concerning ofthe article, we part In the first focus onthe theoretical elements of We seek todemonstrate that the

pro homine Port, K. L., “The Japanese Law International ‘Revolution’: HumanRights International JapaneseFor onthe establishment approach Constitutionsee: ofthe modern ahistorical The Birth ofJapan’sThe Birth Postwar Constitution view withinthelaw of nations andhighlightapossible linkbe application inthe Japanese legal system. Stanford Law Journal ofInternational , 1992, pp. 139-142 principle is an intrinsic ele isanintrinsic pro homineprinciple 5 pro homine We will, however, leave forafurther , New York, Perseus, 1998. principle, acknowl which principle inthe pro homineprinciple Anuario Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario , pp. 156-157. See also vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx 4 Our ------,

www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca could indeed be applied by Japanese courts. study the analysis whether this vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario national law, States of interactionsengage inawithothervariety States and society.the international In other words, subjects of inter- asthe primary States are usually notisolated, but rather they are of effective participants Keishu 10-855, of Japan,system for them would (See Supreme Court be permitted 17November 1997, 51 registration systemarguingthat were since foreigners of the Family notpart Register, another tice of Japan,Court 4October 1978, Case No.1975 (Gyo-Tsu) No120, that on the grounds the Minister hasdiscretion todecide (See Supremethe Supreme Court clause of the Japanese Constitution, they were nothelpful toJapan. This view was upheld by in anti-Vietman War activities withinthe scope of protection ofthe freedom of expression renewal request denied by that the Minister of Justice onthe grounds althoughhe engaged Lean vMinister of Justice, an citizen whowentAmerican toJapan hadhisvisa asateacher the text of 11of the Constitution.Article In are notinharmony,Japanese courts that isto say, have controversial interpretations regarding 88 sity Law Review the Supreme Court’s ConstitutionalDecisions: A Response toMatsui”, 88 Professor Matshui’s, see: C. Martin, “The Japanese ConstitutionasLaw of andthe Legitimacy Conservative?”, 88 system and its power of judicial review, see S. Matsui, “Why soIs the Japanese Supreme Court 154. For ageneral view onthe role of theinshaping Japanese State’s Supreme Court legal for treaties that directly State their non-self-executing status”. See Port, not they are self-executing”, however they “appear torequire only implementing legislation usually“Japanese andapply interpret treaties courts directly withoutquestioning whether or man RightsLaw onJapanese Law”, Japan, see Y. Iwasawa, “Legal Treatment of Koreans inJapan: Hu- The Impact of International humanrights,mestic andinternational including domestic case laws Koreans concerning in Supreme Court Opinions”,Supreme Court 11 Korea and TaiwanKorea on HumanRights inJapan Japanese Law Y. Iwasawa, law, International HumanRights, andJapanese Law: LawThe Impact ofInternational on 6 Washington University Law Review, 2011, p. 1425. It is, moreover, tohighlightthat important ). In another case, decided onthe constitutionality of the foreign resident Supreme Court

See generally N. L. Nathanson, “Human RightsinJapan through the Looking-Glass of II. , New York, Clarendon Press, 1998; R. Goodman andI. (eds.), Neary , 2011, p. 1527. See alsoD. S. Law, “Why HasJudicial Review Failed inJapan”, I , New York, Routledge, 2002. Foreign Resident Registration System Constitutional Case nternational Washington University Law Review , Oxford, Routledge, 1996; andI. Neary, HumanRights inJapan, South , Howard Law Journal, 1965, p. 316. For adeep analysis of do

8 L

aw Human Rights Quarterly, 1986, p. 131. that Port asserts pro homine

and McLean

the , 2011, p. 1375. For adifferent view from v, v, principle or dialogical monism ordialogical principle

C 6 Minister ofJustice onflict

). ). of McLean http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx

, for example, In Mc N supra orms Wsigo Univer Washington v. Minister ofJus v. n. 5, pp. 153-

Case Studies - - - - 243 THE JAPANESE LEGAL SYSTEM AND THE PRO HOMINE PRINCIPLE IN HUMAN RIGHTS TREATIES 244

VALERIO DE OLIVEIRA MAZZUOLI / DILTON RIBEIRO www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca clusion der their jurisdiction. un ing peoples of member-States themselves andpeoples of territories concern fundamental rights the existenceof national and international a common standardof achievement for allpeoples andallnations; and of the United Nations; inthe Charter enshrined fundamental human rights oflaw;the rule friendly relations between nations; the existence of basic belief, andfreedom from fear; the existence of aconscience of mankind; concerns; and asfreedom essential freedomsternational of speech such law:human rights inherent dignity, andequalasin andinalienable rights basic premises for the development of anew framework for international law of international rooted onhumanrights.an ethical standardaspart after the Second World War, society soughttocrystalize the international level. for their actions at the international eters Furthermore, especially the international society asawhole.the international They, notunusually through the con State interests, the protection ofthe humanperson, but concern the main treaties because humanrights are notfocused on pertinent is particularly between law international anddomestic law. In humanrights, thisquestion law. human rights ofinternational astheobject andpurpose human person national treaties, andduties protecting the rights soughttocrystalize which themselves, were followed and reality”“translated intoajuridical by inter Klein, E. (eds.), tion of HumanDignityinthe Universal Declaration of HumanRights”, inKretzmer, D. and Law International, 2002. Human Rights”, 73 Journal, 2003, p. 137 andp. 140; Glendon, M. A., “Knowing the Universal Declaration of Rights: Effective Remedies andthe Domestic Courts”, 33 phia,University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999;E. D. Re, “The Universal Declaration of Human J. Morsink, M. Shaw, the Universal Declaration of HumanRightscould be envisaged asabinding instrument. See nº 13, U.N. Doc. A\810 (1948)at ies”, 64 could notexist, less function”. much See R. D. Kearney &R. E. Dalton, “The Treaty on Treat the conduct of foreign affairs”, addingthat without thismechanism intercourse “international 8 7 The Universal Declaration ofHumanRights, for example, sets some The proliferation of treaties leads tothequestion of the

Universal Declaration ofHumanRights, Kearney andDalton, forexample, that treaties affirm are an “indispensable element in The Law Journal ofInternational American of treaties, International LawInternational The Universal Declaration ofHumanRights: Origins, Drafting andIntent The Concept of Human Dignity inHumanRights Discourse Notre DameLaw Review 7 establish that param alegal matrix guide andcrystalize (New York, UniversityPress 2003)p. Cambridge 260. See also 8 In ourview, these principles, recognized by States preamble. Although acontroversial topic, inourview, G.A.Res. 217(III), U.N. G.A.AOR, 3dSess., Supp. , 1998, p. 1153; Dicke, K., “The Founding Func , 1970, p. 495. California California Western Law International Anuario Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx , New York, Kluwer relationship , Philadel ------,

www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca example, ofHumanRights Court the Inter-American in force andbinding. Accordingly, adjudication bodies as, international for of approval,national andconstitutionalpatterns are, at least theoretically, ratify treaties, treaties including humanrights which, after following inter development law, of international one can notice that States constantly State vention onHumanRights(1950). Court of HumanRights Court regulates the domestic status the area ofhumanrights. Itisusually the municipal law State which of each status the treaties andthedomestic norms. corporated bycorporated municipal legislation. andobligationsrights can only have effect domestically when they are in and withoutany connection orconflicts between them. Accordingly, treaty are different, which systems —domestic andinternational— independent, concept. isrootedThe dualisttheory inthe existence of two different legal norms. treaties andthe internal of treaty-making powerrules andsometimes regulate the relation between treaties, by protecting the addressee of their provisions. Inother words, humanrights international vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario set by law international American ConventionAmerican onHumanRights(1969) 2003, pp. 44-45. Court of HumanRights”Court or Court” or “Inter-American “Court”]. ganization of States American Treaty Series, nº36, Chapter VIII [hereinafter “Inter-American pp. 187-188. See alsoI. Brownlie, [hereinafter of Human Rights”“European Court or “European Court”]. doms 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 Normally, the States’ constitutional systemsadoptadualistormonist Furthermore, once atreaty isratified andapproved following the rules

, 213United Nations Treaty Series, nº 221, p. 223, 5 European Treaty Series, 19 Article American ConventionAmerican onHumanRights relations, break withthe Westphalian paradigm. of arecent As part American ConventionAmerican onHumanRights See A. Aust, See generally Shaw, Convention for the Protection ofHumanRights andFundamental Freedoms Original Original Version ofthe Convention for the Protection ofHumanRights andFundamental Free or domestic validity of international treaties ordomestic validity of international emerges, especially in Vienna Convention onthe Law of Treaties Handbook of International LawHandbook ofInternational , New York, University Press, Cambridge 2005, supra 13 n. 8, pp. 138-179. 10 , andmunicipal law, the question regarding the

apply their respective constitutive treaty: the human person of treaties andhow tosolve conflicts between Principles ofPublic Law International Principles , , 1144United Nations Treaty Series, p. 123, Or supra 12 14 15 , Constitutionsgenerally establish the That is, for example, the case of the supra n. 9. instead of solely regulating n. 1. 11 andthe European Con 9 http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx orthe European , New York, Oxford, , supra n. 10. inter------245 THE JAPANESE LEGAL SYSTEM AND THE PRO HOMINE PRINCIPLE IN HUMAN RIGHTS TREATIES 246

VALERIO DE OLIVEIRA MAZZUOLI / DILTON RIBEIRO www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca is one single legal system including international anddomestic laws.is one single legal system including international United States, England and, toalesser extent, the Scandinavian countries. The dualistsystem is notanexclusively Canadiantheory, isadopted by the of the national territory”. “they overlap the laws andthey constitute direct source tothe inhabitants no commonfield of application, being supreme initsown each sphere”. of onetion ofsystem theof supremacy law over the other, asthey share tutional legislation. In other words, the dualist system “avoids any ques treaties commonly have the same legal Spain are part of the Spanish internal order”. oftheSpanishinternal Spain are part provides that treaties“the international assoonofficially published in executing. 96of the SpanishConstitutionof 1978,Article for example, implemented bystatute. Canadian system where treaties intomunicipal law are transformed and Constitution of Germany ( Constitution of Germany corporate itintothe municipalcorporate legal. atreaty toin there intoadomestic legislation isnoneed totransform been implemented by statute”. therefore, isthat of theCanadianlaw treaties are notpart unless they have of public international lawof public of the federal law” international are part 2004, p. 164 Accessed on18December 2013. [translated by author], nais 2011)pp. 389-416and215[Mazzuoli, 96, n.1[translated by author], Journal of Transnational Law Inc, 2007, p. 104. national Law & Politics 23 22 24 21 20 19 18 17 16 Some States accept the monisttheory, conveys which the idea that there

Ibidem, pp. 164-165. Freeman, M. &van Ert, G., Slyz, G., Law“International inNational Courts”, 28 Currie, J. H. See Burgenthal, T., ConstitutionsandHumanRights “Modern Treaties” 36 Idem. Germany, Bundestag, Deutscher Spain, Congreso, Mazzuoli, V., Direito dos TratadosDireito et al. , 1996, p. 68. Constitución Española of 1978 of Española Constitución , www.bundestag.de/bundestag/aufgaben/rechtsgrundlagen/grundgesetz/ , 1998, p. 213. International Law:International Doctrine, Practice, and Theory 16 www.congreso.es/consti/. Accessed on18December 2013. 24 Freeman and Ert affirm that affirm “[t]he Freemangeneral rule, andErt The Constitutionof Italy, in 10,Article provides Grundgesetz International HumanRights LawInternational [Law of Treaties] (SãoPaulo, Editora Revista dos Tribu 17 Grundgesetz of 1949 of Grundgesetz a generalAs rule, legal systems, insuch Law of TreatiesLaw ]. ) stipulates that “the general norms 21 In other words, treaties are self- status [Spanish Constitution of 1978], Article of astatute orinfra-consti 22 New York University Journal ofInter- [Basic Law of 1949], 25 Article 25of the FederalArticle Anuario Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario , Toronto, IrwinLaw Inc, 23 and, furthermore, vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx , Toronto, Irwin Law 20 Columbia Thus, 19 18 - - - - . ,

www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca even be above the Constitution. of the Constitution’s part integral or, bill of rights moreover, could arguably bellow the Constitutionbut above infra-constitutional law, or become an have over priority domestic laws of the domestic legal system andbe part In the case of the protection oftheindividuals, treaties humanrights could Furthermore, States could also give priority toa treatyFurthermore, or a domestic States law. could also give priority newer law overrides anolder law orthat aspecial law overrides ageneral law. follow anddecide conflicts based theonmaxims that dualistapproach of conflicts between treaties anddomestic laws. Traditionally, they could and benefit individuals. to domestically bind States, that is, they establish clear obligations toStates more, treaty, aninternational especially inhumanrights, isalready suited would which legislation demand extra time andpolitical effort. Further pointed out, itdoes notrequire the conversion of atreaty intodomestic erally recognized”. gen norms that withthe international order confirms “the Italian juridical vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario ageneral treaty.supersede lex specialis eral domestic statute onspecific provisions. Conversely, applying the same treaties, tend toregulate which specific situations, could overrule agen conflicting older treaty was inforce whenitwas which adopted. Similarly, toit.contrary However, anewer a could supersede domestic legislation the monistsystem. Once adapted, the treaty willoverride any act inforce orif itisaccepted with based onthe dualistapproach have the same hierarchy ofadomestic law if itis “transformed” intoanact Revista dos Tribunais, 2013, pp. 104-111[Mazzuoli, by author], blica Italiana of 1948 13 (1989); and T. Burgenthal, “Domestic Statusofthe European Convention Rights”on Human See also L. Henkin, Law:“International Politics, Values andFunctions” 216 27 26 25 However, inthe monist spectrum, States have todecide onthe solution Accordingly, following of conflict resolution, these rules atreaty can Buffalo Law Review

.M V. Italy, Governo Italiano: Presidenza del Consigliodei Ministri,

For awell-written ontreaty approach implementation see T. Buergenthal, azzuoli, governo.it/Governo/Costituzione/principi.html reasoning, dealing withaspecific matter can adomestic norm Curso de Direito Internacional Público deDireitoCurso Internacional [Constitution of the Italian Republic of 1948], 10(1)[translated Article (1964). 25 because, isapractical doctrine The monisttheory as ,

27 ]. Curso [Public International Law], [Public International SãoPaulo, . Accessed on18December 201 status Costituzione dellaRepub http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx of astatute in Recueil desCours supra n. 19. 3. 26 - - - -

247 THE JAPANESE LEGAL SYSTEM AND THE PRO HOMINE PRINCIPLE IN HUMAN RIGHTS TREATIES 248

VALERIO DE OLIVEIRA MAZZUOLI / DILTON RIBEIRO www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca of its internal lawof itsinternal asjustification atreaty”. for itsfailure toperform the Law of Treaties establishes that a may“party notinvoke the provisions boundaries. Perhaps based onthisconsideration, the Vienna Convention on cannot be sure if atreatytional courts willindeed be inforce inside State legal uncertainty.lead tocertain society andinterna The international flicts between treaties anddomestic laws. However, they can nevertheless certain wayscertain ortowards individuals. certain in domestic lawchanges ordemand that States act of refrain from acting in Convention todetermine onHumanRightsasthe standardinstrument of HumanRights, Court for example,Inter-American uses the American the present Convention”— place only asaresult of the application of the provisions of thetreaty orof treaty level isnotdenounced at themightonly international —which “take equal treaty mightnotbe domestically applicable due toanewer of legislation inthisState’s changes certain domestic laws regardless of the fact that this treaty that aState aspecific humanrights anddetermine hadbreached municipally removed treaty. Moreover, mightdecide courts humanrights todomestically complymight be forced by courts withthis international of the Vienna Convention onthe Law of Treaties, thisState, for example, internationally if itis notproperly denounced. Based onthe general rules a State removes thetreaty domestically but isstillbound to comply withit are tonational laws“superior anddirectly applicable”. tional agreements, inEuropean Unionlaw, asGonenc andEsen pointsout, law.and accommodate practice of international the contemporary Interna treatyhuman rights intoadomestic statute (inadualistic State). pacta sunt servanda Journal Law (2006), Reform n. 4. inDomestic Legal Systems:Agreements 90of the Article Turkish Constitution”, 8 ties to it and must be performed byties toitandmust them ingoodfaith”. be performed 32 31 30 29 28 The rule” orthe “parity “special/general” could work rule tosolve con This traditionalapproach, therefore, mightlead toasituation inwhich This traditional monist and dualist approaches areThis traditionalmonistanddualistapproaches notsuited toexplain

Gonenc, L. &Esen, S., “The Problem of the Application ofLess Protective International See generally IACtHR (Judgment) 31 August 2001, CaseofMayagna (Sumo) Awas Tingni V Ibidem, 42(2).Article Ibidem, 26, spells outthat Article which “[e]very treaty inforce isbinding uponthe par status ienna Convention onthe Law of Treaties (in a monist system) or to a lack of willingness to transform this of willingness totransform (inamonistsystem) ortoalack , 30 follow itsprovisions. 29 itremains valid andStates must, based onthe , supra n. 1, 27. Article 32 Anuario Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario 31 Furthermore, the vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx European 28 If a - - - - ,

www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca for each agreement ortreaty, agreement for each toitsapplication by the other party”. approved have, uponpublication, thanthe laws, ahigher authority subject, tion, for example, that informs “treaties duly oragreements ratified or than atreaty, itwillnotpossess anoverriding monism,on theinternationalist even if astatute isnewer ormore specific a treaty andadomestic law, prevails. instrument the international Based tional law over municipal law. In other words, incase ofconflict between nationalist allocates divisionof themonisttheory prominence tointerna tion provides treaties tohumanrights over supremacy domestic law but the provisions treaty ofthe international shallapply”. treatiesEstonia are inconflict withinternational ratified by the similar terms, the Estonian provides that “[i]f laws of orother legislation superiority ofdomestic laws, superiority vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario shallbe considered”. agreements of international domestic laws, due todifferent provisions onthe same issue, the provisions and freedoms approvedgarding basic rights through proper procedure and provides that when there isconflict “between re agreements international of rights? A new modified version of 90of the Article Turkish Constitution Moreover, of the Constitution’s treaty shoulda human rights be part bill treatiesman rights always prevail when inconflict withdomestic laws? special grants which IACtHR (Judgment) 19November 1999, Community (2009); IACtHR (Reparations andCosts)10September 1993, aration Judgments: Strengths andChallenges for aComprehensive Approach”, 49 munity v para. mala the French Republic],the French 55,Article Article 90(5),Article en/republic-of-estonia/the-constitution/ cessed on19December 2013. 36 35 34 33 The monisttheory, advocateswhich besides itsnationalist branch the Some States, therefore, adoptaspecific variation of the monisttheory

; andIACtHR 2006, (Judgment)29March 140. Mazzuoli,

France,Nationale, Assemblée Estonia, President, Tukey, The Grand National Assembly of Turkey, Constitution, . Paraguay , p. 2, para. 2; G. Donoso, ofHumanRights’ Court Rep “Inter-American v. Nicaragua global.tbmm.gov.tr/docs/constitution_en.pdf , Curso supra , para. 2; IACtHR (Judgment)17June 2005, , Article 123, Constitution ofthe Republic ofEstonia , Article status n. 24, ,

to international treaties. tointernational However, shouldhu

www.assemblee-nationale.fr/connaissance/constitution.asp p. 96. 33 Constitution delaRépublique Française . Accessed on19December 2013. has an internationalist approach. hasaninternationalist The inter “Street Children” Case Villagrán-Morales et al Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community . Accessed on19December 2013. status Aloeboetoe et alcase 36 The Turkish Constitu The Turkish . Constitu The French Case of 35 http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx Constitution of TurkeyConstitution ,

Yakye Indigenous Com [Constitution of www.president.ee/ Revista IIDH Revista IIDH v. v. Riigikogu v. v. ; Suriname Paraguay v. Guate- 34 . Ac In In ------, - - - , 249 THE JAPANESE LEGAL SYSTEM AND THE PRO HOMINE PRINCIPLE IN HUMAN RIGHTS TREATIES 250

VALERIO DE OLIVEIRA MAZZUOLI / DILTON RIBEIRO www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca the possibility of the civil arrest of the the possibility ofthe civil arrest vision, forbids detention fordebt, which to solve theproblem ofconflicts between the Convention’sAmerican pro American ConventionAmerican in1992. withoutreservations eign powers, are the supreme law of the Nation”. Nation thereof, enacted by inpursuance Congress andtreaties withfor the American Constitution tothe letter, establishes that “the laws ofthe instrument. with aninternational The Argentine Constitution, following it does notmentionif the Constitutionwould prevail incase of conflict amendments”. the votes of the respective shallbe equivalent members toconstitutional House of the National Congress, in two rounds of voting, by three fifths of treatiesnationalrights humanandconventions areapproved which in each each House,each after their approval by Congress”. constitutional hierarchy with “the vote of two-thirds of ofallthe members and, furthermore, establishes that other humanrights treaties could attain Covenanttural Rightsandthe International onCivilandPolitical Rights, Human Rights, Covenant the International onEconomic,Social andCul Universal Declaration of HumanRights, the ConventionAmerican on ample, the Declaration onthe RightsandDuties of Man,American the as, instruments for ex humanrights constitutional hierarchytocertain December 2013. Constitution], Section 31, support. for non-fulfillment of duties of warrant issues anarrest when acompetent judicial authority tions/argentina/argentina.html. icas,Constitution, Republic of 1994 Argentina: Jose, Costa Rica), System,man Rightsinthe Inter-American us&idConteudo=120010 www2.stf.jus.br/portalStfInternacional/cms/verConteudo.php?sigla=portalStfSobreCorte_en_ stitution ofthe Federal Republic ofBrazil 41 40 39 38 37 A modified 5of the Brazilian Constitutionspells outthat Article “[i]nter

The ConventionAmerican onHumanRights, supra n. 9, 7(7).Article The only exception

See Inter-American CommissiononHuman Rights,See Inter-American Basic Documents Pertaining toHu Argentina, Senadode laNación Argentina, Institucional: Ibid. Brazil, Supremo Tribunal Federal, About the Court: Brazilian Constitution, Section 75(22). See alsoGeorgetown University, Political Database of the Amer www.cidh.org/Basicos/English/Basic4.Amer.Conv.Ratif.htm#16 39 Before thisnew 5from 2004,Article Brazil ratified the . Accessed on19December 2013. www.senado.gov.ar/deInteres. Accessed on19December 2013. Accessed on19December 2013. , 5(4)(Constitutional Article Amendment 45), American ConventionAmerican onHumanRights (Pact ofSan Section 75(22), depositário infiel depositário 41 and Brazilian norms envisaging andBrazilian norms 38 Anuario Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario Constitución Nacional pdba.georgetown.edu/constitu 37 40 Moreover, itgrants Brazilian judges had (“unfaithful deposi vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx . Accessed on9 [National Con------,

www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca previously mentioned, the constitutional Argentine Constitutiongrants ties, especially treaties, humanrights can be ambiguous anduncertain. As limitations onStates. treaties.rights They andset duties and exist toprotect the humanrights on humanrights. However, human appliestointernational thissame rule their lead, municipal laws based andconstrued ingeneral are structured andfreedoms.mental rights Inother words, Constitutionsand, following States must their laws act andinterpret based ontheexistence of funda tion ofbasic human rights. that Furthermore, these Constitutionsinform person. Constitutionsof democratic societies are based onthe crystalliza the protection because they ofthe human concern important particularly treaties.international In the area of humanrights, thisquestion could be tion of conflicts between domestic laws, including theConstitution, and question of conflicts between treaties humanrights andthe Constitution. flicts. andprevailshierarchy toany infra-constitutional norm inthecase of con to the Federal Constitution. law withahierarchy December 2008, decided that the ConventionAmerican entered domestic conflicts withthe Convention.American The Brazilian Supreme Court, object andmightconsequently be arrested. This norm, therefore, directly ject. or by acompetent ob judgetotake care withdue diligence of acertain tary”). vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario Humanos Brazilian Legal Order], SãoPaulo, Juarez de Oliveira, 2002, pp. 272-286 [Mazzuoli, International Treaties: Analitical Study of the Situation andthe Application of Treaties inthe Situação e Aplicação do Tratado naOrdem Jurídica Brasileira Forense, 2002. Joséda Costa Rica [Civil forDebtand the PactArrest ofJosé San ofCosta Rica], SãoPaulo, São Paulo, Saraiva 2011, p. 639-648; andMazzuoli, V., 46 45 44 43 42 The relationship between trea national Constitutionsandinternational Consequently, States andtheir legal systems eventually face the ques

42 “Infidelity”. Mendes, G. F. &Branco, P. G. G., See Brazil, Mazzuoli, V., Supremo Tribunal Federal (STF). 46

Infidelidade However, theSupreme Court, inourview, was stillunclear onthe ]. ]. ,Depositário under Brazilian law, designated by isaperson contract Supremo Tribunal FederalSupremo Tribunal Direitos humanos, Constituição eos Tratados Internacionais: Estudo Analítico da 43 is when this person does nottake proper iswhen thisperson care of the superior ,

45 todomestic acts andlegislation, but Thus, the ConventionAmerican hassuperior , 466343/SãoPaulo. Extraordinário Recurso Curso deDireitoCurso Constitucional [Constitutional Law], Prisão Civilpor DívidaeoPactoPrisão deSan [Human Rights, Constitutionand http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx inferior Direitos 44 in in ------

251 THE JAPANESE LEGAL SYSTEM AND THE PRO HOMINE PRINCIPLE IN HUMAN RIGHTS TREATIES 252

VALERIO DE OLIVEIRA MAZZUOLI / DILTON RIBEIRO www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca ments domestically. plained, that treaties are intothedomestic legal order with- incorporated in favour”. Houses ofthe States General only ifat least two-thirds of thevotes cast are lead toconflicts withitmaythe Constitutionorwhich be approved by the Netherlands establishes that “[a]ny provisions of atreaty that conflict with Similarly only, but notconstrained tohumanrights the Constitutionof constitutional hierarchy if approved following the constitutional formula. lowing asimilarreasoning, establishes treaties that humanrights can have status Japan isoneof the monistcountries, human rights. of international andthisbasic premise mustperson guide the municipal internalization focused on the humanto demonstrate are that primarily humanrights isthe protection of the humanperson. which In thispaper werights hope methods are effective of human andinaccordance withthe basic purpose biguous. States have different onthismatter approaches andnone of these agreements, andmunicipal laws, especially Constitutions, isunclearandam laws and, furthermore, onthe status Japanese toconflicts between approach treaties humanrights anddomestic treaties. human rights of international Consequently, we nowtothe turn questions relatingsimilar tothe domestic incorporation faces also Japan the centrality of the humanperson.better incorporates Furthermore, Amendment 45). org/documents/section/constitutions/country/12 51 50 49 48 47 Accordingly, the relationship between treaties, especially humanrights

III. Sloss, D., “Domestic Application of Treaties”, Georgetown University, Netherlands, See below. Constitution ofthe Federal Republic ofBrazil to certain human rights treaties. humanrights tocertain J a 49 p an ’ Constitution ofthe Kingdom of the Netherlands, 91(3),Article legislationline. s

L egal

S 1994 Constitution ystem 50

An effective method, thus, isthe one that and T reaties of international human rights instru human rights of international

. Accessed on17October 2013. I nternational , , supra 51 47 supra which means, which aspreviously ex The Brazilian Constitution, fol Santa Clara Law Commons, Digital Faculty n. 38, Section 75(22). n. 39, 5(4)(Constitutional Article Anuario Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario

H uman vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx

R ights

48 - - - - ,

www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca more, there isnotaclear answer regarding conflicts between domestic law lations, that is, law. international Japan willnotundermine clear that the law re of international of nations isanindispensable part (2) alegal meaning. issaidtohavearticle two meanings: (1)apolitical andmoralmeaning; and ety tobuild aworld are respected. anddemocracy where humanrights This peace. It means that Japan soci makes acommitment totheinternational national relations, of world cooperation andpursuit isinternational which of Japan’s expresses the basic characteristics This article tointer approach ternational agreements contrary tothem. contrary agreements ternational fall underthe same category astreatiesnorms unless these are special in the Japanese legalsystem. Moreover, generally established international pable of providing “effectiveness” or “executing status” tothistreaty within agreements,tional independently theof need of a new domestic act ca nationals shouldapply willbe bound by these interna them andcourts that when Japan concludes andpromulgates treaties, the government and norms. international It means the dutytoobserve meaning crystalizes ed by Japan andestablished laws of nations shallbe faithfully observed”. between treaties anddomestic law. Constitution ofJapan of therelation inordertoseek some understanding the executiveauthorizing toconclude the treaty. tothe One must turn out the need for any legislative “act” or “instrument” other thanthe act vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario legal system withoutthe need ofspecial legislative procedures. of the lawas part of the landand, consequently, they enter the domestic monist countries. 98(2)of Constitutionmentions the lawArticle of nations law. international and customary As mentioned before, Japan isone of the December 2013. kantei.go.jp/foreign/constitution_and_government_of_japan/constitution_e.html 2013. Publications, 2011, p. 3: Book] (Tokyo, Yuhikaku 1984)pp. 1287-1288. 55 54 53 52 The first meaning ispolitical andmoral.The first 98seeks tomake it Article Article 98(2)of the Constitutionof Japan providesArticle that “treaties conclud Accordingly, theexpression “established law of nations” includes treaties

Japan, Ministerof Japan Prime andhisCabinet, Sato, I., e aaoo S.,See Yamamoto, Ibidem, p. 1288. Poketto Ch Kokusai-h ū digitalcommons.law.scu.edu/facpubs/635 shaku ZenshoKenp ,

[International Law],[International Tokyo, Yuhikaku, 1999, pp. 65-84. ō [Pocket Constitution Annotations Complete The Constitution ofJapan 54 . Accessed on19December http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx , 98(2), Article . Accessed on10 53 55 The legal The Further www. 52 ------

253 THE JAPANESE LEGAL SYSTEM AND THE PRO HOMINE PRINCIPLE IN HUMAN RIGHTS TREATIES 254

VALERIO DE OLIVEIRA MAZZUOLI / DILTON RIBEIRO www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca tion admitsthat treaties could eventually override it, they would be able ity of treaties over the Constitution. The argument isthat if the Constitu flow superior the hierarchical from grounds thisfact that thisprinciple cooperation, of international adopts the principle itdoes notnecessarily of treaties andtheConstitution. Third, althoughtheJapanese Constitution ofjudicial reviewright isnotdirectly effectiveness related tothe formal the possibility of judicial review treaties. of international In addition, the over, itcould be argued that the Constitutiondoes notnecessarily exclude tional cooperation. Constitution andits 9consistently of interna express theprinciple Article tution excludes treaties from judicialreview. Finally, the preamble of the of nations” shouldbe faithfully observed. Second, 81of the Consti Article enumeration. In addition, 98(2)providesArticle that the “established law Constitution isthe supreme law of the nation excludes “treaties” from the that thatcould assert ofthe98(1) Constitutionwheninforming Article ly three reasons based onthe wordings of the Constitution. between treaties andthe Constitution. jurists, following adifferent line, could argue infavour of anequality stitution, or, take adifferent path and argue onthe contrary. In addition, tions” andthe Constitution. One couldsay that treaties override the Con there isnoclear answer onconflicts between the “established law of na in the case of conflicts treaties can override infra-constitutional norms, a ride treatiesride have three counterarguments. agreements betweenagreements nations andare not the Constitutionexcludes treaties from judicial review because they are are unconstitutional.ties which Second, itwould that be possible toassert levelternational trea but- itdoes notmean that shouldobserve the country thermore, 98(2) emphasizes Japan’sArticle cooperative attitude at the in domestic laws only. It would be, thus, natural nottomentiontreaties. Fur 98(1)of ConstitutionprovidesArticle of Constitutionover the supremacy tutional System andthe Law of the Land] (Tokyo, Shinzansha2002). nd the “established law of nations”. Although itiscommonly assumed that 58 57 56 Scholars whoargue that treaties overrideScholars the Constitutionhave main Onthe other hand, whoargue that the Constitutioncan over scholars

Idem. Idem. Ibid. See alsoM. Saito, 57 Kokuh ō Taikei Kenp niOkeru prima facie prima 58 ō to J First, one could argue that ō Anuario Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario yaku [The Conventional Consti domestic law. More vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx 56 First, one status ------,

www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca ciple applicable intheJapanese context. ably undermine the principle of popularsovereignty.ably the principle undermine amendment process established byitself. theConstitution This wouldargu to amend itthrough aneasier procedure thanthe regular constitutional vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario within itsbill of rights. man person the status man person that the law ofnations isset from State toState) toplace uponthe hu move away from the Westphalian the notion crystalized paradigm(which of humandignity.the global understanding In other words, these treaties society anddevelopments of theties international reflect the changes of of rights. degree ever, adjustments would if there be necessary are some gaps inrange and belongto every dutieswhich and human being. basicrights certain How based onthefocus recognition onthe protection of of the humanperson and the Constitutionof Japan have similar, if notequal, andboth concerns requirement ofany special procedure. treaties humanrights International treaties humanrights haveinternational direct domestic effect withoutthe provided in 98(2)of the Constitution,Article itiscommonly believed that 11 and97. Taking cooperation, of international intoaccount the principle tized. on the content of treaties, shouldbe priori one coulddistinguishwhich usually cannot override the Constitutionshould notunlimited. Depending the other hand, the governmental view that treaties isthat the general rule adopt the positionthat theConstitutionoverrides treaties. However, on Japan, 16December 1960, 13 KEISHO 3225, unless they expresslythe scope of the Court violate the Constitution. of See Supreme Court stationing forces inJapan is, of USmilitary isapolitical issue which consequently, outside decided that the constitutionality of the Japan–United Court States Security Treaty andthe giving the norms of international law of international domestic legal effect”. the norms giving See Port, treaties the force of law. Consequently, “Japan’s have courts proven extremely receptive to to international treatiesto international inthe Japanese legal system. In 62 61 60 59 The Japanese Constitutionarguably humanrights includes international Compared tothe Constitution of Japan, trea humanrights international Consequently, seem to of Japanese the majority constitutional scholars

As it stands, the jurisprudential position,As itstands, however, the jurisprudential isthat the Constitutionissuperior Idem. Port affirms that Japanese scholars and courts take the view that andcourts that the Constitutiongrants JapanesePort affirms scholars Saito, 60 This view, thus, could be inaccordance withthe supra n. 56, p. 47. of subjects law. of public international Accordingly, 62 This notionisespecially inits enshrined Articles ,

Japan 61 v. v. Sakata (Sunagawa Case) Sunagawa , for example, the Supreme 59

supra http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx pro homine n. 5, pp. 153-154. . prin ------255 THE JAPANESE LEGAL SYSTEM AND THE PRO HOMINE PRINCIPLE IN HUMAN RIGHTS TREATIES 256

VALERIO DE OLIVEIRA MAZZUOLI / DILTON RIBEIRO www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca public order (ordre public), orof public health ormorals”. or to ofothers respect the right “theprotectionof or of national security cal Rightsestablishes by could be limited if restricted that law thisright to the freedom ofexpression. CovenantThe International onCivilandPoliti als’ thaninfra-constitutional norms. rights We could name, for example, treatiesantee that international could prove more protective of individu norms. of humanrights addressee Moreover, andpurpose there isnoguar in fact prove tobe the best system toprotect the humanperson, the final desirable toreconcile them althoughthe taskhasbeen difficult. inConstitutionof Japanhuman right (like inthe case ofhate speech), itis versely, treaties humanrights limitthe protection of wheninternational rights, itworks system. asanexpansion of the domestic humanrights Con Constitution. treaties humanrights recognize broaderWhen international arethey notexplicitly which can include broader guaranteed by rights the of expression: it. Moreover, the government of Japan treaties can ratify humanrights instrument asthe most superior,instrument there isnoguarantee that this establishes aclear answerConstitution oraSupreme Court andplaces one conflicts between treaties humanrights andthe Constitution. Even if the to the infra-constitutional ones, there isnoclear answer onthe case of system. areAlthough itisfairlysuperior norms accepted that humanrights treatiesdomestic law humanrights inthe Japanese andinternational legal maintained”. on the freedom shallbe ofexpression that“[n]o only censorship informing Constitution, by itsturn, does notenvisage any constitutional restriction tion and Constitutional Freedomstion Japan”, in 11 Reexamined”, 8 39 lems Beer, L. W., “Freedom of Expression: the ContinuingRevolution”, Comparative Legal Analysis oftheFreedom ofSpeech academics. See generally Rights”or “ICCPR”]. Treaty Series 66 65 64 63 Consequently, there isyet noclear answer regarding conflicts between

Tonami, K., The Constitution ofJapan The character of the JapaneseThe character freedom of expression hasbeen discussed by different International CovenantInternational onCivilandPolitical Rights (1990); Youm, K. H., “Libel Laws and Freedom of the Press: SouthKorea andJapan 171, 19(a),Article (b) [hereinafter Covenant“International onCivilandPolitical 65 Boston University Law International Journal Onearguably faces two different conceptions of freedom 66 Kenp one with an intrinsic limitation andanother one without one withanintrinsic ō [ConstitutionalLaw], Tokyo, Gyosei, 1998, pp. 119-120. Krotoszynski, R. J., , supra n. 52, 21. Article The First The First Amendment inCross-Cultural Perspective: A , New York, New York University Press, 2006; American Journal ofComparativeAmerican Law , 19December 1966, 999 53, 1990; Ouchi, Kazuomi, “Defama Anuario Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario 53 Law & Contemporary Prob vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx 64 The Japanese The status United Nations 63

74, 1965. would ------,

www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca belong tothe humanpersonality. by to protect andduties which the humanperson recognizing basic rights andobjectivepurpose of humanrights. In other words, exist humanrights are notintrinsically connected tothe elements which tution are formal and Japanese constitutional law. humanrights of both international thatproach meets the underpinnings with some capacity at the international level.with some capacity at the international intheThis isespecially true rooted andduties and in the notionthat individualsare of rights bearers cially after the Second World War, arguably developed under aparadigm status answer toconflicts between treaties anddomestic laws. However, thelegal treatiesarchy of humanrights orthe content of their provisions togive an Constitution. provide aless extensively thanthe Japanese listof civil andpolitical rights the Constitution. Inadifferent situation, aspecific treaty could arguably tion. In thiscase, could be more protective infra-constitutional norms than notexpressly inthe Constitu rights enshrined certain crystalizes which vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario law. States are commonly envisaged the as traditionalsubjects ofinternational of norms. Accordingly, we focus onthe weight regardless onthe protection of the hierarchy of the humanperson ontreaties.ent approach Furthermore, the Constitutionof Japan places lawrights specialis aslexis of humanrights.connected tothe object andpurpose human International or speciality of their provisions. However, not approach thisatechnical of treaties anddomestic law level based onthe perspective of hierarchical Covenant onCivilandPolitical Rights” or “ICCPR”]. December 1966, 999 United Nations Treaty 171, Series preamble [hereinafter “International Human Rights, 68 67 Consequently, inJapan tothequestion of hier commonly scholars turn

68 See Mazzuoli, of infra-constitutional norms, human rights treaties of infra-constitutional norms, humanrights andthe Consti Notwithstandingthe prominence of States, law, international espe Universal Declaration ofHumanRights supra Curso, supra n. 8, preamble; and IV. n. 26, p. 433. , T

of general international law of general international requires adiffer he

P ro International CovenantInternational onCivilandPolitical Rights 67 H Scholars normally address normally the question Scholars omine , supra pro homine P n. 7, preamble; rinci p le theory asthe best ap theory http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx American ConventionAmerican on , 19 , 19 ------257 THE JAPANESE LEGAL SYSTEM AND THE PRO HOMINE PRINCIPLE IN HUMAN RIGHTS TREATIES 258

VALERIO DE OLIVEIRA MAZZUOLI / DILTON RIBEIRO www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca tive es by the scope of atreaty orrestricting stretching provision- inaconserva understand the meaning of the terms andobjective” the meaning ofthe terms “purpose understand of atreaty. with the protection andthe well-being of the humanperson. international law,international especially after the Second World War. are notinaccordance withthe developmentality of the humanperson of tional human rights law.rights human tional s of thelaw ofnations ingeneral. tion ofitssubjects, but alsothe evolution, interpretation andunderpinnings knowledgment impacts notonly of the individuallegal personality the defini should guideitsinterpretation. by approach andobjective mentioning thatlogical the purpose of atreaty tion. Rather, itaccepts, amongother methods of interpretation, ateleo an explicit provision establishing aState sovereignty interpreta oriented tion of the Vienna Convention onthe Law of Treaties, does nothave which International Law,International Nijhoff, Martinus York, Oxford University Press, 2011[Cançado Trindade, ers, 2006. University of Miami Inter-American LawUniversity ofMiami Inter-American Review Human RightsSystem: Establishing Precedents andProcedure inHumanRightsLaw”, 26 Rights, New York, Oxford University Press, 2007; Pasqualucci, J. M., “The Inter-American and ICJ(Judgment) 18 December 1951, Convention onthe Law of Treaties (ed.), and Practice of Treaty Interpretation”, Netherland Law International Review vivus al, Law“The International Commission’s Draft uponInterpretation:Articles Textuality Press, 2003; and Shelton, Dinah, ofHumanRights Court and Procedure ofthe Inter-American bridge University Press,bridge 2005. ubarea of international human rights law, humanrights ubarea of international isultimately which concerned 75 73 72 71 70 69 74 In ourview,- individualsare indeed one of the mainelements of interna A less State-focused international lawA less State-focused international arguably influencedthe elabora

74 ”, 61 See See generally Letsas, G., See generally Cançado Trindade,generally See A. A., See generally 1950, ICJ (Advisory Opinion) 30March See Cançado Trindade, See Vienna Convention onthe Law of Treaties See Meron, T.,See orinanextensive individual-centered approach The Law of Treaties Cançado Trindade, American Journal of International Law Journal ofInternational American The Humanization of International LawThe Humanization ofInternational (Burlington, Ashgate Publishing 2004); andI. McTaggart, Access, 70 A. A., (Manchester, University Press 1984). Manchester that deny legal person Theories thisinternational A Theory ofInterpretation ofthe European Convention onHuman Remedies in International HumanRights LawRemedies inInternational

supra International LawInternational for Humankind, 2010, p. 225[Cançado Trindade, 72 73

can decide cas Thus, courts international n. 69, pp. 3-6. Fisheries (United Kingdom Fisheries , supra , 1995, pp. 12-16; Pasqualucci, J. M., (1967), pp. 993-994; see alsoM. Bos, “Theory Access of Individuals to International JusticeAccess ofIndividuals to International n. 1, 30and31.Articles See M. S. McDoug , New York, University Cambridge , Leiden, Nijhoff Publish Martinus Access]. Anuario Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario Interpretation ofthe Peace Treaties; v. 75 Norway) based onhow they 71 The Hague Academy of Moreover, the ac- Humankind vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx , New York, Cam , inS. Davidson . 69 ]. The Practice The Vienna , New , New Redi------,

www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca continent—, —Europe before created treaty the ahumanrights andcourt American of HumanRights. aspects Courts the Inter-American Due tochronological asa the human person tem prioritizing istocreateStates inhumanrights a connected tothe individuallegal personality. Arguably, the real consent of treatiesof human rights is the protection of the human person, is which terpretation andapplication, vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario or indirect international access to human rights courts. access tohuman rights or indirect international have level. andduties at the international rights Moreover, they have direct society ingeneral have implicitly andexplicitly recognized that individuals Convention’s of European public asaninstrument order special character conditions”. which... musting instrument inthelightof present-day be interpreted convention decided thathuman rights its the European Court liv “is a of HumanRights. In the case of 31. See alsoJacobs & White, Ris, M., “Treaty to Interpretation andICJ Recourse of Effectiveness inthe Interpretation of Treaties”, 26British Yearbook Law ofInternational , 1949; 44 Minnesota Law Review, 1959; H. Lauterpacht, “Restrictive Interpretation andthe Principle national Law of Justice: Treaty Other Interpretation andCertain Treaty Points”, 28 the Turn of theCentury”, 30 Evolution Protection of Human Rights: of International Present State andPerspectives at University Press 2006)pp. 40-41. Rights: andDifferences”, Similarities 30 of Treaty Interpretation”, 9 College &Comparative International Law Review, 1991; G. Schwarzenberger, “Myths andRealities Amendment of 31and 32 of the Articles Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties”, 14 University Press, 2008. Interpretation: A Comment”,Interpretation: A Journal ofInternational LawInternational “Treaty Interpretation: The Authority of Interpretive Communities”, 12 79 78 77 76 This reasoning wasarguably accepted andadvanced by theEuropean and Notwithstanding the diverse number of theories regarding treatyNotwithstanding the diverse number of theories in

See generally Buergenthal, T., “The andEuropean ConventionsAmerican onHuman ECtHR (Judgment) 25 1978,April Case No. 5856/72, Cançado Trindade, “The Consolidation of the Procedural Capacity of Individuals inthe See generally Fitzmaurice, G. G., “The Law andProcedure Court of the International , 1951; Hogg, J. F., Court: Rules of “The International Treaty Interpretation II”, 79 78 In its jurisprudence, the European Court hasemphasized the In itsjurisprudence, the European Court , 1990; Waibel, M., “Demystifying the of Interpretation”,Art 22 thisframework adopted by was first the European Court Law, 2011; Gardiner,R. K., Virginia Law Journal ofInternational , 1968; Sfaer, A. D., Columbia HumanRights Law Review The European Convention onHumanRights 137 University of Pennsylvania Law Review LawPennsylvania of University 137 ,

76 we believe that States andthe international American University LawAmerican Review Tyler pro homine v. subject the United Kingdom Travaux Préparatoires Treaty Interpretation of public international law. of public international , juris corpus that is, legal- sys Tyler , 1998, pp. 19-20. 77 v. British British Yearbook ofInter Thus, the purpose http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx United Kingdom, para. , 1981. , 1989; I. Johnstone, : Towards aProposed (New York, Oxford , New York, Oxford Michigan Journal of , for example, European “ Boston Treaty - - - 259 THE JAPANESE LEGAL SYSTEM AND THE PRO HOMINE PRINCIPLE IN HUMAN RIGHTS TREATIES 260

VALERIO DE OLIVEIRA MAZZUOLI / DILTON RIBEIRO www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca tional instrument of European publictional instrument order ( and “would alsodiminishthe effectiveness of the Convention asaconstitu - would restrictions rial “seriously weaken” the role of the European Court its safeguards practical andeffective” andadded that substantive orterrito beings requires that itsprovisions andapplied soastomake be interpreted of the Convention for the protection of individualhuman asaninstrument in Convention”. gate from the sovereignty of States isnotapplicable tothe HumanRights that treaty obligations restrictively shouldbe interpreted since they dero Based onthisline ofthought, Jacobs argues that “any general presumption terpreted andapplied soastomaketerpreted itssafeguards practical andeffective. namic interpretation that the European requires Convention which dy isalivinginstrument In thecase of ( project of life without international consequences;project oflife withoutinternational has,Court for example, acknowledged that States aperson’s cannot breach of humanrights. Callingitthe an individual-centered law interpretation andapplication ininternational ofRightswent Human Court even in crystalizing ter-American further of individualhumanrights. of the European Conventionobject andpurpose isthe effective protection set bybased the onthe rules Vienna Convention onthe Law of Treaties, the United Kingdom Journal onHumanRights Press, 1975, p. 17. Law”, 56 and 75. especially paras. 273-275. ordre public 86 85 84 83 82 81 80 Loizidou Arguably influenced of byHumanRights, the European Court

Jacobs, F. G., ECtHR (Judgment) 23 March 1995,ECtHR (Judgment)23 March Case No. 15318/89, See ECtHR (Judgment) 21 February 1975,See ECtHR(Judgment) 21February CaseNo. 4451/70, Killiander, M., HumanRights Regional “Interpreting Treaties”, 13 IACtHR (Judgment) 17thSeptember 1997, See Wildhaber, L., “The European Convention onHumanRightsandInternational ECtHR (Judgment) 7January 2010, Case No. 25965/04, International andComparativeInternational Law Quarterly v. ) for theprotection of individualhumanbeings that must be in . Turkey 81 Rantsev This positionwas arguably adopted by the European Court The European Convention on Human Rights (2010). when the Court affirmed that affirmed “the object andpurpose when theCourt 83 v. is still part ofthe reasoning of the European Court. isstillpart Cyprus andRussia Cyprus 84 pro homine Loayza-Tamayo Case of 2010, decided that, the Court , 2007. principle, the Inter-American ordre public Anuario Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario , London, Oxford University 86 Rantsev that indigenouscom Loizidou v. vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 )”. Peru. http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx Case ofGolder v. SUR - International SUR -International v. 82 Cyprus andRussia Cyprus This position This Turkey 85 , paras. 72 the In- v . The 80 - - - - - , ,

www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca international prohibition of forced disappearances.international m vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario law, indigenousprotection, investors’ andeconomic, rights social andcul law, humanitarian belonged tointernational and originally environmental cide cases that escaped the traditionalscope of the ConventionAmerican als orpro homine , was able tomake reference todifferent treaties andde individu Thus, Court, in an interpretation prioritizing the Inter-American law. ofinternational of humanrights, aspart and therole ofhuman rights the existence of individuals-States dichotomy inhumanrights, the concept protect humandignity takingintoaccount the individuallegal personality, Convention inorder tomeet social needs andaspirations, and tobetter beyond spelled outbyhuman rights the initialset of rights the American All of these previously mentioned judgements advanced the protection of can take into consideration indigenous legal tradition; serted that: serted of HumanRightsas Court GarcíaRamírez of the Inter-American Sergio 2002, para. Gomez and checo A. Abreu Burelli”, 19 supra unities have totheir lands; special rights 90 89 88 87 man dignity, their advancement. andencouraging fundamental rights ensuring to the fullest protection hu of persons, of preserving allfor the ultimate purpose cited inthisCourt’s case-law requires which the interpretation that isconducive law pro –frequently homineof the international and the principle of humanrights treaties be 31(1)of theconsidered (article Vienna Convention), referenced below, ofinterpretation that requiresheed the principle of the that the object andpurpose in the Vienna Convention onthe Law of Treaties, of May 23, 1969. Itmust also governing treaties,can be applied underthe legal regime international asset forth that the Convention andthose that withthe rules itself setsforth accordance in the provisionsbound toobserve of the Convention,American them tointerpret isduty- When exercising itscontentious jurisdiction, Court the Inter-American

note 32. “Street Children” Case Villagrán-Morales et al Mayagna (Sumo) Awas(Sumo) Tingni Mayagna IACtHR (Reparations andCosts)10September 1993, García Ramirez, S., “Joint Separate OpinionofJudges A.A. Cançado Trindade, M. Pa 6 [emphasis added]. ,

v. Nicaragua andComparative Journal ofInternational Arizona Law , , supra , supra n. 32. 87 n. 32. that the Inter-American Court Court that the Inter-American Aloeboetoe etalcase 89 Furthermore, Judge 88 and that there is an http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx v. v. , Suriname 90

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261 THE JAPANESE LEGAL SYSTEM AND THE PRO HOMINE PRINCIPLE IN HUMAN RIGHTS TREATIES 262

VALERIO DE OLIVEIRA MAZZUOLI / DILTON RIBEIRO www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca fact that they set public order international atrue crystalizing norms andapplyto interpret human rights society.ternational Consequently, the protect individualsandestablishments which obligations tothe entire in applied withouttakingintoconsideration their special nature asinstru Consequently, treaties human rights cannot be developed, interpreted, or man rights is part of general international law, of general international ispart man rights but is with general international lawwith general international whenever itsprovisions are aspecial set oflaws,forms and, consequently, may prevail when inconflict the right bearers onaspecific case. bearers the right treaties are tural rights. son. an effective focusing onthe humanper protection of guaranteed rights special nature asthey gobeyond theregulation of State interests andrequire national Law Expansionism at the Service of the Unity of International Law”, of the Unity ofInternational Expansionism at the Service 21 Justice, 2004, pp. 309-310. onHumanRights”, Courts 2 Coordination of International to the exercise are restrictively of rights interpreted. See Cançado Trindade, of “The Merits be duly complied by States. Finally, (limitations restrictions andderogations) permissible ness). Third, obligations inthese treaties enshrined have anobjective andmust character application, one oughtto ensure aneffective (effective protection of the guaranteed rights four requirements. First, are treaty tobe autonomously terms interpreted. Second, intreaty establishes of publicies of the traditionaltype— that isanormative character order which treaties are endowed withaspecial evolutive nature —distinguished from multilateral treat based onanindividual-centred interpretation andapplication of treaty rights. Humanrights Case IACtHR (PreliminaryObjections, Merits, Reparations and Costs)2July 2004, (Merits, Reparations andCosts)31 August 2004, tion onConsular Assistance. In the Framework ofthe Guarantees ofthedueProcess ofLaw, ternational Lawternational of HumanRights] (Porto Alegre, Fabris 1997), Sergio especially Chapter XI. 94 93 92 91 95 Cançado Trindade treaties arguesthat humanrights are endowed witha

v. v. 93 See Lixinski, L., “Treaty of HumanRights: Interpretation by Court the Inter-American See Cançado Trindade, See See IACtHR (Advisory Opinion) OC-16/99, 1October 1999, Idem. Cançado Trindade law argues that international undergoes a “humanization” system Indeed, we withthe South agree that humanrights scholar American Costa Rica, para. , 2010, p. 603. 91 sui generis which prioritizes thehumanperson. prioritizes which recognizes hu- that international Court The Inter-American erga omnesobligations society. tothe whole international 184; andIACtHR (Merits, Reparations 2001, andCosts) 2February , that is, they have due tothe unique characteristics Tratado dosDireitos deDireito Humanos [Treatise Internacional of In 92 principle sets parameters setsparameters pro homineprinciple Ricardo Canese Case Anuario Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario Journal of International Criminal Criminal Journal ofInternational 95 European Journal ofInter lex specialis v. v. vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 - The Right to Informa http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx more favourable Paraguay Herrera-Ulloa , para. 181; , that is, ; IACtHR to to 94 ------,

www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca cultural identity anditstransmissiontofuture generations. ofindigenous peoples,munal of their the property preservation comprising hand with theevolutionhand livingconditions. oftimes andcurrent treatiesrights are living instruments, whose interpretation must gohandin the of Treaties. Convention, aswell inthe as those set forth Vienna Convention onthe Law of interpretation embodied in the general rules 29of the Article American Court, thisindividual-centeredregional interpretation isconsistent with provision the crystalizes preted restrictively. must extensively be interpreted must be inter torights andrestriction standing of the general right toproperty standing of the general right taking intoaccount their objective extended the under and purpose— of the Law of Treaties provides —which that treaties must be interpreted 29ofthe that held ConventionArticle American andthe Vienna Convention decision in Rights, Court theInter-American vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario law instrument. humanrights of State parties, or other international exercise under thistreaty of the protected rights orunder the domestic expressly discarded an interpretation that could limitthe enjoyment and v. Baena-Ricardo et alv. tion onHumanRights ofanother convention one of the saidStatesvirtue isaparty”. towhich See or exercise of anyorfreedom recognizedof the laws right by virtue orby of any State party & Comparative Law of HumanRightsProtection at the Dawn of theNew Century”, 8 principios-juridicos.tripod.com/ ples of the ConventionAmerican onHumanRightsandits Application inthe Peruvian Cases], Humanosysu de Derechos Americana Aplicacíon en losCasosPeruanos” [The LegalPrinci 101 100 99 98 97 96 Extending anargument established of byHuman the European Court The Convention’sAmerican draftsmen cared toinclude 29which Article

principle, the Inter-American Court decided thatpro homineprinciple, human Court the Inter-American Idem. American ConventionAmerican onHumanRights Idem. Yakye Indigenous Community Case, supra Article 29 providesArticle that noprovision as could be interpreted the enjoyment“restricting See Cançado Trindade, State“Current andPerspectives System of the Inter-American 99 , 2000, p. 12. , Panama supra 101 n. 9, 29. Article

. . Accessed on12December 2013. See alsoCoto, L., en laConvencion Juridicos “Los Principios pro homine ,

, supra n. 32, paras. 124and126. interpretation, that is, protected rights n. 9, 21. Article 96 toinclude the notionof com Yakye Indigenous Community Tulane Journal ofInternational http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx 97 Referring to Referring American ConvenAmerican 98 Tothis 100 This - - - - - 263 THE JAPANESE LEGAL SYSTEM AND THE PRO HOMINE PRINCIPLE IN HUMAN RIGHTS TREATIES 264

VALERIO DE OLIVEIRA MAZZUOLI / DILTON RIBEIRO www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca because they address the humanperson. interpretation hasaspecial preponderance this teleological inhumanrights tween the law.tional humanrights Furthermore, there isanindissoluble nexus be work of anyanalysis humanrights isthe the object and purpose of human rights treaties. of humanrights the object andpurpose law humanrights hasa ternational for inthe present Covenant”. recognized herein orat their limitation toagreater extent thanisprovided any of any andfreedoms act aimed atperform of the destruction rights plying for any State, anytoengage inany orperson right activity or group spells outthat “[n]othing in the present Covenant may as im be interpreted ticular nationality”. ization, provided provisions that such againstany donotdiscriminate par nationality,provisions concerning of States parties citizenship ornatural ing inthisConvention may asaffecting inany be interpreted way the legal of Racial Discrimination, adoptingasimilarprovision, States that “[n]oth cial andCulturalRights(ICESCR). Political Covenant Rights(ICCPR)andthe International onEconomic, So Covenant treaties asthe International but ininternational such onCiviland law,shapes allhumanrights isfound notonly inthe Convention,American would treaties. ofhumanrights fail toconsider the object andpurpose fending the Constitution: Book in Honor to German Bidart Campos],fending the Constitution: Bidart 2003, Book inHonortoGerman pp. 8-9. Persona Principle], in Value CommissiononHumanRights from of the DecisionsPro of the Inter-American Humanos” de Derechos decisiones de laComisiónInteramericana [An Analysis of the Legal Approach”, 16 supra 1966, 993United Nations Treaty Series. 1966 107 106 105 104 103 102 This framework goes beyondthetext of the Convention.American In Furthermore, International ConventionFurthermore, International onthe Elimination of All Forms Thus, that criterion the pro homine principle, isahermeneutic which

n. 64; and

, 660 United Nations Treaty Series Salvioli, F., sobre pro el valor persona “Un análisisdesde el jurídico principio de las Montalvo, A. E., tothe “Reservations ConventionAmerican onHumanRights: A New Gonenc &Esen, supra International ConventionInternational ontheElimination of FormsAll of Racial Discrimination International CovenantInternational onCivilandPolitical Rights Idem. pro homine University Law International American Review International CovenantInternational onEconomic, Social andCultural Rights, 16December En Defensa delaConstitución: Campos Bidart Libro HomenajeaGermán 107 and the object and purpose principles. andthe object andpurpose That istosay, n. 31. See also 106

195, 1(3).Article pro homine 105 International CovenantInternational onCivilandPolitical Rights 5of the ICCPR,Article for example, 103 principle ofinterna pro homineprinciple A solely textual interpretation , supra nature isconnected to which , 2001, p. 290. n. 64, 5. Article 102 Anuario Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario Accordingly, the frame vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx , 7 March [De- 104 ------, ,

www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca punishment or which relatespunishment orwhich toextradition orexpulsion”. or national law prohibits treatment cruel, which inhuman ordegrading or without prejudice tothe provisions of any instrument other international Furthermore, its 16addsthat the Article “provisions of thisConvention are cific situation. inthat best protectsbut spe the humanperson rather which by the norm are agreements guided notbyinternational hierarchy orspeciality rules, adopted. Finally, inthe municipal law, conflicts between domestic laws and must norms, be the mostprotective tothe humanperson man rights norm protected rights. Second, incase of doubtorconflict between different hu and,rights man conversely, must berestrictively whenlimiting interpreted must, norms rights asarule, be extensively when applying interpreted hu byof the humanperson settingthree interpretative rules. First, human them rights. Thus, the ormunicipal,ternational are envisaged toprotect individualsby conferring legislation which doesormay which legislation containprovisions of wider application”. ticle 1is ornational“without prejudice toany instrument international ing Treatment orPunishment, onthat same principle, spells outthat Ar vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario aretheoretical centered criteria, which onthe humanperson, asthe final norms. man rights dividuals, andduties, ofrights asbearers are the ultimate addressees of hu andgoalof law. asthe purpose by the humanperson rights crystalizing In andset apathwaynorms for the interpretation andapplication human ciple], 39Revista IIDH national Human Rights Treaties inDomestic Law: of the the Importance del Principio Humanosen el Orden Interna:Derechos LaImportancia (in case of doubt, favor theemployee). See H. Henderson, “Los Tratados de Internacionales the debtor), in in anumber of municipal law as,support principles for example, the December 1984, 1465United Nations Treaty 85, Series 1. Article 111 110 109 108 The Convention against Torture andOther Cruel, Inhuman orDegrad The international and domestic human rights systems follow and domestic humanrights the sameThe international The

See Gonenc &Esen, See Cançado Trindade, See em, Article 16. Ibidem, Article Convention against Torture andOther Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment pro homine dubio pro reo 111 principle seeks toelucidate the case of principle conflicts between , pp. 91-92. 110 Consequently, norms, regardless human rights if in supra (in case ofdoubt, favor the accused), andthe principle recognizes thispreponderancepro homineprinciple Humankind ,

n. 31, p. 494. Furthermore, the , supra n. 71. principle finds pro homineprinciple favor debitoris http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx 109 in dubiopro operario Pro Homine” [Inter - Pro Homine Prin (in favor of , 10 , 10 108 ------

265 THE JAPANESE LEGAL SYSTEM AND THE PRO HOMINE PRINCIPLE IN HUMAN RIGHTS TREATIES 266

VALERIO DE OLIVEIRA MAZZUOLI / DILTON RIBEIRO www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca tional human rights law,tional humanrights of domestic systems. itcan alsobe part tic and international human rights.tic andinternational is expressly mentioned inbody ele the Constitutionbecoming anecessary ipal judges. —if they arestruments legally inforce— can be equally applied by munic constitutional law. treaties humanrights anddomestic lawternational ingeneral, including of in isnotsuited toexplain the underpinnings traditional monisttheory human rights treatieshuman rights themselves. rights which belong to humans only in virtue of being human. belong to humansonly which invirtue rights conclusion.logical are basic individuals’ Human rights rights, that is, basic plied based onthe mostfavourable tothe humanperson. approach This isa of preoccupation, must and ap be interpreted instruments human rights andtheir mainsourceindividuals are the ultimate of humanrights bearers human rights, isconnected toindividualsastheir final addressees. which If cumstances ofthiscase, mostprotects the humanperson. which situation andcan, thus, andapply choose the instrument, based on the cir situation, ajudge willhave dealing withacertain anarray of instruments homine ingly, are rooted humanrights onandexist for the humanperson. The tutional law allows monism. the application of a dialogical plies domestically. Itis, thus, possible toconclude that Brazilian consti addressees of rights. Consequently, thissame ico, for example, withanamendment from 2011, the ment do not exclude human rights treaties.ment donotexclude humanrights between law international andmunicipal law, inthisinstru enshrined that rights informs p. 12. Donnelly, Saraiva, 2010, p. 119[Mazzuoli, Humanos e Direito Interno 117 112 116 115 114 113 Although the In ourview, this

Mazzuoli, Mazzuoli, Ibidem, pp. 289-290. J. Donnelly, TheConcept ofHumanRights Ibidem, p. 103. Article 5(2) of the Brazilian Constitutionisclear example of Article “communication vessels” principle simply acknowledges this essential particularity of domes simply principle acknowledges thisessential particularity Universal HumanRights in Theory andPractice 114 However, this Law of TreatiesLaw , , Curso - isintrinsically connected tointerna pro homineprinciple 113 supra [International HumanRights [International Treaties and Domestic Law], SãoPaulo, pro homine In monistStates, anddomestic in both international n. 26, p. 102. supra Direito Interno pro homine n. 20, pp. 389-416. principle flows principle of from the underpinnings 115 See V.Mazzuoli, In other words, ina specific practical ]. (London, Routledge1989) p. 1.See alsoJ. approach flows approach from international , Ithaca, University Press, Cornell 1989, pro homine Anuario Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario Tratados deDireitos Internacionais pro homine rule arguably rule ap vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx 112 Indeed, the 116 117 principle principle Accord In Mex- pro ------,

www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca dialogical monism. dialogical accept the intrinsic the treaty of adomestic legislation. indetriment must even safeguard protected rights if thismeans the non-application of in every enshrined humanright’s treaty thereis the obligationthat States inthatprotects specific situation. the humanperson Thus, we believe that that the State willnot apply the treaty but another provision better which even instrument if thisprotection in this international meansenshrined treaties basic rights in humanrights isthat States willsafeguard certain outthe treaty obligations.indeed carry The ultimate obligation crystalized is alegal presumption and, infact, alegal obligation, that thisState will instruments,a State there humanrights ratifies andaccepts international of humanrights. butmestic legislation alsodue tothe underpinnings When municipal and international norms at both, norms municipal andinternational domestic andinternational in contrast tothetraditionalmonism, allows “communications” between intodomestic legislation. norm Consequently,international this system, would an norms coexist inasame system withoutthe need totransform system.hierarchical Rather, itestablishes and municipal that international or places them in a strict does notexclude any norms which human rights dialogical. isthe consequence of the This dialogical conflicts between domestic law law: andinternational dualistic, monistand the ment of legal hermeneutics inhumanrights. ment of legal hermeneutics vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario cont/20/ard/ard2.htm Revista Mexicana de Derecho Constitucional en la Administración de Justicia” [The Pro Persona inthe Management of Justice], Principle pio%20pro%20persona.pdf ma Corte deJusticia de laNación,ma Corte 2011, Constitutional Amendment onHumanRights: The Pro Persona Principle], Mexico, Supre humanos: de derechos proteria persona” principio [Methodology for the Education onthe ies”, 107 ing Monism: the Judicial Trend Toward Interpretative ofHumanRights Incorporation Treat domestic legal effect tothe treaties”. giving absence of legislation See Waters, M. A., “Creep treaties humanrights intheir work toutilizeunincorporated and are beginning despite the Waters that affirms “common laware abandoning their traditionaldualistorientation courts 119 118 Accordingly, treaties whenStates humanrights they ratify international

pro homine Urquiaga, X. M., constitucional en ma “Metodología paralaenseñanza delareforma This approach isarguablyThis approach of the common increasinglylaw part systems aswell. Melissa Columbia Law Review principle, inourview, of the do can be notonly invirtue . Accessed on25 August 2014. pro homine 119 . Accessed on25 August 2014; K.Castilla, Pro Persona“El Principio There are, thus, three distinct systems concerning , 2007, p. 633. ,

approach part of human rights consolidating a of humanrights part approach (2011), http://scjn.gob.mx/red/coordinacion/archivos_Princi http://juridicas.unam.mx/publica/rev/cconst/ 118 The domestic application of pro homine http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx principle principle ------

267 THE JAPANESE LEGAL SYSTEM AND THE PRO HOMINE PRINCIPLE IN HUMAN RIGHTS TREATIES 268

VALERIO DE OLIVEIRA MAZZUOLI / DILTON RIBEIRO www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca levels. suitable approach. treaties Humanrights address individuals’ rights. It is ments. perspective, From ahumanrights isalsothe most the monisttheory tional society that agree thisState isindeed committed toitsinternational accelerate the domestic application of a treaty and show tothe interna excludes the necessity of creating would anew which domestic legislation tection of humanrights. From aState perspective, the adoptionof monism tural, andconstitutional backgrounds. historical fully comply obligations withits international balancing them withitscul reception and with astrong commitment tohumanrights, itdeals withthe question of As previously mentioned, Japan isamonistState. As ademocratic State domestic issue, codification ofthe thisinternational sion onthe interaction between law international andmunicipal law isa treaties. law iscodified inhumanrights rights which Although the deci person replaces view the exclusionary person by system. acomplementary general rule. However, inthe law and municipal orinternational consider one should norm prevail asa tical standard in interpreting andapplyingnorms. tical standardininterpreting humanrights Constitution, officially recognize the our view, Japanese lawyers should, thus, of by virtue 98(2)of the Article Differently, they shouldconsider the well-being ofthe humanperson. In system, States shouldnotcompletely exclude the application of any norm. develop towards system. adialogical In other words, withinahumanrights places anextra burgeon onStates and toadapttheir domestic approaches n. 3. Mexico, see Urquiaga, 121 120 In ourview, isadvantageous the monisttheory toStates and tothe pro This

See below forthe example inthe Japanese system. For in anexample ofthisapproach Mazzuoli, 120 V. pro homine States commonly systems, adoptexclusionary that is, one should F easibility , Direito Interno status approach is a general principle of international human of international isageneral principle approach supra of human rights treaties. of humanrights Furthermore, Japan seeks to

of n. 118.

the supra

P n. 112, p. 119. ro pro homine H omine approach asthe hermeneu pro homineapproach approach, the focus onthe human

p rinci See also V. Mazzuoli, “Dialogical”, p le Anuario Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario

ja principle pro homineprinciple p vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 anese http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx

law 121 supra ------,

www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca and granting basic rights to allindividuals. basic rights and granting andfreedomslishes acore limitingState set of fundamental rights power proach, of the nation organizes the legal andpoliticalestab structures national commitments. Japan’s Constitution, following ap the modern wouldmonist theory better reflect itsconstitutional context andinter the recently adopted treaty. islative power toprovide new addressing domestic legislation the topicsof logue ofsources. vides away toachieve the best protection for individualsthrough the dia protection of thehumanbeing. Accordingly, the of law. law humanrights The objective isthe ofinternational andpurpose lawinternational asthesource andend iscentered onthe humanperson underpinnings of international human rights law human rights itself. of international underpinnings This cific situation. In ourview, monismisarequirement thisdialogical of the international, that inthe lightof aspe better protects the humanperson a “dialogue of sources” violations.in case of humanrights monismacknowledgesThe dialogical values and,international furthermore, better protects the humanperson provides aframework that isinaccordance withJapan’s constitutional and protection helping toshape Japan’s municipal law. perspective, treaties humanrights strengthen andbroaden the individual and inviolable rights. Consequently, from adomestic andconstitutional the Japanese Constitutionis, therefore, toprotect acore set of inalienable treaty ratification. of both the Executive andthe Legislative Powers the process of during system. humanrights international It already requires anacknowledgment tional law. Monismis, inourview, better fits the modern which the theory alreadyif the humanperson possesses these treaty based oninterna rights to not necessary treaty“transform” aninternational intoadomestic statute vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario 2012, p. 81. See alsoMazzuoli, derne”,, 251Recueil desCours 1995, p. 259; andMazzuoli, 124 123 122 However, Japan, asany democratic State, faces the question ofwhich In ourview, the

See Jayme, E., “IdentitéCulturelle et Intégration:Postmo Privé Le DroitInternational See Matsui, S., See generally Murphy, S. D., The Constitution ofJapan: A Contextual Analysis 122 principle, which grounds a dialogical monism,pro homineprinciple, adialogical grounds which There is, thus, request the leg nonecessity tofurther 124 by judgescan select anorm, domestic or which , Law of TreatiesLaw ,

Principles of International Law of International ,Principles St. Paul, Thompson Reuters, supra n. 20, p. 86. 123 Oneof the mainobjectives of Direito Interno principle pro- pro homineprinciple , Portland, Hart, 2011, p. 4. http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx , supra lex specialis n. 112, p. 119. of of ------269 THE JAPANESE LEGAL SYSTEM AND THE PRO HOMINE PRINCIPLE IN HUMAN RIGHTS TREATIES 270

VALERIO DE OLIVEIRA MAZZUOLI / DILTON RIBEIRO www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca way of applying the domestically. However, this new act mightnot be needed at all. A second homine law norms. andhumanrights Thus, thisnew statute the could crystalize howties domestically anddetermine tosolve conflicts between municipal to humanrights. asitssource andend. the human person sources. This flows iscentered on system itself which from humanrights implicitly acknowledges the domestically treaties. orinother international treaties, Humanrights thus, already limitrights enshrined tion of the humanperson, itcannot further Since the mainobjective treaties of humanrights istoincrease the protec- placeStates underduty todomestically comply withthese treaty norms. of basic natural rights. tion, based onthe recognition isthe protection of thehumanperson which andthe Japanese Constitu norm objective humanrights of international setby the Constitution,and rules regulatethe the Japanese context. First, new could, legislation following the premises is,which thus, onthe grounded “spirit” of the Japanese bill of rights. 4,(Article II). Consequently, itimplicitly accepts the of the Republic’s relations ofitsinternational governing aspart principles places the stitution of 1988which “prevalence of humanrights” amongone better protect the humanperson. This isalsothe case of the Brazilian Con perspective, the Constitution’s objective, section, in itshumanrights isto rights”. als must not “be prevented from enjoying any of thefundamental human is notsilent onthe protection of the humanperson. plication norms. of municipal andinternational However, the Constitution treatiesrights domestically andonthe possibility of the concomitant ap 127 126 125 The Japanese constitutionalsystem arguably takes a similarapproach treaties individuals’International and seek toacknowledge certain rights In ourview, there are, thus, two ways toapply the Furthermore, theJapanese Constitutionissilent onthe

Idem. Matsui, The Constitution ofJapan, supra principle asthe main interpretative principle guide toprotect humanrights 127 This could arguably toaccommodate be interpreted the teleo supra n. 123, pp. 154-155. 126 11ofthe Constitutionspells outthat individu Article pro homine n. 52, 11. Article principle based onadialogue of pro homine principle principle is by principle reference and to the purpose status Anuario Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario of human rights trea ofrights human pro homine pro homine 125 In a teleological In ateleological vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx status principle in principle principle, ofhuman pro ------,

www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca dialogue ofsources. a room onthe Japanese Constitutionfor the norms.be rooted ondomestic orinternational Thus, inourview, there is is the protection of the humanperson.human rights This protection could withitsbill of rights, of the mainandultimatetion isconcerned purpose rights treaties. The rights other words, isadopted andstrengthened by thisbasic principle human isrecognized intreaties. which element of humanrights underpinning In homine isthebest protection of the humanperson. instruments man rights The main addressee ofrights. In other words, the objective of hu andpurpose State interests,cerns asthe are focused onthe humanperson humanrights tional monism. of dualismtothe increasing acceptance of interna rule from the parity commonly leads todifferent which rangea common ground approaches on asolutiontoconflicts between treaties anddomestic laws. of The lack law.and international However, constantly andjurists failagree to scholars between treaties anddomestic law isacentral aspect of both municipal law States’ domestic systems. Accordingly, the study ofconflicts andthe relation tional plane through the conclusion of treaties, commonly which impactthe national society aswhole constantly otherat the interna interact witheach logical interpretation of the logical vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario relations. law tointernational International isintegral States and theinter system when treaties protection. widen the umbrella of human rights Con expand the domestic humanrights humanrights gued that international human rights, including theJapanese billofrights. ar Japanese scholars asasubject oflawtection of the humanperson level. at the international with the best proand interests, is concerned human rights international that is, law whilstgeneral international majorly focuses onState relations lawman rights inadifferent law, perspective from general international However, law con normally incontrast togeneral international which The principle does notflow principle from treaty provisions, but rather isabasic pro homine aspect of international law aspect of international alsoencompasses domestic pro homineisa lex specialis ,

VI. pro homineprinciple. Although the Constitu C onclusion which sets international hu sets international which prohomine http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx principle andits principle pro ------271 THE JAPANESE LEGAL SYSTEM AND THE PRO HOMINE PRINCIPLE IN HUMAN RIGHTS TREATIES 272

VALERIO DE OLIVEIRA MAZZUOLI / DILTON RIBEIRO www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca ized inthe Constitutionof Japan. crystal norms when theyiation limitthe humanrights andharmonization vention onHumanRights communication vessel” similartothat of 29of the Article Con American rights”). Consequently, thisprovision opens a “window” works which as “a dividuals should not be prevented from enjoying “any fundamental human arethat necessarily applicable basic humanrights toallhumanbeings (in does notdistinguishdomestic law law andinternational when establishes guably, of althoughfocusing onitsbill ofrights, part 11 the first Article damental humanrights” that the humanperson “shall notbe prevented from enjoying any of the fun application andinterpretation when its human rights 11 spellsout Article instruments. man rights astheinclude mainfocus theof besthu protection of the human person is,principle thus, recognition to of the content-based approach afurther can onlyties —humanrights be extended andnotlimited. The take a “content-based” tothe conflict of domestic laws approach andtrea people of this and future generations as eternal andinviolatepeople of thisandfuture generations aseternal rights”. guaranteed tothepeople by uponthe thisConstitutionshallbe conferred versely, treaties reconcil humanrights mightrequire international further man andworthy ofprotection (recognition of inherent rights). the Japanese Constitutionrecognizes are that inherently humanrights hu Civil andPolitical Rights. aspx?Treaty=CCPR&Lang=en. Accessed 29June2014. man RightsCommittee cannot be appliedinJapan at thisstage. cation procedure Covenant under the International on CivilandPolitcal Rightsof the Hu of HumanRights. Court Rights northe Inter-American Furthermore, individualcommuni limitations,graphical Covenant onCivilandPolitical Rights Nations HumanRights, 133 132 131 130 129 128 Moreover, theConstitution of Japan adoptstheextensive to approach In a similar tone with international human rights treaties, humanrights In asimilartone with international 11of Article

American ConventionAmerican onHumanRights International CovenantInternational onCivilandPolitical Rights, Matsui, See above. The Constitution ofJapan Idem. supra n. 123, p. 154. Japan of Human cannot be amember of neither the European Court Ratification Status for CCPR-OP1 - Optional Protocol to the International International the to Protocol Optional - CCPR-OP1 for Status Ratification 129 , supra 132 andaddsthat “[t]hese fundamental humanrights 131 and Covenant 5of the International Article on n. 52, 11. Article , tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/TreatyBodyExternal/Treaty. 128 , supra Accordingly, already Japanese scholars n. 9, 29. Article supra Anuario Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario n. 64, 5.Article Due togeo -

See United Nations, United vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx 133 pro homine - Further 130 Ar------,

www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca tion of human rights norms inJapan. norms tion of humanrights homine pretative set by rule 11ofthe Constitution,Article could mention the pro system,human rights aninfra-constitutional statute, following thisinter aspect of humanrights. However, aneffective crystalize inother tofurther Lawyers can claim that the Constitutionitself acknowledges the mine a specific case regardless of hierarchy. national law tothe humanbeing inthe basedlightof on the best approach tion, incase of doubt oromission, judges can apply domestic law orinter norms.rights Consequently, following 11of the Japanese Constitu Article andapply tointerpret human setting the parameters the humanperson rights law,rights atrue crystalizes tion itself, human of international inaccordance withthe underpinnings norms.omissions inhumanrights Inother words, the Japanese Constitu must be restrictively anditcan be aguideline toanalyze interpreted— more, —limitation itforbids restrictive of rights interpretation of rights vol. XV, 2015, pp. 239-282 Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario Universal Declaration ofHumanRights ConventionInternational ontheElimination of All Forms, ofRacial Discrimination Convention for the Protection ofHumanRights andFundamental Freedoms, 4No- Convention against Torture andOther Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or ConventionAmerican onHumanRights Instruments International There is, thus, establishing the noneed for anadditionalnorm 3d Sess., Supp. nº13, U.N. Doc. A\810 (1948). 1966,7 March 660United Nations Treaty Series. ries. vember 1950, 213UnitedNations Treaty Series, 5European Treaty Se Punishment Series, Organization of States American Treaty Series, n. 36. principle asthe maininterpretative inJapan. principle guide tohumanrights principle asone of the guidelines for the interpretation andapplica principle , 10December 1984, 1465United Nations Treaty Series ,

VII. ordre public B ibliogra , G.A. Res. 217(III), U.N. GAAOR., , 1969, 1144United Nations Treaty or public order which prioritizes prioritizes orpublic orderwhich p hy http://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx pro homine , p. 85. pro ho------273 THE JAPANESE LEGAL SYSTEM AND THE PRO HOMINE PRINCIPLE IN HUMAN RIGHTS TREATIES 274

VALERIO DE OLIVEIRA MAZZUOLI / DILTON RIBEIRO www.juridicas.unam.mx Jurídicas delaUNAM Jurídica VirtualdelInstitutodeInvestigaciones Esta revistaformapartedelacervodelaBiblioteca ———, Books Vienna Convention onthe Law of Treaties L K J J I G G F D C C B A ———, ———, wasawa acobs acobs reeman etsas rownlie ust rotoszynski urrie ançado oodman ardiner onnelly versity Press, 2006. versity Press, 1989. International LawInternational of HumanRights], Porto Alegre, Fabris, Sergio 1997. tional Law, Nijhoff, Martinus 2010. versity Press, 2005. ford University Press, 1975. parative Legal Analysis ofthe Freedom ofSpeech ford University Press, 2006. ronto, Irwin Law Inc, 2007. Series. ronto, Irwin Law Inc, 2004. of International Lawof International onJapanese Law man Rights, New York, OxfordUniversity Press, 2007. Justice, New York, OxfordUniversity Press, 2011. pan Press, 2008. 2003. , , Routledge, Oxford, 1996. Anthony, , , , & George, Francis G.,

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