Volume 4, Issue 1(1), January 2015 International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research

Published by Sucharitha Publications Visakhapatnam – 530 017 Andhra Pradesh – India Email: [email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in

Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr. Victor Babu Koppula Faculty, Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam -530 003 Andhra Pradesh – India

EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS

Prof. S.Mahendra Dev Prof. Josef HÖCHTL Vice Chancellor Department of Political Economy Indira Gandhi Institute of Development University of Vienna, Vienna & Research Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament Mumbai Austria

Prof.Y.C. Simhadri Prof. Alexander Chumakov Vice Chancellor, Patna University Chair of Philosophy Department Former Director Russian Philosophical Society Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary Moscow, Russia Studies, New Delhi & Formerly Vice Chancellor of Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Founder and President Nagarjuna University, Patna University Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Lima Peru Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater Former Vice Chancellor Prof. Igor Kondrashin Singhania University, Rajasthan The Member of The Russian Philosophical Society Prof.K.Sreerama Murty The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of Department of Economics the UNESCO, Moscow, Russia Andhra University - Visakhapatnam Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Prof. K.R.Rajani Rector Department of Philosophy St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A

Prof. A.B.S.V.Rangarao Swami Maheshwarananda Department of Social Work Founder and President Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Shree Vishwa Deep Gurukul Swami Maheshwarananda Ashram Education Prof.S.Prasanna Sree & Research Center Department of English Rajasthan, India Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Prof.U.Shameem Prof. P.Sivunnaidu Department of Zoology Department of History Andhra University Visakhapatnam Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Dr. N.V.S.Suryanarayana Prof. P.D.Satya Paul Head Department of Anthropology Dept. of Education, A.U. Campus Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Vizianagaram Dr. Momin Mohamed Naser Dr. Barada Prasad Bhol Department of Geography Registrar, Purushottam Institute of Institute of Arab Research and Studies Engineering & Technology Cairo University, Egypt Sundargarh, Odisha

I Ketut Donder Dr.E. Ashok Kumar Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma Department of Education Indonesia North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong

Prof. Roger Wiemers Dr.K.Chaitanya Professor of Education Postdoctoral Research Fellow Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA Department of Chemistry Nanjing University of Science and Prof. G.Veerraju Technology Department of Philosophy People’s Republic of China Andhra University Visakhapatnam Dr.Merina Islam Department of Philosophy Prof.G.Subhakar Cachar College, Assam Department of Education Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Dr R Dhanuja PSG College of Arts & Science Dr.B.S.N.Murthy Coimbatore Department of Mechanical Engineering GITAM University –Visakhapatnam Dr. Bipasha Sinha S. S. Jalan Girls’ College N.Suryanarayana (Dhanam) University of Calcutta Department of Philosophy Calcutta Andhra University Visakhapatnam Dr. K. John Babu Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Dr.Ch.Prema Kumar Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir Department of Philosophy Andhra University Dr. H.N. Vidya Visakhapatnam Government Arts College Hassan, Karnataka Dr.S.V Lakshmana Rao Coordinator Dr.Ton Quang Cuong AP State Resource Center Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education Visakhapatnam University of Education, VNU, Hanoi

Dr.S.Kannan Prof. Chanakya Kumar Department of History University of Pune Annamalai University Pune Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram

© Editor-in-Chief, IJMER Typeset and Printed in India www.ijmer.in IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought. C O N T E N T S

Volume 4 Issue 1(1) January 2015

S. Page No No 1. Wear Behaviour of Jute-E Glass Fiber When Redmud is 1 Added as Filler Material in Epoxy Composite B.C.Patel 2. Voices of the Marginalized 17 Ashwani Kumar 3. 27 Regular   -Open Sets & Regular   -Closed Topological Spaces Thakur C. K. Raman 4. Organization and Working of District Co- Perative 42 Central Banks in Andhra Pradesh B.Prabhakara Rao 5. Rise of Big Data: An Overview 64 Majid Ramzan and Nawab Ahmad 6. Work –Family Role Conflict in Working Women: A 72 Sociological Study Mallikarjun Holeppa and Jaikishan Thakur 7. Say the Unsayable: An Overview of Wittgenstein’s 83 Ethics Poulami Chakraborty 8. Impact of Vehicles Movements on Environment and its 92 Effects on Human Health Quazi S.M. and Shaikh T.T 9. 102 अनपुराणम– ् “उपातवानम” ् Asavadi Sudhama Vamsi 10. Finger Dermatoglyphic Characters among the Mentally 110 Disabled Children Appalanaidu. P 11. Social Empowerment of Dalit Women Through Self 116 Help Groups K. Anil Kumar and K. Yamini Jyothsna 12. Adunika Sahityamlo Vesya JeevithaChitrana –Oka 128 Pariseelana P. Chinnarao 13. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad as an Educationist 134 Suzain Rashid 14. A Comparative Study of Attitudes of Educated and 147 Uneducated Parents Towards Girls’ Education in Visakhapatnam District of Andhra Pradesh M.A. Zulfikar Ali 15. A Study of ICT Skill of the Pupil Teachers in Relation to 155 Their Gender and Groups of Study B.C. Shah and Geeta Rawat Shah 16. Participation: Methods and Approaches 165 G. Vasudevaiah 17. The Effect of Soil Physico-Chemical Properties on 177 Wheat Production in Hadiya Zone, Misha Woreda, Ethiopia Tadewos Damena,Elias Gizaw and Habtamu Abebe 18. An Assessment of Factors Influencing Informed Choice 192 of Discipline in Higher Technical Education Vijayalakshmi N.S and A.H.Sequeira 19. An Analytical Study of Merits and Demerits of 209 International Commercial Arbitration Vikrant Sopan Yadav 20. Social Status and Health Condition of Aged Parents in 218 Gulbarga City, Karnataka Vishwanath Bellad and Jaikishan Thakur 21. The Effects of Indirect Assessment (Lump-Sum) of 229 Taxation on the Activities of Small and Medium Size Business in Ethiopia. (The Case of Category “C” Taxpayers in Adama Town) Asfaw Bekele Megnaka and M. Sarada Devi 22. A Perspective on Exercise Prescription 252 C.Kiran Chakravarthi 23. Relationship Between Economic Growth and Human 262 Development Sandeep Kaur 24. Job Satisfaction, Attrition and Mass Media: A Study of 276 Journalists in Media Organizations in AP G.Anita and N.A.D. Pual 25. Population Control is the Driving Force for the Nation’s 286 Development Prabha Sivashankar 26. Social Skill Facilitation in Childhood 296 Sumith K. Sridharan and Baby Shari .P .A Editorial ……..

Provoking fresh thinking is certainly becoming the prime purpose of International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER). The new world era we have entered with enormous contradictions is demanding a unique understanding to face challenges. IJMER’s contents are overwhelmingly contributor, distinctive and are creating the right balance for its readers with its varied knowledge. We are happy to inform you that IJMER got the high Impact Factor 2.972, Index Copernicus Value 5.16 and IJMER is listed and indexed in 34 popular indexed organizations in the world. This academic achievement of IJMER is only author’s contribution in the past issues. I hope this journey of IJMER more benefit to future academic world. In the present issue, we have taken up details of multidisciplinary issues discussed in academic circles. There are well written articles covering a wide range of issues that are thought provoking as well as significant in the contemporary research world. My thanks to the Members of the Editorial Board, to the readers, and in particular I sincerely recognize the efforts of the subscribers of articles. The journal thus receives its recognition from the rich contribution of assorted research papers presented by the experienced scholars and the implied commitment is generating the vision envisaged and that is spreading knowledge. I am happy to note that the readers are benefited. My personal thanks to one and all.

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WEAR BEHAVIOUR OF JUTE-E GLASS FIBER WHEN REDMUD IS ADDED AS FILLER MATERIAL IN EPOXY COMPOSITE B.C.Patel Department of Mechanical Engineering Purusottam Institute of Engineering and Technology Rourkela, Odisha

1. INTRODUCTION

When two or more material with different properties is combined together they form a composite material [1]. The constituents retain their identities in a composite and do not dissolve or merge, but act together [2]. Kelly [3] very clearly stresses that the composites should not be regarded simple as a combination of two materials. Beghezan [4] defines as “The composites are compound materials which differ from alloys by the fact that the individual components retain their characteristics but are so incorporated into the composite as to take advantage only of their attributes and not of their short comings”, in order to obtain improved materials.

Van Suchetclan [5] explains composite materials as heterogeneous materials consisting of two or more solid phases, which are in intimate contact with each other on a microscopic scale. They can be also considered as homogeneous materials on a microscopic scale in the sense that any portion of it will have the same physical property.

The research and development work going on in India on red mud utilization. For complete utilization of red mud, Thakur and Das [6] and Kovalenko [7] , Naresh Prasad [8] proposed avenues such as building material production as an additive to cement, production of colouring agent for paint works for ground floors of industrial.

In the fiber reinforced plastics composites fillers may be added to the polymeric matrix for one are more of the following reasons (1)

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reduction of cost, (2) increase of modulus, (3) control of viscosity and (4) production of a smoother surface.

The term filler is very broad and encompasses a very wide range of materials that plays an important role for the improvement in performance of polymers and their composites. Filler materials are used to reduce the material costs, to improve mechanical properties to some extent and in some cases to improve process ability. Besides, it also increases properties like abrasion resistance, hardness and reduces shrinkage. Although in FRP, a judicious selection of matrix and the reinforcing phase can lead to a composite with a combination of strength and modulus comparable to or even better than those of conventional metallic materials, their physical and mechanical properties can further be modified by addition of a solid filler phase to the matrix body during the composite preparation.

In addition the fracture surface energies of epoxy and polyester resin and their resistance to crack propagation are relatively low. If particulate filler is added to these brittle resins, the particles inhibit crack growth. As the volume fraction of filler is varied, the fracture energy increases up to a critical volume fraction and then decreases again. Fracture properties of epoxy resin can be improved by addition of other materials. Fillers affect the tensile properties according to their packing characteristics, size and interfacial bonding [10]. The maximum volumetric packing fraction of filler reflects the size distribution and shapes of the particles. Srivastava and Shembekar [9] showed that the fracture toughness of epoxy resin could be improved by addition of flyash particles as filler.

In this work, experiments were carried out to study the effect of redmud filler, impingement angle and particle velocity on the solid particle erosion behaviour of Jute-E-glass fiber reinforced hybrid composites,

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2. MATERIALS AND METHOD

2.1 Raw Materials Used

Raw materials used in this experimental work are listed below:

1. Jute fiber 2. E glass fiber 3. Red mud filler 4. Epoxy resin and Hardener 2.2 Preparation of Composites:

It is clear from the earlier experiments from solid particle impact test for different sequences of jute-E-glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite that the hybrid laminate,S5 with two extreme glass piles(GJJG) on either side is the optimum combination with good balance between the properties, hence for this experiment laminate S5 only has been taken in to consideration . Red mud explained earlier has been taken with particle size of 150 microns with 2, 4 and 6 gm as the filler material. The preparation of the test samples are done with dimensions 30x30x5 mm were used for the erosion test.

2.3 Test apparatus & Experiment

The erosion test apparatus for this study is erosion test rig.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Figure 2-6 shows the erosion rate of the hybrid composite S5 with different impact velocities for 2, 4 and 6 gm of red mud filled composite. It shows that the erosion rate hybrid composite S5 increases with increase in impact velocities. However the erosion rate of red mud filler composite is very marginal with increase in impact velocities. Also the erosion rate of red mud filler composite (2, 4 and 6 gm) is much less than unfilled composite as shown in table-1.

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Figure 6-8 shows the influence of impingement angle (α) on the erosion rate of hybrid composite S5 under different impact velocities (48, 70 and 82 m/sec). It is observed that at higher velocities (70 and 82

0 m/s) the red mud filled composite shows peak erosion (Ermax) at 90 0 impact angle and minimum erosion rate (Ermin) at 30 impact angle Where as for lowest velocity(48 m/s) the peak erosion is at 450 impact angle. For the composite without red mud at velocities of (48, 70 and 82 m/s) the peak erosion was found to be at 450 impact angle and the minimum erosion at 900 impact angle. As discussed earlier in chapter 5 the layered composite (S5) behaviour was semi ductile in nature. However by the incorporation of red mud particles the behaviour was changed to purely brittle nature. The erosion rate of the red mud filled composite is much lower than the unfilled composite. The reduction in material loss in these particle filled composites can be attributed to two reasons. One is the improvement in the bulk hardness of the composite with addition of these hard ceramic particles. Secondly, during the erosion process, the filler particles absorb a good part of the kinetic energy results in less amount of energy being available to be absorbed by the matrix body and the reinforcing phase’s i.e glass and jute fiber. These two factors together lead to enhancement of erosion wear resistance of the composites.

The variation of the steady state erosion rate of the composite (S5) with and without red mud filler with different velocities at an impact angle of 900 is shown in the form of histogram in figure 9.

It is clear from the figure that the erosion rate of all composite samples increases with increase in the impact velocity. The composite without red mud filler shows highest erosion rate with all velocities. This figure also shows that 4gm red mud filled composite shows the lowest erosion rate at particle velocity of 48 m/sec. The loss of ductility may be attributed to the presence of redmud filler and largely to the stacking sequence for the hybrid composite. This can further be

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explained as follows: the erosion of fibers is mainly caused by damage mechanisms as micro-cracking or plastic deformation due to the impact of silica sand. Such damage is supposed to increase with the increase of kinetic energy loss. According to Hutchings et al. [10], kinetic energy loss is maximum at normal impact (90°), where erosion rates are maximum for brittle materials. Hence, although the polymer matrix itself is ductile, the composites show purely brittle erosion behavior.

The erosion efficiency (η) plays an important role to characterize the nature and mechanism of erosion. Here also for red mud filled composite the erosion efficiency has been calculated and are listed in table-2, along with their hardness values and operating conditions. The erosion efficiency of red mud filled composite varies from 4.080233% to 14.31747% for different impact velocities studied. Similar observations are also reported by Srivastava et al [9] while they worked with glass fiber reinforced fly-ash filled epoxy composite. Basing on their work, they have identified the brittle and ductile response of various materials considering the erosion mechanism. They have the opinion that ideal micro ploughing involving just the displacement of material from the crater without any fracture (and hence no erosion) will have zero erosion efficiency. Alternately, in the case of ideal micro cutting, efficiency will be 100%. And if erosion occurs by the formation of a lip and its subsequent fracture, then erosion efficiency will be in the range 0–100%. In contrast, as happens with brittle material, if the erosion takes place by sapling and removal of large chunks of material by interlinking lateral or radial cracks, then the erosion efficiency is expected to be even greater than 100%. Thus it can be concluded that erosion efficiency is not exclusively a material property; but also depends on other operational variables such as impact velocity and impingement angle. This lower erosion efficiency of red mud filled epoxy composite indicates a better erosion resistance in comparison to hybrid composite.

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3.1 Surface Morphology

To characterize the morphology of eroded surfaces the eroded samples were observed under a scanning electron microscope (SEM). Fig-12(a) shows the micrographs of the sample S5 without red mud particulates. It is clear from the micrograph that the erosion by sand particles impact resulted in damage to the interface between the fibers and the resin matrix. This damage is characterized by the separation and detachment of broken fibers from the resin matrix. When red mud particulates are introduced in to the resin matrix the composite moves through different stages of erosion and material removal process. Fig- 12(b) shows the 2gm red mud filled composite where the formation of crater is clearly visible because of local removal of resin material from the impacted surfaces.

Fig-12 (c) shows the micrographs of the samples with 4 gm of red mud particles. Here the micrograph reveal that solid sand particles impact on the fibers and causes the fibers to break owing to the formation of cracks perpendicular to their length. These cracks across the fiber are caused by bending due to the impact of these particles on the unsupported fibers. Bending is possible because the matrix resin along with red mud surrounding and supporting the fibers have been removed.

Fig-12 (d) shows the samples with 6 gm of red mud filled composite. Here the damage of surface due to impacting particles is clearly visible but the removal of resin matrix from the surface is restricted. This is because of red mud particulates along with the resin gives a good bonding strength and though the indentation involved compressive stresses is not capable of eroding it from the surface. The exposed view of fibers clearly shows that there is no breaking of fibers or removal from matrix due to indentation. Hence 6g filled red mud composite gives better erosion resistance.

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4. Conclusions

Experiments were carried out to study the effect of red mud filler on the erosion rate of jute-E glass fiber reinforced hybrid composite with silica sand as erodent. Based on the studies the following conclusions are made.

 Inclusion of red mud filler in the composite (JGGJ) increases the hardness, tensile strength as well as the density of resulting hybrid composite  The erosion wear of 4g red mud filler hybrid composite given the lower value as it restrict the fiber matrix debonding.  By incorporation of redmud filler, the erosion wear behaviour of hybid composite (JGGJ) from semi ductile changes to the purely brittle nature. The erosion efficiency varies from 0.33% to 6.623 %.  The morphologies of the eroded surface observed by SEM suggest that the overall erosion damage of composites consists of matrix material removal in the resin area . However presence of red mud filler improves the resistance of the erosive wear. Table-1 Erosion rate of the samples

Erosion rate * 10-4 Impingement Velocity Zero 2g RM 4g RM 6g RM Angle (m/s) Red Mud 48 1.714 0.3826 0.334 0.37037 300 70 4.021 1.12757 1.12757 0.63375 82 6.945 1.6214 1.25103 1.12757 48 1.469 1.14403 0.37037 0.63375 450 70 4.431 1.12757 1.12757 1.6214 82 7.95 1.76132 1.6214 1.39095 48 1.496 1.12757 0.8642 0.53498 600 70 2.954 1.12757 0.88066 1.12757 82 6.4 1.39095 1.00412 1.49794 48 1.007 1.12757 0.7572 0.63375 900 70 2.954 1.76132 1.6214 1.99177 82 6.623 2.62551 2.35391 2.3786

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Table-2 Erosion efficiency () of samples

Erosion Efficiency * 10-7 Impinge Veloc ment ity 2gRM 4gRM 6g RM Angle (m/s) H=23.5 H=25.3 H=26.5 (BHN) (BHN) (BHN) 48 4.635152 4.929698 5.071312 300 70 6.635268 7.056913 4.080233 82 6.953004 5.705664 5.290335 48 14.31747 4.929698 8.677579 450 70 6.635268 7.056913 10.43904 82 7.55301 7.394841 6.526034 48 14.11146 11.50263 7.325229 600 70 6.635268 5.511604 7.259635 82 5.96476 4.579546 7.028036 48 14.11146 10.07849 8.677579 900 70 10.36458 10.14753 12.82359 82 11.25893 10.73566 11.1599

30 26.5 25.3 23.5 25

20 15.8 15

10

5 Vicker's microharness (Hv) microharnessVicker's 0 0gm RD 2gm RD 4gm RD 6gm RD Red Mud filler content

Figure-1 Vickers micro hardness vs. red mud filled composite.

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8 7 with out RM 2gm RM 6 4gm RM 6gm RM

(gm/gm) (gm/gm) 5 -4 4 3 2 Erosion rate 10 rate Erosion 1 0 40 50 60 70 80 90 Impact velocity m/s Figure-2 Variation of erosion rate with impact velocity at impingement angle of 300

9 with out RM 2gm RM 8 4gm RM 6gm RM 7 6 (gm/gm) (gm/gm) -4 5 4 3 2

Erosion rate 10 rate Erosion 1 0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Impingement angles Figure-3 Variation of erosion rate with impact velocity at impingement angle of 450

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7 with out RM 2gm RM 6 4gm RM 6gm RM

5 (gm/gm) (gm/gm)

-4 4

3

2

Erosion rate 10 rate Erosion 1

0 40 50 60 70 80 90 Impact velocity m/s

Figure-4 Variation of erosion rate with impact velocity at impingement angle of 600

7 with out RM 2gm RM 6 4gm RM 6gm RM 5

(gm/gm) (gm/gm) 4 -4

3

2

Erosion rate 10 rate Erosion 1

0 40 50 60 70 80 90 impact velocity m/s Figure-5 Variation of erosion rate with impact velocity at impingement angle of 900

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1.8 with out RM 2gm RM 1.6 1.4 1.2 (gm/gm) (gm/gm) -4 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 Erosion rate 10 rate Erosion 0.2 0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Impingement angles Figure-6 Variation of erosion rate with impingement angle at impact velocity of 48 m/s

5 with out RM 2gm RM 4gm RM 6gm RM 4 (gm/gm) (gm/gm)

-4 3

2

1 Erosion rate 10 rate Erosion

0 20 40 60 80 100 Impingement angles Figure-7 Variation of erosion rate with impingement angle at impact velocity of 70 m/s

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9 with out RM 2gm RM 8 7 6 (gm/gm) (gm/gm)

-4 5 4 3 2 Erosion rate 10 rate Erosion 1 0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Impingement angles

Figure-8 Variation of erosion rate with impingement angle at impact velocity of 82 m/s

Figure-9 Histogram showing the steady state erosive wear rates of all the composites at three impact velocities (48, 70, 82 m/s) for 90° impact angle

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Figure-10 Histogram showing the e erosion efficiency of all the composites at three impact velocities (48, 70, 82 m/s) for 30° impact angle

Figure-11 Histogram showing the erosion efficiency of all the composites at three impact velocities (48, 70, 82 m/s) for 90° impact angle

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Figure 12 (a) SEM micrograph of sample S5 without red mud particulate

Figure 12 (b) SEM micrograph of sample S5 with 2g red mud particulate

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Figure 12 (c) SEM micrograph of sample S5 with 4g red mud particulate

Figure 12 (d) SEM micrograph of sample S5 with 6g red mud particulate

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5. SCOPE FOR FUTURE STUDY:

1. In the present investigation jute and glass fabric with red mud used to prepare a hybrid composite. However, there exists other natural fibers like bamboo, bagasses etc which could be studied and its findings can be applied for greater benefit of technology.

2. From this work, it is found that chemical modification of fiber with alkali improves the mechanical performance of the composite. Other chemical modification methods such as acetone, benzyl-chloride, saline etc can also be studied. Comparative study may contribute for effective quality and cost benefit approach.

3. In the erosion test, sand particles of 200 50 microns only has been used for the purpose of study. Similar work can also be taken up with other particle size and particles namely glass beads etc. Such study and its effect of particle size, type of particles on the wear behaviour of the composite will be relevant for the purpose of technology.

References

1. Herakovich, C.T., “Mechanics of fibrous composites”. New York: Wiley; (1998). p. 1–27. 2. Jartiz, A.E., 1965, “Design,” pp. 18. 3. Kelly, A., 1967, Sci. American, 217, (B), pp. 161. 4. Berghezan, A., 1966, “Non-ferrous Materials,” Nucleus, 8: pp. 5–11. 5. Van Suchtelen., 1972, "Product properties: a new application of composite materials," Philips Res. Reports, Vol. 27, pp. 28. 6. Thakur R.S., Das S.N., “Red mud – Analysis and utilization” Publication and Information Directorate, New Delhi, New Delhi & Wiley Eastern Limited; 1994. 7. Kovalenku E.P., “Improvement of the process of alumina production at Nilolaev alumina plant”, Light Metals, (1998), p.55-58. 8. Prasad Naresh, “Development and characterization of metal matrix composite using red mud an industrial waste for wear resistance applications”, PhD thesis, 2006, NIT, Rourkela. 9. Srivastava VK and Shembekar PS, tensile and fracture properties of epoxy resin filled with fly ash particles, j mater sci 25(1990), PP. 3512-3516. 10. Hutchings I.M., Winter R.E. and Field J.E., (1976). Solid particle erosion of metals: the removal of surface material by spherical projectiles, Proc Roy Soc Lond, Ser A 348:379-392

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VOICES OF THE MARGINALIZED

Ashwani Kumar PhD Scholar G.R.S Department University of Delhi, Delhi

The present article focuses on the voices raised by the marginalized and some important issues in their literature that are frequently discussed by critics. It also throws some light on two small but very controversial points in Dalit literature: Who is a Dalit? What is Dalit literature? And will also explore how this marginalized section of Indian society is raising voices against the age old caste oppression through poetry. Therefore I would like to start with the origin of the term “Dalit Literature”.

The term “Dalit literature” was initially used in the first conference of Dalit writers in Mumbai in January 1958 which passed the resolution defining the term.

One can define Dalit literature as a defiant expression against the longstanding caste oppression and disgrace suffered by the marginalized section of Indian society. Since the late 1960s and 70s, many poets and writers of the Dalit communities in various parts of India have been producing literary works, such as poems, short stories, novels and autobiographies representing the themes of caste oppression, untouchability, poverty, oppression and revolution. Now Dalit literary movement is spread all over the country, now it is growing almost in all Indian languages.

There are many theories about the origin of Dalit literary movement. In Hindi, Kabir and Raidas (between 15th and 16th century) are considered to be its true originators; as these great men were deeply concerned about the suffering of the untouchables. But history shows

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that Dr. Ambedkar (1891-1956) was the inspiration for Dalit writers and their literature because of his ideas, viewpoint towards life and his struggle to achieve what he felt just. But the movement got momentum after the death of Dr. Ambedkar in 1956. As the first group of Dalit students educated from the colleges established by Dr. Ambedkar came up in 1960s.

In Hindi Dalit literature, writings started only after 1980s. But in early 20th century we find two writers noticeable who were writing about Dalits. But it is still a matter of discussion for Dalit writers, some scholars and writers say that the pioneer of Dalit writings is Hira Dom of Patna, whose poem titled “Ek Achhut ki Sikayat” was published in a magazine “Saraswati” in 1914. This poem is in Bhojpuri language. But there was another poet already writing about problems of dalits Swami Achhutanand of Allahabad (U.P), his only work available is “Adi Vansa ka Danka” published in 1913. However, despite of getting into that controversy, both these poets can be considered the pioneer of Hindi Dalit writing in 20th century. Because before and after that no writings in Hindi have been found till 1980s, and it is believed that Dalit writers were kept silent by upper caste publishers till then.

Dalit poetry in Hindi is not just contemporary, but a new kind of writing in terms of experience and sensibility, structure and style. That new kind is related to the aggressiveness in their literary works which is more impressive and rebellious. The most notable among the Hindi Dalit poets are, Malkhan Singh, Om Prakash Valmiki, Jai Prakash Kardam, Mohandas Namisray, Sushila Takabhore, Kawal Bharati etc…

Dalit literature shares an unique kind of experience and approach in modern Indian literatures, for now untouchables themselves are using weapons of literacy which was denied in the past and are representing the conditions under which they have lived, as well as they have started protesting against Hindu scriptures like

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Manusmriti etc. which has brought to them their continuous exploitation in the Varna order. The main gist of Dalit literature is emancipation from all types of oppression.

Presently, in Dalit literature important debates on some points like: who is a Dalit? And who can be called a Dalit writer? are matters of debate in literary criticism. Is a Dalit writer that, who belongs to the Dalit community or anyone who writes about the life of Dalits? Many Hindi Dalit writers assume that Dalit by birth can only have the feeling and experience to be a genuine Dalit writer. However, Dalit writers are saying so because they seem to have forgotten the resolution that was passed by Dalit writers at first conference in1958 in Mumbai that “The literature written by the Dalits and that written by others about the dalits in Marathi be accepted as separate entity called as “Dalit Literature” and realizing its cultural importance, the universities and literary organizations should give it its proper place.”

In Hindi the definition of term “Dalit” is still new, but this type of discussions are obvious. In Marathi literature these types of discussions already have been done seriously. And the majority of Dalit writers like Baburao Bagul, Namdeo Dhasal, Arjun Dangle and Sharankumar Limbale etc. do not limit the area of term “Dalit” to only untouchables; they give broad definition of the term and their literature for human emancipation. However, I believe that this literature should include all works written by any writer in which there is real depiction of Dalit life or which is a real aspiration of Dalit emancipation. On the other hand, in Hindi Dalit literature, writers as Dr. Dharmvir, Prof. N.K. Ken, Jai Prakash Kardam, C.B. Bharti and many others believe that writings by Dalit and for Dalits can be accepted as Dalit literature and they are confining it to the untouchables only. However, the term “Dalit” should not be confined to untouchables only; viewing its future as it is in Marathi literature it is

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That is why Sharankumar limbale gives a broad definition of the term “Dalit”, and says:

“A Dalit is untouchable. But we cannot limit the term “Dalit” to only untouchables. We must include the entire Bahujan Society i.e. scheduled castes and tribes, working people, landless labourers, poor peasants women etc. Today, we must use a language that includes this wider community as participants in our struggle, as the audience in our writing. Unless we find such language, we will be left alone, the struggle will be splintered.”

The definition of the term is also valid according to the Manifesto of ‘Dalit Panther” (a militant organization made by a group of Dalit writers in 1972 influenced by “Black Panther” of America) in which the term “Dalit” is defined as, Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, landless labourer, poor peasants, Adivasis, Women etc…

Therefore, the term “Dalit” described by “Dalit panther” is adequate and if we take it as the base of Dalit literature, this literature would be considered the most important literature because it leads toward human emancipation. Other progressive literatures that are related to their socio-cultural conditions like Afro-Caribbean literature in Caribbean countries and African American literature in America and Dalit literature in India that depict the oppression and exploitation of human being, they are related, as their objective is similar, i.e. emancipation of human being from exploitation.

Perhaps that is why Indian writer Chaman Lal explains that:

“The definition of Dalit literature should be broad. Current definition of Dalit literature is still new and in hands of aggressive Dalit youth writers, but when the discussions on Dalit emancipation develops

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it will not be limited to social, but it will go to social, economic, cultural, and revolutionary transformation as well. Because the question of Dalit emancipation is related to the emancipation of world human, Race , caste, gender discrimination and emancipation from economic exploitation etc.”

It is also to say that taking into consideration the historical evaluation of Dalit literature in which the term “Dalit” was not confined to only untouchables, in Hindi Dalit literature there is need of a broad definition of the term, and in this process any writings related to Dalit problems, their struggle and development should be considered Dalit literature.

Concerning “Dalit Literature”, Dalit writers believe that writings done by Dalits and for Dalits can be only accepted as Dalit literature because they have real experience of suffering and their voices are rebellious. Although Dalit writings are directed to Dalits, these writings cannot be stopped from the reach of non-Dalit readers. And why should they be? Dalit community is a part of several communities and if any community is unknown about Dalit’s suffering they should be aware of it through literature and any other medium. But it is not only the question of reading this literature but also of writing it.

In Marathi literature any writer who writes about Dalits are accepted as Dalit writers, but Hindi Dalit writers claim that non-Dalits writers don’t have depiction of anger and protest in their writing, and they criticize them for superficiality of feeling, experiences and interests about dalits. Even the most progressive and revolutionary minded writers like Premchand, Mulk Raj Anand, T.S. Pillai, V.S. Khandekar and several other who have tried to describe the sentiments of Dalits are not accepted in Dalit literature. More aggressive Dalit youth writers believe that they write out of sympathy and that does not

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make this literature revolutionary. However, this is not true that writing of non-Dalit writers cannot be seen as rebellious voice. A most prominent and realist writer of Hindi literature Premchand have produced several works in which there is real depiction of Dalit life and their struggle, like Karm Bhoomi(1932), Gaban(1931) and many short stories like, “Thakur Ka Kuan”, “Mandir”, “Ghashwali” etc.. In the short story “Ghashwali” we find such a rebellious voice of a Dalit women depicted by Premchand that we hardly find in some Dalits writings itself. Bhulia, a Dalit woman, protests against a Brahmin who tries to approach her, she speaks in a voice full of anger and protest. So it can’t be said with such surety that non-Dalit writings are written out of mare sympathy. The voice of Dalits in the writings non-Dalit writers are found even stronger and rebellious then in Dalit writings. So, as believed by Dalit writers like Sharankumar Limbale, Chaman Lal, Kawal Bharti, Dr. Tej Singh etc...that this literature should be broad not only in the terms of the word “Dalit” but also it’s “Writers”. This is an indication towards those aggressive Dalit writers who limit the term to untouchables, to spread their area of thinking because if the area of thinking is limited it is difficult to develop this literature, may be that is why some of the critics claim that this literature is now being accused to be thematically stagnant. So, like Marathi Dalit literature, in Hindi Dalit literature also there is need to see both the terms in a broader way in order to not only develop this literature but also to strengthen Dalit movement as a whole.

Dalit literature is representation of the suffering of Dalits in Indian society. The language used in this literature is language of oppressed people; it revives the memory of the pain and suffering of past generations that is why the writings are not only critical but cynical and the tone is bitter and denunciatory. It generally represents the loss of hope which perhaps they expected from the independent India. Therefore the language is different, it is aggressive and crude

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In a poem Dalit poet Jai Prakash Kardam says:

Despite all protest and pressure in full strength with the dagger in hand standing on the threshold of the domination calling in bursting voice come out you bastard I will destroy you. With the same rebellious spirit Dalit poet Malkhan Singh in one poem depicts, thus: Remember that working shoulders are not ready to carry your weight and Eklavya is sharpening his rusted arrows in fire.

In fact, this resentment does not seem like resentment; it is more like the suppressed anger of many years. This is the expression of anguish, anger and rebellion which remained silent until it found a voice in the person of Dr. Ambedkar. So it is unfortunate to expect the pain of Dalits to be subtle and artistic. It had remained suppressed for thousands of years. Now, the expectation of liberation has given it a rebellious form. The anger expressed in Dalit literature is its natural character.

It is believed by non-Dalit people that Dalit writers use offensive and abusive language in their writings. Hindu don’t see the protest of Dalits as an intend for the social and economical development of their own people, but they take this protest against themselves. That is why they are against the struggle of Dalits. One of the reasons of Dalit

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protest can be this also which seems offensive to them. But in words of Dalit writers it is not offensive language but it is a language of anger and revenge against atrocities that they have been suffering for ages, which according to them cannot be depicted in kind and polite words.

A poem of Kawal Bharti reflects the same, thus:

The language of rebellion is never so soft like news paper which entertains you everyday just have a say How would be the language of your raped mother? Will it be kind? It’s a fact that Dalits of India have thousand years of experience of torture, agony and oppression. And now they are struggling against it; therefore the language of struggle derived from pain cannot be soft, kind and polite. The voices raised against the existing social system would be full of protest and anger. And now this in some way or other is making upper caste people (in particular Brahmins) aware that Dalits are on the verge of denying age old slavery.

So, it is clear that the language used in Dalit literature is language of their anger and protest against age old discrimination suffered by them at all levels, therefore, the language bound to be denunciatory and offensive. It seems that it will exist until this unequal order remains in the society.

Today it’s not only the protest voice that is dominating Dalit writings but as the origin of this literature lies into cries and sufferings, cry rhythm arising from itself can be felt in Dalit poetry as well. Discrimination obviously is a very common theme of most Dalit poetry. It was seen in the poetry written in the past and even in present. In Hindi Dalit poetry almost every poem somehow moves around the sufferings of Dalits.

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Jai Prakash Kardam has described well the sufferings of Dalits in his poems, thus:

Cannot go out in new clothes in many villages suffers the hunger having worked day-night long obliged to pass night without eating cannot sit on cart in presence of upper caste people cannot talk still entries are prohibited at many public places useless is this independence for him. This poem represents some of the problems of Dalits that is the domination by upper caste, hunger, prohibition of the entries of Dalits to many public places.

Raising his voice, Kawal Bharti questions upper caste people how would they feel if they were kept as Dalits in the prison of tradition and social norms, thus:

If a law were implemented that you, Brahmin, Thakur and Vaishya are inferior are degraded your house should be out of village your profession should be menial carrying dead animal cleaning the latrine working in our houses and lands as slaves What would be your devotion?

After six decades of the Indian independence, still many communities are away from their independence, created by sacred texts and upper caste people in Hindu society. That is why discrimination still is the main theme of the Dalit poetry.

In conclusion, it can be seen that the literature written by the marginalized section of Indian society is expressions of their real life experiences which has taken a form of literary movement that seeks human emancipation of all oppressed people. This struggle of Dalits

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will not end until caste system exists in India and in this process writings done by Dalits, especially their poetry will be denunciatory.

References:

1. Bharti, Kanwal: Tab Tumhari Nistha Kya hoti?, Rampur: Bodhisatva Prakashan, 1996 2. ------: Dalit Nirvachit Kavitayen. Allahabad: Itihashbodh Prakashan, 2006 3. Dangale, Arjun: “Dalit Literature, Past, Present, and Future.” Pp. 234-66 in Arjun Dangle (ed.). Poisoned Bread: Translations from Modern Marathi Dalit Literature. Bombay: Orient Longman, 1992 4. Kardam, Jai Prakash: Gunga Nahi tha Mai, Delhi: Sagar Prakashan, 2006 5. Lal, Chaman: Dalit Sahitya: Ek Mulyankan, Delhi: Rajpal and Sons, 2012 6. Limbale, Sharankumar: Towards an Aesthetic of Dalit Literature, Delhi: Orient Longman, 2007 7. Paul, S.K.: “Dalit Literature and Dalit Poetry: A Brief Survey.” Pp. 60-76 in Amar Nath Prasad and M.B. Gaijan (eds.). Dalit Literature: A Critical Exploration. New Delhi: Sarup and Sons, 2007 8. Premchand ki Sampurna Kahaniyan, Delhi: Manoj Publication, 2012 9. Satyapremi, Purshottam: Dalit Sahitya: Rachna aur Vichar, Delhi: Kumar Publication, 2007 10. Thakur, Hari Narayan: Dalit Sahitya ka Samaj shastra, Delhi: Bhartiya Gyanpith, 2010 11. Thorat, Vimal and Suraj Prakash Badtiya (eds.): Bhartiya Dalit Sahitya Ka Vidrohi Swar, Jaipur: IIDS and Rawat Publications, 2008

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REGULAR   -OPEN SETS & REGULAR   -CLOSED TOPOLOGICAL SPACES

Dr. Thakur C. K. Raman Associate Professor & Head Department of Mathematics Jamshedpur Workers, College Jamshedpur,Jharkhand

Introduction & Preliminaries: The notion of regular open/closed sets is introduced & studied by Stone [5]. Α –open sets have been investigated by Andrijevic [1]. Regular closure operator (rcl) or δ- closure (δcl) operator was used by Halder [3] or Velicko[10]. Levine [7] (resp. Bhattacharya & Lahiri [2],Palomappan & Rao [12] , Maki etal[8], Maki , Devi & Balachandran [9] and Dontchev etal[4] introduced and investigated generalized closed sets (generalized-semi as well as semi- generalized closed, regular generalized closed , generalized pre-closed, generalized α- closed as well as α-generalized closed & δ-generalized closed sets.).

We, introduce and study the concepts of r  -closed as well as r  -open sets and r  - closed spaces and the concerned fundamental properties. Throughout this paper, a space (X, T) means a topological space on which no separation axioms are assumed unless explicitly stated. If (X, T) is a topological space and A  X , then the notion of the closure of A & the interior of A are given as T–cl(A) and T-int(A) respectively. Let us recall the following definitions, which are useful in sequel. Definition(1.1) :

Let  where (X, T) a topological space is, then A is said to be a) Regular closed [5] if A = cl(int(A)) & regular open if A = int(cl(A)).

b) α-open set [1] if A⊂ int(cl(int(A))) & α-closed set if cl(int(cl(A)))⊂A . Definition (1.2):

The intersection of all regular-closed sets in(X,T) containing  is called regular closure or the δ-closure of A and is denoted by rcl(A) [3] or δcl(A))[10].

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Definition (1.3):

The union of all regular-open sets in(X,T) contained in  is called regular interior or the δ-interior of A and is denoted by rint(A) [3] or δint(A))[10]. Definition (1.4):

Let  where (X, T) a topological space is, then A is said to be (a) generalized closed (briefly g- closed)[7] set if cl(A)⊂U whenever A ⊂ U & U is open in X . (b) generalized semi-closed ( briefly gs-closed) [2] set if scl(A) ⊂U whenever A ⊂ U & U is open in X . (c) semi- generalized closed( briefly sg-closed) [2] set if scl(A) ⊂U whenever A ⊂U & U is semi- open in X . (d) regular generalized closed ( briefly rg-closed) [12] set if cl(A) ⊂U whenever A ⊂ U & U is regular open in X. (e) generalized pre-closed ( briefly gp-closed) [8] set if pcl(A) ⊂U whenever A ⊂ U & U is open in X . (f) generalized α-closed ( briefly gα-closed) [9] set if αcl(A) ⊂U whenever A ⊂ U & U is α-open in X . (g) α-generalized closed ( briefly αg-closed) [9] set if αcl(A) ⊂U whenever A ⊂ U & U is open in X . (h) δ-generalized closed ( briefly δg-closed) [4] set if δcl(A) ⊂U whenever A ⊂ U & U is open in X . Definition (1.5) :

Let  where (X, T) a topological space is, then A is said to be regular α-closed (briefly rα-closed) if A = cl(int (cl (A))). Definition (1.6) : Regular   - closed set: Let  where (X, T) a topological space is, then A is said to be regular   - closed (briefly r  -closed ) if rcl(A) ⊂U whenever A ⊂ U & U is α-open in X . The compliments of the above mentioned closed sets are naturally their respective open sets. The family of all r  -open(respectively r  -closed) sets of (X,T) is denoted by R  O(X)(respectively R  C(X).The family of r   -open sets of (X,T) containing a point p∈X is denoted by R   O(X,p).

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§2. r  -closed sets: This section is devoted to discuss basic important properties of regular   - closed sets. Proposition (2.1):

Every δ- closed set is r  –closed and every r  -closed set is δg- closed.

Proof: Let A be δ-closed set and U an α-open set such that A⊂ U. Now, A = δcl(A) so that δcl(A) ⊂ U whenever A⊂ U and here, U is α-open. Consequently, A is r  –closed.

Let A be r  –closed and U, an open set such that A⊂ U.Since, every open set is α-open , hence, δcl(A) ⊂ U whenever A⊂ U& U is open holds good to turn A to be δg-closed. Remark (2.1): The converse of the above statements are not always true. Moreover, δg-closed sets and closed sets are independent as illustrated in the following examples: Example (2.1):

Let X = {a,b,c,d,e}, T = {φ,X, {c},{d,e},{a,b,c},{c,d,e}}. c & T = {φ, X, {a,b},{d,e},{a,b,c},{a,b,d,e}}. Then

T   {φ, X, {c},{ a,c},{b,c},{ d,e},{ a,b,c},{ c,d,e} ,{b,c,d,e},{a,c,d,e}. rC(X) = {φ, X,{d,e},{a,b,c,}} = δC(X) = δαC(X). αC(X) = {φ, X, {a},{b},{a,b},{d,e},{a,b,c},{a,d,e},{b,d,e},{a,b,d,e}}. r  C(X) = {φ,X,{d},{e},{a,b},{d,e},{a,b,c},{a,b,d},{a.b,e},{a,b,c,d},{a,b,c,e}, {b,c,d,e},{a,b,d,e}}.

δgC(X) = {φ, X , {a},{b},{d},{e},{a,b},{a,c},{a,d},{a,e},{d,e},{b,c},{b,d},{b,e},{a,b,c}, {a,b,d},{a,b,e},{b,c,d},{b,c,e},{a,d,e},{a,c,d},{a,c,e},{b,d,e},{a,b,c,d},{a,b,c,e},{ b,c,d,e},{a,c,d,e},{a,b,d,e}} = ℘(X) / {{c},{c,d},{c,e},{c,d,e}}. αgC(X) = ℘(X) / {{c},{c,d},{c,e},{c,d,e}}. gαC(X) = {φ, X, {a},{b},{d},{e},{a,b},{a,d},{a,e},{b,d},{b,e},{d,e},{a,b,c},{a,b,d},{a,b,e},

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{a,d,e},{b,d,e}, {a,b,c,d},{a,b,c,e},{a,b,d,e}}. gpC (X) = ℘(X) / {{c},{c,d},{c,e},{c,d,e}} = gC(X). (a) A = {d} or {a,b} or {a,b,e} etc. is r  -closed but it is not δ-closed.

(b) A = {a} or {b,c} or {b,d,e} is δg-closed but it is not r  –closed. (c) A = {a,c} or {b,c} is gp-closed but it is not gα-closed.

(d) A = {e} or {a,b,d} is r  –closed but it is not closed as well as rα- closed.

(e) It has been mentioned in example (3.3) [8] that there exists a closed set which is not δg-closed. (f) Every regular closed set is r  - closed. Proposition (2.2): for a subset of a space, the following implications hold good:

(i) Every δg- closed set is αg-closed. (ii) Every δg- closed set is g-closed as well as gp-closed. (iii) Every gα- closed set is gp-closed. As a consequence, of the above two propositions (2.1) & (2.2) the following diagram is in existence.

[This diagram as the combination of a part of that in [11] & the present coined definition (1.6) ,proposition (2.1) & (2.2)]. Proposition (2.3):

(i) If P & Q are r  - closed then P ∪ Q is also r  - closed.

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(ii) The union of countable r  - closed sets is not necessarily r  - closed. Proof: (i) Suppose that P and Q are r  - closed. Then cl(P) U whenever P U & U is -open δ ⊂ 1 ⊂ 1 1 α And cl(Q) U whenever Q U & U is -open. δ ⊂ 2 ⊂ 2 2 α This means that cl(P) cl(Q) U & P Q U, where U = U U . δ ∪ δ ⊂ ∪ ⊂ 1 ∪ 2 i.e. δcl(P∪Q) ⊂U & P∪Q ⊂U & U is α –open. Therefore, P ∪ Q is r  - closed. (ii) Suppose that (R,U) is the usual topological space. Since R, the set of real numbers, is regular, every singleton is δ-closed and hence r  - closed. 1 Let A =  , where N is the set of all natural numbers. Nn n There exists an α-open set (0,1+ ), for every small +ve number such that A = (0,1]⊂ (0,1+ ). But δcl(A) = [0,1] ⊄ (0, 1+ ) . This means that A is not r   - closed.

Theorem (2.1): (a) The intersection of a r  - closed and a δ- closed set is a r  - closed.

(b) If a set is α-open and r  - closed, then it is a regular closed. Proof: Let (X,T) be a topological space.

(a) Let U be an α -open set such that A∩ B⊂ U, where A is r  - closed c set and B is a δ-closed set. Then U ∪ B is an α -open set containing A.

Since, A is r  - closed, we have δcl(A∩B) ⊂ δcl(A) ∩ δcl(B). c i.e. δcl(A∩B) ⊂ δcl(A) ∩ B ⊂ [U ∪ B ] ∩ B = U∩ B ⊂ U. Hence, A∩B is r  - closed.

(b) Let A be α-open and also r  - closed. Then δcl(A) ⊂ A but A ⊂δcl(A). So A = δcl(A). This means that A is δ-closed and in turn closed. Since, A is α-open, A ⊂ int (cl (int (A)).

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⊂ cl(int (A)). Also, int A ⊂ A ⇒ cl(int (A)) ⊂ cl(A) = A, as A is closed. Therefore, A = cl(int(A)). i.e. A is regular closed.

Theorem (2.2): If a r  - closed set A in a space (X,T) is closed then cl(A) – A is closed.

Proof: Suppose that A is a r  - closed set in space (X,T) . Let F be a closed set such that F⊃ cl(A) –A.

c c c Then F ⊂ A ⟹ A ⊂ F . The set A is r  - closed and F is open. Since c c every open-set is α-open , F is also α-open. Therefore rcl(A) ⊂ F . Next, since every regular closed set is closed, cl(A) ⊂ rcl(A). Therefore c c c cl(A) ⊂ rcl(A) ⊂ F and consequently, cl(A) ⊂ F , That is, F ⊂ (cl(A)) . This means that

c F ⊂ (cl(A)) ∩ cl(A) = φ which establishes that cl(A) – A = φ which is closed. Remark (2.2): The converse of this theorem need not be true as illustrated by the following example.

c Example (2.2): Let X = {a,b,c}, T = {φ , X,{a},{a,b},{a,c}}. Then T = {φ,{b},{c},{b,c}},

c rC(X) = {φ, X} & αC(X) = T , αO(X) = T , r  C (X) = {φ,X}. Thus, A = {b} or {c} is closed but not r  - closed in (X,T). §3. r  - open sets: We , first of all , characterize the r  - open set by the following theorem.

Theorem (3.1): : A subset A in (X,T) is r  - open iff F ⊂ rint(A) whenever F is α-closed and F ⊂ A. Proof: Necessity :

c Let A be a r  - open set and F ⊂ A where F is α-closed. Then A is r  c c c - closed set such that A ⊂ F & F is α-open. c c Hence, rcl(A ) ⊂ F c c i.e. (rint(A)) ⊂ F i.e. F ⊂ rint(A).

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Sufficiency :

c c c Let A ⊂ U and U is α – open. Then U is α-closed. By the hypothesis U ⊂ rint c (A) which provides that (rint (A)) ⊂ U. c i.e. rcl(A ) ⊂ U.

c Hence, A is r  - closed & A is rα-open . NOTE : We, now , coin an independent definition of regular   -open set as :

Definition (3.1): A subset A of a space (X,T) is said to be regular   - open (briefly r  - open) if for every α-closed set F ⊂ A, we have F ⊂ rint(A) . or

A subset A of a space (X,T) is said to be regular   - open (briefly r  - open) if F ⊂ rint(A) whenever F is α-closed and F ⊂ A. Theorem (3.2):

A set A is r  - closed in X iff rcl(A) – A is r  - open.

Proof: Necessity : Let A be a r  - closed set and F, an α-closed set such that F ⊂ rcl(A) -A. Since, rcl(A) – A = φ [ Theorem (3.2)(9)], hence, F = φ. Now, the criteria F⊂ rint (rcl(A) - A) whenever F is α-closed & F ⊂ (rcl(A) –A) is fulfilled so that rcl(A) –A is r  - open. Sufficiency :

c c Let A ⊂ U and U be an α –open set . Then rcl(A) ∩ U ⊂ rcl(A) ∩ A = rcl(A) – A.

c Since, rcl(A) ∩ A is α- closed & by hypothesis rcl(A) – A is rα-open , hence, by c Theorem (3.1), rcl(A) ∩ U ⊂ rint (rcl(A) - A) = φ. This means that rcl(A) ⊂ U and U is α-open containing A. So A is r  - closed. Hence, the theorem.

Theorem (3.3): Finite union of r  - open sets is r  - open.

Proof: Let be a finite family of r  - open sets in a A   ,...... 3,2,1: n  space (X,T). Then, there must exist a finite family { F = i = 1,2,3……..n} of - i α closed sets satisfying the criteria

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n n n i  i  )int( i     ArFArFArFAF  )int()int( i1 i1 1 n n ,where closed & also  AF . This establishes that FF i     i1 1 finite union of r  - open sets is r  - open . Corollary(3.1) : Finite intersection of r  - closed sets is r  - closed.

Proof: Let be a finite family of r  - open sets in a B   ,...... 3,2,1: n  space (X,T).

n c Then = A r  - open set.  B    1

C  n  i.e. B  = A r  - open set.  1 

n i.e. is a r  - closed set. B  1 i.e. the finite intersection of r  - closed sets is r  - closed.

Theorem (3.4): Arbitrary union of r  - closed sets is r  - closed.

Proof : Let be a family of r  - closed sets in (X,T). A   

Then whenever is a family of -open  UArcl  &UUA   α    1 sets.

Now, which is an α –open set and      UUArcl     1

 UA ,  

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This establishes that   and   & U is -open.     UArcl     UA α       Hence, Arbitrary union of r  - closed sets is r  - closed. Corollary(3.2) : Arbitrary intersection of r  - open sets is r  - open.

C   c  B  = B is r  -closed if C is a family of r  -closed sets       B            so that  B  is r  - open if is a family of r  -open sets . i.e.     B       Arbitrary intersection of r  - open sets is r  - open. Now, Theorems (3.3) & (3.4) with corollaries (3.1)& (3.2) enable us to define  r  - interior and r  –closure of a set as : Definition (3.2): For any set A in a space (X,T) , the r  - interior of A is defined as the union of all r  -open sets contained in A & is denoted by r  int (A).

Definition (3.3): For any set A in a space (X,T) , the r  - closure of A is defined as the intersection all r  -closed sets containing A & is denoted by r  cl (A). Proposition (3.1): If A & B are subsets of a space (X,T), then

(a) rint (A) ⊂ r  int (A)⊂ A

C C (b) [r  int (A)] = r  cl (A ).

C C (c) [r  cl (A)] = r  int(A ).

(d) A is r  -closed ⇔ A = r  cl (A) & A is r  -open ⇔ A = r  int(A)

(e) A ⊂B ⟹ r  int(A) ⊂ r  int(B)

(f) r  int(A∩B) = r  int(A) ∩ r  int(B)

(g) r  int(A) ∪ r  int(B) ⊂ r  int(A∪B)

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(h) r  cl(A) ∪ r  cl(B) = r  cl(A∪B) Proof: The proof is straightforward , so omitted.

4§Regular   -closed spaces ( briefly r  -closed spaces): We, now, discuss the r  -convergence of a filter base and its r  - accumulation point through which the concept of a r  -closed space will be analysised Let us frame the following definitions for the establishment of the purpose. Definition (4.1) :

A filter base = r  -converges to a point x X if for each a A }{  0∈ r  -open set V containing x , there exists an such that r   0 A  A ⊂  cl(V).

Definition (4.2): A filter base = has a r  -accumulation point A }{  x X if for each r  -open set V containing x and , r  cl 0∈  0 A  A ∩  (V) ≠φ. Definition (4.1) & (4.2) have been coined on the literature provided in [11].  Definition (4.3): r  -closed space: A topological space (X,T) is said to be r  -closed space if for every cover of X by r  -open sets of X there exists a finite subset of V :    0  such that    VclrX    0 .:)( Definition (4.4):

A subset K of a topological space (X,T) is said to be r  -closed relative to X if for any cover of K by r  -open sets , there exists a finite i :iU    subset of such that  0     i iUclrK  0 .:)(

Definition (4.5): A filter base = r  -converges to a point x X iff A }{  0∈ contains the collection   .     xXORUUclr 0 ),(:)(  Theorem (4.6):

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A subset K of a topological space (X,T) is said to be r  -closed relative to X iff every filter base on X such that A ∈ is r  -converges to a point in A. Proof: Necessity :

Suppose that A is r  -closed relative to X where (X,T) is a topological space . Let be a filter base on X such that A ∈ . If possible, let be not r  -convergent to any point p in A. This provides that for each A, there corresponds some  ∈    pXORU ),( such that  .  Uclr  )( 

Now, is a cover of A by r  -open sets of (X,T). This means that  :   AU   n    )( UUclrA (say) for some positive integer n . Since, is a filter  i i1 base , U ∉ and hence A ∉ , which is a contradiction . Consequently, is r   -convergent to a point in A. Sufficiency :

Suppose that A is not r  -closed relative to X where (X,T) is a topological space. This provides that for some cover of A by r  -open UU  :     sets of (X,T), the class given by =  which   UclrA  0  )(:)(\{   0 is a family of all finite subsets of } , is a filter base on X. Now, ,being a filter base, can be extended to a maximal filter on X . This 0 means that is a filter base on X with A 0 ∈ 0 Next, for each x A, there exists such that as U is a cover of ∈    Ux  A. It provides that for any G ,  so that ∈ 0   UclrAG  )}(\{    for all G . Hence, can not be r  -convergent to any   UclrG  )}({ ∈ 0 0  point in A which is a contradiction. Consequently A is r  -closed relative to (X,T). Hence, the theorem.

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Theorem (4.7): For a topological space (X,T) , the following statements are equivalent :

(a) (X,T) is a r  -closed space.

(b) Each maximum filter base = is r  -convergent. A }{ 

(c) Each filter base = is r  -accumulated to some A }{  point x0 of X.

(d) For every family of r  -closed sets such that  F }{ there exists a finite subfamily F , n  niF },.....3,2,1:{ such that   Fr  .)int( i  i i1 Proof: The following manner is the way to establish the equivalence.

(a) ⇒(b):

Let (X,T) be a r  - closed topological space and = , a  A  maximum filter base.

On the contrary, let do not rα-converge to a point of X. Then does not r   -accumulate to any point .

This provides that for every x∈ X, there exists a r  -open set V(x) containing x and an such that  A x)(   x)(   xVclrA  ,))(( clearly:)(  XxxV  is an r  -open cover for X and by hypothesis (X,T) is a r  -closed space so there exists a finite subfamily such that n     xVclrX i )).(( i1

n Since is a filter base , there exists an A such that  AA . 0 ∈ 0   xi )( i1 Hence,  This, in turn, provides that 0   i   nixVclrA .1,))((

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n  which contradicts the fact that 0    i ))}(({ 0  XAxVclrA  , i1

A0 .

Thus, = is r  -convergent. A }{  (b) ⇒ (c) : Let be a filter base on X and , a maximal filter base such that ℸ0 ⊂ 0

Given that is r  -convergent to some x X. It provides that 0  ∈ for every F and every V R  O(X), there exists F such ∈ ∈  0 ∈ 0 that F r  cl(V). 0 ⊂ 

Thus, we obtain r  cl(V) F F F  ∩ ⊃ 0 ∩ ≠ φ This establishes that r  -accumulates at x. (c) ⇒ (d): Suppose that every filter base on a topological space (X,T) r  -accumulates to some point of X.

Let be a family of r  -closed sets such that F }{     F  ,  

Suppose that for every finite subfamily  of  ,   Fr  .)}int({ Let 0  i   0  )( be the family of all finite subsets of Δ and =  Then is a filter base on X.   Fr  0  .)}(:)int({   0

By hypothesis, r  -accumulates to some point x of X. This provides that  0 for every r  -open set V(x ) containing x ,  0 0       xVclrFr 0   .,))(()int(

Since, there exists an such that . Hence, x is Fx    Fx 0 0 , 0 0 0 contained in the r  -open set C .Thus  F )(

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     FclrFr )()int( C 0 0       FrFr }int({)int( C  .) 0 0

This contradicts the fact that r  -accumulates to x of X.  0 (d) ⇒ (a)

Let be a family of r  -open covering of X , then C V }{   V ,)( By hypothesis, there exists a finite subfamily C iV  .,...... 3,2,1:){( n}.  i n n such that   C   clVrVr C  .)()(int  i  i i1 i1

n  Therefore,  )(  XVclr and consequently (X,T) is a r  -closed space.  i  i1 Hence, the theorem. Conclusion:

Regular   -open sets in topological spaces are coined & introduced as the complement of regular   -closed sets and the characterized to frame its own independent definition.

Furthermore, regular   -closed spaces are dealt with by means of filter bases.

Connectedness may be observed in terms of r  open/closed sets. Different types of continuity may evolve through these concepts.

The future scope of study is to obtain results in regular   -compactness & regular   -para compactness.

References

1. D.Andrijevic, : Some Properties of the topology of α-sets,Mat.Vesnik (36)(1984),1-10. 2. P.Bhattacharya and B.K. Lahiri , Semi-generalized closed sets in topology, Indian J. Math. , 29(3)(1987),375-382.

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3. Sharmistha Bhattacharya (Halder), On generalized regular closed sets, Int.J.Contemp. Math. Sci. 6(2011),145-152. 4. J.Dontchev&M.Ganster, On -generalized closed sets and T -  3/4 spaces, Mem.Fac.Sci.Kochi Univ. Ser A. Math, 17(1996),15-31. 5. M.H. Stone , Application of the theory of Boolean rings to general topology, Trans. Amer. Math . Soc.,41 (1937), 375-381. 6. Vidyottama kumari & Dr. Thakur C.K.Raman, Sequentially α- compact, countably α-compact &α-lindel of topological spaces, International Journal of Engineering & Science Research (IJESR),October 2013/ Vol-3/Issue-10/576-582. 7. N. Levine, Generalized closed sets in topology, Rend. Circ. Mat Palermo(2),19(1970), 89-96.

8. H. Maki, J. Umehara & T.Noiri, every topological space is pre-T1/2 space, Mem. Fac. Sci.Kochi. Univ.Ser.A.Math,17(1996),33-42. 9. H.Maki, R. Devi and K. Balachandran , Associated topologies of generalized α-closed sets and α-generalized closed sets, Mem. Fac. Sci. Kochi. Univ. ser. A. Math, 15(1994), 51-63. 10. N.Nagaveni and A.Narmadha, On regular b-closed sets in topological spaces, Heber International Conference on Applications of Mathematics & Statistics, HICAMS-2012,5-7Jan 2012,81-87. 11. A.Narmadha & N.Nagaveni & T. Noiri,On regular b-open sets in topological spaces, int. journal of math . Anaysis, vol. 7 ,2013, no . 19 , 937- 948. 12. N. Palanmiappan & K. Chandrasekhara Rao, Regular generalized closed sets, Kyungpook Math.J.33(1993),211-219.

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ORGANIZATION AND WORKING OF DISTRICT CO- PERATIVE CENTRAL BANKS IN ANDHRA PRADESH

Dr.B.Prabhakara Rao Post-Doctoral Fellow Department of Political Science and Pub.Admn S.V. University, Tirupati Andhra Pradesh, India

Rural development has been recognized as an important strategy for expediting the process of development in developing countries. Rapid rate of population growth, poor level of nutrition, failure of industry to absorb unemployed or underemployed, surplus population of the rural areas and the realization that a prior condition for any development is an accelerated development of the agricultural sector has contributed to this recognition.1 Because of the predominantly agricultural nature of the developing countries, the process of rural development is inextricably linked with the agricultural development. Therefore, in any programme of rural development in the developing countries, including India, agriculture tends to receive the most attention.2 In India, where nearly seventy per cent of its 840 million population lives in rural areas and where agriculturists and agricultural labourers constitute about seventy per cent of country’s working population, the importance of a strong agricultural base for the progress and economic development of the country need not be over-emphasised. As Mellor has observed, agriculture contributes to the growth of political and economic democracy, provides productive employment for a rapidly growing population, and make provision of an increasing quantity of food and fibre for a growing population with rising incomes” 3. It provides a tenable basis for industrial development and hastens the process of industrialization”4 Owing to its critical importance in the development strategy, the need for a strong agricultural base has been recognized as an important ingredient for the progress and development of the country. But the development of agriculture in India, as in other developing countries, depends upon many factors like agrarian reforms, availability of irrigation facilities, rural electrification, supply of fertilizers, seeds etc.5 Another crucial factor is provision of credit. In recent years, Indian agriculture has

www.ijmer.in 42 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 1(1), JANUARY 2015 witnessed a major technological break-through and a progressive commercialization. The implement- tation of Intensive Agriculture District Programme, Intensive Agriculture Area Programme and High Yielding Variety Programme and introduction of a new technology with prospects of higher rates of return on capital has thrown up an increasing demand for external finance.6 As a result, the provision of credit to farmers has become one of the most important preconditions for the progress and development of Indian agriculture. Agrarian reforms and provision of certain inputs are by no means enough to stimulate agricultural production. There is also need for the establishment of most complex system of institutional structures which influence and even determine the process of agricultural development.7 Co-operatives are among those institutional structures which offer a greater potential in contributing to India’s rural development. Co-operatives are a system which mobilizes and co- ordinates the economic activities of individual farmers and serve as a conduct for many scarce agricultural inputs such as seeds, fertilizer and credit. The co-operatives serve the individual needs of the farmers in initial stages and eventually it was “to become the basis for the management of land in rural India”, and a “model for the organization of rural economic life”.8

1.1. Meaning of Co-operation “Co-operation” is derived from the Latin word “Co-operative”. ‘Co’ means ‘with’ and ‘operate’ means ‘to work’.9 In other worked co- operation means working together with others for a common purpose. Co-operation as” a association of a number of persons for a common benefit especially in carrying on some branch of trade or industry, the profit being shared, as dividend among the members”.10 In other word, co-operation is a joint or collective action of people directed towards some specified goal in which there is common interest or hope of getting some reward. Such co-operation may be voluntary or involuntary, direct or indirect, formal or informal, but always there is a combination of efforts toward a specific end in which all the participants have a stake, real or imagined”.11 The term ‘Co-operation’ as generally understood today is a term which likes philosophy and religion defies exact definition and description. Almost every writer has tried to define this term in his

www.ijmer.in 43 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 1(1), JANUARY 2015 own way. No two definitions are identical and no single definition has so far succeeded in including within a single formula all the ingredients of Co-operative ideology. One important reason as to why the definition differs so widely from one country to another, is the difficulty in defining the term co-operation, due to the fact that in some countries the co-operatives are aided and controlled by the state, in some they are used as an instrument of State Planning, in some they are state slogans, and in others they are voluntary organizations. Because of this difficulty Dr.Laszlo Valke of the U.S.A. distinguishes between welfare co-operatives and economic co-operative societies.

1.2. Definitions of Co-operation It has so for not been possible to define co-operation precisely. Different definitions have been given by different authorities. Some of the opt-quoted definitions are as follows:- According to C.F. Strickland, “Every group of individuals, associated to secure a common end by joint effort, may be said to co- operate, for instance, a football team, a gang of robbers or the shareholders of a speculative company. A century of history has given co-operation with a capital C a more precise meaning; it indicates the association of individuals to secure common economic end by honest means; it is also essential in many forms of co-operation that the individuals possess a personal knowledge of one another.”12 Seligman define co-operation as, “Co-operation in its technical sense means the abandonment of competition in distribution and production and the elimination of the middlemen of all kinds.”13 Mr. Calvert defines it as “A form of organization wherein the persons voluntarily associate together as human beings on a basis of equality, for the promotion of economic interests of themselves.”14 The Maclagan Committee on co-operation defines co-operation in these words : “ The theory of co-operation is, very briefly, that an isolated and powerless man can, by association with others and by moral development and mutual support obtain, in his own degree, the material advantage available to wealthy or powerful persons, and thereby develop himself to the fullest extent of his natural abilities. By the union of forces material advancement is secured, and by united action self-reliance is fostered, and it is from the interaction of these

www.ijmer.in 44 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 1(1), JANUARY 2015 influences that it is hoped to attain the effective realization of the higher and more prosperous standard of life which has been characterized as “better business, better farming and better living.”15 Sir Horace Plunkett, the founder of the Irish co-operation, sums up the theory and practice of co-operation in three famous maxims: “Better business, better farming and better living.” 16 George Jacob Holyoake, the famous historian of English co- operation describes co-operation both positively and negatively in these words: “Co-operation touches no man’s fortune, seeks no plunder, causes no disturbance in society, gives no trouble to statesmen; it enters into no secret association; it needs no trade unions to protect its interest; it contemplates no violence and it subverts no order, it envies no dignity, it accepts no gift; asks no favor; it keeps no terms with the idle and it will break no faith with the industrious. It means self-help, self-dependence and such share of competence as labors shall earn or thought can win.” 17 One of the good definitions of co-operation is that given by M.T. Herrick, “Co-operation is the act of persons, voluntarily united, for utilizing reciprocally their own forces, resources or both under their mutual management to their common profit or loss.”18 According to the Co-operative Planning Committee (1946), “Co- operation is a form of organization in which persons voluntarily associate together on a basis of equality for the promotion of their economic interests. Those who come together have a common economic aim which they cannot achieve by individual isolated action because of the weakness of the economic position of a large majority of them. This element of individual weakness is overcome by the pooling of their resources, by making self-help effective through mutual aid, and by strengthening the bonds of moral solidarity between them.” 19 According to H. H. Bakkan and M. A. Sharrs: “Co-operation is a resultant system of economy. It is a synthesis combining the desirable qualities of the laisses faire economy and the planned economy. So far as it is possible, the undesirable features inherent in the two older systems are not transmitted to the new system of co-operation. Co- operation broadens the base of democracy extending it into the economic and social fields of endeavour for the benefit of all those who

www.ijmer.in 45 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 1(1), JANUARY 2015 possess the intelligence to control and direct human activities on a mutual basis.” 20 According to W.P.Watkins, “Co-operation is a third dimension giving substance to democratic rights. It is not simply a means of avoiding State Socialism or Communism in the revulsion from individualistic excess or monopoly. The positive element is mutual aid, by which certain principles are brought into fuller expression to meet the needs of world shaped by modern technology.” 21 According to Margaret Digby, “Co-operation has built a system of production, distribution, banking, insurance and sundry service which is directed solely to the benefit of the community and includes no element of individual profit. Within that system there is complete personal equality. It is a voluntary system giving scope to the group and the individual to do everything except to exploit their fellows. It leaves wide areas of free choice within a planned framework. The system has proved technically efficient and has beaten private enterprise on its own ground, without the intervention of political power. It is flexible and can interlock with economic life organized on other bases. It provides an unique education in democracy, responsibility and toleration.” 22 According to Mr. C.R.Fay, “ A co-operative society is an association for the purpose of joint trading, originating among the weak, and conducted always in an unselfish spirit, on such terms that all who are prepared to assume the duties of membership may share in its regards, in proportion to the degree in which they make use of their association.”23 Sir Horace Plunkett’s definition of co-operation is “self-help made effective by organization.” 24 He summed up theory and practice of co-operation in three famous maxims, “Better Farming, Better Business and Better Living.” This definition reflects the spirit of the co-operative enterprises. It however, lays over-emphasis on the principle of self-help, which is, no doubt, an important principle of co- operation but the only one. R. Philips has given the following definition of co-operation: “The co-operative association is an association of firms or households for business purposes-an economic institution through which economic activity is conducted in the pursuit of economic objectives.”25

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This definition has number of limitations. It regards co- operative enterprise as an association of either firms or households while co-operation is always regarded as association of people and not capital. This definition also assumes that economic motive is the sole inducement of co-operative undertaking. In other words it assumes that co-operator in his role as a member of an association function as an “economic man”. Another weakness of their definition is that it considers the co-operative undertaking as purely a firm or an economic undertaking as it does not pursue profit maximization for its own sake. This definition also does not give any idea of the basic principles for which co-operation stands. A pure economic concept of co-operation as envisaged by R. Phillips is unthinkable as our economic affairs have to be re-aligned in a manner consistent with morality and spiritual values. Professor P. H. Casselman has stated: “Co-operation is an economic system with a social content.” It may be mentioned that co- operation is not simply another way of doing business. The root of the co-operative idea is that there is a relation between business and ethics which is greater than the necessary commercial honesty of our present industrial system. It has an idealism which in the words of Dr. Smith. “in some cases is almost religious.” 26 Mr. Frank Robotka of the U.S.A defines co-operation “as an association of autonomous units (farm or other business units, or households) whose purpose is to conduct jointly some activity which is an integral part of the operations of the participating units, as a means of increasing incomes, reducing costs or otherwise enhancing the economic interests of the participating units.” 27 This definition is most defective as it can perfectly well apply to a capitalist cartel. It makes no reference to any of the co-operative principles. It has to be born in mind that the mere fact of uniting for the furtherance of one’s own interests is not a co-operative activity. If people unite purely with the intention of fostering their own interests as far as possible, come what may, they form a cartel but not a co- operative. Mr. H. Calvert defined co-operation “as a form of organization, wherein persons voluntarily associate together as human beings, on a basis of equality, for the promotion of the economic interests of themselves”.28 The essentials of this definition are that (1) a co-

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operative is a voluntary form of organization, (2) it is an association of human beings, (3) it is organized on the basis of equality, and (4) its objective is the economic interests of its members. Calvert’s definition is most widely quoted and is generally accepted as the best definition of co-operation but its main weakness is that it does not recognize co- operative organizations for the promotion of interests other than economic. Again, a co-operative society is not entirely formed for the promotion of the economic interest of its members only. It has a social philosophy of serving the interest of the community which is conspicuous by its absence in this definition. Paul Lambert who is a leading authority on co-operation and is the editor of the famous journal “Annals of Public and Co-operative Economy” in his renowned book “Studies in the Social Philosophy of Co-operation” has given the following definition of a co-operative undertaking. “A co-operative society is an enterprise formed and directed by an association of users, applying within itself the rules of democracy and directly intended to serve both its own members and the community as a whole.”29 The term “user” in this definition has been used in the broad sense – not as consumer. The essentials of this definition are that (1) a co-operative is an enterprise; (2) it is an association of users, (3) it applies the rules of democracy, and (4) it is intended to serve both (a) its own members, and (b) the community as a whole. Lambert’s definition has attracted considerable attention in the co-operative world. It has found favour with many commentators. It has been considered as “pertinent” by Mr. C. Vinney and has been explicitly approved by Mr. Rezsohazy. The greatest merit of this definition is that for the first time it has been made clear that a co- operative society is to serve not only the interests of its members but also serve the interests of the whole community. Mr. Lambert has stated, “A co-operative society does not aim only at furthering the interest of its members, but in so far as it may legitimately do so and only in so far as this is compatible with the general interest.” In this respect Lambert’s definition is certainly an improvement over Calvert’s definition. According to Talmaki : “Co-operation is an organization where a person voluntarily associates together with other on a basis of equality for the promotion of their economic interest by honest means.”30

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Dr. Louis P. F. Smith defines a co-operative as “an association belonging to economic units (whether of producers or consumers) controlled by them for service to themselves in which the risk of profit or loss is borne by a variable price of goods and services rather than the profit on capital.”31 A good definition of organized co-operation is found in the Report of the Inquiry on Co-operative Enterprise in Europe, published by the Government of the United States. It states, “A co-operative enterprise is one which belongs to the people who use its services, the control of which rests equally with all its members and the gains of which are distributed in proportion to the use they make of its services.” 32 According to Co-operative Independent Commission, “A co- operative society, in its economic aspects, is a voluntary organization set up by consumers or producers to serve their own needs.” 33 V.L. Mehts, the veteran co-operator of India has described co- operation as follows: “Co-operation is a vast movement which promotes voluntary associations of individuals having common needs who combine towards the achievement of common economic ends.” 34 E. M. Hough defines it as follows “In its broadest sense, co- operation “the most difficult and beautiful art in the world.”35 Two things are indispensable to any art-vision and technique. As in all arts, the effective expression of co-operations depends even more upon vision than upon technique, important as are the forms of organization and the operating methods. In some countries a co-operative society is defined by law as an organization which has as its object “the promotion of the economic interest of its members” or “the promotion of thrift, self-help and mutual aid among agriculturists and other persons with common economic needs, so as to bring about better living, better business and better methods of production.” 36 Sometimes a co-operative is defined as a body formed and working under the “Co-operative Act” of the country concerned. Under the Austrian Act, a co-operative society is an association with unlimited number of persons the object of which is the promotion

www.ijmer.in 49 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 1(1), JANUARY 2015 of industry of trades of their members by means of common action or credit.37 Under the Japanese Law of 1921, a co-operative society is an association having legal existence, formed by persons of modest means in order to promote and develop, according to the principles of mutuality, the exercise of their occupations and the improvement of their economic condition.38 Under the British Columbia Agricultural Association Act of 1911 : an association shall be deemed to have been organized on a co- operative basis if its constitution and bye-laws provide for securing to all producers who are its members a share in the profits of association in proportion to the value of the produce supplied by them after payment of a dividend upon the capital stock not exceeding a statutory maximum. 39 The German Law while placing emphasis on open membership and furtherance of the commercial interest of members by means of a common business undertaking, has defined it as an association of persons varying in number and grappling with the same economic difficulties and voluntarily associating on a basis of equal rights and obligation and endeavoring to solve these difficulties mainly by conducting at their own risk the undertaking to which they have transferred one or more of such of their economic functions as correspond to their economic needs, and by utilizing their undertaking in joint co-operation for their common material and moral benefits.40 The Indian Co-operative Societies Act of 1912 has not given any definition of co-operation. Section 4(c) considers a co-operative society as “a society which has its object the promotion of the economic interests of its members in accordance with co-operative principles.” 41 The Act, has, however, not precisely defined what is “co-operation”: “not has it attempted to define “economic interests” or “co-operative principle.” An attempt to define these terms precisely was avoided deliberately in the interest of elasticity and simplicity.

1.3 Co-operative Movement in the World The co-operative movement came into existence in the 19th century. Its origin took place in the period of the beginning and expansion of capitalist development in Europe. Thus it is also

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2) Sale for cash at average market prices; 3) Distribution of the profit among the members in the form of a rebate corresponding to the volume of purchases made by the individual member; 4) Accumulation of the co-operative capital through a gradual increase of the members’ shares at low interest; 5) The same right to vote, regardless of the number of acquired shares (every member has only one vote but can acquire several shares); 6) Use of a part of the profits of the co-operative for the purpose of educational work among the members. A total of 125,000 members of the consumers’ co-operatives were counted in Britain already in 1865. In 1913 their number was already nearly three million members, and in 1934 their number was already nearly three million members, and in 1934 nearly seven million members were organized in more than 1,000 co-operatives. The co-operative movement also spread quickly in other countries. In 1928 nearly three million members were organized in consumer co-operative societies in Germany. In France the figure was nearly two million. In Russia some two million members were united in consumer co-operative societies before the October Socialist Revolution. The co-operative movement spread in Finland, France, Switzerland, Poland and in all European countries. After the consumer co-operative societies co-operatives of craftsmen and peasants came into existence. These co-operatives saw their task in organizing the sale of the products of their members and buying raw materials and other means of production and consumer goods as favorably as possible. The agricultural co-operatives spread most widely. They developed especially as purchasing and marketing co-operatives, as special co-operatives (for example, dairy co-operative, viniculture co- operatives, distilling co-operatives) and as credit co-operatives. Finally the co-operative idea spread over the entire world along with social progress. In the socialist countries the role and significance of the co-operatives in the economy and society grew to the degree in which the construction of socialism advanced.

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In all liberated countries of Africa, Asia and also in Latin America great opportunities arose for the development of co-operatives. The following figures are to prove the development of the co- operative movement in the world. At the end of 1965 the International Co-operative Alliance united 551,000 co-operatives in 55 countries with more than 200 million members. Even at a conservative estimate another 100 million members of co-operatives can be added which at present are not yet members of the ICA. Consequently it can be stated in view of a world population of some 3,000 million people that today every tenth inhabitant of our globe is a member of a co-operative. Fig. 1.1-INDIA MAP

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1.4 Classification of Co-operative Societies 1. The Need for Classification:- A proper classification of co-operative societies is necessary for the following reasons:- Firstly, it facilitates the study of principles that govern the working of different kinds of societies; Secondly, it facilitates a comparative study of the progress made in regard to different sectors of the co-operative movement in different regions or countries; Thirdly, it enables one to understand the scope, the functions and limitations of different kinds of societies, as these factors assume more importance with the development of the co-operative movement in diverse directions; Lastly, a classification is necessary because the rights and liabilities of different types of societies are not the same under co- operative laws. Some types of societies are young and less developed than others and are accorded by the State special privileges and concessions to facilitate their growth and development. In the Bombay State, e.g., the multi-purpose societies, the purchase and sale societies, the co-operative farming and irrigation societies enjoy certain financial facilities at the hands of the State which promote their development in all possible ways. In order to secure their financial stability, the Co- operative Societies Act VII in Bombay requires that all resource and producer’s societies should set apart 25 per cent, of their net profits to their statutory reserve funds while in the case of societies other than those mentioned above it is sufficient if at least 10 per cent, of their net profits were so set apart. Similarly, in the case of a resource society on a basis of unlimited liability in which the members do not hold shares, no distribution of the balance of profits is made without the special or general section of the State Government after the prescribed payment is made under Section 39 of the Act, and in the case of a resource society on a basis of limited liability in the case of a resource society on a basis of limited liability where the members hold shares, no distribution of profits is allowed until a period of ten years has elapsed from the date of registration of such society. Again, under the provisions of Rule 24 of the Bombay Co-operative Societies Rules, consumer’s producer’s, housing or a farming society can pay a cumulative dividend out of the future profits of the next ten years, if

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they are unable to pay in any one year a dividend of 4 per cent, in respect of any year, while in the case of a general or society, no such cumulative dividend can be paid. Further, in the case of a society with a working capital of Rs.50,000 or more, if an officer or a member thereof fails without any reasonable excuse to give any notice, send any return or document, do or allow to be done anything which the society, officer or member is required to give, send, do or allow to be done of if a society or an officer or a member thereof willfully neglects or refuses to do any act or to furnish any information required for the purposes of the Act by the Registrar or other person duly authorized by him in writing or if a society or an officer or a member thereof willfully makes a false return or furnishes false information or if any person willfully or without any reasonable excuse disobeys any summons, requisition or lawful written order issued under the Act or does not furnish any information lawfully required from him by a person authorized under the Act, such willful act or omission of failure to do or omit anything mentioned above is considered as an offence and punished, while in the case of societies having a smaller working capital, no such negligence or negligent conduct is taken notice of and regarded as an offence. It would be worthwhile seeing how different principles govern different types of societies in regard to the same matter. Take for instance the question of admission to membership of a co-operative store. In the case of a co-operative consumer’s society it is not open to it under the provisions of Rule 45-A to refuse admission to membership without sufficient cause, any person who is duly qualified under its bye- laws. When such admission is refused, any person aggrieved by such refusal is permitted to appeal to the President of the Federal Society to which the said society is affiliated or if it is not affiliated to any federal society, to the President of the Bombay Provincial Co-operative Institute. The decision of the President of the Federal Society or the Chairman of the Bombay Provincial Co-operative Institute is regarded as final. In this case of principle of open membership-the Rockdale principle is applied and the society acts on the principle of “more the merrier,” as it is a trading society, and the society stands to gain with an increase in membership; whereas in the case of an agricultural credit society working on Refasten principles, the open door principle followed by the consumer’s co-operative societies has to be restricted in its application and membership has to be compact, a members have to evaluate each other’s credit, require into the objects of the loans and

www.ijmer.in 55 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 1(1), JANUARY 2015 keep a watch on the employment of funds. As the liability of the society is unlimited, the members are required to know each other and to have mutual watchfulness and supervision over each other’s dealings. Similarly, in the case of producer’s societies the principle of universality found in consumer’s co-operation must have to be modified in its application to bonafide producers only. In addition to the modification of the principle of universality, the producer’s co-operatives have found it necessary to follow principles of their own. The principle of cash trading so essential to the success of consumer’s co-operatives does not apply to a producer’s co-operative. Consignments of goods made by producers to the society are generally paid for not on delivery but only after the goods are sold; that is to say, the producer’s society trades only on an agency basis and not on a proprietary one, and there are sound reasons why producers co-operative should not pay cash on delivery. Thus the selective process of admission to membership in a primary agricultural credit society cannot be altogether abrogated even under the planner development of the co-operative movement which is being implemented in the Bombay State. The integrated system of co- operative finance followed in the State requires that all credit worthy borrowers be admitted to membership of a primary agricultural credit society, but whom for one reason or the other the managing committee of the autonomous society may be reluctant to admit to full-fledged membership. In such a case, the principle of selection to membership is compromised with by resorting to the device of nominal membership. Nominal members have limited responsibilities and limited privileges. They have no share in the profits or in the management of societies and the no subject to any liability in case of winding up of the association. On payment of a small admission fee they are admitted as nominal members and obtain credit and are governed by the provisions of the Bombay Co-operative Societies Act.VII of 1925. These instances point to the necessity and importance of having a proper classification of co-operative societies. 1.5 Co-operative Movement in India Cooperation has a fairly long history in India. In order to understand the present day cooperatives, it would be useful to know the history of the cooperative movement in the country. Since

www.ijmer.in 56 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 1(1), JANUARY 2015 cooperation in this country was initiated and directed by government it is essential to know the governmental machinery that has been built up to look after the cooperatives. In1892 the Government of Madras Presidency deputed one of their senior officers, Sir Fredrick Nicholson to study the theory and practice of co-operative structure in England and Germany, and to examine the feasibility and their introduction in the Indian situation. About the same time, H.Dupernex, an ICS Officer, experimented with village banks in the United Provinces. Similarly Sir Anthony Macdonnel did a pioneer work by establishing two hundred co-operative credit societies in 1901 in the United Provinces. Nicholson in his exhaustive Reports (1897 and 1899) observed that we must find “Raiffeisen in India”.43 The intention of Raiffeisen was to collect together small bodies of men who lived in close proximity in each other and were fully cognizant of each other’s circumstances and character and enable these persons by pledging their unlimited liability. Further, Raiffeisen wanted that the credit was to be strictly supervised by on elected committee in each society and the administration of the society was to be entirely gratuitous. Cooperative movement was officially introduced in India in 1904, with the passing of the Cooperative Credit Societies Act. However, some form of cooperative system existed in India even before the passing of the Act.44 the joint family system – a form of cooperation – is the very key note of Hindu society. Exhortations are found in ancient scriptures like the Vedas about the necessity of united cooperative living and common worship and prayer. From the writings of Kautilya, it is clear that during the days of the Mauryan Empire, the village was regarded as a social cooperative unit. In the economic sphere there were autonomous guilds of workmen and industrial units where work was carried on in a cooperative manner and earnings divided either equally or as agreed upon.45 These guilds were organized with banking as a seminal feature of their activities. Again there was cooperation in farming. The agriculturists often pooled their resources of livestock or implements and helped one another in tilling their respective fields.46 Cooperation was practiced in the country in different form like the nidhis, chit funds, the hunda system, the phad system and the gonchi system.47 The impact of the British rule and the introduction of

www.ijmer.in 57 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 1(1), JANUARY 2015 a new system of law and administration undermined these indigenous systems of cooperation in the latter part of the 19th century. The usurous money-lenders took advantage of these changes and exploited the people which resulted in fraud and dishonesty in the monetary transactions between the farmers and the money-lenders. This kept the farmers in perpetual indebtedness to the money-lenders. The money-lender was looked upon as a villain in rural India and he was linked to some of the country’s greatest misery.48 Growth in population, spurts in the unregulated markets, and the introduction of a new land revenue system complicated the problems of the farmer. The impact of all these factors on village life was devastating : The old rural economy came to be shattered and the more obvious features of the situation presented themselves in the form of usury and land grabbing on the part of the money-lending classes, while the agricultural classes bowed to the abject state of affairs through sheer helplessness.49 The problems of the poor agricultural peasants got multiplied aggravated with the frequent failure of monsoons and occurrence of famines in the latter part of the 19th century. This led to murderous uprisings of the debtors against creditors.50 It also resulted in riots and rebellions, which, in turn, forced the sale of land on a large scale and the degeneration of the peasant- proprietors to the level of landless labourers. However, these riots and rebellions brought out the problem of rural indebtedness. To mitigate the sufferings of the agriculturists Deccan Agriculturists Relief Act was passed in 1879 on the recommendation of the Deccan Riots Commission to provide relief to the agriculturists in scaling down their debts. Subsequently in 1882 Sir William Wadderburn who was deputed by the Bombay Government to investigate the problem of rural indebtedness, in his report recommended the establishment of agricultural banks for advancing loans to agriculturists. His report was not accepted by Government. But to provide an alternative to the money-lender, however inadequate, the Land Improvement Loans Act of 1883 and Agriculturist’ Loans Act of 1884 were passed. These acts enabled the cultivator to obtain money at a low rate of interest for productive purposes. During the same period laws were also enacted to help the agriculturists from the onslaught of money-lenders. But these acts and laws did not prove beneficial to the agriculturists due to high rate of interest, rigidity of

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collection, onerous terms regarding periods of payment and conditions relating to securities required. As the above Acts and Laws did not relieve the burden of indebtedness of the agriculturists, the Government of Madras directed Sir Fedrick Nicholson in 1892 to study and report on the advisability of starting agricultural banks in that province. About the same time scattered attempts were made in different parts of northern India particularly in Punjab and United Provinces to start village banks. Mr. H. Dupernex, an I.C.S. officer, after much thought and study, experimented with village banks in the United Provinces. Similarly Sir Anthony Macdonnel did a pioneering work by establishing, in 1901, two hundred cooperative credit societies in the United Provinces. The Indian Famine Commission appointed after the two devastating famines which ravaged the country at the turn of the century also recommended in 1901 that, in order to prevent famines in the future, Agricultural Banks on the lines of Mutual Credit Associations of Europe should be started. However, Lord Curzon, the then Viceroy appointed a committee under the chairmanship of Sir Edward Law to examine the existing societies and various schemes and to suggest the lines on which legislation may be introduced. This committee which included both Nicholson and Dupernex drafted a bill and model rules which formed the basis of Cooperative Credit Societies Act X of 1904. The passing of the Act was the beginning of the cooperative movement in India and was hailed as a turning point in economic and social history.51 In course of time the Act passed in 1904 was found insufficient to meet the growing needs of the farmers and came in for a certain amount of criticism, especially at a series of conferences of Registrars of Cooperative Societies.52 To find remedy for the defects another legislation was enacted in 1912 after which the cooperative movement made rapid strides and entered into many new fields. Soon after the Government of India appointed a committee under the chairmanship of Sir Edward Maclagan53. To review the cooperative movement to make sure that the movement was developing on sound lines. The committee made far-reaching proposals for the future development of the movement and the report of the committee was considered a landmark in the history of the cooperative movement in India. But many of the recommendations of the committee were not accepted. As A.I. Qureshi

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has pointed out these very sound and valuable recommendations were honored more often in their neglect than in their execution.54 Under the Reforms Act of 1919 cooperation became a provincial subject and many provinces passed separate Acts and also appointed committees to review the cooperative movement in their provinces. At the same time Government of India also appointed Royal Commission on Agriculture (1927) and Central Banking Enquiry Committee (1929) “to suggest ways and means of reconstructing the movement, and consolidation, rectification and rehabilitation of the movement rather than expansion leading to an increase in official control.”55 However, the catastrophic economic crisis and the world wide depression of 1929 resulted in accumulation of over dues which adversely affected and paralysed the working of cooperative movement throughout the country. During this period the Reserve Bank of India was established with its Agriculture Credit Department to maintain an expert staff to study all aspects of agricultural credit, for consultation and to coordinate the operations of the Bank with agencies connected with agricultural credit.56 The second world war had a marked impact on the cooperative movement. The war period broadened the functional image of the cooperative movement and it brought about a shift from the credit aspect to the productive and distributive aspects. At the same time the Government of India was anxious that the movement which had developed in various directions during the Second World War should be fitted into the general plan for the economic development of the country after the war. So the government appointed two committees – first was the Agricultural Finance Sub-committee in 194457 and the other was the Cooperative Planning Committee (1945) which made important recommendations for the growth and strengthening of the cooperative movement. The importance of the cooperative movement in a planned development was recognized by the latter committee. It observed that the cooperative society has an important role to play as the most suitable medium for the democratization of economic planning.58 By making the plan popular, it will better create the atmosphere needed for its execution voluntarily. 59

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In independent India cooperation has been recognized as an essential strategy of development in the successive five year plans. It has been assigned a very important role in different branches of economic life, viz., credit, processing, marketing, consumers, etc.60 During this period the movement has come to be increasingly recognized as an effective tool in forging a new economic and social structure in the context of the socialistic pattern of organization which the country has set as its goal. The five year plans emphasized the need to encourage the cooperative form of organization on the basis of high priority in order not only “to avoid excessive centralization and bureaucratic control” likely to result from planning itself but also “to curb the acquisitive instincts of the individual producer or trader working for himself.”61 After independence the government has entered the co- operative institutions in a big was as a partner at different levels and is lending its strength to the cooperative movement without eroding the cooperative character.62 Credit and non-credit cooperatives have achieved considerable progress and have penetrated into different sectors of Indian economy. However, the cooperative movement has been uneven in its development in different regions as well as in different sectors of co-operative activity.63 During this period many committees viz., All India Rural Credit Survey Committee, 195364 (hereafter called The Survey Committee), Committee on Cooperative Credit, 1965,65 Committee on Cooperative Administration, 1963, 66 Committee on Cooperation, 1965, 67 All India Rural Credit Review Committee, 196968 (hereafter called the Review Committee) were appointed by the Government of India to review and recommend changes in policy and structure of the cooperative institutions. Several state governments also appointed committees on cooperation to suggest changes in cooperative organization and procedures. On the basis of the recommendations made by these committees efforts are being made to streamline the cooperative administration. Reference: 1. Raanan Weitz, ed., Rural Development in a Changing World (Combridge, Massachusetts: The M I T Press, 1971 ), pp, 1-3. See also Robert

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Chambers, Managing Rural Development : Ideas and Experiences from East Africa (Uppasala : The Scandinavian Institute of Africa Study, 1074), pp. 12-13. 2. See Henry Maddick, Democracy, Decentralisation and Development (Bombay : Asia Publishing House, 1963 ), p.2. 3. John W.Mellor,et al., Developing Rural India: Plan and Practice (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1068 ), pp.7-23 4. Joseph Klatzmann, “Agriculture and Industry in Developing Countries”, in Raanan Weitz, ed., op.cit.,pp.115-118. 5. This is not, however, to ignore the importance of certain social and cultural factors which play an equally important role. For a detailed discussion of these factors see, Joseph W.Elder, “Cultural and Social Factors in Agricultural Development”, in Norman T.Uphoff and Warren F.IIchman ed., The Political Economy of Development (Berkely: University of California Press, 1972), pp.46-55. 6. National Council of Applied Economic Research, Credit Requirements For Agriculture (New Delhi : 1974), p.1. 7. Raanan Weitz, op.cit.,p.9. 8. Norman K. Nicholson, Panchayati Raj, Rural Development and the Political Economy of Village India ( Ithaca : Center for International Studies, Cornell University, 1973 ), p.1. 9. Memoria, C.B., Rural Credit and Agricultural Co-operation in India. Part 1, 1983, p.1. 10. Webster Universal Dictionary, p.308. 11. International Encyclopaedia of Social-Sciences, Vol.3, 1972, p.384. 12. C.F.Strickland, Co-operation in India,p.15 13. Seligman, Principles of Economics,p.15. 14. Calvert, Law and Practice of Co-operation. 15. Maclagan Committee Report on Co-operation in India, p.2. 16. Sir Horace Plunkett refers to “Russia with its half communistic mir”, Ireland in the New Century, Dublin, 1901. 17. Holyoake, History of Rochdale pioneers, p.161. 18. M.T.Herrick, Rural Credit. 19. Government of India, Report of the co-operative planning committee, New Delhi, 1946. 20. H.H. Bakkan and M.A. Sharrrs, Economics of co-operative marketing. 1937. 21. W.P. Watkins, Co-operative principles in the modern world. (England: Co- operative Union Ltd., Stanford Hall, 1967). 22. M. Digby: co-operatives and land use, FAO Agricultural Development paper No. 61, Rome 1957. 23. C.R. Fay, Co-operation at Home and Abroad, Vol, 1

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24. Sir Horace Plunkett refers to “Russia with its half communistic mir”, Ireland in the New Century, Dublin, 1901. 25. Phillips, Economic Nature of Co-operative Association., p.74, quated by Yehuda Don: Year Book of Agricultural Co-operation. 1960. 26. Casselman P.H. the co-operative movement and some of its problems. 27. Rural progress through co-operation. United Nations. 28. H. Calvert, the law and Principles of Co-operation (1921)p.11. 29. Lambert, The Social Philosophy of Co-operation (1963). 30. S.S. Talmaki, Co-operation at Home and Abroad, Vol. 1. 31. Louis P.F. Smith, The Evolution of Agricultural Co-operation (1961), p, 206. 32. Report of the enquiry on co-operative enterprise in Europe. 33. Prof. J.J.Woreley, in his book, A social philosophy of co-operation. 34. Towards, Economic Democracy – Aryan Path Issue for Aug – 1948. 35. E.M. Hough, The co-operative movement in India, London; Oxford University Press, Fly house, 1966. 36. R.B. Tyagi recent trends in Co-operative movements. 37. Legal definitions are Quated from R.B. Tyagi’s Book : Recent Trends in the Co-operative Movement in India. Pp.4-5. 38. Legal definitions are Quated from R.B. Tyagi’s Book : Recent Trends in the Co-operative Movement in India. Pp.4-5. 39. Legal definitions are Quated from R.B. Tyagi’s Book : Recent Trends in the Co-operative Movement in India. Pp.4-5. 40. R.B. Tyagi Recent trends in Co-operative movement, p,.5. 41. The co-operative societies Act (Act IV of 1912). 42. Manual for Co-operative officials, “the organization and Management of Co-operative societies”, very band Dent Scher Consumgenossensch after, Bellin, 1967., p.11. 43. Pawan, K. Kamra., Op. cit., PP.23-24. 44. See Government of India, Ministry of Community Development Panchayati Raj and Co-operation, Sahakari Samaj : A Symposium on the Cooperative Movement in India (Delhi: Publications Division, 1962), Chapter.2 45. Ibid., Chapter. 1 46. M. Karamullah Knan, Co-operation and Rural Reconstruction in India., (Hyderabad: 1936), p.84, 47. Sahakari Samaj, ;.4-5. 48. John.W. Mellor, OP. cit, p.60. 49. C.R. Kulkarni, Theory and Practice of Cooperation in India and Abroad, Vol. III Bombay : Cooperator’s Book Depot, 1958), p,3.

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RISE OF BIG DATA: AN OVERVIEW

Majid Ramzan Nawab Ahmad IT Trainer IT Trainer IT-Sills Department IT-Sills Department PY-King Saud University PY-King Saud University Riyadh, Saudi Arabia Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

I. Introduction With the development of IT technology and Internet tremendous amount of digital data is produced every day. This lot of digital data is called Big Data. Big Data is the latest buzz word in information technology. Noam Chomsky [1] presented that big data is a step forward. Big data analysis is used to extract the value from huge data that is beyond the processing capabilities of existing databases. The big data is generated from different areas like social media, health care, manufacturing, education etc. These data are stored in databases and their sizes grow massively and become difficult to manage that is store, process, update, retrieve and delete.

1.5 Exabyte’s of data were generated until 1999.In 2004 the total data generated was 4 Exabyte’s and in 2008 it was 1 Zettebytes. In 2012 the total digital data was expanded to 2.72 Zettebytes. It is forecasted to double every two years, reaching about 8 Zettebytes of data by 2015. [3] There have been 6 billion mobile users in the world and every day 10 billion text messages are sent. By the year 2020, 50 billion devices will be connected to networks of internet [4]. With the advent of Twitter, Facebook, Whtapp, LinkedIn, MySpace and other social media tools data are accumulating at exponentially increasing rates.1 billion Tweets every 72 hours from more than 140 million active users on Twitter[5]. Facebook has 955 million monthly active users using 70 languages, 140 billion photos uploaded, 125 billion friend

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connections every day 30 billion pieces of content and 2.7 billion likes and comments have been posted.[4] Every minute 100 hours of video are uploaded and every day 4 billion views performed on YouTube [5]. These data can be used to create value. For example Big Data can unlock significant value by making information transparent and usable at much higher frequency. It can be used to improve decision making in organizations and can be used to improve the development of next generation products.

II. Big Data Characteristics

Big data means lot of data. These data are generated from social networking applications, videos, emails, online transitions, images, audios, images, health records, mobile phones etc.[6] They are stored in different databases and it is difficult to capture and analyze with the help of database software tools. The three main characteristics of Big data are Volume, Variety, Velocity—3Vs.

Variety stands for different types of data. Data comes from different sources and has three types: structured, semi structured, and unstructured. Structured data is stored in well-defined schema e.g. data stored in relational databases. Semi structured data does not conform to fixed fields but contains tags to separate data e.g. XML. Unstructured data does not have predefined data model and is not organized in predefined manner. [6]Volume stands for size of data. It is larger than terabytes and petabytes.

Velocity means the pace with which the data flows into databases from various sources like business processes, machines, networks and human interaction with things like social media sites, mobile devices, etc. The flow of data is massive and continuous. This real-time data can help researchers and businesses make valuable decisions that provide strategic competitive advantages. [7] Big data handles large amount of data and utilizes various data types in the form of unstructured data.

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These features differentiate big data from data mining. Relational Database management system uses SQL and emphasis on the ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability). This concept is used in handling data in data mining. As Big Data handles different types of data emphasize is given BASE (Basic Availability, Soft-state, Eventual consistent).[8] Big Data also uses NoSQL database to store data, there is no need to predefine schema. Frameworks like MapReduce, Hadoop are used to store and process large scale of data.

Figure 3: Rise of Big Data

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III. CURRENT TRENDS AND APPLICATIONS

A. Data Mining for Election Campaign Big data to target voters is new, of course. Before television, direct marketing and analytics software, campaign workers in local surroundings knew plenty about their neighbors, and used that information to make personal appeals. Later, candidate is mashed up public records with consumer marketing data to develop advertising and fundraising appeals. Now, there's more data, it's centrally managed and may include people's social connections. Meanwhile, independent advocacy groups that support candidates for specific issues, but which aren’t related to official campaigns or parties, also collect data from the same types of sources to target voters.

The Obama 2012 campaign used data analytics and the experimental method to assemble a winning coalition vote by vote. In doing so, it

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The National elections of India that were held in 2014, social media and big data play an important role in connecting with voters.‖ The era of big data in Indian politics has arrived‖ said J Ramachandra, CEO of Gramener. Data analysis helped political parties to raise funds, rework advertisements and create detailed models for voter engagement.

B. Big Data for Social Media

Applying big data analytic methods to social media is relatively new compared to other areas of study related to social network analytics when you consider the work in social network analysis that dates back to the 1930s [26]. However, applications that apply data mining techniques developed by industry are already being used commercially. For example Facebook, twitter, Gmail provides services to mi ne and monitor social media to provide organizations information about users. Researchers in other organizations have applied text mining algorithms to blogs to develop approaches for better understanding how information moves through the blogosphere [19].Big Data analysis techniques can be applied to social media to understand data better and to make use of data for research and business purposes. Representative areas include community or group detection [14, 24, 27], information diffusion [19], influence propagation [17, 12, 28, 25], topic detection and monitoring [19, 22], individual behavior analysis [15, 20, 21], group behavior analysis [23, 13], and of course, marketing research for businesses [10]. In the first half of 2013, Twitter made $32 million by selling its data namely tweets to other companies, a 53% increase from the year before. Because of its real-time nature, Twitter is the primary contributor to

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data mining, though other social networks are frequently used in professional analysis. [6]

C. Big Data for Surveillance

It is a rising discipline, deals with developing methods for monitoring of a person or group's actions by organization. The data collected used for marketing purposes are sold to other organizations, but is also regularly shared with government agencies. It can be used as a form of business intelligence, which enables the organization to better improve their products and services to be eye-catching by their customers. The data can be sold to other organizations, so that they can use it for the decision making. It can also be used for direct marketing purposes, such as the advertisements on Google where ads are targeted to the user of the search engine by analyzing their search history and emails which is kept in a database. For example, Google, the world’s popular search engine, stores identifying information for each web search. An URL address and the search phrase used are stored in a database for up to 18 months. Google also scans the content of emails of users of its Gmail webmail service, in order to create targeted advertising based on what people are talking about in their personal email correspondences.[9]. Most of the companies monitor e-mail traffic of their workers, and 70% of corporations monitor Internet connections. The United States government often gains access to these databases. The FBI, Department of Homeland Security, and other intelligence agencies have formed an information-sharing partnership with over 34,000 corporations as part of their Infrared program. The U.S. Federal government has gathered information from grocery store "discount card" programs, which track customers' shopping patterns and store them in databases, in order to look for "extremists" by analyzing shoppers' buying patterns [9].

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IV. CONCLUSION

In this paper we briefly reviewed the rise and various big data trends from its beginning. This review would be helpful to researchers to focus on the various issues of big data. In future course, we will review the various big-data techniques web mining techniques for customer reliability and quantum computing techniques for management of big data.

References

1. The Economist, Nov 2011, "Drowning in numbers – Digital data will flood the planet and help us understand it better", http://www.economist.com /blogs/ dailychart/2011/11/big-data-0 2. Lohr S., Feb 11, 2012, "The Age of Big Data", New York Times, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/12/sunday-review/big-datasimpact- in-the- world.html The Economist, Nov 2011, "Drowning in numbers http://www.economist.com/blogs/dailychart/2011/11/big-data-0 3. B.Brown, M. Chui and J Manyika,‖Are you ready for the era of big data’? ― McKinsey Quarterly,Mckinsey Global Institute.October 2011. 4. C. Eaton, D. Deroos, T. Deutsch, G. Lapis and P.C Zikopoulos, Understanding Big Data Analytics for Enterprise Class Hadoop and Streaming Data, Mc Graw-Hill Companies 978-0-07-179053-6,2012 5. The Rise of big data brings tremendous possibilities and frightening perils. The Washington Post/2014/04/18. 6. http://inside-bigdata.com/2013/09/12/beyond-volume-variety-velocityissue-big- data-veracity/ 7. www.natlawreview.com/article/twitter-s-data-mining-profits-showlesser- known-social-media-risk 8. R. Gupta, H. Gupta and M. Mohania, "Cloud Computing and Data Analytics: What Is New from Databases Perspective?," in Big Data Analytics, Anonymous: Springer, 2012, pp. 42 -61.,2012. 9. http://www.carefusion.com/medical-products/infection prevention/surveillance- analytics/medmined-data-mining-surveillanceservice.aspx 10. N. Agarwal and H. Liu. Modeling and Data Mining in Blogosphere, volume1 of Synthesis Lectures on Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery. Morgan and Claypool, 2009. 11. http://www.sqldatamining.com/index.php/data-mining-basics/history-of-data-m ining 12. N. Agarwal, H. Liu, S. Subramanya, J. Salerno, and P. Yu. Connecting sparsely distributed similar bloggers. pages 11 –20, Dec. 2009. 13. P. K. Akshay Java and T. Oates. Modeling the spread of influence on the blogosphere. Technical Report UMBC TR-CS-06-03, University of Maryland Baltimore County, 1000 Hilltop Circle Baltimore, MD, USA March 2006.

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14. E.-A. Baatarjav, S. Phithakkitnukoon, and R. Dantu. Group recommendation system for facebook. pages 211–219, 2010. 15. L. Backstrom, C. Dwork, and J. Kleinberg. Wherefore art thou r3579x?: Anonymized social networks, hidden patterns, and structural steganography. In Proceedings of the 16th international conference on World WideWeb, pages 181–190, New York, NY, USA, 2007. ACM. 16. Y. Chi, S. Zhu, K. Hino, Y. Gong, and Y. Zhang. iolap: A framework for analyzing the internet, social networks, and other networked data. Multimedia,IEEE Transactions on, 11(3):372 –382, april 2009. 17. P. Domingos andM. Richardson. Mining the network value of customers. In Proceedings of the seventh ACM SIGKDD international conference on Knowledge discovery and data mining, pages 57–66, New York, NY,USA, 2001. ACM. 18. C. Faloutsos, J. Han, and P. S. Yu., editors. Link Mining: Models, Algorithms and Applications. 2010. 19. D. Gruhl, R. Guha, D. Liben-Nowell, and A. Tomkins. Information diffusion through blogspace. In Proceedings of the 13th International Conferenceon World Wide Web, pages 491–501, New York, NY, USA, 2004. ACM. 20. H. Lauw, J. C. Shafer, R. Agrawal, and A. Ntoulas. Homophily in the digital world: A livejournal case study. Internet Computing, IEEE, 14(2):15 –23, march-april 2010. 21. Z. Liu and L. Liu. Complex network property analysis of knowledge cooperation networks. pages 544 –547, may 2009. 22. J. Ritterman, M. Osborne, and E. Klein. Using prediction markets and twitter to predict swine u pandemic. In F. M. Carrero, J. M. Gomez, B. Monsalve, P. Puertas, and J. C. a. Cortizo, editors, Proceedings of the1st International Workshop on Mining Social Media, pages 9–17, 2009. 23. L. Tang and H. Liu. Toward collective behavior prediction via social dimension extraction. Intelligent Systems, IEEE, PP(99):1 –1, 2010. 24. L. Tang, H. Liu, J. Zhang, N. Agarwal, and J. J. Salerno. Topic taxonomy adaptation for group proling. ACM Trans. Knowl. Discov. Data, 1(4):1–28, January 2008. 25. B. Ulicny, M. Kokar, and C. Matheus. Metrics for monitoring a social political blogosphere: A malaysian case study. Internet Computing,IEEE, 14(2):34 –44, march-april 2010. 26. S. Wasserman and K. Faust. Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications. Cambridge University Press, 1994. 27. D. Zhou, I. Councill, H. Zha, and C. Giles. Discovering temporal communities from social network documents. In Seventh IEEE InternationalConference on Data Mining, pages 745 –750, Oct. 2007. 28. www.technologyreview.com/featuredstory/509026/how-obamas-team-used-big- data-to-rally-voters

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WORK –FAMILY ROLE CONFLICT IN WORKING WOMEN: A SOCIOLOGICAL STUDY

Mallikarjun Holeppa Dr. Jaikishan Thakur Department of Studies & Associate Professor & Research in Sociology Research Guide Gulbarga University Govt First Grade College Gulbarga, Karnataka Mahgoan Cross Gulbarga Dist, Karnataka

Introduction

Looking back over the last five decades, it is impossible not to be impressed by the enormous change that has occurred in the status of women in India. Before 1950, few women participated in work outside the home. Most of the women were uneducated, and among the educated, majority did not engage in work outside home, and those who did, were mostly concentrated in nursing, elementary school teaching and other traditional female occupations. Few women held positions of responsibility in the workplace. A handful of women were in the professions, and, still fewer were in positions of power and authority.

As a result, the modern Indian woman redefines her limits and emerges to claim traditional male space as her own, juggling multiple roles to excel at a level that would have been perceived as impossible a generation ago. It is no secret that women are storming traditional male fields in India. Even those occupations that had a male monopoly - defense services, merchant navy, administrative or police services - for example, are professions for women now. Yet, to these women, it is never an issue of fighting a battle, or trying to encroach into the men’s world, but rather, they are just doing what they are good at and thus are trying to prove themselves.

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Thus, with women having demolished almost all male monopolies, gender barriers at work place are fast becoming a feature of the past. In fact, an increasing number of women are proving that Indeed, the new millennium has heralded the era of women who occupy important positions in every field. More and more girls are getting into the professional colleges and are proving themselves as excellent students and later as excellent professionals. The last few decades have seen an increase in the levels of education, confidence and most importantly, ambition in women, who are striving to claim their rightful place in society. The professional women are no exception and they have set very high standards for themselves. They have changed the ways they used to look at themselves and that has changed the way the world looks at them Besides, employers expect employees to invest themselves fully in their professions. Hence long hours of work, travel, after-office hour’s socialisation, out-station training etc have become the norm of the day. In any profession, adjustment to this is easy for a man, because, this is what society expects of him. But, for a woman this is not what the society expects of her and so it will be difficult for her and sooner or later it will result in mental stress and conflict and will finally lead to “role- conflict”. The conceptual literature on stress suggests that workingwomen are prone to the same stressors experienced by working men along with certain unique stressors such as discrimination, stereotyping, social isolation, and work - home conflicts. Moreover, taking care of children and aging parents prove to be a source of stress for women who work outside the home. (Repetti et al, 1989). As a result they also have to bear the brunt of the career choice: lower pay, fewer opportunities for promotion and low or middle level jobs. Farmer et al (1971) pointed out that women faced unique challenges in the occupation arenas, because of their gender. Women were caught in a conflict between sex-role expectations and expectations of fulfilling one’s occupational potential. Due to this

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conflict woman often selected occupations that were more compatible with family roles. Wally Sylvia (1986) demonstrated the significance of patriarchal relations in employment for the explanation of the position of women in contemporary society. The author challenged the conventional division of labour and according to him; a social division of labour could not be understood without an understanding of the gender division of labour. Zaretsky (1976) gives a similar idea. According to him, the separation of the family and the economy under capitalism was central to women’s oppression.

Studies on Role-Conflict: the concept of strain or conflict among women’s life roles also has been delineated by scientific research. The focus of much of the work was on role conflict, which was conceptualized as an incompatibility between the demands of one life role with those of another (Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, & Rosenthal, 1964). Although occasionally, studies attempted to assess conflict between multiple specific roles, such as marital, parental, housekeeping, and outside employment (Ayree, 1992), the great majority of studies focused on conflict arising from the individual’s attempts to meet both, family life and employment obligations. Kossek and Ozeki (1998) reported that conflict between work and family roles was a stronger predictor of life satisfaction for women than men. Ismail and Ahmad (1999) remarked that women’s employment inevitably pose challenges to women themselves, the household and the society. To them, the challenges are in terms of the interface of work and family roles, women as individuals in male dominated organisations, striving to achieve their economic potential as well as gender equality. Parasuraman et al. (1996), Family orientation is an attitudinal factor that may lead to work-family conflict. It is postulated that working women who have stronger identity with familial roles are likely to feel the incompatibility between work and family life. Frone et al (1992) documented that employees with significant dependent care

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responsibilities like, employees with dependent children or dependent elders and employees with large families, tend to report higher levels of work-family conflict. Barnett and Baruch (1985) demonstrated that the quality of a woman’s work role was a significant predictor of her role overload, whereas mere occupancy of the work role was not. Since then, other researchers also have reported significant inverse relationships between women’s satisfaction with their work and various measures of role strain (Ayree 1992) or well-being (O’Driscoll et al.1992). Barnett and Baruch (1985) demonstrated that the quality of a woman’s work role was a significant predictor of her role overload, whereas mere occupancy of the work role was not. Since then, other researchers also have reported significant inverse relationships between women’s satisfaction with their work and various measures of role strain (Ayree 1992) and well-being (O’Driscoll et al.1992).

Statement of the Problem

The state of Karnataka is a mostly industrialized and urbanized, but, a relatively traditional one in terms of the structure and culture of family. As a family centered society the dilemma between career and family put pressure on women in Karnataka, specially areas like Yadgir district. At the level of reality, the present day woman is confronted with several significant questions. Firstly, to work towards her work and career goal. Secondly, to sort out and fulfill the expectations of her domestic roles as wife and mother, and, thirdly, to manage the problems arising out of meeting the obligations and requirements of these two separate spheres. The present study is titled ‘work-life balance of women professionals in Yadgir District, Karnataka State’. It attempts to analyse the problems encountered by married women professionals by virtue of combining family and career roles and to understand how they achieve equilibrium between family and profession. Women in different professions are studied in order to understand the common as well as the unique problems experienced,

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and the strategies adopted to balance family and professional roles by all women professionals.

METHODS:

An attempt is made in this section to explain the methods, tools and techniques that were chosen and employed for the study of women teachers. After proper scrutiny, the methods which suit best to the present study are employed. Keeping in view the nature and objectives of the present study and the type of respondents involved in the present study, interview methods has been preferred to other methods. As such the present study has employed interview schedule to collect the data.

The interview schedule was prepared keeping in view the objectives, the research questions and the hypotheses of the study, care was taken to see that, none of the objectives, were left out and irrelevant superfluous data were gathered from the respondents.

Profile of the respondents of the study area

This section provides an overview of the personal attributes of the respondents like, Age, Religion, Profession, Educational Qualification, and Monthly Income.

Table No 1. Age of respondents (No 150)

Age Frequency Percent 20-30 62 41.3 31-45 61 40.7 45 and above 27 18.0 Total 150 100.0 For the purpose of the present study professional women from the Various departments like education, KSRTC,Police Department and accounting from the taluqa of Yadgir District, Karnataka state. These Professions are selected to include women from status and prestige oriented occupations, with high socio-economic and

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educational background. The implicit assumption is that women working in these professions due to their high educational status are the best group to defy the traditional expectations, which the Indian women internalize and enact in their roles. The above table gives the age structure of the group understudy.

Table No 2. Religion of respondents (No 150)

Religion Frequency Percent Hindu 116 77.3 Muslim 26 17.6 Christian 8 5.3 Jain 00 00 Total 300 100 The data reveal that Hindus constitute the majority (77.3percent) of the sample. Christians constitute 5.3 percent and Muslims, 17.6 percent of the sample. The data shows that the Hindu and Christian sections of the sample are representative of the population, while the Muslim and Christian section is highly under represented. The low representation of Muslims and Christians among the respondents is essentially due to the much lower participation of Muslims and Christians women in economic activities in comparison with their Hindu counterparts. This could be due to the conservatism of the Muslim community in general and the consequent non- encouragement of education and employment of girls, in particular. Menon (1981) stated that Muslims consider women’s education as unnecessary and hence they are dissuaded from availing of the educational opportunities.

Table No 3. Caste of the respondents (No 150) Caste Frequency Percent SC/ST 37 24.6 OBC 73 48.7 Others 40 26.7 Total 300 100.0

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For all the purpose of sociological inquiry in Indian Society and particularly when studying about political attitudes and behaviour, the caste taken as an important variable. In the present study caste is studied for its implications for political behaviour, attitudes and so forth.

Data on caste wise distribution of the respondents indicate that, the proportion of the respondents coming from SC/ST caste group is about 37 (24.6) percent. Nearly 40 (26.7) percent of the respondents come from other caste group and about 73 (48.7) percent of the respondents come from OBC caste group. It is significant to note that the proportion of respondents coming from high caste group is less compared to the other two low and intermediate categories. It could be analysed here that, caste wise speaking, the proportion of women doing jobs is high among low and intermediate caste group.

Education status of the respondents (No 150)

Education Frequency Percent Low 11 7.2 Moderate 42 28.1 High 97 64.7 150 100.0 The data shows that among the respondents, 64.7 percent are high education status, 28.1 percent moderate education status and 7.2 percent are low education status.

Employment organization of respondents

Organization Frequency Percent Education dept 85 56.7 Police/KSRTC 13 8.7 Revenue /other 52 34.6 150 100.0

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Economic status of respondents

Income Frequency Percent Low up to 100000 38 25.3 100000 to 300000 86 57.4 Above 300000 26 17.3 Total 150 100.0 The data shows that 57.4 percent respondents receive a annual income of less than 1,00000/- per annum, 25.3 percent of the respondents were having a annual income between 1,00000/- 3,00000/- where as 17.3 percent of the respondents receive above 3,00000/- annual income. The annual income of the respondents is seen to be related to the years of service, the lover the annual income to be related type of organization and number of years of service. From the level of education, occupation and annual income it can be concluded that the respondents belong to the upper –middle socio economic status.

Distribution of respondents according to the type of family

Type of marriage Frequency Percent Joint 65 43.3 Nuclear 85 56.7 Total 150 100.0 The data shows that 56.7 percent of the respondents belong to Nuclear families, which is the most common type of family in modern society. 43.3 percent of the respondents belong to extended families and are members of joint families. Since majority of the respondents belong to nuclear families, it may be assumed that the support net work, to lend a helping hand in times of need, is absent for the majority of the respondents.

Social origin of respondents Education of mother Frequency Percent Low 87 58.0 High 63 42.0 Total 150 100.0

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The analysis of composite variables like caste, education, income data shows that 58.0 percent of the respondents belong to low social origin, while 42.0 percent of the respondents belong to high social origin. Since majority of the respondents belong to low social origin, it may be assumed that the nature of the work and places has greater influence on role conflict of the respondents.

Role of conflict in the family

Working women House wife Opinion Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Fully agree 12 08.0 08 05.4 Somewhat 57 10 agree 38.0 06.8 Don’t agree 42 28.0 80 53.4 Can’t say 39 26.0 52 34.4 Total 150 100.0 150 100.0 “Work-family conflict is most commonly defined as a form of inter role conflict in which the role pressures from the work and family domains are mutually incompatible in some respect“(Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985:77) Work-Family conflict occurs when participation in the work role and the family role is incompatible in some respect. As a result, participation in one role is made more difficult by virtue of participation in the other role. Work – family conflict is bi – directional. That is, work can get in the way of family and it can be explained as work – to – family conflict and family can interfere with work and it can be referred to as family – to – work conflict. Besides, most of the research on work – family conflict has been based on the premise that multiple roles inevitably create role – conflict (Frone et al. 1992).

In the present study, the data explain that, obligations towards family, devoting less time towards family and giving justice towards profession and family were analyzed and results presented in table. 38.0 of the respondents were agree that, they are not giving not enough time towards family and only 08.0 percent respondents were fully agree

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Conclusion

The understanding of the personal, family and work related variables have been the central theme of this study. Such an understanding is necessary because this study takes a holistic view of the professional and family life of the women professionals and to examine its impact on their perceptions of career, the constraints they face as well as on their patterns of work- life balance.

The increasing entry of women into professions has led to concerns about work-family conflict. This study addresses this issue in the context of the study area. Following current literature, we emphasize the distinction between work interfering with family and family interfering with work. It is further postulated that these two dimensions of work-family conflict are determined by similar as well as different factors. Our results basically confirm the conceptual distinction of these two types of conflicts. The level of family to work conflict is assessed on the basis of findings of the self-valuation of the extent of interfacing of family in the work lives of the women professionals. In addition, it has been found that the family-related factors and job-related factors are important predictors of work to family conflict. The job-related factors are seen to have effects on family interference with work, whereas the ages of children, type of family, Similarly, family support and spouse support are seen to have very significant effects on women professionals’ family interference with work. This result highlights the impact of gender division of 13labor in the household upon work-family conflict as experienced by women professionals.

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References:

1. Repetti , R.L. , et al . 1989. “Employment and Women’s Health : Effects of paid Employment on Women’s Mental and Physical Health”. American Psychologist, 44, 1394-1401. 2. Farmer, S. Helen et al. 1971. “Diversity and Women’s’ Career Development.” London :Sage. 3. Walby, Sylvia. 1990. ” Theorizing Patriarchy.” Oxford: Blackwell. 4. Zaresky, Eli. 1976. “ Capitalism, The Family and Personal Life.” London. Pluto Press. 5. Aryee, S. 1992. "Antecedents and Outcomes of Work-Family Conflict Among Married Professional Women: Evidence from Singapore", Human Relations, 45, (2), 813-37. 6. Kahn, R.L., Wolfe, D.M., Quinn, R., Snoek, J.D., & Rosenthal, R.A. 1964. “Organizational Stress”. New York: Wiley. 7. Kahn, R.L., Wolfe, D.M., Quinn, R., Snoek, J.D., & Rosenthal, R.A. 1964. “Organizational Stress”. New York: Wiley. 8. Ismail, & Ahmed.(ed). 1999. “Women and Work – Challenges in Industrializing Nations”. London: Asean Academic Press. 9. Parasuraman, S.,et al. 1992. “Role Stressors, Social Support, and Well-Being Among Two-Career Couples”. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13, 339-356. 10. Frone, M. R. et al. 1992. “Prevalence of Work-Family Conflict: Are Work and Family Boundaries Asymmetrically Permeable?” Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13, 723-729. 11. Barnett, R. C., & Baruch, G. K. 1985. Women's Involvement in Multiple Roles and Psychological Distress. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 135-145. 12. O’Driscoll, M.P., et al. 1992. “Time Devoted to Job and Off-Job Activities, Interrole Conflict, and Affective Experiences”. Journal of Applied Psychology. 77, 272-279.

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SAY THE UNSAYABLE: AN OVERVIEW OF WITTGENSTEIN’S ETHICS

Poulami Chakraborty Contractual Lecturer in Philosophy Hiralal Majumder Memorial College for Women Dakshineswar, Kolkata

Ludge Wittgenstein is widely regarded as the greatest and the most influential philosopher of the 20th century. Wittgenstein played a vital role in 20th century analytic philosophy. There are two commonly recognized stages of Wittgenstein’s thought-the early and later. The early Wittgenstein is epitomized in his Tractatus-Logico-Philosophicus. The early Wittgenstein was concerned with the logical relationship between propositions and the world. In this book he provided new insights into the relations between world, thought and language. The nature of philosophy is reflected by his early work. Whereas the latter Wittgenstein rejected many of the assumptions of the Tractatus and took the more revolutionary step in critiquing all the traditional philosophy. In his later work he also criticizes his early philosophical work.

Wittgenstein regards his early philosophical work, Tractatus- Logico-Philosophicus fundamentally a book on Ethics. In a letter to Ludwig Von Ficker, Wittgenstein explains that the key to understanding the Tractatus is to grasp that the overall sense of the book is an ethical one. The basic intention of Wittgenstein’s notion of Ethics is to realize the meaning of life. The main goal is to achieve the state of self-realization. According to his early work ethics deals with the will of the subject, this transcends the factual world. According to him happiness and unhappiness are transcendental rather than empirical form. The nature of self determines the nature of ethical values. Ethical values cannot be defined through certain external characteristics. He thought that the subject whose will is the bearer of

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good and evil is ineffective with respect to the events of the world. So we can say that the events of the world do not have any logical relation to its ethical value. The internal problems like what is the meaning of life, how to have a good life etc., are concerned with the human eternal problems of life. So ethics is something which manifests through the practice of freewill.

Traditionally ethics is supposed to deal only what is considered ‘good’. But Wittgenstein extends its scope to deal with the meaning of life and makes it include what normally belongs to Aesthetics. The matter of ethics, aesthetics and religion are not the matters of factual world and it leads us away from the empirical world. It belongs to the realm where as he says thing cannot be said but only shown. So it cannot be speaking about. His Lecture on Ethics reasserted this basic view that ethics is supernatural, that’s why we cannot express this by our language. We can only think about the perceptible things of the world. Beyond perceptible world, we cannot think higher than facts. We don’t have a thought which is inexpressible in language.

We thought that if we speak of ethical value (the meaning of life, happiness), our sentences cannot be anything but nonsense. In this paper I will examine this idea and the reasons we have for accepting it. This paper is maintain the view through analysis that how ethics lies beyond the limits of language and the philosophical discourse. Picture theory of meaning is regarded as the criterion of distinction between sayable and unsayble. In order to make sense of Wittgenstein ethical account I argued that we need to divide it two distinct parts. In the first part I briefly explain the position that the ethical propositions are nonsense. In the second part I try to state positively what ethics is all about. In this paper I will attempt to flesh out what the ethical sense of the Tractatus might be. This paper brings out Wittgenstein’s division between expressions and which have sense and which do not have sense.

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One cannot understand Wittgenstein’s idea that absolute judgments of value are nonsensical without prior understanding of the way he characterizes these judgments and their matter. Wittgenstein divides the sentences of natural language into three categories-sensible, senseless and no sensible. In order to explain what Wittgenstein’s argument about ethical proposition we must examine as to what Wittgenstein means by the words sense and nonsense. The sense and nonsense are not merely what we would understand by our usual usage of these terms. The sense and nonsense here are not grammatical nonsense, nor factual nonsense, they are rather logical.

Every ordinary language sentence that makes sense can necessarily be analyzed into propositional form. ‘’A proposition is a description of a fact’’ (TLP 4.023). Linguistic expression has a sense when it represents the possible picture of reality. A proposition has sense if and only if it pictures a fact.’’ A fact is fundamentally a configuration of objects ‘’ (TLP 2.0272). Only state of affairs which can be pictured can be represented by meaningful propositions. These propositions are within the limits of natural sciences. Otherwise it becomes senseless and nonsense. What makes only propositions have sense is that it is only propositions that picture a possible state of affairs and thus only propositions lie within logical space.

Propositions of logic and mathematics are senseless. These include the tautological and self-contradictory propositions of logic, the equations of mathematics and certain a-priori laws of science. Question is; why Wittgenstein regard logical truths are merely devoid of sense and not nonsensical? According to Wittgenstein logical truths are about norms and rules which govern the general facts of reality. There can be no representatives of the logic of facts. So they do not picture anything. These propositions all lack sense because they do not refer to a single possible state of affairs, as a propositions does, but rather they show something about all possible state of affairs.

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Senseless and nonsensical proposition have nothing to do with reality. But they are different from each other. A sentence can be nonsense is if it contains meaningless signs. If a sign is useless then it is meaningless. Sentence can also be nonsense, not because it contains signs that are useless, but because it does not represents any possible facts. For example this sentence ‘God is transcendental being ‘does not contain any useless signs, but this sentence is still nonsense because it does not picture any possible state of affairs. Nonsensical propositions are something beyond the represented world. So that nonsensical propositions cannot be captured in language. Wittgenstein writes, ‘’It will therefore only be in language that the limit can be drawn, and what lies on the other side of the limit will simply be non-sense’’ (TLP Preface). These propositions try to capture the world as a whole. So that nonsensical propositions are not completely useless. As such nonsensical propositions do not belong to this logical space, so they cannot be put into words.

The most important question is; how is it possible for Wittgenstein to express that ethical propositions are nonsensical? In his Lecture on Ethics Wittgenstein distinguishes between two kinds of value statements-relative or tribal and absolute or ethical. All ethical terms such as good, right and so on, when used in judgments of value have two senses; relative and absolute sense. For example judgments of value such as ‘this is the right road’ and ‘this is good chair’ are generally used, are relative judgments of value. They are relative judgments because the ethical term good, right is used in the sense of good or right for something. Similarly a work of art can be said to be valuable in the relative sense because it fulfills certain aesthetic principles and a road can be right in the relative sense because it will take us to a desired destination. All relative judgments of value are statements of fact. All relative judgments of value can be put into

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words. It follows that all relative judgments of value can be propositions.

Absolute judgments of value use ethical terms such as ‘good’ and ‘evil’ in an absolute sense. Although Wittgenstein does not explicitly define his concept of absolute value, it is not far-fetched to claim that if relative value is value in relation to some standard, absolute value is not value in relation to any standard. An absolute value is not a value for something, but is a value-in-itself. So they cannot be rational or irrational, reasonable or unreasonable. They are true or false regardless of the worldly facts. Wittgenstein then prepares to introduce an example of judgments of absolute value. Take for instance the sentence ‘you ought to love your parents ‘which was for Wittgenstein the description of state of affairs that has absolute value. This statement goes beyond any facts. Similarly the sentence ‘I am absolutely safe’ is a description of state of affairs that has absolute value. To be absolutely safe is to be safe whatever happens, the truth or falsity of this sentence is unconditional.

Absolute judgments of value are similar to logical truths in the sense that their truth or falsity is not conditional just as tautologies are true independently of what happens. But there is a difference between absolute judgments and tautologies which concern the fact that the only possible truth value of tautologies is ‘true’ but absolute judgments can be either true or false depending on whether the transcendental subject wills good or evil. But Wittgenstein himself connects ethics with logic. He compares absolute goodness to an absolutely right road that everyone chooses with logical necessity after having become aware of it. Question is, how can Wittgenstein compare absolute goodness to a road choose with logical necessity? Here we can say that Wittgenstein uses the word ‘good’ in its absolute or transcendental senses, not its psychological sense. One can choose absolute goodness independently of what one chooses empirically and its applicability to real world

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situations is not at all conditional on what happens. Absolute value judgments are necessarily arational.

Wittgenstein then makes the very crucial claim that all ethical propositions are absolute judgments of value because all ethical assertions employ ethical terms only in an absolute sense. If all ethical propositions are absolute judgment of value, then this implies that ethical judgments must refer to a possible state of affairs. If such ethical fact can possibly exist, then we have to say that ethical judgments have sense. But Wittgenstein strongly admits that no state of affair represents ethical proposition.

Wittgenstein strongly admits that absolute judgments of value are nonsensical because these judgments do not have truth values. According to him, a proposition has sense if and only if it pictures a fact. In other words the sense of a proposition is what it represents or pictures and what it represents is this configuration of the objects of facts. Wittgenstein claims that unless a sentence is a picture of some possible state of affairs, it cannot be true or false; and if a sentence cannot be true or false, it cannot have a sense. Thus it can be conclude that absolute value judgments are nonsensical. Beyond perceptible world we cannot think meaningfully in language. They are inexpressible because they have nothing to do with the existence and nonexistence of facts in reality. Absolute value judgments are nonsensical because it fails to conform to the rules of logical syntax of language. The logical form of language determines whether language represents the reality or not.

In the second part Wittgenstein tries to say what ethics is. Wittgenstein regarded the point of the Tractatus as ethical. In this part he made a clear view that, there is still a beyond the world which is inexpressible, can nevertheless manifest itself through the world. The mystical can only be shown but cannot be expressed in language.

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Wittgenstein writes, ’’There are indeed, things that cannot be put into words. They make themselves manifest. They are what are mystical’’ (TLP 6.522). For him this is the ultimate truth of life. The thing beyond the world is, for Wittgenstein the’ metaphysical subject’ or ‘the will’. The metaphysical subject does not belong to the world; rather they are subjective experience which cannot be put into our language. The metaphysical subject is the outer limits of its world. Metaphysical subject has a world which belongs only to that will. Each metaphysical subject is thus the limit of their world only. The Tractatus end with a silent acceptance of the mystic domain. The notion of silence is the core of the whole Tractatus. The silence is more valuable than what is said.

According to Wittgenstein, for understand the ultimate truth of life we have to accept the mystic domain, which cannot be put into words. The existence of the world, self and the nature of God are treated as mystical because they are inexpressible. They are transcendental because our expressions have to be limited within the language. These ideas are beyond the factual world which only manifests them. Wittgenstinian ethics deals with life which leads the domain of spirituality.

Here a question may be arise; how to live a happy and meaningful life? Here Wittgenstein distinguishes between metaphysical self and psycho-physical self. In the Notebooks Wittgenstein makes explicit what is implied in the Tractatus that-the happy life is good, the unhappy bad. More precisely the good exercise of the will results in a happy world, the bad exercise of the will in an unhappy world. But can there be any genuine difference of value between worlds that is absolutely unhappy? The will is the attitude of the self. When Wittgenstein talks about ‘happy life’ he is not referring to psycho- physical life. So the happy life is not a life where the psychological self experiences much happiness, rather it consists in the metaphysical subject’s world being a ‘happy world’.

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The reason for the nonsensicality of absolute judgments of value is that there cannot be any criteria for deciding whether a life is absolutely valuable or not. Wittgenstein says that judgments of relative value are actually mere statements of fact. If we understand ‘my life is happy and meaningful’ as a sentence that refers to something which is good in itself, we do not have to see it However this happiness only be a result of the will’s attitude towards the world. It cannot be anything in the world that makes the difference between a happy world and the unhappy one. But the whole world itself must be different.

Thus we can conclude that the happy world is ethically good and that it is brought about by the good exercise of the will. Here Wittgenstein emphasize is on inner activity of the willing subject that refers to moral and transcendental. Thus the happy life is good-in-itself. An unhappy world is the punishment of an unethical exercising of the will. The gratification of the ethically happy life is its own reward, just as the discontentment of the ethically evil unhappy life is its own punishment. Thus the moral values like good, truth, justice come through the attitude of the subject into the factual world. This lead us to the problem of defining what a ‘harmonious’ life is. A meaningful harmonious life is one which has some purpose but cannot be embodied with causal condition. It is how the world is that is independent of our will. The meaningfulness of life is to get into the essence of life which is considered as a happy life.

Here a question may be arise, if we don’t change the situation regarding evil in this world, then how we ought to be maintain our happy life? We find answer of this question in Wittgenstein understands of God. According to him God doesn’t reveal himself in the world, he reveals himself as the way the world is, that is, what we are necessarily dependent on. World is a manifestation of God’s will. The happy life involves living in perfect harmony with the world. Thus Wittgenstein confronts the so-called ‘problem of evil’. By being in

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References

1. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1921).

2. Wittgenstein, L., 1965, ‘A Lecture on Ethics’, in The Philosophical Review, Vol. 74, No. 1, 1965, pp. 3-12

3. Wittgenstein, L., 1980, Culture and Value, ed. G. H. Von Wright and Heikki Nyman, tr. Peter Winch:University of Chicago Press

4. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations (Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1953).

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IMPACT OF VEHICLES MOVEMENTS ON ENVIRONMENT AND ITS EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH

Quazi S.M. Shaikh T.T Dept. of Botany Dept. of Zoology Maulana Azad College of Arts Maulana Azad College of Arts Science and Commerce Science and Commerce Aurangabad (M.S.) Aurangabad (M.S.)

INTRODUCTION:

Aurangabad city has witnessed causal but continuous growth in the past due to its attraction as tourist city embracing heritage monuments of Ajanta, Ellora, Daulatabad and Bibi-Ka-Maqbara rich in monuments, historical and religious places of National importance. However, Aurangabad has witnessed its presence in the National map due to its growing environmental as represented in the Comprehensive Environmental Pollution Index formulated by CPCB, MoEF especially related to its air quality concerns. In view of the above, it was felt necessary to understand these rowing concerns of environmental issues, gather scientific knowledge base for the same & formulate sector specific and strategic vision document to adapt and/or mitigate environmental issues of concern for Aurangabad district in the present as well as cater to the growing demands of future, thereby framing a VISION 2020 document that could be used as a guideline in the coming days.

Vehicle emissions significantly pollute air and require control (Karlsson, 2004). With increasing concern for air toxics and climate modification caused by exhaust emissions, the need for tighter control increases in importance. Recent researchers clearly indicate that road traffic noise has been the major source of annoyance and soil and air pollution. It is due to the large number of automotive vehicles in

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Global warming and environmental pollution have became a challenging problems for developing countries causing disturbance in ecological cycle which ultimately affecting the ecosystem.

According to RTO information approximately 150-200 two wheelers are added to city everyday, which is becoming a big challenge for sustainable environment in Aurangabad city. As Aurangabad is a fastest developing city in Asia, after the development of Waluj Industrial area the average temperature is increased by 4°C -5°C which is evident from the today’s environment.

Observations:

Traffic flow nearby college Campus:

The College is situated on Aurangabad - Jalgaon highway (State highway no. 08) which is very busy due to heavy traffic during morning and evening hours causing air and noise pollution around the college campus. Morning hours: 9:00 a.m. to 11:00 a.m. Evening hours: 4:00 p.m. to 6:00 p.m. were recorded fortnightly for one year Jan- 2011 to Dec 2011

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Table no. 1. Different types of vehicle movements’ frequency were recorded.

S.No. Types of Total no. of vehicles Total no. of vehicles Coming to the main city vehicles going away from Jalgaon side/ from the main city Incoming towards Jalgaon side / Out going

1. Two Wheelers 845 to 1000 545 to 600 (84- 100/hour) (54-60/hour)

2. Three Wheelers 230 to 300 298to 350 (23-30/hour) (29-35/hour) 3. Four Wheelers/ 126 to 150 (12-15/ 139 to 200 Heavy vehicles hour) (14-20/hour)

Two wheelers:

Average 1-2 (one to two)two wheeler/min were passing through college road from Harsul to Aurangabad city (incoming).

Average 1(one) two wheeler/ min were passing through college road from Aurangabad city to Harsul (Outgoing).

Three wheelers:

Average o4 three wheeler/min passing through college road from Harsul to Aurangabad (incoming).

Average 05 three wheelers/ min passing through college road from Aurangabad to Harsul (Outgoing).

Four wheelers:

Average 2 Four wheelers were passing through college road from Harsul to Aurangabad (incoming). Average (2-3) four wheelers passing through college road from Aurangabad to Harsul (Outgoing).

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Impact of vehicle movements in our college premises

College is having separate parking area, where approximatly1000 vehicles can be parked.(Two and four wheelers)

The traffic flow in college premises varies with respect to time. Parking area is crowded from 8’O clock morning till 2’ O clock afternoon. The movement of vehicles was recorded till evening 5’O clock including busy hours from 8’O clock to 2’O clock in order to know the traffic flow in the college parking site.

Table no. 2. Showing number of vehicles movement recorded in college campus.

S.No Types of Total incoming Total outgoing vehicles vehicles vehicles from the college in college campus up to 2’o clock campus

1. Two Wheelers 309 (51- 200 (33/ hour) 52 / hour)

2. Three Wheelers 00 00

3. Four Wheelers 39 (6- 20 ( 2-3/hour) 7/ hour) Average 51-52 two wheelers and 6-7 four wheelers are coming into college campus during six hours. No three wheelers are allowed to enter college campus except loading auto riksha which is meant for carrying goods for canteen.

Average 33-34 two wheelers and 3-4 four wheelers are going away from college campus during six hours.

Clinical data was obtained from medical practitioner located near Jalgaon road, the average number of patients suffering from various respiratory disorders like bronchial asthma, cough and cold and allergy in different age groups were recorded during the study period Jan-2011 t0 Dec- 2011. The observations are shown in as follows.

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Table no. 3. Showing number of patients recorded with respiratory disorders during Jan-2011 to Dec- 2011. Male Female Months / Age 18-40 41-70 18-40 41-70 group years years years years January- March 100-125 150-250 75-110 125-220 April- June 75-100 100-150 60-90 70-120 July – 105-150 140-250 80-100 75-130 September October- 110-135 170-280 70-90 90-140 December

200 150 100 50 0 1 2 3 4 Number of patients patientsof Number Q1: Jan -Mar; Q2: April-June…

Male patients in the age group 18-40

300 250 200 150 100 Series1 50 Series2 0

Number ofpatients Number 1 2 3 4 Q1: Jan -Mar; Q2: April-June Q3: July- Sep; Q4: Oct- Dec

Male patients in the age group 41-70

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150

100

50 Series1 Series2 0 Number of patientsof Number 1 2 3 4 Q1: Jan -Mar; Q2: April-June Q3: July- Sep; Q4: Oct- Dec

Female patients in the age group 18-40

250 200 150 100 50 0

Number of Patientsof Number 1 2 3 4 Q1: Jan -Mar; Q2: April-June Q3: July- Sep; Q4: Oct- Dec

Female patients in the age group 41-70

Discussion

This study was under taken in order to know the effect of rapidly increasing traffic near college campus, i.e. on Jalgaon road and in the college campus which is causing environmental pollution (Noise and air ) posing danger to human health and agriculture. Vehicle emmission contribute to the formation of smog, nitrogen oxide (NO2) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), vehicle emmission can react to form ground level ozone and other secondary pollutants during the winter and summer months. Different VOCs vary widely in toxicity. Some of them, such as benzene and 1,3-butadiene, are cancer-causing

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agents, although the risk at current levels in the environment is small. VOC are precursors to ozone and secondary particulate matter formation. Fine particulate matter can be inhaled deep into the lungs. It is known to aggravate symptoms in individuals who already suffer from respiratory or cardiovascular diseases. Fine particulate matter may include toxic components such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and heavy metals.

During the winter months, vehicle emmission can be trapped near the ground by temperature inversions. This can be lead to high levels of primary pollutants including nitrogen oxide (NO2), carbon mono oxide (Co) and particulate matter (PM 2.5). Extensive studies links smog to a variety of respiratory and cardiovascular symptoms and illness. A number of studies have shown that pollutants exposure near major roadways is greater than for other areas in a city. Ground level ozone irritates airways and can trigger reactions in people who have asthma.

During study period high smog was observed in January and December months . high disturbance of sound pollution was recorded on working days during morning and evening hours. Such type of studies was conducted by Bhosale B.J. et.al – (2010) in other localities of Aurangabad. He observed that more noise pollution was observed during morning and evening hours, the sound intensity range between 74-86 dB; exceed the prescribed noise level. .

Same type of studies were also conducted by K.C. Rathore(1982), Y. Rao et al (1987) K.Kumar et al (1994), D. Banerjee et al (2006) Debashish patel et al (2012). Recent studies published in proceeding of national Academics of Science also proved that air pollution also affecting the yields in cereal crops specially wheat. According to media news 17% reduction in wheat productivity was observed in Maharashtra. During the study period i.e. Jan 2011 to Dec

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2011 the observations in the table no. 3 of clinical data shows that in all age groups the maximum no. of patients was observed during the months January, September and December, which indicate seasonal variation i.e. change in temperature, humidity and fogging during January and December, high temperature and humidity in September had great impact on respiratory disorder with coincided with air and sound pollution. Such studies will be helpful to take precautionary measure in these months and severity of respiratory disorder can be minimized.

The study is worth considering in view of the cost savings that would result if adequate traffic controls were implemented. Future studies need to consider the development of models, analysis, and empirical scrutiny of vehicle emission models. For example, a scientific model could be developed to monitor the path that vehicle emissions follow, from the exhaust pipe to the human respiratory system. Such studies would be helpful in creating awareness among the people about environmental pollution and its effects on living organism and plants.

Suggestions:

1. Awareness among the public and stake holders is the key component in the prevention and control of community noise pollution by avoiding D.J. during functions and processions. 2. Vehicular emission can be minimized by adopting (i) car pool method (ii) walk or use bicycle and less drive. 3. Public transport facilities within 50 km radius to avoid two and four wheelers. 4. Walking street concept in thickly populated area of the market and city during evening hours of traffic. 5. Check on the frequent use of two wheelers and theme of sharing should be inculcating among youngsters. 6. Stringent implementation of PCBA rules and regulation

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References:

4. Bhosale BJ (2012)1 Studies on assessment of traffic noise level in Aurangabad city, India, Noise Health. 2010 Jul-Sep; 12(48):195- 8. doi: 10.4103/1463-1741.64971. 5. D. Banerjee and S. K. Chakraborty, (2006) “Monthly variation in night time noise levels at residential areas of Asansol City (India),” Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering, vol. 48, no. 1, pp. 39–44. 6. Debasish Pal and et al, (2012): Effect of Road Traffic Noise Pollution on Human Work Efficiency in Government Offices, Private Organizations, and Commercial Business Centers in Agartala City Using Fuzzy Expert System: A Case Study - Advances in Fuzzy SystemsVolume 2012, Article ID 828593, 9 pp 7. G. R. Dixit,T.N. Mahadevan, and R.K. Kapoor, “A noise pollution survey of Bombay,” Scavenger, vol. 122, pp. 20–25, 1982. 8. Johnson L, Jamriska M, Morawska L, Ferreira L. (2000). Vehicle emissions in Australia: from monitoring to modelling, Advances in Transport, 9. Urban Transport VI: Urban Transport and the Environment for the 21st Century. 6: 469-478. 10. Karlsson HL. (2004). Ammonia, nitrous oxide and hydrogen cyanide emissions from five passenger vehicles. Science of the Total Environment. 334/335: 125-132. 11. K.C. Rathore, “A noise Pollution survey of Baroda city & its effect on human beings,” Tech. Rep., IIT, New Delhi, India, 1982. 12. K. Kumar and V. K. Jain, “A study of noise in various modes of transport in Delhi,” Applied Acoustics, vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 57–65, 1994. View at Scopus

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13. M. Pancholy, A. F. Chhapgar, and S. P. Singa, “Noise survey in Calcutta,” Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research, vol. 26, pp. 314–316. 14. Ojolo SJ 2007 A survey on the effects of vehicle emissions on human health in 15. Nigeria, Journal of Rural and Tropical Public Health 6: 16-23, 2007 16, Published by the Anton Breinl Centre for Public Health and Tropical Medicine, James Cook University, Australia 16. Y. Rao, B. Y. Rao, and K. P. R. Vittal Murthy, “Traffic noise pollution at three important junctions in Visakhapatnam,” Indian Journal of Environmental Protection, vol. 7, pp. 21–26, 1987. 17. WHO, 2011: Noise: Facts and Figures. Available from: http://www.euro.who.int/en/what-we-o/healthtopics/ environm ent - and-health/noise/facts-and-figures.

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अनपुराणम– ् “उपातवानम” ् Dr. Asavadi Sudhama Vamsi Senior Lecturer in Sanskrit Matrusri Oriental College Jillillamudi, Bapatla, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh

”भारतय िते े संकृतं संकृिततथा”

इयिभयुोमाधारकृय संकृतभाषा, भारतीयसंकृितः च अयत ाचीनेित िनचं वचः। देवता यवहार योयवात ् संकृतभाषा देवभाषा इयिभिधता। दव ् धातोः ोतनिमयथः कय ोतनं इयाकांायाम ् आमसंकारोतनिमित समाधेयम ्। यतोह “वायेका समलंकरोित पुषं या संकृताधायते”, “वाक् वैदोी------धेनुवागमान ् उपसुुतैतु” इयाद ामायवचनािन संकृतभाषायाः, संकृते अवनाभाव सबधं यापयत। वैदककालादारय आधुिनककालपयतं संकृतभाषा गंगाद पुयजीवनदव आसंसारम ् अमान ् पुनाित। एताश महवपूणायाः संकृतेः

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उजीवनाय, पररणाय बपरकरातौ महाभागौ िनयमरणीयौ भवतः वमीकयासौ। भारतीयसंकृतसाहयेितहासे यासेन वरिचत अादशपुराणानां वैिशयं महतते। वेदािधकाररहतानां, ीशूाणां इतरेवपबुनामनुहाथ च पुराणािन कृतािन। अत एव पुराणं पचमो वेदेित पुराणेवेव यते।

अगािन वेदावारो मीमांसायायवतरः। पुराणं धमशा वा ेतातुदश।। ीशूजबधूनां यी न ुितगोचरा। तेषामेव हताथाय पुराणािन कृतािन वै।। पुराणशदयुपः - “पुरा भवं पुराणम, ् पुराप नवं भवतीित याको युपः” महषः वायायनोSप वैशेषकसूभाये पुराणानां लोकवृबोधकवमङगीकृतवान ्। लोकवृेितहासः पुराणय वषय इित। पुराणलणम ् – सग ितसग वंशो मवतराण च। वंशानुचरतचैव पुराणं पचलणम ्।। सवषां वदतमेवैतत ् अादशपुराणकता वेदयास इित। यासपदं न यबोधकं कतु तकन बदेित अमािभरवगतयम ्। कृतेताापरकिलयुगचतुयमेलनेन एकं महायुगं भवतीित सुिसम ्। युगसमािः नाम लयपेण सव जल समािधं ाय पुनः उवनमेव। लयं वना पुनः सृः न भवित। यथा सृेः मूलं दैवं, तथैव लययाप मूलं दैवमेव। यथा सृं वयं न जानीमः तथैव लयमप न जानीमः एव। तथाप वेदयासादिभः ितपादतािन लयोपातादवषयाण, तत उपातसूचकािन ववधसंघटनािन, उपातभावोपशमनाथ मानवेयः उपायायसूचयत- ्

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महापापोपपातो भवेजवा तु पौषम ्। कृैवशुो जवा च हुवा नावाथ सवभाक्।। 6 (Ag.P.षयिधकशततमोयायः)

अादशयः शातयतोsयाः शातयो वराः। अमृत चाभया सौया सवपातवमदनाः।।77 अमृता सवदैवया भया दैवता। सौया च सवदैवया एका यासवकामदा।। 8 भयाया मणः काय वणय भृगूम। शतकाडोSमृताया सौयायाः शकजो मणः।।9 (Ag.P.षयिधकशततमोयायः) वेदयासः अनपुराणे उपाताः कथं सभवतीित, कितधा भवतीित, कथं पुनः शातं ानुवतीयाद वषयाण वतृततया िनदािन। एतािन सवायुपातािन अादशिभः शातिभः िनमूयतेित ितपादतम ्। उपातशायुपायेषु अमृत, अभय, सौयाः सवमाः। अमृतसौयशाती सवदैववं कपयतः। अभयशातः दैववं कपयित।

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अभयशायै वरणवृमूलेन िनिमतं मणं हते धारयेत ्। एवम ् अमृतशायै दूवामूलमणं, सामायशायै शंखमणं धारयेत ्। धारण समये तेवता सबमैः तं मियवा धारयेत ्। एताः शातयः भौमदयातरोपातान ् दूरकुवत।

दयातरभौमादसमुपातादना इमाः। दयातरभौमतु ुतं वधं ृणु।। 11(Ag.P.षयिधकशततमोयायः) पेsमन ् पूव वध उपाताः कथं सभवत? कथं उपशायत इयादिन सववरं िनयते। 1.दयोपाताः – हनगमनागमनकारणात ् यायुपातािन सभवत तािन योपातािन। 2.अतरोपाताः – उकापातः, ददाहः, सूयय परतः मेघवलयावभावं, वकृत वषाण च अतरोपातािन भवत। 3.भौमोपाताः – थावरजंगमादषु यायुपवाण भूकपादिन सभवत तािन भूिमजोपातािन। उपातसूचनापरशीलनसमनतरं सदनायतरे वृः भवित चेत ् अवयं संवसरायतरे शातकमाण अवयं आचरेत ्। अयथा तीा लोकपीडा समुपतेत ्। एवमेव लोके कािनिचन वपरतसंघटनािन अयकरसंघटनािन संजातानीित ुणुमः, पयाम।

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देवताचाः नृयत वेपते वलत च। ारठत च रोदत वते हसत च।।15 चावकारोपशमोsयय हुवा जापते। ननदयते य राे च भृशिनवनम ्।।16 न दयते चेधनवांतां पीयते नृपैः। अनवैकृयशमनमनमै भागव।। 17 (Ag.P.षयिधकशततमोयायः) कुिचत ् ितमाः नायं कुवत, कुिचत ् वहािन इतततः चलत, ितमाः वयं दधाः भवत, अप च ितमायः विच शदाः संूयते। कच ितमायः जलं आयाित, नेायां बापमुपते। एताश वकाराः यदा गोचराः भवत, तदा “ितमानां मूलवरावहानां ाजापयहोमादिन, पूजाद वधानािन च अवयं आचरेत” ् । येताशोपशायादनां अकरणे राीयानां, राािधपतीनां वा वनाशः अवयं उपेत। पूव उपातेषु भूिमजोपातायेव अिधकं वयं जानीनः। त एव अनेक वधाः संयते खलु।

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अकाले फिलता वृाः ीरं रं वत च। वृोपातशमनं िशवं पूय च कारयेत ्।। 18 अितवृरनावृदुिभायोभयं मतम ्। अनृतौ दनारधवृया भयाय ह।। 19 वृवैकृयनाशः यापजयेकपूजनात ्। नगारादपसपते समीपमुपयात च।। 20 नो दयवणा वरसा भवत च। शिललाशयवैकृये जयो वाणो मनुः।। 21 (Ag.P.षयिधकशततमोयायः) वृेयः फलािन भवतीित वयं जानीमः परं तनतया ीरं वा, रं वा यद वित ताः वृजिनतोपाताः। अमन ् सदभ म, त पाण, दैवकायाण आचरेत ्। एवं पूवसंघटनासु यकमप उपातं जानीमः, समनतरं “थमं सदािशवम ् अचियवा तं िशवं शातं कुयात ्“ इित। अप च अितवृवा, अनावृवा ेsवप दुिभाकारणौ वषतरत ीण दनािन अवातं वृभवित चेत ् तदुपातसूचकं अपायकार च भवेदित ातयम ्। इदानीतनकाले ताशः सनवेशः Cyclone इित नाना यवयते। जोपयोिग नदजले अयमाने सित, तमूलकेषु सरोवरेषु च शुकेषु ससु पुनः पूववैभवाये वाणबीजार संबािन माण िनया पठेत। ् अमनेव सदभ सवे सजाते वा युम (कवल) िशशूपौ वा एताश सव समये तत ् वकार िनमूलनाथ साणाः पूजनीयाः।

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अो वा, गजो वा, गौवा युम(कवल) सतानं सूतं चेत ्, वकृत सतानं वा सूतं चेत ् तत ् रायय शतृहािनः इित सूिचतम ्। पशुिभः अकृतािन कायाण कृतािन चेत ्, करणीयािन कायाण अकृतािन चेत ्, मेघाुयानाद वणेन च जानां भयादिन संजायते। यद ायािन पशूिन वयािन, वयािन च ायाण भवत; एवं भूचराण जले, जल चराण भूतले च ताशािन राजार समीपमागते सित तदर सूचकं भवित। दोषकाले कुकुटकूजनेन, सूयादये ृगालरवेन एवमेव काक मैथुनं ं चेत ्, ासादं ढमप अकारणं तोरणोपातं वा ारोपातं वा कारोपातं वा यद भवेत ्, कपोतेषु गृहं वेषु, मासं भषु पषु मतकोपर गतेषु, सामाय मकेषु मधु संचयनं कृतेषु वा तदा रा पालकः मृतो भवेत ्। धूिलवा धूमो वा दशदशः यां चेत ् सूयाचयोमये रं चेत ्, तदा तत ् ातं भयावह वातावरण भूियिमित वुं शयते। अनेः अवलने, अकारणं उदकुभात ् जलवणे वा तृहे ाते वा मरणादभयमवयं भवेत ्। एतेषामुपातानामािधये सित महालयं भवेदेवेित ायते। लयािन च चतुवधािन भवत। चतुवधतु लयो िनयो यः ाणनां लयः। सदा वनाशो जातानां ाो नैिमको लयः।। 1 चतुवधतु लयो िनयो यः ाणनां लयः। सदा वनाशो जातानां ाो नैिमकोलयः।। 2

लय आयतको ानादामनः परमामिन । नैिमकय कपाते वये पं लयय ते।। 3 चितयुगसहाते ीणााये महतले। अनावृरतीवोा जायते शतवाषक।। 4 (Ag.P.चतुःषयिधकशततमोयायः) 1.िनयलयम ् 2.नैिमकलयम ् 3.ाकृतलयम ् 4.आयतकलयिमित। 1. िनरतरं ाणषु मये मयुरेव “िनयलयम” ् भवित। 2. सपूणतया ाणनां अभावः एव “नैिमकलयम” ् भवित।

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3. चतुयुग मेण सहं यदा भवित तदा पचभूतािन कृतौ लीनं भवत एतदेव “ाकृितकलयम” ् । 4.ानं लवा जीवामनः परमामिन लयं यदा भवित तदेव “आयतकलयम” ् । कपाते उपमानं नैिमकलयं अिधकृय इदानीं परशीयते।

चतुयुगसहाते भूमेः ीणताsिधकं भवित। शतवसराण अनावृः भयंकरपेण सभवित। ाणनः वनाः भवेयुः। सूयकरण भावेण भूमौ, पाताले, समुे च जलं वनं भवित। ाणनः सव वनयत एतदेव नैिमकलयम ्। एवमनेके वषयाः अनपुराणकारेण तावता इयुवा वरमािम।।

ययमरणमाेण जमसंसार बधनात ्। वमुयते नमः तमै वणवे भवणवे।।

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FINGER DERMATOGLYPHIC CHARACTERS AMONG THE MENTALLY DISABLED CHILDREN

Appalanaidu. P Guest Faculty Department of Anthropology Andhra University Visakhapatnam

INTRODUCTION

In India, like in other developing countries, early detection of mental retardation has been achieved at the national level. With the implementation of the Persons with Disabilities Act (PWD, 1995), mental retardation has been recognized as a disability with an identity of its own. An estimate of 20 million persons of mild disability and about 4 million with moderate and severe level are evinced. Due to inadequate sample size for each level of mentally disabled, the present study confines to single category i.e., mentally disabled. According to American Association of Mentally Deficiency (AAMD), “Mental retardation refers to significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested during the development period (Grossman, 1973)”. In other words, a person who suffers with an impairment of his ability to think, learn and reason is called Mentally Disabled. On the basis of IQ, there are 4 levels of Mental Disability viz. Mild, Moderate, Severe, and Profound. Regarding the prevalence of Mental Disability in human populations, there is no uniformity of its occurrence in different segments and sex. About 3.0 per cent of World populations show Mentally Disability (Bartam, 1975).

It is defined variedly on the basis of intelligence test score, failure in social adjustment and essential causes such as brain damage. On the basis of intelligence test score, it is defined as any person with

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A few studies carried out on the data of Dermatoglyphic characters, besides population variations have been demonstrated as a diagnostic tool in clinical genetics particularly in chromosomal aberrations ((Mukherjee, 1976; Malhotra, 1978; Uchida, 1967). And also reported the significance of dermatoglyphics in chromosomal aberrations i.e. mentally disabled (Penrose, 1968; Loesch, 1986; Banerjee et al., 1991 and Shanti Devi, 1992). Cummins and Midlo (1961), Narahari et al. (1995) listed some of the references on dermatoglyphics related to clinical and medical genetics. Recently Mukherjee (2006) focused the clinical importance of td ridge count on human palms. The present study deals with dermatoglyphic variations in finger among the Mentally Disabled children of Visakhapatnam, hitherto unreported.

METHODOLOGY

Bilateral inked finger ball prints were collected from a total of 215 mentally disabled (MD) children (both normal and control) were selected from 7 special schools keeping in view of age, sex and social group aspects from general population of Visakhapatnam. The age of the subjects ranges from 5+ to 15+ years. These prints were analyzed for both qualitative and quantitative characteristics. The qualitative characteristics include finger pattern types while that of quantitative composed of finger pattern intensity index (FPII), total and absolute ridge counts (TFRC and AFRC). The suggestions of Cummins and

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Midlo (1961), Mukherjee (1974) and Holt (1968) were followed in the collection and analyses of the data. The tests of significance i.e., Chi- square and‘t’-test were computed wherever necessary, to evaluate intra and inter group differences.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Details of the qualitative characters such as loops, arches and whorl distribution listed in the Table-1. The results reveal that mentally disabled children a preponderance of whorls (39%) and arches (2%) occur in mentally disabled children than normal children who show a high frequency of loops (73%). Girls possess an excess value of whorls compared to their counterparts. The sex difference is statistically significant only for the normal or control group.

Table-1: Distribution of Qualitative characters in Finger

Children Arch Loop Whorl

Plain Tente Radial Ulnar True Composites

I. Mentally disabled Boy 2.25 0.19 2.78 56.39 32.15 6.24

Girl 1.09 1.82 3.48 55.36 33.91 2.18

Total 2.13 0.09 3.02 56.03 32.76 5.87

II. Normal

Boy 1.36 0.05 2.73 69.80 23.32 2.53

Girl 1.76 0.00 1.82 71.09 23.54 2.91

Total 1.56 0.03 2.41 70.25 23.40 2.66

Chi-square (15.68*); *Significant at 5% probability

In Henry’s classification, the mentally disabled children show an elevated frequency of plain arch (2.1%) and central pocket loop (3.0%)

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Table-2 shows the frequency distribution of finger pattern types and mean values of finger pattern intensity index, total and absolute ridge counts among the mentally disabled and normal children. In quantitative characteristics, the mentally disabled children show higher mean values of the variables than normal children. The sex-wise trend indicates that females depict relatively higher values than males for all the variables in both mentally disabled and Normal children.

However, none of the variables reveal statistically significant sex dimorphism in either group under study. Thus, the finger dermatoglyphic data in general possess higher values for both qualitative and quantitative characteristics in mentally disabled children than normal. The significant sex dimorphism noted for the qualitative than quantitative characteristics signifies patterns in terms of shape rather than size depict greater variation in the mentally disabled compared to normal children.

Table-2: Frequency distribution of quantitative characters in Finger

Children FPII TFRC AFRC

I. Mentally disabled Boy 13.57+ 0.25 112.27+ 2.70 154.97+ 5.18 Girl 13.71+ 0.31 112.67+ 3.53 155.13+ 6.75

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II. Normal Boy 12.44+ 0.20 86.73+ 1.57 108.20+ 2.87 Girl 12.57+ 0.25 87.86+ 2.87 111.58+ 3.96

The occurrence of higher frequency of finger dermatoglyphic characteristics, non-significant sex difference for quantitative characteristics among the mentally disabled children is in congruence with the findings of Shanti Devi (1992) but Rajangam et al. (1991) and Banerjee et al. (1991) who reported lower values in Down’s Syndrome patients than normals.

References

1. Banerjee, A.R., Banerjee, S., Bandopadhyay, A.R., Paul, S.C. and Banerjee, S.P. (1991). A note on the dermatoglyphic features of Down syndrome patients. In: Dermatoglyphics Today (Ed.). B.Mohan Reddy, Roy, S.B. and Sarkar, B.N. IBRAD: Calcutta. Pp 206-209.

2. Bhanu, B.V. (1991). Digital Patterns: A New Classification System. In: Dermatoglyphics Today (Ed.). B.Mohan Reddy, Roy, S.B. and Sarkar, B.N. IBRAD: Calcutta. Pp 1-16.

3. Cummins, H and Midlo, C (1961). Finger Prints, Palms and Sole. An introduction to Dermatoglyphics. Dover: New York.

4. Grossman, H.J (1973). Manual on terminology and classification in mental retardation. American Association of mental deficiency: Washington DC.

5. Holt, Sarah (1968). The Genetics of Dermal Ridges. CC Thomas: Springfield.

6. Ingalis (1978). Mental Retardation: The changing outlook. Department of Mental Hygiene. New York. USA

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7. Loesch, D.Z. (1986). Dermatoglyphic findings in Frangile X- syndrome: a casual hypothesis points to X-Y interchange. Ann. Hum. Genet. 50: 385-398.

8. Malhotra, K.C. (1978). Status of Dermatoglyphics studies in India: A Comment. SAP, 1: 1-8.

9. Mavalwala, J (1978). A method for dermatoglyphics- fingers and palms. In: Dermatoglyphics: An International Perspective (Ed.) J. Mavalwala. The Hague: Moulton, pp 19-54.

10. Mukherjee, D.P (2006). Anthropology and Clinical importance of tc Ridge Count on Human Palms. The Anthropologist, 8(4): 219- 222.

11. Narahari, S. Kumar, K. P. and Ramana, G.V. (1995): Dermatoglyphic variation in the Mali: A small tribe from Andhra Pradesh, India. J. Hum. Ecol., 6: 65- 68.

12. Penrose, L.S (1968). Memorandum on dermatoglyphic nomenclature. Birth Defects. Original Article Series, 4: 1-12.

13. Rajangam, S., Janakiram, S and Thomas, J.M (1991). Dermatoglyphics in Indian Downs and their parents. In: Dermatoglyphics Today (Ed.). B.Mohan Reddy, Roy, S.B. and Sarkar, B.N. IBRAD: Calcutta.

14. Shanti Devi (1992). Genetic studies in mentally retarded children. Ph.D thesis. Andhra University, Visakhapatnam.

15. Uchida, T.A (1967). Chromosome aberrations induced in vitro by low doses of radiation; non-disjunction in lymphocytes of young adults. Am. J.Hum. Genet. 27:419-429.

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SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT OF DALIT WOMEN THROUGH SELF HELP GROUPS

Dr. K. Anil Kumar K. Yamini Jyothsna Post-Doctoral Fellow Research Scholar Dept. of Political Science & Dept. of Political Science & Public Administration Public Administration Andhra University Andhra University Visakhapatnam Visakhapatnam

From the beginning Dalits (Scheduled Castes) are treated as untouchables and discriminated by the higher caste’s people for centuries in India. In India the Dalits constitute about 16.20 percent of India’s population in 2001 with little less than half (48 %) being women, 16.3 of the total Indian female population.1 In India, Dalits are continuing to suffer from discrimination on the basis of their caste. The traditional taboos are the same for Dalit men and Dalit women but in the context of Dalit women, they have to deal with them more often. Because Dalit women suffered from multiple oppressions as women and as women from disadvantaged and poor section, these are violating their economic, political and social rights. That means 80 million Dalit women face multiple forms of discrimination in this country alone and they are discriminated against not only by their men within their own communities, but also by the people of higher castes. Therefore Dalit women are one of the most marginalized segments in the society and the condition of Dalit women is more vulnerable than non-Dalit women.

Of the total population, only around 16% of the Dalits live in urban areas and the remaining 84% live in rural areas.2 The bulk of the scheduled castes are landless and almost destitute. Even if they hold land, it is often in small quantity, infertile, unirrigated and economically unviable. It is said that only a 7 percent of the land is

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owned by the Dalits and among them nearly 70 percent have less than one hectare.3 Under these vulnerable conditions, most of them are performing as agricultural labour force, farm servants and casual labourers; they work on construction sites, carrying heavy loads of construction material. They also work in brick kilns for long hours, as casual labourers to lay roads with no protection or benefits that labour laws should provide, since majority of these women are in the unorganized sector. They do not even get the minimum wages that the state/country has specified, since they are unable to organize and demand for decent wage.

In this regard, besides the Constitutional provisions, policies and programmes, the Government of India had taken many measures to develop women particularly Dalit women and Self Help Groups strategy is one of them. Micro finance and Self Help Group (SHG) intervention have brought tremendous changes in the economic, social and political life of women particularly Dalit women at the grass root level by empowering women. In this process the women of the SHGs acquired economic empowerment, besides that in the long run they got socially empowered, that means there is an enhancement in their Self- confidence, better participation in decision making within the family and group, respect in the society etc.

What is social empowerment?

The social empowerment means that the women must have role in decision making, doing works with confidence, awareness of education, health, society, participation in the social and political affairs and the women should get an important place in her family and society.

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Self Help Groups and women empowerment in Andhra Pradesh

Andhra Pradesh is one of the States in the country which stands as a pioneer State in terms of SHG movement based on micro credit. The State witnessed enormous steps in terms of women empowerment through SHGs. Being the participants of SHGs, women got empowered here in the three dimensions as economically, socially and politically. They got economic independence and financial security by the savings and micro credit through the self help groups. SHGs have now been viewed as dependable vehicles for the delivery of rural credit as a means for empowerment of rural women. Being older groups there is a greater amount of social emancipation among the members of the SHGs. Hence there is a need for evaluating the impact of SHGs on the social empowerment status of women members. Therefore this paper explores the social empowerment of Dalit women based on field research in Vizianagaram District of Andhra Pradesh.

Objective of the study

The study has been made with the objective to evaluate the social empowerment accruing the Dalit women members of the SHGs in Vizianagaram District of Andhra Pradesh.

Area of the study, Methodology and Data Analysis

Vizianagaram district of Andhra Pradesh is the area of the study. Vizianagaram District consisted with 2 revenue divisions with 34 mandals (Vizianagaram Revenue Division with 19 Mandals and Parvathipuram Revenue Division with 15 Mandals), and 928 Village Panchayatis. Out of the 34 mandals, the study has taken into account 2 mandals on the basis of random sampling. The concerned Mandals are Gurla and Gantyada. The study is an analytical and qualitative study. In this context, 20 SHGs were selected purposively (based on caste and age of SHG) in the study area and collected list of the SHGs in the

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SHGs help the women to empower, the change in their domestic and social status and sense of organizational bonding, the awakening of self-confidence and self-respect, social and political awareness; is a slow process and to achieve it, a member should have sufficient experience of well established and well run SHG. Therefore the impact of SHGs on the social empowerment of women members is highly connected with the time of involvement within the SHG. Thus, the sampling frames of SHG members who have been involved in the project for at least 6 years were selected. That means, persons who joined SHGs before 2008 were only included in the study for the impact assessment.

In order to collect their direct reflections on the impact of SHGs on social empowering women, a structured schedule was designed and Interview method was followed to collect significant primary data (qualitative) from the respondents regarding their socioeconomic profiles and perceptions about the impact of SHGs on their social empowerment status. Totally 100 women formed for sample.

Socio-Economic profiles of the Respondents

Socio-Economic profile or characteristics definitely have an impact on every aspect of individual’s life, particularly that of women and empowerment. Socio-Economic profile of the respondents includes; Age, Caste, Education, Marital Status, Occupation and Income level. So it is vital to every study as it helps in building a comprehensive and complete picture of the respondents. Therefore the study made an attempt to analyse profile of the respondents in the study area are presented here under:

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Age

Age is very important among the major characteristics that have to be given due attention during SHG formation. In the case of women it is more applicable. As per the programme manual, SHG, being a poor women’s empowerment association, gives membership priority to poor women; and the minimum age of eligibility for membership is 18. Therefore in this study the sample members selected 20 and above years only. Because of age and socio-economic activities are inter- related. Having understood these characteristic, the age of the respondents was studied and the responses were summarized.

It was found that the majority of the respondents 92.4 per cent were between ages 20 - 50 and they are actively participated in the SHGs activities and remaining (7.6%) were old aged (51-60 and above). The role of aged people’s also important for SHGs. Because they can only control and solve problems if any arise in the groups.

Caste

Basically this is a purposive study, so the respondents were selected based on their caste. Therefore all the respondents are belonging to Scheduled Caste.

Education

The members’ ability is taken into that they are able to read, write and perform basic arithmetic which is essential to ensure such a success. Although it is not the only factor, a lack of education is believed to be one of the major factors for unemployment and disempowerment. Thus, the respondents’ level of education was examined and the following was found out. As it is clearly shown in the study area, the rate of illiteracy among the respondents was 15.2 per cent and 27.4 per cent of the respondents have primary education 49.2

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Marital Status

In order to verify whether such a situation exists among members in the programme under the study, marital status was taken as one of the characteristics to be examined. The marital status is concerned, the respondents were found to be either married or widowed. It is found that majority of the respondents (74.8%) were married. In the case of widowed women (25.2%) respondents were found that who are shouldered the responsibility to maintain their families.

Type of Family

Information about the family of the respondents is compulsory to know. In a joint family, where many of the SHG members are responsible and working daily for the family, therefore size of the family has to be one of the most important characteristics to be examined to know who is the head of the family, how much is the family’s income and how much is used for consumption. Accordingly, the respondents’ family size and their family members’ age category were studied. The study found that nearly half of the SHG respondents belong to joint families with 42.8 per cent and 57.2% of the respondents’ were Nuclear.

Head of the Respondents’ Family

In spite of the fact that SHGs are female dominated groups, it is evident that the family leadership is the role of the man or shared responsibility with the woman. As it is found in the study, 54 per cent of the respondents’ families’ were male headed; and in families of 29 per cent of the respondents, household leadership solely remained as the responsibility of the women. Seventeen percent (17%) of the

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respondents replied that in their family, both spouses undertake household leadership together.

Occupation

As the impact of SHG members’ income was one of the major points to be assessed, therefore the source of family income is essential to assess. The study found that 16.4 per cent of the respondents’ are doing cultivation with very small land. More percentage of members was doing as agriculture labourer 34.2 and working as daily wage earners in building constructions or elsewhere with 25.8 per cent. Members having own petty business – Petty business with the loans of SHGs is 13.4 percent (means little shop to sell vegetables, household provisions, and tea shop etc.). Women started dairy farm (milk business) were 6.2 per cent and 2.4% were housewives and positions in Grama Panchayati were 1.6 per cent.

Income

Income is the major determinant of the standard of living of the people. As the purpose of this study is to assess the impact of SHG on their members through examination of the household economic status and the impact upon their livelihood will have paramount importance. In this regard the study shows that the major percentage of respondents 34.6 percent was medium income level, 56.8 per cent were in semi medium income group and remaining 6.2 per cent were low income group. Housewives (2.4%) did not earn anything but they contribute with low percentage in this study. Low level of income holders (6.2%) suffering a lot but being a member of the SHGs they are also gaining reasonably now. This increases the willingness to participate in the SHGs’ activities.

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Findings of the study

To analyze the impact of the social empowerment of women in the study area was assessed by measuring improvement in different social empowerment domains. They are: Improvement in financial position, literacy levels among women and girl child, awareness, self- confidence, participation in decision making, freedom from domination, freedom to mobility, and respect within the family and society etc.

Financial Position

It is found that financial position of members of SHGs has changed for the better since they joined SHG. Highest number of respondents 78.8 per cent accepted that SHGs has brought economic development directly and indirectly as economic security in the family. They said that they have opened savings accounts in bank after joining SHG and were having savings. Thus, they were able to avail loan against their savings and utilized in various income generating activities like dairy development, petty business shop, tailoring, tea stall etc. Some members invested money in making repairs to house as they thought that these were profitable investments for long term.

Literacy levels

As far as members’ ability to write the name is concerned, the researcher found that the respondents (15.2%) have learnt to sign after joining in SHGs.

Self-Awareness

After joining SHG, the members’ level of awareness about children’s education, banking, health, political and fields etc. has enhanced. It is found that almost of the women got realized the value of the education and all members thought that the next generation girls should have education, even if they could not get it. It is also found that larger percentage (65.2) of respondents who have school and college

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going children were reported an improvement in their awareness in the issues of their children’s education. In the context of awareness of Members about the banking 86.4 per cent they themselves operate their accounts frequently in the banks. As for the change in the level of awareness about health conscious, children’s vaccination and nutrition food intake was somehow better with increasing levels in 44 per cent and to some extent with 38.2 per cent. But the awareness of environmental hygiene is very low with 22.4 per cent. In fact, most of the members (79.6%) didn’t have any individual sanitary latrine facility. This is a major problem which is facing by women particularly in the study area. Family planning methods also following 13 per cent of the members those have necessary. They were much aware in this regard. Most of the members of SHGs are known about the precaution of HIV/AIDS because some awareness campaigns were conducted by the DRDA. Members of SHGs have much knowledge about their rights 86.4 percent and the participation in voting in election is very high percentage (100%) among members. They were well informed about their local leaders and some knowledge about the Nation’s political affairs. They even knew the legal age of marriage for boys and girls, dates of election as well as the nominated candidates. The members felt that they were able to decide independently whom to vote and elect without any pressure from family.

Self Confidence

It is found that 78.4 per cent members stated that they were more confident after joining the SHGs. Out of the total respondents, 55 per cent expressed that they could talk freely now that means without any fear and 45 per cent partially. In the point regarding interaction with official from Government or bank could meet more than one official easily by the respondents. They reported a positive influence on confidence level in dealing with people (strangers/ outsiders like the researcher of the study, teachers, programme coordinating staff, etc.)

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and institutions (banks, NGO, government agencies, etc.). 95.2 per cent of the respondents opined that they react with positive attitude even to face financial crisis. This shows that after joining the SHGs the confidence has increased remarkably.

Decision making power

The membership in SHGs gave importance to women in the family decisions. More respondents have said that their control over their own lives has improved and they have a greater role in making decisions about themselves than before. The respondents were asked to indicate who the key family member was deciding on household maintenance, family planning, education of children, voting in elections and financial matters etc. As the responses shows, on all the points more members 37.8 per cent said that they take decisions individually, 36.7 stated jointly with their husbands and only 24.2 said that men in the family will decide.

Freedom from domination and improvement in respect within the family and society

Most of the group members 61.2 per cent invariably experienced a change in the attitude of their husbands and other family members. Further it is found that most women (51.2%) felt that after their participation in SHGs they are more respected in their families. All the group members felt that SHG itself was very prestigious and joining it had improved their status in the society. Because of their membership in SHGs only, local leaders, officials and other institution people were respecting them. Even the Bank managers were also talking politely by giving them respect and sanctioning their loans easily, having less paper work and without any complications.

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Freedom to travel

Frequency of travelling out of the village is quite improved. This may not be directly a result of being a SHG member since travel is affected by the nature of occupation of the member, environment within the household, etc. Mainly the frequency of travelling (96.8%) has been improved to take loans and repayments to the banks and trainings from DRDA, SERP likewise.

Political participation

The findings show that the voting and political participation in elections is better than before. According to present study 1.6 per cent of the members have a post (as ward members) in the Gram Panchayat. 40 per cent of the respondents participate regularly in the Gram Sabha. A larger percent (100%) of the members voted in Gram Panchayat, state and national elections.

Conclusion

SHGs are the key instruments in women’s empowerment. It was found out that SHGs had played very important role in empowering women by strengthening their earning ability, boosting their self- confidence and promoting regular savings. Thus the participants had economic security, easy credit accessibility, better decision making in family, given freedom from domination, increased mobility and improved political knowledge. Membership of SHGs enhanced women’s bargaining power and helps them negotiate with superior strength in community institution. Women’s participation in the SHGs enabled them to discover inner strength, made them as decision makers, confident, improved their awareness. The greater percentage of women were impacted positively by being members of SHGs. Therefore women’s mutual support is a necessary condition of their empowerment. SHGs have proved that, alone, individual women may not develop their potential or make their full contribution because

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SHGs had provided women a common platform to fulfil their requirements, to discuss and solve their individual, common and community problems. Therefore collectivity is the secret of success in the case of SHGs.

Since this study was conducted, even sample from small geographical areas could have given a better picture of the Vizianagaram District. Totally the study concludes with a positive result which is found by the researcher is marginalized (scheduled caste) women got socially empowered by the impact of SHGs. In this context, the study recommend that Women SHGs formation especially in marginalized community (Scheduled Caste) of rural area should be encouraged; capacity building of the members should be ensured. Govt. should provide interest free loans to SHG to help them come out of poverty.

References

1. Census of India, 2001. 2. Census of India, 2011. 3. Census of India, 1991 and Seminar on Ambedakar, New Delhi, 1991.

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MAULANA ABUL KALAM AZAD AS AN EDUCATIONIST

Suzain Rashid Assistant Professor Department of Education Govt. Degree College, Baramulla

“Schools are the laboratories which produce the future citizens of a State.”

Maulana Azad

Introduction

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad a great debater, was born on 11.11.1888. He was educated on Islamic lines especially from his father in Calcutta. He finished his formal education early at the age of 16. He was a revolutionist and one of the great leaders of pre and post independent India. As a researcher, he promoted with great devotion, the cause of Hindu-Muslim harmony and opposed the partition brought on communal lines. Though informally educated, he acquired expertise in several languages, including Urdu, Arabic, English, Persian, Bengali and Hindi, He studied various subjects like Mathematics, Philosophy, History and Science. From a very young age he had great literary tastes. He edited weekly Al-Misbah, Paigam, Al Balag Al-Jamai, Al- Nadwa and also published a monthly Journal called Lissan-us-sidq.

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad was India’s first Minister for Education and was one of the most renowned members of the constituent assembly. He played an important role in framing our national policies after we achieved independence. As a member of the Lok Sabha, where he was elected in 1952 and 1957, he not only helped in formulating India’s Economic and Industrial Policies but also advocated for according social rights and economic opportunities for

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women and under-privileged people. In 1956, he served as the President of the UNESCO General Conference held in Delhi. As a Minister of Education, Maulana Azad made unique contribution and stressed on the necessity of laying down policies and programmes for the swift, all round and comprehensive development of the educational setup in the country.

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad as Nationalist

Maulana Azad “was greatly instrumental in persuading the Muslim representatives in the Assembly to give up the demand for communal electorate and strongly advocated that the principle of Secularism should be enshrined in the Constitution along with religious freedom and equality for all Indians.” Somnath Chatterjee

Educational Philosophy

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, a great philosopher, spiritual leader, theologian, historian and a prominent politician was a person of learning. M.K Gandhi, says, "I consider him as a person of the calibre of Plato, Aristotle and Pythagoras. He is the great authority on history."

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad considered education as a birth right of the man which India realised on 1st April 2010. He believed that education is a process leading to the harmonious development in order to develop a 'complete man'. He stressed that education must emancipate a person in order to widen his horizon of knowledge. The major function of education is not only to create a skilled person which is also an essential for the development of country but to understand and realise the essence of the universe and the ultimate reality. The ultimate goal of education is self realisation. He believed that education would give a man access to knowledge which in turn would enable him to live in harmony with his environment. At the practical level he said that a training in special skills would give him the capability to earn his livelihood.

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Fivefold programme of Education

While addressing the meeting of the Central Advisory Board of Education, on 15 March 1952, Maulana Azad highlighted the fivefold programme for the development of education in the country. These were:

1. Universal compulsory basic education for all children of school age, 2. Social education for our adult illiterates, 3. Measures for improvement in the quality of and expansion of facilities for secondary and higher education, 4. Technical and scientific education on a scale adequate to the nation’s needs, and 5. Measures for the enrichment of the cultural life of the community by encouraging the arts and providing facilities for recreation and other amenities. However, we are unfortunately still to reach the goal and to fulfil what Maulana Azad laid down as the objectives of the country’s educational policy towards the general progress of the country.

Education for Harmony

Education today is fighting with conflict-ridden, sectarian and regional sentiments. The world in general and India in particular is faced with a difficult task of combating such tendencies while teaching in schools, colleges and universities. The teaching of history, geography, anthropology and culture is a major challenge confronting to all institutions engaged in this task. As a great believer in secular politics and treating Indian constitutional set up as wholly secular, he observed, while delivering the Convocation Address at Aligarh Muslim University in February 1949 that, “I think you will agree that the educational set-up for a secular and democratic state must be secular. It should provide for all citizens of the state the same type of education without any distinction. It should have its own intellectual flavour and

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its own national character. It should have as its aim the ideal of human progress and prosperity. The Indian Union has set before itself such a scheme of common education for all without distinction or discrimination in favour of any community or group”.

Free and Compulsory Basic Education

Maulana Azad believed and said “a good school is a national asset of the highest value at any place or at any time. Schools are the laboratories which produce the future citizens of a State. The quality of the State therefore depends upon the quality of such laboratories. In the context of modern India the importance of good schools is even greater. On the one hand, we have vast illiteracy and on the other, almost unbounded opportunities”.

The important aspect in current perspective is his passion for free and compulsory education. When he addressed the meeting of the Central Advisory Board of Education in January, 1949 he summarised the approach of the Government towards education. He stated that “the first and foremost duty of the Government is the provision of free and compulsory basic education for all" and he envisaged that universal compulsory basic education could be introduced within a period of 16 years by two five-year and one six- year plans. As the Minister of Education, he particularly stressed on the importance of basic education for the future welfare of the people.

Madrasa Education

MHRD tried to constitute a Madarsa Board, stating that it will modernize Madarsa education and enable Madarsa graduates for Government employment. However, the idea was criticised and it was envisaged as meddling in the internal dealings of the community. Maulana Azad was serious about the obsolete curriculum of the Madarsa and made several attempts to bring about meaningful changes in this area. He unswervingly requested to the concerned to be aware

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and receptive to the demands of the age and reorganize your curriculum by including the modern sciences. In today’s Islamic context and also with the new initiative of the MHRD, the Madrasa Education has its bearing in the setting of fast changing socio-economic demands of the Muslim community.

Medium of Instruction

The medium of instruction was another debatable issue which Azad had to resolve as the first minister of education in independent India. Even in 1956, Maulana Azad was aggrieved to find that these issues were planted for the unhealthy purpose of sowing the seeds of dissension among people. On this question of Medium of Instruction he articulated the Government’s proposal as early as in August 1948 that “a child should be instructed, in the early stage of his education, through the medium of the mother tongue as has been accepted by the Government as its policy”. According to him any exit from this attitude was bound to be detrimental to the child. He further believed that "if within a state there are people speaking in different languages, any attempt to adopt one language as the medium of instruction will lead to dissatisfaction and resentment and “will affect inter-provincial relations and set up vicious circles of retaliation,” and thereby provincialism will grow and Indian nationalism will suffer.” Azad firmly believed that provincial languages need to be developed to serve the purpose of medium of instruction, going ahead he pointed out that “the experiment of imparting instruction in the mother tongue up to the matriculation standard has already been tried with success and the time has come when the process must be extended further and all education in the land made accessible to the people in their own language.”

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Adult Education

As the Minister of Education Maulana considered basic education for the future welfare of the people as of prime importance. He emphasized on the importance of the speedy progress of adult education and observed that without an educated electorate, democracy cannot perform the functions expected of it. Therefore, he wanted that the scope of adult education should also include provision for social education.

Women Education

Education of women was of major concern for him. Women should be given the same opportunities for intellectual development, equal rights and responsibilities in life and should be regarded as citizens with the same rights and obligations. All educational programme will ultimately depend upon the proper education of women. If women take to education, more than half of our problems will be solved. Educated mothers will mean children who can be easily made literate and educated. Providing education to women giving them freedom and forcing them conformity to the veil will not only be useless but injurious and harmful. In 1949, in the Central Assembly he emphasized on the importance of imparting instruction in modern sciences and knowledge and also observed that “no programme of national education can be appropriate if it does not give full consideration to the education and advancement of one-half of the society- that is the women”.

He wanted that moral, spiritual and religious education should be imparted to women as they inculcate and develop higher values of life in their children. He was critical of the domination of women by men. He wanted equal place for women in society. Maulana Azad gave special stress on the teaching of modern sciences and also on the education of women.

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It is also necessary to take urgent measures to ensure gender- parity in education by educating the families and communities about the benefits of girls’ education by providing incentives to enrol and retain the girls in schools.

Village Schools

Maulana Azad had also stressed on the necessity of setting up village schools which would not only be places of instruction for the village children, but also centres of community life in the villages. His proposal was that in the village schools, practical training would be given in some craft in order to improve the economic status of the villagers and to organize sports and other forms of recreation for increasing their social and community sense. He gave the greatest stress to the spread of education and observed that, “we in India also will not allow considerations of financial stringency to hold up for a day longer than is absolutely necessary, the programme of universal, compulsory and free basic education, which is essential for building up the free and democratic India of our dreams.”

As the Minister of Education of free India, he felt that two tasks were of paramount urgency.

 The first was the creation of nation-wide system of Basic Education for all children of school going age;

 The second, the provision of facilities of the highest type of education in the technical field. One of the first decisions that he took as Minister of Education was that the Government must improve the facilities for higher technical education in the country, so that we could ourselves meet most of our needs. He gave urgent importance to the establishment of four institutions of the standard of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. At the Opening Session of the Indian Institute of Technology at Kharagpur on 18 August, 1951, he observed that the

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Institute must provide instruction of the highest standard, under the supervision of recognized authorities in their respective fields and that only men of the highest quality should be in charge of the different departments. Maulana Azad further stressed on the importance of providing facilities for research at the different institutions established and to be established in the country.

It is because of his efforts the Planning Commission had recommended, in consultation with the Ministry of Education, the adoption of selective approach through the organization of community projects, which aimed at the development of improved methods and techniques in the fields of primary, secondary, technical and teacher education.

Commitment to Science and Technology

One of the issues he held dear was education with an emphasis on scientific and technical education which he felt was indispensable for the development of a country. Maulana Azad’s commitment to modern scientific and technical education is important to recall even today, particularly in the context of Islam, where a debate is being held whether modern science is Islamic enough for the believers or they need to have their own brand of Islamic science. Maulana Azad had categorically pointed out at several places in his writings, particularly in the Tarjuman, that we cannot expect the facts of history and science in the Quran. He said, “The aim of the Quran, is to invite the attention of man to his power and wisdom and not to make an exposition of the creation of the universe”.

For the development in science and technology, following institutions were established during his regime.

Scientific Research Institute, Institute of Atomic Development, Indian Council for Agriculture and Scientific Research, Indian Council for Medical Research, Indian Council for Historical Research, Indian

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Council for Social Science Research, Institute of International Studies in Suproo House.

Institutionalizing Art and Culture

No education at any level is complete without art and culture. He repeatedly emphasized the significance of culture and heritage while formulating his educational policies. While opening an art exhibition in Delhi, he said “Art is an education of emotions and is thus an essential element in any scheme of truly national education. Education, whether at the secondary or at the university stage, cannot be regarded as complete if it does not train our faculties to the perception of beauty.” He wrote in one of his letters that “Beauty, whether in sound, or in face, whether in the Taj Mahal, or Nishat Bagh, beauty is beauty…and it has its natural demands. Pity that miserable soul whose insensitive heart did not learn how to respond to the call of beauty!” It was this commitment of Azad which prompted him to set up most of the art and culture academies, soon after the attainment of freedom. For the promotion of art and culture following institutions were established during his timeand he was the chairman of all these institutions.

Indian Council for Cultural Relations, Sahatiya Academy, Sangeet Academy, Lalit Academy

Curriculum

Broad based, life centred and realistic, Following subjects should be taught at early stage: Science, Morality and religion, History Civics, Languages, cultural heritage, art, creative education and guidance.

Approaches to Teaching

Following methods of teaching were advocated by Maulana Azad.

1. Freedom 2. Experience 3. Activity Varity

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Conclusion

Maulana Azad gave emphasis to universalization of education of highest standard and there should be not only village schools but also schools which will impart best form of education and that proper emphasis should be given to the education of women. He laid utmost emphasis on importance of secular education and the importance of education in moulding the character of our young citizens. Today, we appreciate that great leaders of our country like Maulana Azad not only dreamt of a fully literate India but also of competent citizenry and laid the foundation for the progress of the country on the appropriate direction. We are unfortunately still to reach the goal and to fulfil what he laid down as the objectives of the country’s educational policy for the all round progress of the country. Let us all take a pledge to complete the task which he laid down for the country’s progress and which still remains to be fully achieved. Swami Vivekananda says, “Education … is a process of man-making, character-forming and life-building assimilation of ideas.” Only through education we can equip ourselves to face the challenges of life and only a good educational system can establish a healthy relationship between the individual and the society. It is education, which makes us better citizens and inculcates in us virtues of broad-mindedness, obedience, dedication, empathy and understanding.

In spite of our achievements in various fields, India still has the largest number of illiterates in the world and there is wide disparity between the opportunities available to the rich and poor, literate and illiterate or semi- illiterate, urban and rural people and between men and women. There is not only inadequately large section of illiterate population; there is also a major unfulfilled demand for quality education at every level of learning and research.

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The country has great expectations from its youth to bring in the freshness of their approach along with youthful energy and passion to address the deficiencies in the institutions of democracy and specially in our educational system. They have to realize their obligations and become more proactive participants at each level which can only be achieved through value-based education. We shall be paying true tribute to Maulana Azad if we continue to carry out the policies and programmes effectively that he laid down as India’s first Education Minister and we shall succeed only when we will be able to produce committed, responsible, disciplined, well- integrated and socially sensitive citizens who will be assets of our society. Till then the endeavour should continue and that will be paying true homage to one of our outstanding leaders- Maulana Abul Kalam Azad.

References

1. A letter to Syed Suleiman Nadavi, Letter No. 11 in Ghulam Rasool Mehar, ed., Tabarrukat-I-Azad, Adabi Duniya, (Delhi,1963). 2. A letter written from Ranchi, 20th May 1919, Azad Papers, NMML. 3. Al-Balagh, February 25 1916. 4. Al-Hilal, August 5 1927. 5. Al-Hilal, Vol. I, No.9, September 8,1912. 6. Al-Hilal, Vol.1, No.16, November 6, 1912 7. Azad, India Wins Freedom, Orient Longman, Delhi, 1988 p. 3 (The institution of piri-muridi was preceded by the notion of Beit in order to express allegiance to the Khalifa and subsequently any ruler, which in due course of time became the hall mark of Sufic practices. 8. Azad’s letter to Hakeem Mohammad Ali Tabeeb , 11th June 1902 in Malik Ram ed., Khutoot Abul Kalam Azad, Vol.1, Sahitya Academy, (Delhi,1991), pp. 22-23, cited by Rizwan Qaiser in the present volume.

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9. Azad’s letter to Hakeem Mohammad Ali Tabeeb, 11th June 1902 in Malik Ram ed., Khutoot Abul Kalam Azad, Vol.1, Sahitya Academy, (Delhi,1991). 10. B.R. Nanda, Gandhi, Pan-Islamism, Imperialism and India Nationalism, Oxford University Press, (Bombay, 1989). 11. CF Andrews, Zakaullah of Delhi, London, 1929. 12. Cited in `Is Music Haraam?’ Al-Balaagh, Vol.28, No.1, Feb/March 2003. 13. Convocation Address at Patna University, December 21, 1947. 14. G. Rasool Abduh, The Educational Ideas of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, New Delhi, 1973; 15. G.O.I., Home Political A., proceedings Nos., 180-192 Nov.1919. 16. Ghubaar-i-Khatir cited in A S K Joommal, `Music and Islam’, Al- Balaagh, Vol. 28 No.3, Aug/Sep 2003. 17. Ghubar-Khatir. 18. Government of India, Home Department Pol. Deposit proceedings, May 1915, No. 36. 19. Home Political. A. Feb.1915, No. 178-292. 20. Ian Henderson Douglas, Abul Kalam Azad An intellectual and religious biography, New Delhi, 1988. 21. Ian Henderson Douglas, Abul Kalam Azad: An Intellectual and Religious Biography, Oxford University Press, (Delhi, 1988 ). 22. Inaugural address at the First All India Conference on Letters, New Delhi, March 15, 1951. 23. Inaugural speech at the Symposium on the Concept of Man and the Philosophy of Education in the East and West, New Delhi, December 13, 1951, in Speeches of Maulana Azad; Joommal, A S K, Al-Balaagh, supplement to August/September, 1985. 24. James Piscatori,, Islam in a World of Nation- States, Cambridge University Press, (Cambridge,1986). 25. Jamshed Qamar ed. Maulana Azad ka Qeyam Ranchi, Ahwal wa Aasar, Maulana Azad Study Circle, Ranchi, 1994.

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26. K G Saiyidain, Philosophy of Education, in Syeda Saiyidain Hameed, India’s Maulana, ICCR and Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, 1990. 27. Kaiwar, Vasant, ‘Science, Capitalism, and Islam’, South Asia Bulletin, Vol. xii, No 2, 1992; 28. Letter addressed to Mohiuddin Ahmad Qusuri in Qamar Astan Khan ed., Maulana Azad aur Madaris Islamia, Nadwatul Ulema kai Tareekh ka ek Baab, Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library, Patna, 1992. 29. Letter of Azad to Sardar Patel, February 10, 1947. 30. Marble plaque placed on the wall of this Madrsa, which was covered with posters in utter disregard to its historical importance. On the insistence of the author these were removed, which made it possible to take photographs for the record. 31. Maulana Azad’s address to the annual meeting of the Anjuman-i- Islamia 3-4 November 1918 at Ranchi, in Jamshed Qamar ed. Maulana Azad ka Qeyam Ranchi, Ahwal wa Aasar, Maulana Azad Study Circle, Ranchi, 1994. 32. Presidential address, The Indian National Congress, March 1940, Ramgarh. 33. Qawati-faisal, Al-Balagh Press, Calcutta, 1921, cited in Abduhu. 34. Rajat K. Ray, ‘Revolutionaries, Pan-Islamists and Bolshevists: M.A.K. Azad and Political Underworld of Calcutta’ in Mushirul Hasan ed., Communal and Pan-Islamic Trends in Colonial India, Manohar, (Delhi, 1985). 35. Speeches of Maulana Azad, Press Conference, February 18, 1947. 36. Suhail Azimabadi, “Maulana Azad Ranchi Mein”, in Azad Number of Payam-i- Watan, (Delhi, 1977). 37. The Constituent Assembly, 1948, p.1952. 38. The source of Maulana Azad’s Philosophy of Education is the Maharaja Sayajirao Memorial Lectures, University of Baroda delivered by Dr. K.G. Saiyidain in 1961. 39. V. N. Datta, Maulana Azad, Manohar, Delhi, 1990. 40. Welcome address at the inauguration of the Indian Academy of Dance, Drama and Music, New Delhi, January 28, 1953.

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A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ATTITUDES OF EDUCATED AND UNEDUCATED PARENTS TOWARDS GIRLS’ EDUCATION IN VISAKHAPATNAM DISTRICT OF ANDHRA PRADESH Dr. M.A. Zulfikar Ali Assistant Professor Department of Education Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh, India INTRODUCTION

According to Aristotle, education means “creation of sound mind in a sound body.” Education develops man’s mind so that he may be able to enjoy the contemplation of supreme truth, goodness and beauty. There are different views about education from different philosophers and different educationists.

Education is very important to every person. Education is the right of not only men but women as well. Female education is the need of the hour. Without educating the women of the country we can’t hope for a developed nation. Women plays a vital role in the all round progress of a country. If we want to make democracy successful, women must be educated. They are the real builders of happy homes.

SIGNIFICANCE AND NEED OF THE STUDY

The educated parents feel that education of girls should be encouraged, while the illiterate parents differ in their attitudes. Some are interested in sending their girls to schools. Others feel that education for girls is not needed because they have to learn household work. So it is a waste to spend money on girls’ education. According to the census of India, the graphs reveal that the percentage of educated women is very low in our country than men. Generally there is a negative attitude towards education of girls. But the girl’s education is the need of the hour. Hence this study on the attitude of girl’s education is undertaken.

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STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

The problem under study was “A comparative study of attitudes of educated and uneducated parents towards girls’ education in Visakhapatnam District of Andhra Pradesh”.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

Following were the main objectives of the study:

1. To find out the extent of attitudes of educated parents and uneducated parents towards girls education in Visakhapatnam District.

2. To find out the significant difference between the attitudes of educated and uneducated fathers who are resident of Visakhapatnam District.

3. To find out the significant difference between the attitudes of educated and uneducated mothers who are resident of Visakhapatnam District.

4. To suggest some ways and means to improve the environment of education in Visakhapatnam District.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

1. The study may be significant because the results of this study may provide a guide line to make efforts for the promotion of the education of girls.

2. The study may be helpful in determining the attitudes of parents towards the education of girls.

3. The study may become a baseline for other researchers regarding promotion of attitude of parents towards the education of girls.

4. This study may be helpful in changing the negative attitudes of parents towards the education of girls.

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LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

Following were the main limitations of the study

1. Only attitude scale was used as a tool of research for the measurement of attitudes.

2. Attitude scale was constructed by the researcher himself and was not standardized due to constraints of time and resource.

METHODOLOGY

POPULATION

All the parents residing in Visakhapatnam District Comprised the population of the study.

SAMPLE

A representative sample of 50 fathers and 50 mothers was selected randomly from rural and urban areas of Visakhapatnam District. Out of these 50 fathers 25 were illiterate and 25 were educated. Similar was the case of females.

INSTRUMENT

Likert type attitude scale was used in the study. The scale had two types of items, one showing positive attitude and the others showing negative attitude. These two types of items were intermixed in the scale.

In case of uneducated parents, the researcher read each and every statement before the parents.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

The items of the scale were scored according the statistical procedures. The procedure was as under:

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S.No. Scoring Key +Ve -Ve A Strongly Agree 5 1 B Agree 4 2 C Undecided 3 3 D Disagree 2 4 E Strongly Disagree 1 5 The data thus collected was arranged and analyzed. For the purpose of analysis and comparison relevant statistical methods were used. For calculating significant difference between two means like educated and uneducated fathers, mothers, T – Test was used as statistical technique.

PRESENATATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

The data was printed in the form of tables. For analysis statements are given under each table along with relevant interpretation.

Table 1 Mean attitude scores and standard deviation along with t – value of educated male urban parents and educated female parents.

Standard Variable N Mean T- Value P- Value Deviation Educated 25 Urban 4.20 0.23 Males Educated Urban 25 4.50 0.20 -1.72 0.21 Females The above table – 1 shows that the mean attitude scores of educated male urban and educated female urban are 4.20, 4.50 and standard deviation is 0.23 and 0.20 respectively. The t- value of – 1.72 is less than table value, so Ho is retained. It means that there is no significant difference between the attitude of educated male urban and educated female urban towards education of their daughters.

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Table – 2 Mean attitude scores and standard deviation along with t- value of educated male rural parents and educated female rural parents.

Standard Variable N Mean t- value P- Value Deviation Educated 25 3.80 0.82 Rural Males Educated 25 4.30 0.45 2.98 0.41 Rural Females The above table – 2 shows that the mean attitude scores of educated male rural and educated female rural are 3.80 and 4.30 and standard deviation is 0.82 and 0.45 respectively. The t- value of -2.98 is

greater than table value, So Ho is rejected. It means that there is significant difference between the attitude of educated male rural and educated female rural towards education of their daughters.

Table – 3 Mean attitude scores and standards deviation along with t- value of uneducated male urban parents and uneducated female urban parents.

Standard Variable N Mean t- value P- Value Deviation Uneducated 25 3.00 1.12 Rural Males Uneducated 25 3.50 0.90 2.38 0.01 Rural Females The above table – 3 shows that the mean attitude scores of uneducated male urban and uneducated female urban are 3.00, 3.50 and standard deviation is 1.12 and 0.90 respectively. The t- value of

2.38 is greater than table value, So Ho is rejected. It means that there is significant difference between the attitude of uneducated male urban and uneducated female urban towards education of their daughters.

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Table – 4: Mean attitude scores and standard deviation along with t- value of uneducated male rural parents and uneducated female rural parents.

Standard Variable N Mean t- value P- Value Deviation Educated 25 2.50 0.70 Rural Males Uneducated 25 2.75 0.42 -1.25 0.41 Rural Females The above table – 4 shows that the mean attitude scores of uneducated male rural and uneducated female rural are 2.50, 2.75 and standard deviation is 0.70 and 0.42 respectively. The t- value of -1.25 is less than table value, So Ho is retained. It means that there is no significant difference between the attitude of uneducated male rural and uneducated female rural towards education of their daughters.

Table – 5: Mean attitude scores and standard deviation along with t- value of educated and uneducated male and female rural parents.

Standard Variable N Mean t- value P- Value Deviation Educated 50 4.35 0.22 Rural Males and Female Educated 50 4.50 0.64 -1.40 0.19 Rural Males and Female Uneducated 50 3.25 1.05 Rural Males and Female Uneducated 50 2.12 0.57 0.24 21 Rural Males and Female

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The above table - 5 shows that the mean attitude scores of all educated male and female parents are 4.35, 4.50 and standard deviation is 0.22 and 0.64 respectively. The t- value of 1.40 is less than table value

So Ho is retained. It means that there is no significance difference between the attitude of educated male and educated female towards education of their daughters. Similarly the mean attitude scores of all uneducated and educated female parents are 3.25, 2.12 and standard deviation is 1.05 and 0.57 respectively.

The t-value of 0.24 is greater than table value, so Ho is rejected. It means that there is significant difference between the attitude of uneducated male and uneducated female parents towards education of their daughters.

FINDINGS

Following were the main findings of the study

1. No significant difference was found between the attitude of educated male urban and educated female urban towards education of their daughters (Table - 1).

2. There was significant difference between the attitude of educated male rural and educated female rural towards education of their daughters (Table - 2).

3. No significant difference was found between the attitude of uneducated male urban and uneducated female urban towards education of their daughters (Table - 3).

4. No significant difference was found between the attitude of uneducated male rural and uneducated female rural towards education of their daughters (Type - 4).

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5. There was significant difference between the attitude of educated males and female parents towards education of their daughter (Table - 5).

6. Significant difference was found between the attitude of uneducated male and female parents towards education of their daughter (Table - 5).

7. Significant difference is there among the means score of educated and uneducated respondent. The means scores of educated parents are 4.35, 4.50. Whereas uneducated parents have means scores of 3.25 and 2.12 respectively.

References

1. Bhagya Lakshmi, L, Attitude of rural parents towards girls education, Edu tracks, Vol – 7, No – 2, Oct. 2007

2. Buch, M.B., Chief Editor (1997), V Survey of educational Research, New Delhi, NCERT.

3. Good, Carter. V (1959) Dictionary of Education, Mcgraw Hill Company, New York.

4. Ruch J.C. (1984) Psychology the Personal Science. Wardsworth Publishing Company, Belmont California.

5. Ruth Hawkins. (1975). The odds against women in women on campus. The unfinished.

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A STUDY OF ICT SKILL OF THE PUPIL TEACHERS IN RELATION TO THEIR GENDER AND GROUPS OF STUDY

Dr.B.C. Shah Dr. Geeta Rawat Shah Assistant, Professor, B.Ed Assistant, Professor, Sociology Govt. P.G. College, Gpoeshwar Govt. P.G. College Gopeshwar Chamoli,Uttrakhand Chamoli,Uttrakhand

Introduction

Teaching is an important process between teacher and students. Teaching is something one does, not something one studies. Today it is not merely giving information; it is concerned with causing the students to learn. It is a series of acts carried out by a teacher and guided by the formation of teaching tasks in a normalized instrumental situation. Teaching is a unique professional, rational and human activity in which teachers creatively and imaginatively use themselves and their knowledge to promote the learning and welfare of the students. When a teaching is perfect it means the content is going to proceed in smooth way in the class and class learning is proper. A good teaching process needs skillful teacher, so that the teacher must have introduced the new technology for effective teaching.

Today in an era of technology, uses of ICT for imparting the information to the students is very important and useful for every teacher because a teacher has a great role in teaching-learning process. If the computer skill of the teachers is perfect then they can use new ICT trends in the teaching to emphasize the learner centered learning. Balacheff (1993) forwarded that ICT is promoting new approaches to working & learning and new ways of interacting. World Education Report (1998) described the radical implications of have, for conventional teaching and learning. It predicts the transformation of

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the teaching-learning and the way teachers and learners gain access to knowledge and information. Srivastava & Others (2013) Stated that ICT has been accepted as a tool for teaching and learning, the medium through which teachers can teach and learner can learn in easiest way with interest. Forcheri and Molfino( 2000) forwarded that ICT can also be used to promote collaborative learning, including role playing, group problem solving activities and articulated projects. A great deal of research and development has been conducted in order to bring Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to its current state of art. ICT was originally intended to serve as a means of improving efficiency in educational process.

ICT skill

The term of ICT refers to forms of technology that are used to transmit, store, create, display, share or exchange information by electronic means. ICT includes such technology as radio, television, DVD, telephone, satellite system, computer and services associated with these technologies, such as video conferencing, email and blogs. ICT skill is used to know about the various fundamental aspects of computer with technology and basic skill involved in the use of computer with all these technologies. It also includes the applications of ICT in teaching and learning process. Teacher is now expected not only to include knowledge regarding the content of the subject in the class room but also expected to create the interest of enhance the creativity and thinking of the students. The knowledge of computer and use of computer with other technical device is the ICT based skill of the teachers. Steve Wheeler (2000) explained that Rapid changes in technology will ensure that ICT will proliferate in the classroom. It is predicted that there will be many benefits for both the learner and the teacher, including the promotion of shared working space and resources, better access to information, the promotion of collaborative learning and radical new ways of teaching and learning. ICT will also

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require in modification of the role of the teacher, who in addition to classroom teaching will have other skills and responsibilities. Many will become specialists in the use of distributed learning techniques, the design and development of shared working spaces and resources, and virtual guides for students who use electronic media. Ultimately, the use of ICT skill will enhance the learning experiences of children; helping them to think and communicate creatively through teacher.

Need and importance of study

The purpose of teaching is to prepare the teacher for life by imparting the necessary knowledge and skills. Learner needs to be developed holistically to make a right use of knowledge and skills. The teacher has to promote every learner to feel the situation, to think independently, critically and even creatively to take right decision and solve his problems. Yusuf (2005) forwarded that ICTs have the potential to innovate, accelerate, enrich, and deepen skills; to motivate and engage students; to help relate school experience to work practices, create economic viability for tomorrow's workers, as well as strengthening teaching and helping schools change. Today, we already come across the e-learning; it is the learning process which helps the learner to know about the subject, in which he wants to learn with the help of the latest technology of the computer. Rajasekhar and Raja (2008) in his unique study conducted in Teachers’ computer knowledge contributed to the field of computer education and found that the majority of the teachers have low level of computer knowledge. Kellenberger and Hendricts (2000) state that a teacher generally uses a computer for preparing examination paper, syllabus, data and statistics, notes for presentation, tying clerical matters and as a mode of communication with parents, students and colleagues. Thus, the Present case study is to know the ICT skill of pupil teachers and then to emphasize the need of computer knowledge, use of internet, working in webbed processor for teacher to communicate the information. So,

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Objectives

The objectives of the study to know the ICT skill of Pupil teachers of B.Ed class from Government Post Graduate College Gopeshwar (Chamoli) is as follows:

1. To measure the level of Information Communication Technology skill of the pupil teachers.

2. To find out the difference of ICT skill between Male and Female pupil teachers.

3. To find out the difference of ICT skill between Art and Science group pupil teachers.

Hypothesis

1. There is no significant difference between Male and Female pupil teachers regarding to their ICT skill.

2. There is no significant difference between Arts and Science group pupil teachers regarding to their ICT skill.

Research Methodology

A case study method of research was used for the present research. ICT Skill is dependent variable and independent variables were type of Gender and academic groups as art and science.

Sample

The sample was all B.Ed. pupil teachers of Govt. P.G. College Gopeshwar, affiliated to H.N.B. Garhwal University, Srinagar Garhwal. All 140 pupil teachers of this college were selected by purposive

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Table-1

Gender & Group wise detail of the Samples

Gender Groups Total Male Female Art 32 46 78 Science 34 28 62 Total 66 74 140

Tool Used

The tool of this study, ICT Skill Inventory was constructed and validated by the researcher. The tool consists of 60 items to reply the questions and the questions belong to content which shows the ICT skill of pupil teachers. Data were collected through direct interaction to the pupil teachers with used the computer and Internet. There were three responses for each item as know very well, something know and don’t know. The marks distribution of the responses as ‘2’ for know very well, ‘1’ for something know and ‘0’ for don’t know. The total maximum score will be 120 and minimum will be 0. The observed scores divided in three levels which shows Unsatisfactory, Average and Satisfactory level. The scores within 0-40 shows unsatisfactory skill, Scores within 41-80 shows average skill and finally, scores within 81- 120 shows the Satisfactory level of skill for knowledge and uses of ICT.

Reliability & validity

The reliability of the tool was .81, calculated by split half method. The test has construct validity as the items were selected by following the rigid item analysis procedure. Its intrinsic validity is 0.90, so “ICT Skill Inventory” is valid and reliable for the study.

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Statistical techniques Used

In this case study, both of descriptive and inferential statistics were employed for analysis of data. The descriptive statistics such as mean & standard deviation and the inferential statistics such as only t- test were used.

Analysis and Interpretation

Table-2

The distribution of the Level of ICT skill of pupil teachers according to obtained scores

Gender wise analysis Group wise analysis Level of Male Female Art Science ICT Skills No. % No. % No. % No. % Satisfactory 05 7.58 04 5.41 03 3.85 06 9.68 Average 25 37.88 17 22.97 16 20.51 26 41.93 Unsatisfacto 36 54.54 53 59 75.64 30 48.39 ry 71.62 66 100. 74 100. 78 100. 62 100. Total (A) 00 (B) 00 (C) 00 (D) 00 A+B=140 C+D=140

An analysis of table-2, shows that 7.58% male pupil teachers have satisfactory level, 37.88% male pupil teachers have Average level and 54.54% male pupil teachers have unsatisfactory level of ICT Skill but the 5.41% female pupil teachers have satisfactory level, 22.97% female teachers have Average level and 71.62% female pupil teachers have unsatisfactory level of ICT Skill. The table also shows that 3.85%, 20.51% and 75.64% pupil teachers from arts group have satisfactory, average and unsatisfactory level of ICT Skill respectively but 9.68%, 41.93% and 48.39% pupil teachers from science group have satisfactory, average and unsatisfactory level of ICT Skill respectively.

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Hence, it can be concluded that only few numbers of male and female pupil teachers have satisfactory skill of ICT and uses computer but maximum percent of male and female pupil teachers have unsatisfactory skill of this Information Communication Technology. Only very few pupil teachers from arts & science groups have the satisfactory knowledge of ICT and its wider uses but most of the pupil teachers from the same groups have not satisfactory knowledge of ICT.

Table-3

Gender wise comparison of the scores on ICT skill of pupil teachers

Number of Level of pupil teachers Mean t- Variable S.D. significa df (N) value Scores nt

Male 66 43.42 26.83 NS Gender Female 74 37.15 30.82 1.29 at 0.05 138 level

An analysis of table-3, shows that there exists insignificant difference between male and female pupil teachers regarding to their ICT skill. The calculated t-value 1.29(P>.05) is sufficiently low than the table value at 0.05 level of significance for 138 degree of freedom. The mean scores of male and female pupil teachers are 43.42 and 37.15 respectively. The higher mean value score 43.42 in favour of male pupil teachers is not able to yield any significant variance between male and female pupil teachers on their ICT skill.

Hence, it can be concluded that sex has no influence on the ICT Skill of pupil teachers. Thus, on basis of findings it can be comprehended that “there is no significant difference between male

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and female pupil teachers regarding to their ICT skill”. Therefore, the proposed hypothesis no.1 is hereby accepted.

Table-4

Group wise comparison of the scores of ICT skill of pupil teachers

Number of t- Level of Varia pupil teachers Mean S.D. valu significa df ble (N) Scores e nt

Arts 78 34.99 27.83

Group Science 62 46.55 27.89 2.44 Sig. at 138 0.05 level

An observation of above table-4, shows that there exists significant difference between arts and science group’s pupil teachers regarding to their ICT skill. The obtained mean scores of arts and science group’s pupil teachers are 34.99 and 46.55 respectively. The calculated t-value 2.44 (P< .05) is sufficiently higher than the table value at 0.05 level of significance for 138 degree of freedom. The higher mean value score 46.55 is greater in favour of pupil teachers of science group. This reveals the fact that pupil teachers of science group have been observed as significantly more skillful about the ICT knowledge in comparison to the pupil teachers of arts group because of having scientific attitude.

Hence, it can be forwarded that group of study has influence on ICT Skill of pupil teachers and on the basis of findings it can be comprehended that “there exists significant difference between Arts and Science group’s pupil teachers regarding to their ICT skill”. Therefore the proposed hypothesis no.2 is hereby rejected.

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Conclusion

On the basis of findings of the present case study forwarded the following conclusion are drawn which have implications for the teachers, administrators and planners of teacher training institutions.

1. Only a few numbers of male and female pupil teachers have satisfactory knowledge of ICT and its broad uses but maximum percent of male and female pupil teachers have unsatisfactory knowledge of this Information Communication Technology.

2. Only a very few pupil teachers from arts & science group’s have the excellent knowledge of ICT and its wider uses but most of the pupil teachers from the same groups have not satisfactory knowledge of ICT.

3. Sex has no influence on the computer knowledge and uses of Information Communication Technology Skill of pupil teachers. Therefore, no significant difference between male and female pupil teachers regarding to their ICT skill.

4. Groups of study as arts & science have influence on the computer knowledge, its uses and Information Communication Technology Skill of pupil teachers. Therefore, the pupil teachers of science group have been observed as significantly more skillful about the ICT knowledge in comparison to the pupil teachers of arts group because of having scientific attitude.

Kaur (2013) observed in her study that some B.Ed. trainees have higher appreciation for the use of ICT in teaching but most of B.Ed. trainees do not use ICT tool in teaching because of inadequate infrastructure, technophobia, lack of guidelines and pessimistic attitude of pupil teachers or B.Ed. trainees. So, finally the study revealed that the majority of the pupil teachers have low and unsatisfactory level of computer knowledge & Information

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Communication Technology Skill and hence their computer knowledge & ICT skill need to be improved in order to equip themselves to face the challenges in future classrooms.

References

1. Balacheff, N. 1993. Artificial intelligence and real teaching. In C. Keitel and K. Ruthven (Eds.), Learning from computers: Mathematics education and technology, Berlin, Springer Verlag. 2. Forcheri, P. and Molfino, M. T. 2000. ICT as a tool for learning to learn. In Watson, D. M. and Downes, T. (Eds.) Communications and Networking in Education, Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic, pp 175- 184. 3. Kaur, G. 2013. “A study of attitude and practice of B.Ed. towards ICT in teaching”, Journal of Education & Psychological Research ,3(1),122-125. 4. Kellenberger and Hendricts. 2000. “Predicting teachers’ computer use for own needs, teaching and students learning”, Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 29(2),124-140. 5. Rajasekhar and Raja. 2008. “Computer knowledge of high secondary school Teachers”, GYAN-The Journal of Education, 4(2), 4. 6. Srivastava. R.K. & Others. 2013. ICT and professional development of teachers. Paper presented at National Seminar on Contemporary Issues and Challenges in Education, Teaching and Research, Himgiri Zee University, Dehradun , March 23-24. 7. Steve Wheeler. 2000. The Role of the Teacher in the Use of ICT. Keynote Speech delivered to the National Czech Teachers Conference, University of Western Bohemia, Czech Republic, May 20. 8. World Education Reports.1998. Teachers and teaching in a changing word, UNESCO publishing, Paris. 9. Yusuf, M.O. 2005. “Information and communication education: Analyzing the Nigerian national policy for information technology”, International Education Journal, 6 (3), 316-321.

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PARTICIPATION: METHODS AND APPROACHES

Dr. G. Vasudevaiah Teaching Personnel Dept. of Adult, Continuing Education & Extension S.K.University, Anantapuramu. (A.P)

INTRODUCTION

Participation is a rich concept that varies with its application and definition. The way participation is defined also depends on the context in which it occurs. For some, it is a matter of principle; for others, practice; for still others, an end in itself (World Bank, 1995). In this paper, the concept, need, objectives, nature, linkages and models of participation and development are presented.

PARTICIPATION MODELS

Often the term participation is modified with adjectives, resulting in terms such as community participation, citizen participation, people’s participation, public participation, and popular participation. The Oxford English Dictionary defines participation as “to have a share in” or “to take part in,” thereby emphasizing the rights of individuals and the choices that they make in order to participate.

Brager, Specht, and Torczyner (1987) defined participation as a means to educate citizens and to increase their competence. It is a vehicle for influencing decisions that affect the lives of citizens and an avenue for transferring political power. However, it can also be a method to co- opt dissent, a mechanism for ensuring the receptivity, sensitivity, and even accountability of social services to the consumers. Armitage (1988) defined citizen participation as a process by which

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Westergaard (1986) defined participation as “collective efforts to increase and exercise control over resources and institutions on the part of groups and movements of those hitherto excluded from control” (p.14). This definition points toward a mechanism for ensuring community participation. The World Bank’s Learning Group on Participatory Development (1995) defines participation as “a process through which stakeholders influence and share control over development initiatives, and the decisions and resources which affect them” (p. 3).

NEED OF PARTICIPATION

Chowdhury states that the ideal conditions contributing towards meaningful participation can be discussed from three aspects:

1. What kind of participation is under consideration? 2. Who participates in it? 3. How does participation occur? Evens (1974) also points out the importance of the following issues in order to assess the extent of community participation:

1. Who participates? 2. What do people participate in? 3. Why do people participate? There are: a) Cultural explanations (values, norms, and roles, etc.) b) Cognitive explanations (verbal skills and knowledge about the organizations) c) Structural explanations (alternatives, resources available, and the nature of benefit sought) 4. Implications (how the benefit contributes to the ends or principles they value).

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OBJECTIVES AND METHOD OF PARTICIPATION

Oakley and Marsden (1987) defined community participation as the process by which individuals, families, or communities assume responsibility for their own welfare and develop a capacity to contribute to their own and the community’s development. In the context of development, community participation refers to an active process whereby beneficiaries influence the direction and execution of development projects rather than merely receive a share of project benefits (Paul, in Bamberger, 1986). Paul’s five objectives to which community participation might contribute are:

1. Sharing project costs: participants are asked to contribute money or labor (and occasionally goods) during the project’s implementation or operational stages. 2. Increasing project efficiency: beneficiary consultation during project planning or beneficiary involvement in the management of project implementation or operation. 3. Increasing project effectiveness: greater beneficiary involvement to help ensure that the project achieves its objectives and that benefits go to the intended groups. 4. Building beneficiary capacity: either through ensuring that participants are actively involved in project planning and implementation or through formal or informal training and consciousness- raising activities. 5. Increasing empowerment: defined as seeking to increase the control of the underprivileged sectors of society over the resources and decisions affecting their lives and their participation in the benefits produced by the society in which they live (p. 4–5) CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT

The word development is fraught with ideological, political, and historical connotations that can greatly change its meaning depending on the perspective being discussed (Haug, 1997). The following three

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definitions of development are most helpful and suitable in relation to this research project. The first definition is provided by Korten (1990) :

Development is a process by which the members of a society increase their personal and institutional capacities to mobilise and manage resources to produce sustainable and justly distributed improvements in their quality of life consistent with their own aspirations. (p. 67) Korten’s definition emphasizes the process of development and its primary focus on personal and institutional capacity. It also touches on justice, equity, quality of life, and participation.

The second definition is from Robinson, Hoare, and Levy’s (1993) work. He adds the dimension of empowerment to Korten’s idea of development (Robinson, 1993).

Empowerment is a social action process that promotes participation of people, organisations, and communities towards the goals of increased individual and community control, political efficacy, improved quality of life, and social justice. (p. 199) Chapter 2 Understanding Community Participation 11 Finally, Zachariah and Sooryamoorthy (1994) emphasize that development must promote economic growth, but not at any cost:

The encouragement of economic growth must take account of and be restrained by three other equally important objectives:

1. Protection of the environment and consideration of the ecological impact of industrialisation and commercialisation. 2. Fair and equitable distribution as well as redistribution of goods and services to enable poorer people to get a fairer share of society’s wealth and to participate fully in the economy. 3. Creation of opportunities for everyone to increasingly participate in the political, artistic and other activities of society (1994: 22–23)

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Zachariah and Sooryamoorthy’s criteria for development recognize the environmental and ecological facets of communities going through the process of development. The environment is considered an integral part of development, since any impacts on a person’s environment also influence the state of well- being or welfare. Environment and development are thus linked so intricately that separate approaches to either environmental or developmental problems are piecemeal at best.

COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION AND DEVELOPMENT : A LINKAGE

The community development approach emphasizes self- help, the democratic process, and local leadership in community revitalization (Barker, 1991). Most community development work involves the participation of the communities or beneficiaries involved (Smith, 1998). Thus, community participation is an important component of community development and reflects a grassroots or bottom- up approach to problem solving. In social work, community participation refers to “...the active voluntary engagement of individuals and groups to change problematic conditions and to influence policies and programs that affect the quality of their lives or the lives of others” (Gamble and Weil, 1995).

One of the major aims of community development is to encourage participation of the community as a whole. Indeed, community development has been de-fined as a social process resulting from citizen participation (UN, 1963; Vaughan, 1972; Darby and Morris, 1975; Christenson and Robinson, 1980; Rahman, 1990 in Smith, 1998). Through citizen participation, a broad cross- section of the community is encouraged to identify and articulate their own goals, design their own methods of change, and pool their resources in the problem- solving process (Harrison, 1995).

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It is widely recognized that participation in government schemes often means no more than using the service offered or providing inputs to support the project (Smith, 1998). This is contrasted with stronger forms of participation, involving control over decisions, priorities, plans, and implementation; or the spontaneous.

APPROACHES OF PARTICIPATION

Although there is no consensus, some of the most important approaches to participation are presented below.

United Nations Research Institute on Social Development (UNRISD) Approach

The most important and original aspect of UNRISD is the focus on people power and organization of disadvantaged groups, hitherto bypassed in development. The significant factor in this approach was not that it concentrated on the poorest of the poor but that it emphasized questions of power and organization and also viewed the allies and adversaries of the hitherto excluded as included in the scope of investigation (Chowdhury, 1996, p. 10).

Norman Uphoff’s Team: Framework on Participation

In 1976, USAID asked the interdisciplinary Rural Development Committee at Cornell University to come up with some practical concepts and measures of community participation in development (Uphoff, 1997). The committee focused on participation and its framework. In fact, they gave a new thrust to old Community Development (CD) approaches (Chowdhury, 1996). The four kinds of participation they identified are: decision- making, implementation, benefits, and evaluation. Even if these kinds of participation are distinguishable, there are usually connections and feedback among them; for example, participation in decision making is likely to contribute to participation in benefits. The more there is of any one

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Self-reliance and Self- help Approach

During the development decade of the 1960s, self- reliance and self- help projects became the order of the day (Chowdhury, 1996). Chowdhury (1996) also notes that this trend is further developed by the social worker S. Tilakratna of Sri Lanka in his participatory rural development strategy, which aims to combine the best of community development and UNRISD ideas. According to Tilakratna, the idea of people’s participation in development means improving the potential of the previously neglected rural poor, enabling them to make decisions for their own welfare.

Chowdhury (1996) also notes:

Essentially, the main components of this developmental process are participation in taking initiatives to identify unmet needs, and self- reliance-breaking away from dependencies that suppress the creativity of the poor. This approach is nearest to the type of people’s participation practice in Bangladesh. It is more a psychological than an economic or physical process.

It is evident from these discussions that participation as it relates to development is a process that includes a set of activities and takes place through different stages. This section describes what constitutes the essential elements of effective community participation. The definitions, approaches, and the various literatures on participation suggests participation in development projects needs to be understood based on the following elements.

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The public involvement of stakeholders in development projects is widely recognized as a fundamental element of the process. Timely, well-lanned, and well-implemented public involvement programs have contributed to the successful design, implementation, operation, and management of proposals (UNEP, 1996). For instance, the range of stakeholders involved in an Environmental Impact Assessment

(EIA) project typically includes:

1. The people, individuals, or groups in the local community 2. The proponent and other project beneficiaries 3. Government agencies 4. Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) 5. Others, such as donors, the private sectors, academics, and so forth Needs Identification and Goal Determination Participation of the masses in development activities implies enhanced capacity to perceive their own needs. Through participation, local people identify their needs as well as the relevant goals of a program. By participating in decision making and implementation activities, local people help project officials identify (1) needs, (2) strategies to meet those needs, and (3) the necessary resources required to implement the various strategies (Yadama, 1995). For example, community participation will be discouraged if environmental issues are given priority in agendas without addressing issues such as poverty, homelessness, health, and other basic necessities perceived to be more important by the coastal communities.

Information Dissemination

This is a one- way flw of information from the proponent of the development project to the public. The proponent should provide sufficient relevant information about the project such as the benefits of the project to the beneficiaries, the costs of implementation, the potential for financing and implementation, and possible risk factors. The proponent must allow sufficient time for individuals to read and

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discuss the information provided, and listen to the views held by individuals as well as to issues and problems. Lack of transparency often fosters mistrust and misunderstanding between project authorities and local communities (UNEP, 1996).

Consultation

Consultation involves inviting people’s views on the proposed actions and engaging them in a dialogue. It is a two- way flow of information between the proponent and the public. Consultation provides opportunities for the public to express their views on the project proposal initiated by the project proponent. Rigorous planning and implementation of projects should be undertaken only after considerable discussion and consultation. Consultation includes education, information sharing, and negotiation, with the goal being a better decision making process through organizations consulting the general public (Becker, 1997, p. 155). This process allows neglected people to hear and have a voice in future undertakings. Depending on the project, various methods are used during consultation such as public hearings, public meetings, general public information meetings, informal small group meetings, public displays, field trips, site visits, letter requests for comments, material for mass media, and response to public inquiries. The knowledge of local people should be recognized and they should be enrolled as experts in designing development projects. Participants should be encouraged to articulate their ideas and the design of the project should be based on such ideas.

Genuine Interests

Participation depends on people’s legitimate interests in the project or development activities. Therefore, participation needs to be considered as an active process, meaning that the person or group in question takes initiatives and asserts an independent role (Chowdhury, 1996).

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Public Involvement in Decision Making

The project should encourage a maximum number of people in the participation of development projects. Such involvement should give the participants full inclusion in designing, organizing, and implementing activities and workshops Chapter 2 Understanding Community Participation 15 in order to create consensus, ownership, and action in support of environmental change in specific areas. It should include people and groups rather than exclude any individuals. Public involvement is a process for involving the public in the decision making of an organization (Becker, 1997, p. 155). Participation actually brings the public into the decision- making process. White (1989) stressed community involvement in management of marine protected areas. According to the author, public involvement can take place at several stages in the establishment and management of marine protected areas. These stages are: (1) the recognition of a need; (2) discussions with interested parties and integration with the community; (3) baseline studies and monitoring; (4) education; (5) core group building and formalization of reserves; and (6) enforcement.

Accountability

The requirement of accountability applies to all parties involved in the project, such as project management, external organizers, and traditional leaders, as well as any emergent leadership from the ranks of the poor and the disadvantaged (Adnan, Barrett, Alam, and Brustinow, 1992, p. 32). The authors also note that the agencies involved in project management and implementation are procedurally and periodically answerable to the people in the project area, as well as the citizens of the country in general. All people should be aware of their roles in the project and the planning of activities of the project. Accountability of concerned community members must be ensured, particularly after the decision is taken.

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Repeated Interaction

Often there is interaction at the beginning of the project but no dialogue or any other form of interaction occurs during the project. This ultimately creates a big gap between the proponents of the development projects and the communities. Consequently, the local people abandon a project based on such an idea. Therefore, it is suggested that there should be ongoing communication throughout the project period.

Ownership and Control

Participation plays a major role in people’s management of their own affairs. Ownership and control of resources have a profound impact on participation in development projects (Mathbor, 1990b). Ferrer (1988) emphasized four areas to be worked toward in a participatory coastal resource management program: greater economic and social equality, better access to services for all, greater participation in decision making, and deeper involvement in the organizing process resulting from the empowerment of people.

Sharing Benefits

It is evident that without sharing the benefits of the project, participation is a frustrating process for the poorer people. Zachariah and Sooryamoorthy (1994) 16 Chapter 2 Understanding Community Participation note that there should be a fair and equitable distribution of benefits, as well as redistribution of goods and services, to enable poorer people to get a fairer share of society’s wealth and to participate fully in the development process.

The Centre on Integrated Rural Development for Asia and the Pacific (CIRDAP, 1984), a regional rural development organization in South Asia, mentions that participation entails three distinct processes: first, the involvement of the people in decision making; second, eliciting

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Partnerships

Partnership in development processes allows stakeholders to work, talk, and solve problems with individuals who are often perceived as the masters. Instead of demonstrating the relationship as a worker- client tie, the parties involved should agree on working in partnerships. An expression used by the Latin American activists to describe their relationship with the people (communities, groups) with whom they are working is accompanamiento, or “accompanying the process” (Wilson and Whitmore, 1997). Wilson and Whitmore identified a set of principles for collaboration in a variety of settings and situations. These include nonintrusive collaboration, mutual trust and respect, a common analysis of what the problem is, a commitment to solidarity, equality in the relationship, an explicit focus on process, and the importance of language.

References

1. Free the Refugees Campaign (2003) Sharing information amongst groups & individulas around Australia who are working to free all refugees from detention, accessed at: http: // groups.yahoo.com/group/Free -the-Refugees-Campaign/. 2. Hillman, M. (2002) Environmental justice: a crucial link between environmentalism and community development?, Community Development Journal, 37(4), 349-360. 3. Hollick, M. (1995) Personal and Group Decision Processes, in S. Chamala and K. Keith, Participative Approaches For Landcare, Perspectives, Policies, Programs, Australian Academic Press, Brisbane, Australia, pp. 43-58. 4. Holsen, T. (2000) Public participation – for what reason?, in de G. Roo and D. Miller, Compact Cities and Sustainable Urban Development: A Critical Assessment of Policies and Plans from an International Perspective, Ashgate, Aldershot, UK, pp. 217- 226.

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THE EFFECT OF SOIL PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES ON WHEAT PRODUCTION IN HADIYA ZONE, MISHA WOREDA, ETHIOPIA

Tadewos Damena Elias Gizaw Department of Chemistry Department of Chemistry Faculty of Natural and Faculty of Natural and Computational Science Computational Science Wachemo University, Hosanna Wachemo University, Hosanna Ethiopia Ethiopia

Habtamu Abebe Department of Chemistry Faculty of Natural and Computational Science Wachemo University, Hosanna, Ethiopia

1. INTRODUCTION Soil is a natural body comprised of solids (minerals and organic matter), liquid, and gases that occurs on the land surface, occupies space, and is characterized by one or both of the following: horizons, or layers, that are distinguishable from the initial material as a result of additions, losses, transfers, and transformations of energy and matter or the ability to support rooted plants in a natural environment. The upper limit of soil is the boundary between soil and air, shallow water, live plants, or plant materials that have not begun to decompose. Areas are not considered to have soil if the surface is permanently covered by water too deep (typically more than 2.5 meters) for the growth of rooted plants. The lower boundary that separates soil from the non-soil underneath is most difficult to define. Soil consists of horizons near the Earth's surface that, in contrast to the underlying parent material, have been altered by the interactions of climate, relief, and living organisms over time. Commonly, soil grades at its lower boundary to hard rock or to earthy materials virtually devoid of animals, roots, or other marks of biological activity. For purposes of classification, the lower boundary of soil is arbitrarily set at 200 cm [1]. The biological, chemical, and physical properties of soils generally provide the foundation for management decisions. Different soils under different land use systems could have variations in physico-chemical properties. For example, different properties that can present limitations and problems for use and management of Vertisols. These restrictions are associated with surface structure, salinity, slope, cracking, nutrient status, soil water characteristics and soil depth [2].

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The adverse effects of soil compaction on the soil-plant system can be associated with harmful effects on plants, and on physical, hydraulic and mechanical soil properties. Compaction of soil surface produces crust, which severely hampers seedling emergence. Increasing bulk density due to compaction results in decreasing total porosity, macro pore space and an increase in micro or capillary porosity. This leads to a reduction in soil water conductivity in drier soils [3,4,5]. Water infiltration, the downward entry of water into the soil surface, is one of the most important processes of hydraulic cycle and is of critical importance to every range manager [6]. Surface crusts reduce infiltration rate to the extent to be detrimental depending on the density and thickness of the crust and electrolyte concentration of the water [4]. Infiltration rates influence soil water content, which satisfies the evapo-transpiration requirements of growing plants; and the soil water which acts as a solvent for soluble nutrients. Infiltration rates are controlled by vegetation, climate, and edaphic and topographic factors, of which vegetation can be most easily manipulated by range managers [5]. Physical changes in surface soil, such as compaction resulting from grazing occur more slowly than changes in vegetation The presence of a severely compacted subsoil layer may, under prolonged water infiltration; cause anaerobic conditions in the compacted layer and overlying topsoil [3,6].This may lead to ethylene production causing severe damage even if conditions exist over a short period of time. Soil is the foundation for nearly all land uses. Together with water, soil constitutes the most important natural resource of our physical environment [7, 8]. The wise use of this vital resource is essential to promote sustainable development, feed the growing world population, and maintain environmental health [8]. The manner in which soils are managed has a major impact on agricultural productivity and sustainability. In the past few decades alone, the global grain production growth rate has dropped from 3% in the 1970s to 1.3% in the early 1990s, which is one of the key indicators of declining soil quality on a global scale [10]. Many agree that no agricultural system can be claimed to be sustainable without ensuring the sustainability of soil quality or fertility [9]. Indeed, the maintenance or enhancement of soil quality is considered as a key indicator of sustainable agricultural systems [11] Soil quality has been defined by many authors in recent years [9]. Although the definitions are slightly different, all refer to the functions of the soil to supply plant nutrients and other physic-chemical conditions to plant growth, promote and sustain crop production, provide habitats to soil organisms, ameliorate environmental pollution, resist degradation and maintain or improve human and animal health [12]. Generally, soil quality encompasses three basic components: physical, chemical, and biological attributes of the soil [13]. These attributes determine the sustainable nutrient

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 The main objective of this study is to determine the levels of physico- chemical properties of soil on wheat farm land and its effect in wheat production.  To determine the levels of soil properties like pH, conductivity, cation exchangeable capacity, and nitrogen and phosphorus concentration.  To determine the effect of physico-chemical parameters of soil on wheat production.  To correlate soil physico-chemical parameters with each other using correlation matrix  To recommend effective measures and utilization of fertilizer for local farmers to increase wheat yield according to the experimental result. 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1. Description of the Study Area Hadiya is a Zone in the Ethiopian Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region (SNNPR). This zone is named after the Hadiya of the Hadiya Kingdom, whose homeland covers part of the administrative division. Hadiya is bordered on the south by Kembata Tembaro (KT), on the southwest by the Dawro Zone, on the west by the Omo River which separates it from Oromia Region and the Yem Special Woreda, on the north by Gurage, on the northeast by Silte, and on the east by the Alaba special woreda; the woredas of Mirab Badawacho and Misraq Badawacho form an exclave separated from the rest of the zone by KT. The administrative center of Hadiya is Hosaena. Based on the 2007 Census conducted by the CSA, this Zone has a total population of 1,231,196, of whom 612,026 are men and 619,170 women; with an area of 3,593.31 square kilometers, Hadiya has a population density of 342.64. While 134,041 or 10.89% are urban inhabitants, a further 157 individuals are pastoralists [20]. Misha is one of the woredas in the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples' Region of Ethiopia. Part of the Hadiya Zone, Misha is bordered on the south by Gomibora, on the southwest by Gibe, on the west by the Yem Special Woreda, on the north by the Gurage Zone, on the east by the Silt'e Zone, and on the southeast by Limo. Towns in Misha include Geja and Morsito. It was part of former Konteb woreda. Based on the 2007 Census conducted by the CSA, this woreda has a total population of 127,318, of whom 61,939 are men and 65,379 women; 5,939 or 4.67% of its population are urban dwellers [21]. 3.2. Description of the sampling site Samples were collected from southern nations, nationalities and peoples region (SNNPR), Hadiya Zone, Misha Woreda. It is situated 18 Km northwest of Hossana town. The most widely cultivated crop in the area is wheat. The farm lands namely Dobube wasgebeta, Bokumura, Shiro, Gunna, Lenchicho, Ashiwalla Washi, Bu’uma, Ashiwalla Watto, Tulla, Dangwara, Morsito Kebele Geberi Mahber. The kebele were selected based on the interest

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4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1. RESULTS Table 1:- The results (mean ± SD) of soil pH, EC, CEC, T.N and A.P. Sample Total Nitrogen (%) pH Conductivity CEC Available Site mean ± SD mean ± SD (µs) (c.mol/Kg) phosphorus mean ± SD mean ± SD (mg/L) mean ± SD A/Washi A/Washi 1 0.29 ± 0.003 5.75 ± 0.16 74.7 ± 2 25.00 ± 0.40 5 ± 0.23 A/Washi 2 0.23 ± 0.002 5.79 ± 0.24 79.2 ± 3 21.04 ± 0.67 3 ± 0.12 A/Washi 3 0.23 ± 0.002 5.60 ± 0.15 76.5 ± 2 20.02 ± 0.53 4 ± 0.16 A/Watto A/Watto1 0.16 ± 0.002 6.18 ± 0.29 196 ± 5 27.2 ± 0.1 0 ± 0.00 A/Watto2 0.08 ± 0.003 7.36 ± 0.10 188 ± 4 22.6 ± 0.7 0 ± 0.00 A/Watto3 0.12 ± 0.002 5.54 ± 0.19 180 ± 3 23.4 ± 0.6 0 ± 0.00 BO BO1 0.21 ± 0.012 7.40 ± 0.36 195 ± 2 21.60 ± 0.8 9 ± 0.23 BO2 0.20 ± 0.002 6.70 ± 0.23 199 ± 1 26.40± 0.5 5 ± 0.22 BO3 0.40 ± 0.022 6.66 ± 0.27 106 ± 2 25.08 ± 0.6 4 ± 0.20 BU BU1 0.22 ± 0.003 5.20 ± 0.07 330 ± 5 31.70 ± 0.48 2 ± 0.04 BU2 0.12 ± 0.005 5.70 ± 0.03 290 ± 9 29.14 ± 0.35 3 ± 0.02 BU3 0.14 ± 0.006 5.12 ± 0.01 280 ± 7 33.30 ± 0.54 1 ± 0.04 DA DA1 0.35 ± 0.021 5.60 ± 0.06 126.8 ± 4.9 21 ± 1 5 ± 0.16 DA2 0.20 ± 0.001 6.10 ± 0.12 120.0 ± 4.0 39 ± 2 4 ± 0.20 DA3 0.10 ± 0.011 5.31 ± 0.19 130.0 ± 5.3 18 ± 1 9 ± 0.42 DWG DWG1 0.22 ± 0.004 6.15 ± 0.15 124.6 ± 4 20.35 ± 0.35 8 ± 0.41 DWG2 0.20 ± 0.001 5.10 ± 0.09 106.4 ± 5 23.11 ± 0.43 7 ± 0.27 DWG3 0.24 ± 0.002 5.31 ± 0.34 112.2 ± 4 15.40 ± 0.67 9 ± 0.30 GU GU1 0.37 ± 0.005 7.60 ± 0.25 81.8 ± 2 33.08 ± 0.43 4 ± 0.12 GU2 0.21 ± 0.002 7.56 ± 0.34 69.6 ± 4 28.60 ± 0.68 3 ± 0.01 GU3 0.32 ± 0.003 7.40 ± 0.37 72.4 ± 1 21.00 ± 0.72 4 ± 0.02

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LE LE1 0.12 ± 0.004 6.10 ± 0.23 252 ± 8 27.24 ± 0.41 4 ± 0.07 LE2 0.19 ± 0.010 5.40 ± 0.02 198 ± 4 22.29 ± 0.36 6 ± 0.05 LE3 0.11 ± 0.002 5.63 ± 0.16 216 ± 6 20.43 ± 0.25 2 ± 0.01 MKM MKM1 0.29 ± 0.001 7.01 ± 0.07 169.1 ± 3.4 31.06 ± 0.51 3 ± 0.12 MKM2 0.19 ± 0.010 5.90 ± 0.11 180.0 ± 1.9 26.38 ± 0.69 5 ± 0.23 MKM3 0.21 ± 0.012 6.86 ± 0.16 131.2 ± 2.8 19.00 ± 0.17 4 ± 0.31 SH SH1 0.14 ± 0.002 5.91 ± 0.03 46 ± 7 32.1 ± 0.37 0 ± 0.00 SH2 0.23 ± 0.004 6.30 ± 0.10 39 ± 2 19.2 ± 0.22 0 ± 0.00 SH3 0.17 ± 0.002 5.10 ± 0.14 56 ± 4 21.0 ± 0.28 0 ± 0.00 TU TU1 0.38 ± 0.022 5.62 ± 0.06 122 ± 8 29.16 ± 0.23 6 ± 0.23 TU2 0.23 ± 0.010 5.40 ± 0.25 88 ± 4 24.80 ± 0.64 4 ± 0.10 TU3 0.26 ± 0.014 5.00 ± 0.10 96 ± 7 16.60 ± 0.53 2 ± 0.13

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4.2. DISCUSSION 4.1.1. The ranges of physico-chemical parameters in soil samples Table 2:- Range of physico-chemical parameters in soil samples. Parameters Range pH 5.34-7.52 A.p 0.8 ppm EC 47-300 µs CEC 19.62-31.38 c.mol/Kg T.N 0.12-0.30 % 4.2.2. Distribution patterns of physico-chemical parameters in soil samples As reported in above Table 2, the pH range lies between 5.34–7.52. The highest pH was found in Gunna soil and the lowest pH was found in Bu’uma and Tulla soil. Except Gunna the pH of all soil samples are slightly acidic. As reported in nutrient management guide, the recommended optimum soil pH desirable for wheat production is 5.4-8.7 [22]. Therefore, except Bu’uma and Tulla other soil samples are within recommended range. pH 7.52 6.92 8 6.36 6.59 5.72 5.34 5.67 5.52 5.71 5.77 5.34 6 4 2 pH 0

Figure 1:- Distribution pattern of pH in soil samples The available phosphorus range lies between 0-8 ppm. The highest value was found in Debub Wasgebeta and the lowest was found in Ashiwalla watto and Shiro. As reported in nutrient management guide, the recommended optimum available phosphorus in soil that is desirable for wheat production is 11-20 ppm [22]. The amount of available phosphorus obtained in all soil samples are below the recommended range. Therefore, the minimum levels of phosphorus have its own effect on wheat product reduction. The low availability of phosphorus may be due to the inherent phosphorus deficiency of the soil and phosphorus fixation

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A.P

9 8 8 7 6 6 6 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 A.P 3 2 2 1 0 0 0

Figure 2:- Distribution pattern of Available Phosphorus in soil samples The Electrical conductivity range lies between 47-300µs. The highest value was found in Bu’uma and the lowest was found in Shiro. The recommended amount of EC in soil is more than 6 ds [22]. But EC of samples is very low. Therefore, the most important reason for growing wheat in this area may be the relatively large distance from salt desert. But, Soil electrical conductivity (EC) measurements in non-saline soils are driven primarily by soil texture and soil moisture. Those same factors correlate highly to the soil’s water-holding capacity. Thus, an EC can serve as a proxy for soil water-holding capacity, resulting in soil EC. These properties have a significant effect on water and nutrient-holding capacity, which are major drivers of yield.

EC (µs)

400 300 300 222 188 160.1 200 100 125.6 114.4 102 76.8 74.6 47 100 EC 0

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Figure 3:- Distribution pattern of Electrical conductivity in soil samples The CEC range lies between 19.62-31.38. The highest value was found in Bu’uma and the lowest was found in Debub Wasgebeta. The level of CEC in the soil was medium. This might have resulted from strong energy of adsorption of Ca making it typically more abundant as an exchangeable cation than are Mg, K or Na. Ca and Mg concentrations in the soil were adequate for crop production and response for Ca and Mg fertilizers may not be expected. Soils with a low CEC are more likely to develop deficiencies in potassium (K+), magnesium (Mg2+) and other cations while high CEC soils are less susceptible to leaching of these cations. CEC (c.mol/Kg)

35 31.38 30 27.56 26 25.48 24.4 24.36 24.1 23.52 25 22.02 23.32 19.62 20 15 CEC 10 5 0

Figure 4:- Distribution pattern of Cation Exchange Capacity in soil samples The total nitrogen range lies between 0.12-0.30. The highest value was found in Gunna and the lowest was found in Ashiwalla watto. As reported in nutrient management guide, the recommended optimum total nitrogen in soil that is desirable for wheat production is 20-30 [22]. The amount of total nitrogen obtained in all soil samples are below the recommended range. Therefore, the minimum levels of nitrogen have its own effect on wheat product reduction. These low contents of total nitrogen could be attributed to the effect of intensive and continuous cultivation.

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T.N(%)

0.35 0.3 0.29 0.3 0.27 0.25 0.25 0.23 0.25 0.22 0.18 0.2 0.16 0.14 0.15 0.12 0.1 T.N 0.05 0

Figure 5:- Distribution pattern of total nitrogen in soil samples 5. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS 5.1. Pearson correlation of parameters The correlation between two variables reflects the degree to which the variables are related. The most common measure of correlation is the Pearson Product Moment Correlation (called Pearson's correlation in short). When measured in a population the Pearson Product Moment correlation is designated by the Greek letter rho (ρ). When computed in a sample, it is designated by the letter "r" and is sometimes called "Pearson's r." Pearson's correlation reflects the degree of linear relationship between two variables. It ranges from (r =+1 to -1). A correlation of +1 means that there is a perfect positive linear relationship between variables and a correlation of -1 means perfect negative linear relationship between variables, (r ≥ 0.7and r ≥ -0.7) indicates strong positive and negative correlation between variables, (r=-0.3 to -0.7, +0.3 to +0.7) indicates moderate positive and negative correlation, (r=- 0.3 to +0.3) indicates weak positive and negative correlation between variables [23]. The scatter plot shown in Table 2 indicates such relationship.

Table 3:- Correlation matrices of soil physico-chemical parameters in soil samples

T.N pH Cond CEC A.P T.N 1 pH 0.370024 1 cond -0.62604 -0.34741 1 CEC -0.05508 0.163262 0.472956 1 A.P 0.240008 -0.02698 -0.10622 -0.3902 1

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From the results depicted in Table 3, no strong positive and negative correlation was obtained between parameters. pH with total nitrogen and conductivity with CEC had Moderate positive correlation it shows that increase pH and conductivity increases the Total nitrogen and CEC. Conductivity with total nitrogen and pH, CEC with available phosphorus had moderate negative correlation it shows that increasing conductivity can reduce pH and Total nitrogen. Available phosphorus with Total nitrogen, CEC with pH had weak positive correlation. Available phosphorus with pH and conductivity and CEC with total nitrogen had weak negative correlation. All these quantitative relationships are very much useful in determining the occurrence and distribution of physico-chemical properties of soil. Many other relationships between various quantitative variables are also significant with least correlation values. These results of correlation can prove useful in understanding the relationships of physico-chemical properties of soil. 6. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.1. CONCLUSION Soil fertility and plant nutrition are important components in crop production. In addition to providing basic physical support for plants, productive, fertile soils also supply moisture and air to the roots and act as a reservoir for available plant nutrients. The present study indicates the level of physico-chemical properties of soil and its effect on wheat production and explores the relationship between ranges of quantitative variables. There was no experimental treatment of soil in the site. So the present study will be helpful in providing information about physico-chemical properties of soil. All the studied sites are wheat grower. Results from this investigation show that the levels of phosphorus and nitrogen in soil were below the recommended limit that influences wheat growth, productivity and yield. The reasons for low content are thought to be rapid rate of mineralization favored by the climate and soil conditions as well as the total removal of crop residues for animal feed and source of energy. Therefore, fertilizer application could be critical in order to improve wheat production in the area. Other soil properties, soil pH was in range of 5.34–7.52. The values in two sites (Bu’uma and Tulla) were below the recommended range. Therefore, the local farmer should be use lime to neutralize the soil, but other sites had with in recommended range. Soil EC can serve as a proxy for soil physical properties such as organic matter, clay content, and cation exchange capacity These properties have a significant effect on water and nutrient-holding capacity, which are major drivers of yield. The result show very low levels of EC indicate it may be one factor for limited productivity of wheat in the area. Cation exchange capacity is the dominant factor in measuring soil fertility which affects exchange of ions on the soil surface. The CEC level affects exchange of ions on the soil surface. The CEC range was

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19.62-31.38 c.mol/Kg, The medium CEC yield per unit area may be declining due to fertility degradation. Generally, the results of this study indicate that the largest parts of the study area were classified as suitable for wheat cultivation by its geographical location, soil structure and climate. But the results of this methods demonstrated that the most important limiting factors are soil nutrients. This should be elevated by using fertilizer and removing continuous monocropping because multiple cropping is depleting the fertility of soils at a rapid pace. The soils, which were, once well supplied with available nutrients, are now gradually becoming deficient. Use of compost can be beneficial to improve nutrental status. Compost is rich source of nutrients, physical and chemical properties of soil can be improved by using compost, which may ultimately increase crop yields. The present study gives brief information about levels of physico-chemical parameters in soil and its correlation with each other 5.2. RECOMMENDATIONS The values in two sites (Bu’uma and Tulla) were below the recommended range. Therefore, the local farmer should be use lime to neutralize the soil. The local farmer should use fertilizer properly and removing continuous monocropping because multiple cropping is depleting the fertility of soils at a rapid pace It might be useful in pointing directions for future studies that will be conducted in study area.

References 1. Available online at: http://soils.usda.gov/education/facts/soil.html accessed on December 2013. 2. .Mitiku Haile, 1987. Genesis, characteristics and classification of soils of the central highlands of Ethiopia. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Ghent, Belgium. 406p. 3. Bennie, A.T.P. and G.N. Krynauw, 1985. Causes, adverse effect and control of soil compaction. Sou. Afr. J. Plant and Soil. 3: 109- 112. 4. Kamara, C. S. and I. Haque, 1988. Physical properties of Vertisols and their implications for management: A review. PSD working document No. B7. International Livestock Center for Africa (ILCA), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 5. Ahmed, H. Magid, G.E. Schuman and R.H. Hart, 1987. Soil and vegetation response tosimulated trampling. Journal of Range Management. 4: 303-306.

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6. Wood, K. M. and B. B. Wilberth, 1981. Grazing Systems: their influence on infiltration rates in the rolling plains of Texas. Journal of Range Management Vol. 4. 331-335. 7. Van Haverse B., 1983. Soil Bulk Density as influenced by grazing intensity and soil type on a short grass prairie site. Journal of Range Management. 5: 586-588. 8. Herrick, J.E., 2000. Soil quality: An indicator of sustainable land management? Applied Soil Ecology 15: 75-83. 9. Arshad, M.A. and S. Martin, 2002. Identifying critical limits for soil quality indicators in agro-ecosystem. Agriculture, Ecosystem & Environment. 88: 153 –160. 10. Steer, A., 1998. Making development sustainable. Advance in Geo- Ecology 31: 857-865. 11. Bouma, J., 1994. Sustainable land use as a future focus for Pedology. Soil Sci. Soc. of Amr. J. 58: 645-646. 12. Wang, X. and Z., Gong, 1998. Assessment and analysis of soil quality changes after eleven years of reclamation in subtropical China. Geoderma 81: 339-355. 13. Ouedraogo, E., 2004. Soil quality improvement for crop production in semi-arid West Africa. Tropical Resource Management Papers No. 51. Wageningen University. 14. Schlesinger, W. H., J. F. Reynolds, G. L. Cunningham, L. F. Huenneke, W. M. Jarrel, R. A. Virginia, and W. G. Whitford, 1990. Biological feed backs in global desertification. Science 247: 1043– 247. 15. Tittonell P, Shepherd KD, Vanlauwe B, Giller KE (2008). Unraveling the effects of soil and crop management on maize productivity in smallholder agricultural systems of western Kenya—Agric. Ecosys. Environ.,123:137–150. 16. Zhen L, Zoebisch MA, Chen G, Feng Z (2006). Sustainability of farmers soil fertility management practices: Plain. J. Environ. Manage.79: 409-419. 17. Wienhold BJ, Trooien TP, Reichman G A (1995). Yield and Nitrogen Use Efficiency of Irrigated Corn in the Northern Great Plains. Agron. J., 87: 842-846. 18. Sun Z, Zheng J, Sun W (2009). Coupled effects of soil water and nutrients on growth and yields of maize plants in a semi-arid region. Pedosphere, 19:673-680.

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19. N.N. Eugène, E. Jacques, T. V Désiré and B. Paul. Effects of some physical and chemical characteristics of soil on productivity and yield of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.) in coastal region (Cameroon). African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 2010, 4 (3), 108-114. 20. Mebit Kebede, Physico-chemical properties and classification of soils along the toposequence at Woreta agricultural technical vocational education and training college research farm, Ethiopia, 2006. 21. Available online at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadiya_Zone accessed on September 2013. 22. Available online at: http://www.ces.purdue.edu/extmedia/ay/ay- 238.html accessed on January 2013 23. Available online at: http://www.answers.com/topic/soil-chemistry accessed on January 2013.

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AN ASSESSMENT OF FACTORS INFLUENCING INFORMED CHOICE OF DISCIPLINE IN HIGHER TECHNICAL EDUCATION Vijayalakshmi N.S Dr. A.H.Sequeira Research Scholar Professor Department of H.S.S.M Department of H.S.S.M National Institute of Technology National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal Karnataka, Surathkal Srinivasnagar, Mangalore Srinivasnagar, Mangalore Karnataka Karnataka

Introduction:

The world of institutionalised knowledge in colleges and universities has been changing dramatically for decades. A bachelorette degree was known to be once a select of the elite class in now a legacy of the masses (Nitza Davidovitch et al.,2013) The manpower underutilisation culminated by the unsymmetrical development of courses, rise of occupational-professional programs (Turner and Bowen 1990; Brint et al. 2005; Morris, L. K., et al. 2008), the responsiveness of universities to market signals and donor preferences in the development of new business and technology fields see, (e.g., Engell and Dangerfield 2005; Geiger 2004; Kirp 2003; Washburn 2005); and the changing demographic characteristics of students and faculty has an influence on the development of new disciplines (Brint et.al 2011) leaving students who are an important stakeholder in higher education system in a dilemma to opt among vivid practical higher education (Brint 2002) (Astin 1998) choices of academic disciplines for a successful career.

Women and minorities choose alternative fields of study than engineering and science (Burge, J. D et al 2005) or decide to switch out of engineering majors (Devgan, S. S., 1990; Astin, A. W.1998). Further certain majors are thought to have greater association to men (Malcom,

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S. M., et al.1976; Haller, S. M et al.1988) with gender differences in maths and science achievement where men score more in maths and science does not necessarily predict the intending major (Etzkowitz, H., & Gupta, N. 2006). Thus egalitarianism differs among academic disciplines (e.g., Baer & Lambert, 1990; Guimond & Palmer, 1996; Sidanius, Pratto, Martin, & Stallworth, 1991) with gender disparities exist in choice of major (Camp, T. 1997; Cohoon, J. M 2002; Jepson, A. and Perl, T. 2002; Turner and Bowen 1999).

The paper conceptually focuses on the external factors that perpetuate disparities in choices for academic disciplines that influence student’s decision to choose a discipline to specialise or major.

Research Question:-

RQ: - Why gender segregation is observed among engineering disciplines at undergraduate levels of higher technical educational institutions?

. IQ: - which are the factors existing external to the academic institution impact the imbalance in gender segregation across academic disciplines?

Research Objective:-

RO: - To assess the impact of social environment external to the academic environment in its influence on choice of academic discipline.

Theoretical foundation on academic major choice: - Social Dominance Theory (SDT) (Herrera, F. A et.al 2013) explains differences across disciplines pointing to the fact that societies are hierarchical and that some groups in the society have more power than other groups (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999) where the more powerful groups will want to maintain the hierarchy (Sidanius, van Laar, Levin, & Sinclair, 2003)over lower powerful groups.

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According to (Herrera, F.A et.al 2013) – “Social dominance theory categorises academic majors into two groups—hierarchy attenuating (HA) and hierarchy enhancing (HE)—to explain belief differences among disciplines (Gage, Zick, Tully, & Simon, 2010; Kemmelmeier, Danielson, & Basten, 2005; Peterson & Lane, 2001; Sidanius et al., 2003). Further Majors classified as HE are those with underlying ideologies providing intellectual or moral justification for unequal relationships between groups (e.g., business), while HA majors tend to be associated with supporting policies that reduce social inequities (e.g., social sciences) Gage et al., 2010; Sidanius et al., 2003). When individuals perceive that most students and faculty within a discipline share the same values and attitudes, they may see these majors as more congruent with their current social values and ideologies (socio political orientation) or at least their propensity to develop orientations consistent with that discipline (Hastie, 2007; Sidanius et al., 2003).” Further recent evidence states students receive ample benefits associated with taking diversity courses (Bowman, 2010; Cole, 2007)

Social Stereotypes: - Social stereotypes influence choice of major (Burge, J. D et al 2005). It is not one event but accumulation of events that socially influences a woman in career choices (Davidson, V. J.2002; Valian, V. 1998). Women fear of being socially stereotyped as “techie” in information technology industry (Chandler, R. and Gilbert, J.2002) thereby perceives learning engineering major as socially unreceptive (Burge, J. D et al 2005)

Image of Scientists and Engineers:- women perceive image of scientists and engineers as uninteresting and nerdy (Burge, J. D et al 2005; Taylor, 2002 ;Malcolm, S. M., et al.1976) fuelled by the image of the industry that militate against the entry of women (Hatipkarasulu & Roff, 2011; Amaratunga et al., 2007; Ginige et al., 2007) indicated by poor university enrolment where male students are five times more

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likely than their female counterparts to consider a career in the construction industry (Gale, 1999; Kolade, O. J., & Kehinde, O. 2013).

Negative Perception of Employment Fields: - women negatively perceive employment opportunities creating a large devoid in recruiting and attrition phenomena in science and engineering fields where a woman is “out of place” in the male-dominated environment (Cuny, J. and Aspray, 2002; Burge, J. D et al 2005)

Social role of women on a rise:- women fear to fail to handle the balancing act of life with work and family (Gaino, K. and Lent, R, 1998) where engaging in multiple experiences and conflicting role expectations reflects what has been termed the ‘triple burden’ of dealing simultaneously with the demands of home, profession, and a gendered work environment; indicating the significantly adverse impact of cultural values and organizational structures on the careers of all academic women in science and engineering. (Etzkowitz, H., & Gupta, N. 2006; Namrata Gupta and Arun K. Sharma, 2001; Namrata Gupta et al. 2004)

Culture and traditions: - culture specific factors influence choice of majors (Haller, S. M. and Fossum, T. V, 1998; Malcom, S. M., et al.1976). students self select into disciplines that best reflect their own beliefs and values (Hastie, 2007; Guimond, 1997; Sidanius, Pratto, Sinclair, & van Laar, 1996).Cultural homogeneity must break down to develop cultural heterogeneity in engineering field nurturing intellectual diversity in terms of diversity of interests fostering cultural diversity (Fancsali, S., & Mcginnis, L. 2005) thereby encouraging ability of interests likewise in gender-equal cultures of developed countries (Guiso et al., 2008)

Poor hands on activities: - women rarely deal with “hands on activities” due to lack of resources influencing choice of major (Burge,

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J. D et al 2005) where Girls are often given limited opportunities to use computers and other electrical gadgets.

Role Models: - women lack role models who are successful in engineering fields leaving an hesitation in young minds of their virtual success in an engineering major (Clayton, D. and Lynch, T. Ten, 2002; Cohoon, J. M., 2002; Cuny, J. and Aspray,2002; Haller, S. M. and Fossum, T. V. 1998 ; Burge, J. D et al 2005) Further lack of women faculties or underrepresentation of woman faculties across ranks in science and engineering fields (Etzkowitz, Kemelgor, & Uzzi, 2000; National Science Foundation, 2006), as well as lower rates of promotion and tenure when compared to men (National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, & Institute of Medicine, 2007).with less pay than their male counterparts (Umbach, 2006; Xu, 2008b) causes disequilibrium in the gender composition of engineering department (Tolbert, Simons, Andrews, & Rhee, 1995;. Etzkowitz, H et al 2000) Further, individual women faculty may have disparate experiences based upon discipline (Xu, 2008a), Consequently, women faculty tend to be significantly more likely than men to express the intention to leave (Xu, 2008b; Zhou & Volkwein, 2004) and have higher rates of actual turnover (Johnsrud & Heck, 1994) and higher rates of attrition both pre- and post tenure (Johnsrud & Heck, 1994; National Academy of Sciences et al., 2007).

Personal Interests: - Interests influences choice of major (Porter and Umbach,2006; Allen, J., & Robbins, S. B. 2007) Interest affects the ability to learn indicating positive relationships exists between interest and a wide range of learning indicators (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002) through its contribution to students’ connection with the content, as well as maintenance of that connection for a sufficient time (Krapp, 2000; Ainley, Hidi, & Berndorff, 2002; Baram-tsabari, A., & Yarden, A. 2011)with successful college completion (Robbins ,2006; Allen, J., & Robbins, S. B. 2007) and higher salaries (Thomas and Liang

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,2005;Morgan,2008; Olitsky et al. 2007; Nitza Davidovitch et al 2013 ) . Further age influences interests in science and engineering (Kahle & Lakes, 1983; Friedler & Tamir, 1990; Shemesh, 1990) that widens with gender (Baram-Tsabari & Yarden, 2008, 2009). boys, in general, are more interested in science than girls (Gardner, 1998; Miller, Slawinski Blessing, & Schwartz, 2006) and dominance of female interest in science among kindergarten to grade 12 students (Baram-Tsabari, Sethi, Bry, & Yarden, 2009); Girls have the same positive attitudes and interest in science that boys do (Sjøberg & Schreiner, 2005;Stark & Gray, 1999;Dawson, 2000; Kahle, Parker, Rennie, & Riley, 1993; Woodward & Woodward, 1998;Burkam, Lee, & Smerdon, 1997; Farenga & Joyce, 1999; Jones, Howe, & Rua, 2000;Murphy & Whitelegg, 2006; Osborne & Collins, 2001; Spall, Barrett, Stanisstreet, Dickson, & Boyes, 2003 ;Falchetti, Caravita, &Sperduti, 2007;Baram- Tsabari & Yarden, 2005; Friedler & Tamir,1990; Trumper, 2006;Yerdelen-Damar & Eryılmaz, 2009;Hoffmann, 2002; Scantlebury, Baker, Sugi, Yoshida, &Uysal, 2007;Mullis,Martin, Fierros, Goldberg, & Stemler, 2000 ; Sjøberg, 2000; Busch, 2005; Jenkins & Nelson, 2005; Lavonen, Juuti, Uitto, Meisalo, & Byman 2005; Schreiner, 2006; Sjøberg&Schreiner, 2002) Female students who are interested in science, continue studying it (Murphy & Whitelegg, 2006; Zohar, 2003) majorly leaving choice of engineering and science discipline gender dependent (OECD, 2006; Osborne & Dillon, 2008) favouring the inborn trait in boys to choose and have a career path in engineering and science fields (Baron-Cohen, 2003) with several references retreating from the preceding stereotype thought (Barres, 2006; Guiso, Monte, Sapienza, &Zingales, 2008; Haworth, Dale, & Plomin, 2008; Linn & Hyde, 1989; Spelke, 2005).

Low academic performance at compulsory schooling :- Poor questioning at lower academic levels in science subjects threats the learning enhancements at higher levels of education leaving it

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potentially untapped (Biddulph, Symington, & Osborne, 1986; Brill & Yarden, 2003; Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1992;Chin & Osborne, 2008) providing zero evidence on genuine intellectual curiosity (Dillon, 1988). Thus there is a need to drive students do pose science questions in free- choice science learning environments(Baram-Tsabari & Kaadni, 2009; Baram-Tsabari, Sethi, Bry, & Yarden, 2006, 2009; Baram-Tsabari & Yarden, 2005, 2007, 2008; Baram-Tsabari & Yarden, 2009; Falchetti et al., 2007; Yerdelen-Damar & Eryılmaz, 2009). Further Research has shown that students who begin their studies never graduate in science and engineering majors (Felder, R et al , 1998 Budny, D et.al ,1998 ; Anderson - rowland, M. R., & Newell, D. C. 2006; indicating students switched over majors that were more compatible with their skills and interests; before completing an undergraduate degree (Seymour and Hewitt 1997). Slaney (1984) demonstrated that college women who had stable college majors were more likely to higher grades with personality too contributing to difference in choice of academic major Pike (2006).

Other influential factors: - There are certain factors that need greater, wider and deeper introspection on their influences on students choice of academic disciplines like parents gendered beliefs, peers’ views during puberty, girls’ perceived low self-efficacy (Eccles, 1994; Handelsman, Cantor, Carnes, Denton, Fine, Grosz, Hinshaw, Marrett, Rosser, Shalala, & Sheridan, 2005), institutional discrimination (Wenneras & Wold, 1997) sets the boundaries to future scope of study.

Conclusion: - The significance of new science and technology fields as engines of economic growth (see, e.g., Bush and 1990 [1945]; Drori et al. 2003; Geiger 1993; Geiger and Sa 2008; Graham and Diamond 1997; Kerr 1963 Brint, S et al, 2011) demands gender parity. Thus gender disparity in choice of major should be removed because competition in global technological markets requires development of highly skilled

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personnel, preferably from a diverse society, regardless of gender or race (Johnson, D. and Miller, K. W ; 2002 Lazowska, E. Pale and Male, 2002) where a culturally diverse workforce with manpower utilisation in various engineering fields can solve skill shortage problems or marginalisation of women in engineering (Ginther, D. K. 2001) faced by engineering domains.

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AN ANALYTICAL STUDY OF MERITS AND DEMERITS OF INTERNATIONAL COMMERCIAL ARBITRATION

Vikrant Sopan Yadav Ph.D. Research Scholar Department of Law Savitribai Phule Pune University Pune MEANING

Section 2(1) (f) of the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 defines an ICA to mean one arising from a legal relationship which must be considered commercial1 where either of the parties is a foreign national or resident or is a foreign body corporate or is a company, association or body of individuals whose central management or control is in foreign hands.

Duhaime’s legal dictionary defines the term International Commercial Arbitration as,

The Supreme Court in the case of TDM Infrastructure Pvt. Ltd. v. UE Development India Pvt. Ltd.2 held that, Where despite TDM Infrastructure Pvt. Ltd. having a foreign control it concluded that, “a company incorporated in India can only have Indian nationality for the purpose of the Act.”

“A commercial dispute subject to arbitration and in which a significant international elements exists such as, for example, the head offices of the disputants are different countries or the performance of the underlying contract is in a foreign state.”3

1 The term ‘Commercial’ should be construed broadly having regard to the manifold activities which are an integral part of international trade today (R.M. Investments & Trading Co. Pvt. Ltd v. Boeing Co. AIR 1994 SC 1136). 2 2008 (14) SCC 271 3 Available at, http://www.duhaime.org/Legal Dictionary/I/Interna tionalCommer cialA rbitration.aspx, accessed on 20th Dec. 2015

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International arbitration is a leading method for resolving disputes arising from international commercial agreements and other international relationships. As with arbitration generally, international arbitration is a creation of contract, i.e., the parties' decision to submit disputes to binding resolution by one or more arbitrators selected by or on behalf of the parties and applying adjudicatory procedures, usually by including a provision for the arbitration of future disputes in their contract.4

MERITS OF INTERNATIONAL COMMERCIAL ARBITRATION (ICA)

Strength with Flexibility

The main advantage of international commercial arbitration is that it combines strength with flexibility. Strength because it yields enforceable decisions, and it is backed by judicial framework which, in the last resort, can call upon the coercive powers of the State. Flexible because it allows the contestants to choose procedure which fit the nature of the dispute and the business context in which it occurs. A system of law which comes anywhere close to achieving these aims is likely to be intellectually difficult and hard to pin down in practical terms.5

The Arbitral Tribunal has full powers to decide the procedure to be followed, unless parties agree on the procedure to be followed.6 The powers to determine the admissibility, relevance, materiality and weight of any evidence also lies with the tribunal.7

4 Gary B. Born, International Commercial Arbitration, pg. 187, 197, 217 Kluwer Law International; 3 edition (January 15, 2009) 5 Michael Black QC, et al., ―Arbitration of Cross-Border Disputes,‖ Construction Lawyer - the American Bar Association, Vol. 27, 2007, at pg..1 6 Section 19(3) of the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 7 Section 19(4), Ibid

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Neutrality

This is the most significant feature of international arbitration. Arbitration proceedings take place in a country with which neither party has links. The disputes are determined in accordance with transnational rules or according to the national law of a neutral country. Arbitrators are appointed from different nationalities and different countries. Neutrality is of absolute importance in the context of international arbitration, where each party wants to avoid a national court of its co-contractor.8

Faster

The arbitral awards are final and not subject to appeal. Court cases where large amounts are involved and at stake will have to go through appeals procedure and sometimes even a third review procedure by the highest court. Arbitrators appointed have more flexible schedules than judges and can make themselves available in the evenings and during weekends and holidays.9

The alternative dispute resolution provides procedural flexibility, saves valuable time and money and avoides the stress of a conventional trial.”10

Enforceability of Arbitral Awards

One of the major advantages of arbitrating rather than litigating international disputes is the ease with which an international arbitral award provided in one country can be enforced in another country. The awards for international arbitration are easily enforceable

Jos Mertens, "International Commercial Arbitration, Especially ICC Arbitration" 8 (paper presented at the Denver General Meeting Colorado, USA on September 14, 2006). 9 Michael Black QC, et al., ―Arbitration of Cross-Border Disputes,‖ Construction Lawyer - the American Bar Association, Vol. 27, 2007, at pg. 12 10 Available at, http://icadr.nic.in/WhyADR.php, accessed on 29th Nov. 2014

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than national judgments. In an enforcement proceeding in England, the action on the award must take the form of a claim in contract. This rule is based on the assumption that the agreement to perform the award is implied in submission and that the submission is the contract on which the action is based.11

The New York Convention has been signed and approved by 144 countries. The New York Convention has established a regime for the enforcement of arbitral awards. Before entering into an arbitration agreement, a party may check whether at least one of the countries in which the other party has its assets is a signatory to the New York Convention. The recognition and enforcement are only exceptionally not allowed on limited grounds. There is no international convention that enables the enforcement of national judgments. This advantage is crucial, as the prevailing party in an international dispute frequently has to enforce the judgment or award rendered in its favour in another country in which the unsuccessful party has assets.

Where an enforcement of an Arbitral Award is sought under Order XXI CPC by a decree holder the legal position as to objections to it is clear. At the stage of execution of the Arbitral Award, there can be no challenge as to the validity of the Arbitral Award.12

Bindingness of Award

“Every Award shall be binding on the parties. By submitting the dispute to arbitration under these Rules, the parties undertake to carry out any Award without delay … .”13

When the period for filing objections has expired or objections

11 Union Nationale des Co-operatives Agricoles de Cereales v. Robert Catterall and Company Ltd., 1959, 2 QB 44. 12 Bhawarlal Bhandari v. Universal Heavy Mechanical Lifting Enterprises 1999 (1) SCC 558 13 ICC Arbitration Rule 28(6)

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have been rejected, the award can be enforced under the CPC in the same manner as if it were a decree passed by a Court of law.14

Secrecy and Confidentiality

The desire to keep a dispute and its resolution secret by the parties plays an important role in a decision to choose arbitration for resolution of their disputes. Parties are required to agree in the arbitration agreement to confidentiality. The parties to arbitration are not obligated to keep the proceedings confidential and may well decide to divulge the existence and details of the proceedings unless they have agreed to confidentiality. Existence of the arbitration as well as the evidence and the documents exchanged in the arbitration, and the final award cannot be divulged to third parties if parties have agreed to confidentiality. The duty of confidentiality binds the arbitrators, the parties, and their counsel, and it is considered an important commercial advantage of arbitration.15

Considering the value of Arbitration and other ADR modes, Justice V.R Krishna Iyer, while inaugurating ADR Centre in Kochi, graciously conveyed that “legislation should be made wherein lawyers shall try to settle cases rather than take the parties to the court. The Courts should be the last resort and ADR the first resort. He said that there should be “a National Movement for ADR in India through Centers like ADR Centre”16.

DEMERITS OF INTERNATIONAL COMMERCIAL ARBITRATION

International commercial arbitration has few disadvantages. Speed was considered to be one of the main advantages of international

14 N.Poongodi v. Tata Finance Ltd, 2005 (3) Arb. LR 423 Madras 15 Michael Black QC, et al., ―Arbitration of Cross-Border Disputes,‖ Construction Lawyer - the American Bar Association, Vol. 27, 2007, at pg. 13 16 Available at, http://www.rtiindia.org/forum/2385-nearly-30-million-cases-pending- courts.html, accessed on 1st Dec. 2014

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arbitration, but in the past few years, practitioners have, however, increasingly questioned whether arbitration is today still a speedier procedure than litigation.17

International arbitration has become lengthier like court proceedings for a variety of reasons. The disputes submitted to arbitration are highly complex or party may resort to delay tactics, which may take a longer time for adjudication.

The parties and the tribunal have the freedom to agree on a procedure they wish to follow, and it has become almost customary for them to agree on a fairly lengthy procedure, which results delay in procedure. Arbitrators agree to order documents to be produced which are sometimes located in various countries, thus inevitably affect the length of the proceedings. Some arbitrators due to their busy schedules fix hearing dates and make awards months later than otherwise possible.

One of the disputed parties can disrupt the arbitration proceedings by causing courts to interfere with them, if the arbitration proceeding has its seat in a certain country which has not enacted modern international arbitration laws.

The arbitral tribunals find it difficult for various reasons to deny time extensions and resist a party's neglecting tactics. Tribunals avoid to provide a party with a basis to argue that it was not treated fairly and that it was unable to present its case, which is a general for setting aside the award.

Arbitration agreements are generally contained in supplementary agreements or in small print in other agreements, which are not many times noticed immediately until problems arises.

17 Peter Sherwin, et al., Proskauer on International Litigation and Arbitration, (New York: Proskauer Rose LLP, 2011), at pg. 19

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Arbitration proceedings are sometimes influenced by powerful law firms representing the stronger and wealthier party. There are very restricted avenues for appeal, which means that a wrong award cannot be easily overturned.

The arbitrator or the arbitration bodies sometimes depend on the employer for repeat business, and they may decide against opposite party. Rule of applicable law is not strictly binding on the arbitrators, which may result in injustice and attract opposition to enforcement of award.

Arbitrators are generally unable to enforce interim measures of protection against a party, and it is easier for a party to take steps to avoid enforcement of an award, such as the relocation of assets offshore.

Unlike court judgments, arbitration awards themselves are not directly enforceable. A party seeking to enforce an arbitration award is subjected to judicial remedies.

By agreeing to arbitration, the parties give up their rights to access the courts and to have a judge or jury decide the case.

Discovery is generally more limited in arbitration or entirely nonexistent. Contrary to litigation in civil law countries, however, a certain degree of discovery is often permitted by arbitration tribunals. Parties who are favorable to discovery will thus prefer international arbitration to litigation before courts in a civil law country.

The degree of discovery allowed in international arbitration varies from one case to the other, and often depends on the legal background of the tribunal. Whether or not a party wishes the tribunal to allow discovery is a factor into its selection of an arbitrator.

ADR may not be a feasible method of dispute settlement in following situations;

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1. ADR processes cannot be used where the dispute is regarding systematic injustice, discrimination, violation of human rights or serious frauds.

2. ADR processes do not set precedent, since they function in private. They seek to resolve individual disputes and resolution may be different in two similar cases, depending on the surrounding conditions.

3. ADR processes cannot work well, where there is extreme power imbalance between the parties. A more powerful party may coerce the weaker party to accept the unfair consensus.

4. ADR processes cannot work effectively, where there are multi party disputes, in which some of the parties do not participate.

5. ADR settlements do not have any educational or deterrent effect on the public, since they are settled privately. Only courts can award punitive damages.

6. Many people are not aware of the existence of ADR methods. Unless they are aware they cannot use these methods.18

7. The WIPO Uniform Domain Name Dispute Resolution Policy Article 4 provides that the institution of procedures under the policy does not preclude a party from submitting the dispute to a court of competent jurisdiction for resolution. Since the Domain Name Dispute Resolution Procedure does not lead to a final and binding decision, it is not an arbitral proceeding and the costs involved could not be recovered from the losing party as “procedural costs”, as could the costs of arbitration.19

18Available at, http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstrea m/10603/10373/7/07 _chapt er%201.pdf, accessed on 03rd Dec. 2014 19 Newsletter der Österreichischen Vereinigen für Schiedsgerichtsbarkeit, January 2005, citing OGH 16.3.20 04, 4 Ob 42/04m (Austria, Supreme Court)

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CONCLUSION

It is a part of right to life and personal liberty, a fundamental right of every citizen under Article 21, to get speedy justice and speedy trial, which also is the fundamental requirement of good judicial administration. In the courts, arrears are growing to horrifying extent. This is particularly because institution of cases is much more than their disposal at all the levels of courts. Delay in disposal of cases in law courts, has defeated the purpose of resolution of disputes, for which the people come up to the courts. So, there is need to find out mechanisms to render social justice to the poor and needy who want their grievances redressed through law courts.

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SOCIAL STATUS AND HEALTH CONDITION OF AGED PARENTS IN GULBARGA CITY, KARNATAKA

Vishwanath Bellad Dr. Jaikishan Thakur Department of Studies and Associate Professor & Research Research in Sociology Guide Gulbarga University, Karnataka Govt First Grade College Mahgoan Cross, Gulbarga Dist, Karnataka INTRODUCTION

The older population has been growing at an unprecedented rate. In 1980, just prior to the convening of the First World Assembly on Ageing, there were 378 million people in the world aged 60 years or above. That figure has risen to 759 million over the past three decades and is projected to jump to 2 billion by 2050.

The average annual growth rate for the ageing population has also increased considerably. During the period 1950-1955, the annual growth rate for persons aged 60 years or over (1.7 per cent) was similar to the rate of growth for the total population (1.8 per cent). By 2005- 2010, the annual growth rate for the older population (2.6 per cent) was more than twice that recorded for the total population (1.2 per cent). In the mid-term future, the gap between those two growth rates is expected to widen as the large post-war cohort reaches age 60 in several parts of the world.1

Elderly or old age consists of ages nearing or surpassing the average life span of human beings. The boundary of old age cannot be defined exactly because it does not have the same meaning in all societies. Government of India adopted ‘National Policy on Older Persons’ in January, 1999. The policy defines ‘senior citizen’ or ‘elderly’ as a person who is of age 60 years or above.

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Elderly or old age consists of ages nearing or surpassing the average life span of human beings. The boundary of old age cannot be defined exactly because it does not have the same meaning in all societies. People can be considered old because of certain changes in their activities or social roles. Also old people have limited regenerative abilities and are more prone to disease, syndromes, and sickness as compared to other adults. The medical study of the aging process is called gerontology and the study of diseases that afflict the elderly is geriatrics. The United Nations World Assembly on Ageing, held at Vienna in 1982, formulated a package of recommendations which gives high priority to research related to developmental and humanitarian aspects of ageing (United Nations, 1987). The plan of action specifically recommended that “International exchange and research cooperation as well as data collection should be promoted in all the fields having a bearing on ageing, in order to provide a rational basis for future social policies and action. Special emphasis should be placed on comparative and cross cultural studies in ageing”. The phenomenon of population ageing is becoming a major concern for the policy makers all over the world, for both developed and developing countries, during last two decades. But the problems arising out of it will have varied implications for underdeveloped, developing and developed countries.

In India with majority of its population aged less than 30, the problems and issues of its grey population has not been given serious consideration and only a few studies on them have been attempted in our country. To reap the advantage of demographic dividend, the focus is mainly on the children and the youth and fulfillment of their basic needs for proper development. Also the traditional Indian society and the age-old joint family system have been instrumental in safeguarding the social and economic security of the elderly people in the country. However, with the rapid changes in the social scenario and the emerging prevalence of nuclear family set-ups in India in recent years

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the elderly people are likely to be exposed to emotional, physical and financial insecurity in the years to come. This has drawn the attention of the policy makers and administrators at central and state governments, voluntary organizations and civil society.

The number of elderly in the developing countries has been growing at a phenomenal rate; in 1990 the population of 60 years and above in the developing countries exceeded that in the developed countries. According to present indications, most of this growth will take place in developing countries and over half of it will be in Asia, with the two major population giants of Asia, namely India (Irudaya Rajan, Mishra and Sarma 1999) and China contributing a significant proportion of this growing elderly (Irudaya Rajan, Sarma and Mishra 2003). Statement of the Problem

Studies have identified different problems that the old women face. Ill- health, depression and maladjustment are common symptoms associated with dependency and the consequent lack of love, caring and acceptance from children. Lack of nutritious food and in adequate finance are other causes for the health, psychological and family problems faced by the old women.

In order to know the social status of the old aged people of Gulbarga City of Karnataka State. Some data related to their social, economic, condition have been discussed and analysed in this article.

The traditional norms and values of Indian Society laid stress on respect and care For the old people. The aged members of the family were normally taken care of in the family itself. But in modern society the attitude of youngsters is more individualistic. Today old people are no more heads of families. The respect, acceptance, dignity and love are not their privileges any more. Quite often, the children consider the aged as burdens and desire to get rid of them. Neglect of old people is

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common in present society. Their abuse is no more a rare phenomenon. Particularly old age people are suffer greatly with these problems due to lack of education, income etc. In this study an attempt has been made to discuss the extent of care, respect and freedom, which the old age people are getting from the members of their family and neighbors.

Methodology

An attempt is made in this section to explain the methods, tools and techniques that were chosen and employed for the study of status of weavers community in Gulbarga City. After proper scrutiny, the methods which suit best to the present study are employed. As such the present study has employed interview schedule to collect the data.

The interview schedule was prepared keeping in view the objectives, the research questions and the hypotheses of the study, care was taken to see that, none of the objectives, were left out and irrelevant superfluous data were gathered from the respondents.

Table No 1. Age of Respondents (No 450)

Age Frequency Percent 60-65 227 50.5 66-70 140 31.1 71-75 55 12.2 76 and above 28 6.2 Total 450 100.0 Table 1 explains the demographic information of the respondents of present study area. During data collection it was found that most of the respondents falls under 60-65 age groups (50.5 percentage), 31.1 (140 Nos) were belonged to age group of 66-70, whereas only 6.2 percentage and 12.2 percentage were belonging to 71 to 75 and above 75 age group respectively.

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Table No 2. Sex ratio of respondents (No 450)

Particulars Frequency Percent Male 273 60.7 Female 177 39.3 Total 450 100.0 It is significant to note that, out of 450 respondents studied the respondents are distributed equally unequally. The selection of respondents was done randomly as to know the status of old aged people in Gulbarga city. Among the respondents, males were composed of 60.7 percentage, while female respondents were about 39.3 percentage.

Table No 3. Religion of respondents (No 450)

Particulars Frequency Percent Hindu 388 86.2 Muslim 27 6.0 Christian 26 5.8 Others 9 2.0 Total 450 100.0 Religion is one of the important variable in any social science research. In the Indian Society majority belongs to Hindu religion, Muslim and Christian and other religions are also exists. However, in the present study includes major religions are represented by the respondents. The data on religion of the respondents are presented in the table No.3. Out of 450 respondents Hindus were high consist of 86.2 percentage, followed by Muslims (6.0 percentage), Christians (5.8 percentage) and others were composed of about 2.0 percentage respectively.

Table No 4. Caste wise distribution of respondents (No 450)

Particulars Frequency Percent Forward 22 4.9 Back ward 149 33.1

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SC/ST 279 62.0 Total 450 100.0 In the present study caste of the respondents is classified, as forward, Backward and SC/ST. The caste wise distribution of the respondents is given in the table 4. Out of 450 respondents of the present study, 62.0 percentage of respondents were belonging to SC/ST, whereas, backward class represented by 33.1 percentage and forward class was consist of 4.9 percentage.

Table No 5. Educational status of respondents (No 450)

Education Frequency Percent Illiterate 242 53.8 Literate 80 17.8 SSLC 67 14.8 PUC and above 61 13.6 Total 450 100.0 It is significant to note that more than 1/2 of the respondents that is 53.8 percent of them are illiterates, Whereas, 17.8 percentage of respondents were just manage with minimum education and only 13.6 percentage e of respondents were having education at the level of PUC and above, only 14.8 percentage of respondents were having education at the level of SSLC. It could be observed from the results that, education of this area is weakening and more awareness need in this area.

Table No 6. Occupation of the respondents (No 450)

Particulars Frequency Percent Teacher 33 7.3 Profession 27 6.0 Clerk 47 10.4 Peon 13 2.9 Any other 330 73.3 Total 450 100.0

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In consonance with the educational level of the respondents are low and data collected on occupation indicates that, the about 73.3 percentage of respondents were not having any government jobs, nearly 221 percent of the respondents occupations were in some sectors of the government and only about 6.0 percent of the respondents are having professional occupation.

Table No 7. Nature of the family of respondents (No 450)

Particulars Frequency Percent Joint family 78 17.3 Small family 350 77.8 Extended family 4 .9 Others 18 4.0 Total 450 100.0 The data on nature of the family shows that only 17.3 percent of the respondents belong to joint family, 77.8 percentages of respondents were living in small family, which is the most common type of family in modern society. 0.9 percent of the respondents belongs to extended families and are members of other type about 4.0 percentage. Since majority of the respondents belong to nuclear families, it may be assumed that the support net work, to lend a helping hand in times of need, is absent for the majority of the respondents.

Table No 8. Old age is full of sorrows and dissatisfaction (No 450)

Particulars Frequency Percent

Fully agree 240 53.3

Partially agree 115 25.5 Do not agree 95 21.2

Total 450 100.0

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One noteworthy aspect that also came to the forefront from the field study is that 21.2 percentages of respondents were happy with their old age and style of living with family. But neat of ½ of the respondents were felt that (53.3 percentages) sorrows and not satisfied with their living conditions. While 25.5 percentages of respondents were partially agree with the above said question.

Table No 9. Individual worries and concerns (No 450)

Particulars Frequency Percent Yes 243 54.0 No 110 24.5 Some times 97 21.5 Total 450 100.0 It is interesting to note that, 24.5 percent of respondents were not having any individual worries and concern. It clearly state that near to ¼ of the respondents are enjoying their post young life. These respondents were mostly retire from their services from government jobs or doing any business or etc. but 54.0 percent of respondents are stated that they have strong worries and concern about their family matters. Which clearly state that, due to their low economic status and physical strength are not supporting to do work for family.

Table No 10. Source of the individual income (No 450)

Particulars Frequency Percent None 125 27.8 Pension 101 22.4 Agriculture 71 15.8 Rent/interest/divided 00 00 Business 148 32.9 Own profession 5 1.1 Total 450 100.0 Income is one of the important variables in any social science research. Income of an individual is also one of the important aspects in

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deciding the status of an individual in the society. Income plays predominant role in deciding the educational and occupational path of an individual. It also puts its stamp on the behavioral aspects and more particularly on the social status of an individual. In the present study data on source of income are also collected and presented in the table 10. Out of 450 respondents, 27.8 percent of the respondents were do not having any source of income, and they are depend on their family members. 22.4 percent of respondents were having pension as source of income, while 15.8 percent of respondents stated that agriculture is the income source and most of the respondents stated that business is their source of income, which composed of 32.9 percent.

Table No 11. Health problem (No 450)

Particulars Frequency Percent

Yes 398 88.4

No 52 11.6

Total 450 100.0

Table No 12. If yes mentioned disease? (No 450)

Particulars Frequency Percent

Cardio vascular problems 54 12.0

Diabetes/asthma/bronchitis/cancer 153 34.0

Psychiatric/dental/eye related 162 36.0

Others 81 18.0

Total 450 100.0

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Aging is biological process in which body physiology is not support for doing work. Most of the old age people felts short of eye sight, joints and the major health ailments which people face are muscular-skeletal in nature and they suffer mainly from knee pain, joint pain, and back ache. Table 11 and 12 shows the majority of respondents were facing heal the problems (88.4 percentages) and only 11.6 percent state that, they are not facing any kind of major health problems.

Among the respondents, 36 percent are suffering from eye related, Psychiatric problems, 34 percent of respondents were suffering from Diabetes, Asthma, while 12 percent are facing cardio vascular problems, interesting note that, 18.0 percent of the respondents are living healthy.

Table No 13. Younger generation does not give proper attention, care respect to the older generation? (No 450)

Particulars Frequency Percent

Yes 408 90.6

No 42 9.4

Total 450 100.0

In the modern society, young generation has to take care of the older generation. From the present study it is very clear that, today’s younger generation is not taking care, respect and proper attention towards the older generation. About 90.6 percent respondents felt that, younger generation is neglecting the old people in terms of respect and care. This is the alarming time to create awareness among the young generation and sensitize the value of old age people.

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Conclusion

Hence, it is obvious from the empirical study, carried out on the old age respondents, belonged to Gulbarga City, which indicate their subjective as well as objective views on various problematic areas of elderly in various strata of the society. In this context, main focus has been given on their status, economic dependency and health, etc. In this context, varied responses have been received by the varied age groups of the elderly belonged to various strata of society.

References:

1. United Nations, World Population Ageing 2009 (ESA/P/WP/212). Available from ttp://www.un.org/esa/ 2. Ponnuswami, I. (2005). Aging: Worldwide trends and challenges for care giving. Social Welfare, 52:26-39. 3. Jayashree, V. and Rao, T.R. (1991). Effect of work on adjustment and life satisfaction of the elderly. Ind .J. Clinical Psycho, 18: 41-44. 4. Chadha, N.K. (1999). The other side of being old. Social Change, 29:1-11 5. Rajan, Irudaya and Kumar, S. (2003). Living Arrangement among India Elderly – New vidences from National Family Health Survey, 6. Economic and Political Weekly, Vol 38 No. 1, January 4 – 10 (pp75-80). 7. Teng, Y.P. (2007). Living Arrangement among the Elderly in South East Asia, Paper presented in the Seminar on the Social, Health and Economic Consequences of Population Aging in the Context of Changing Families, July 25-27, Bangkok. population/publications/WPA2009/WPA2009_WorkingPaper.pd f.

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THE EFFECTS OF INDIRECT ASSESSMENT (LUMP-SUM) OF TAXATION ON THE ACTIVITIES OF SMALL AND MEDIUM SIZE BUSINESS IN ETHIOPIA. (THE CASE OF CATEGORY “C” TAXPAYERS IN ADAMA TOWN)

Asfaw Bekele Megnaka Prof. M. Sarada Devi Ph.D Scholar Professor and Placement Departments of Commerce officer and Management Studies Departments of Commerce Andhra University and Management Studies Visakhapatnam Andhra University Visakhapatnam Introduction

The development of Micro and Small Scale Enterprises is the central focus of the industrial development strategy. In 2010/11, one of the primary tasks was to comprehensively overhaul the micro and small enterprises development strategy based on the experience gained so far in Ethiopia and the experiences of other successful countries. Accordingly, a comprehensive micro and small enterprises development strategy was devised and approved by the government in consultation with all relevant actors. In addition, the Federal executive agency responsible for the execution of the strategy was reorganized to strengthen its institutional capacity. A strategy was also devised to ensure that all public programs are executed in such a way that they create productive employment opportunities, nurture skill development and promote the development of competitive micro and small enterprises. These targets of employment generation, skill and business development were in particular planned to be realized through the construction of public universities, sugar factories, integrated housing construction, road development, train network development, power generation schemes, and cobblestone development activities. Accordingly, detail

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implementation manuals and guidelines have been prepared in relation to these strategies in 2010/11.1

Now the world economy has developed extremely and this has been linked with contribution and activities of Small and Medium Size business, particularly in developing countries. A Study carried out by the central statics Authority shows that in Ethiopia, Small and Medium Size business make up 93% of the total employment and the value of production is as high as 28% from the total manufacturing output. Also the share for the difference between the gross value of production and the value of the inputs that put into the production from outside is staged at 30%. The MSEs sector constitutes about 3.4% of the GDP; which is about 33% of the overall industrial sector’s contribution and 52% of the manufacturing sector’s contribution in Ethiopia (CSA, 1997 cited in Geleta, 2013).

Because they enjoy a wider geographical presence than big companies, Small and medium scale business also contribute to better income distribution. Over the years, small and medium scale enterprises have been an avenue for job creation and the empowerment of Ethiopian’s citizens providing about 93% of all jobs in Ethiopia and also for local capital formation. Being highly innovative, they lead to the utilization of our natural resources which in turn translates to increasing the country’s wealth through higher productivity. Small and medium scale enterprises have undoubtedly improved the standard of living of so many people especially those in the urban areas.

Therefore Ethiopia has Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) for 2010/11-2014/15, the overall objectives of this plan in Micro and small scale is is to enable the micro and small scale enterprises play

1 Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Growth and Transformation Plan (2010/11-2014/15) Annual Progress Report for F.Y. 2010/11

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 Creating employment opportunities for about 3 million people through the provision of a full-fledged support.

 Provide training of trainers (ToT) for 10,000 professionals in the sub-sector.

 Provide training for about 3 million operators in the areas of entrepreneurships, handicraft, technical and vocational.

 Develop 15,000 hectares of land, construct shade and buildings for operators organized in enterprises.

 Organize Small and medium size business and build the attitude of youths especially literates in creating job for themselves, through process getting industrialists. Training institutions and different types of organizations play their part in influencing people to be on their behalf by doing broad based and continuous awareness and advocacy works.

 Enable the sector to develop strong linkage with the agricultural, medium and large scale industrial sector.

 Strengthening and expanding the urban extension program working in collaboration and coordination with TVET2 in supporting the sector.

The performance for this plane will be measured after the GTP will finish its term.

2 TVET: Technical , Vocational and educational training

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Considering socio-demographic of small and medium size business more than 70% of population involved in the sector is below age 40. The mortality rate of these small firms is very high. According Central Statics Agencies in Ethiopia, 66% of small and medium size business dies before their 5th anniversary. Among the factors responsible for these untimely close-ups are tax related issues, lack finance and credit facilities etc. In many government policies, small and medium size business are usually viewed and treated in the same light as large corporations. This is not applicable in Ethiopia; large companies have high consideration in tax assessments than small business. However, their size and nature makes them unique. Therefore, in dealing with small and medium Size business, these unique qualities need to be considered. In levying of taxes for these enterprises in particular, issues that need to be considered are how these tax policies can be designed to bolster the growth of this business and the most effective ways to administer them. The importance of Small and medium size business as a mechanism of economic growth arid development is often unobserved.

They are perceived as minute establishments that have minimal effect on the state of the economy. However, if favorable environment is created for these Small and medium business to grow through proper regulation, the Small and medium size business has the highest propensity to transform Ethiopian economy and the target designed to reach the development goal is easily achieved. In the same light, taxes are important for the government as they are the major source of funds for government expenditure. Revenue obtained from taxation of individuals and businesses are used to run governments as well as provide infrastructure such as good roads, water supply, and electricity which are essential for the smooth running of these businesses that are mainly manufacturing companies and as such rely on these commodities to survive.

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However, Holban (2007) posited that taxation can contribute to development and to welfare through three sources;

 It must be able to generate sufficient funds for financing public services and social transfers at a high level of quality,

 it should offer incentive for more employment and for an efficient and lasting use of natural resources,

 Finally it should be able to reallocate income. But in the case of Small and micro business`, tax must be done in such a way that puts their income and need for survival into consideration. It is expedient that enough profit is allowed them for the purpose of expanding their businesses. The tax policy must be one that will not encourage Small and medium business to remain in the informal sector or to evade or avoid tax payments. More so, many small firms in Africa, including Ethiopia, prefer to remain in the informal sector, black market and on road trade because the perceived benefits be more important than the perceived costs. Firms rarely see their tax contributions at work and the compliance costs are high, thus discouraging compliance. The government is also discouraged from collecting taxes from small firms, because the cost of monitoring and collecting tax from small businesses by revenue authorities, whose resources are usually scarce, sometime outweighs the revenues generated by small businesses (Stem and Barbour, 2005)

The center of attention of this research therefore is to examine the effect of standard assessments (lump-sum) taxation on the activities of small and medium size business and the importance of such taxes to the Ethiopian economy, to establish the relationship between tax proclamations and the growth of small and medium size business (category “C” taxpayers) in Ethiopia and to evaluate the factors that

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Statement of the Problem

The study has been stressed more on the effects of the standard assessments of business tax on the operation of unincorporated business sectors, which means; how the standard estimations of tax system affects category “C” taxpayers’ business activities. In Ethiopia, the regional Revenue authority office imposed tax on category “C” taxpayers based on the indirect assessments (lump-sum) and by estimating the annual revenues of small and medium size taxpayers after it declared by tax assessment committee.

The taxes imposed by estimation have negative effect on the business activities. The business owners complain that the standard assessments and estimation tax system was made based on subjective criterion of tax assessment committee. Many of business owners have been discouraged in Ethiopia due to inability to pay tax to government. The dissatisfaction of business sectors has negative impact on country’s domestic product. Over or underestimate of taxation has reduce economic growth in general and lead business to failure. Because of most of the business sectors in developing countries like Ethiopia is covered by small and medium size, which is very difficult and burden to tax offices to control their income.

Anecdotal evidences indicated that, there are also some cases in which the employee of revenue authority office overestimate or underestimates the income of the business due to corruptions, nepotism, carelessness, having low skill to calculate taxes based on income statement of business and the indirect assessment procedure is not consider the individual tax payments ability because the standard assessment criteria are common to the one who generate more profit and to the one who incurs losses.

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As a result, the burden of tax is increased and may create problems on the operation of small and medium size business sectors. the problems faced are in the area of negative relationship between indirect assessments (lump-sum) taxes and the activities of business to stay in business and to expand, Small and medium business are faced with the problem of high tax rates, double tax payments at one time (turn over tax and income tax), complex tax regulations and lack of proper enlightenment or education about tax related issues. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effects of indirect assessments of taxation on category “C” taxpayers, in Ethiopia.

Objectives of the Study

The general objective of the study is to examine the effect of indirect assessment (lump-sum) taxation system on Small and medium size business activities.

 To examine the relationship between indirect assessments of taxation and Small and medium size business` existence.

 To know the effects of standard assessment of taxation on business activities.

 To identify possible solutions to solve subjective tax assessments problems.

 To ascertain whether Small and medium size business ability to pay taxes depends on their capital and business size potentials.

The following research hypotheses were developed in order to properly address the problems of the study. These hypotheses were stated in Null form as follows:

 Ho1: There is no significant relationship between indirect assessments of taxation and existence of small medium size business.

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 Ho2: The relationship between Small and medium size business activities and the liability to pay taxes are not significant.

Reviews of related literature

Lump-sum taxation

The lump-sum tax is the simplest form of presumptive taxation. It is as well most widely used in transition and accession countries. Lump-sum taxation of small business has been applied in Hungary, Poland, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia, in most Balkan countries and in many of the former Soviet republics. In the extreme form of a poll tax, it has no relation whatsoever to actual or potential income. Thus, it does not affect behavior unless taxpayers can easily move to other tax jurisdiction. Despite its superiority in terms of efficiency, it belongs to the theory rather than to the practice of modern taxation. Usually lump-sum presumptive taxes try to achieve some degree of equity through differentiation among groups of taxpayers. Groups are delineated by economic activity or profession, and the tax liability is set according to the average income potential of the respective group. As already noted, the regressivity of this type of tax may have strong incentive effects. It is noteworthy, however, that if not set at the proper level, it may discourage informal and start-up entrepreneurs to go formal. Thus, the practical application hinges crucially on the proper setting of the tax level. This is not an easy task, as the administration may not have reliable information on the average profitability of the industries. Moreover, these levels may be highly volatile in emerging markets, or a taxpayer may not easily fit into a single category or economic activity. In result, such estimates in practice may depart significantly from the optimal tax level. If it is overvalued, it will act as disincentive to go formal, or cause outflow of resources to other activities. Moreover, the assumed average level of earning capacity is hard to achieve at the start of the business.

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Furthermore, as already noted, this tax design is susceptible to fairness-driven adjustments. As it evolves from simplicity towards more equity, and if upward adjustments prevail, this leads to higher tax barriers to business start-up, and may drive resources away from optimal allocation.( Pashev,2005,pp7-8)

Tax assessment indicators of lump-sum taxation

Quantity indicators are used as a measure of taxpayers’ production and income potential, and are superior to the single or multiple fixed rates in terms of equity and fairness. They are based either on the size of production facility (e.g. size of shop, restaurant, or arable land), or on the quantity of equipment, such as number of beds in a family hotel, number of seats and tables in a restaurant. They may be based as well on the number of employees. Some of these indicators may be used directly for calculating individual tax liability: e.g. fixed sum per square meter, or per seat in a restaurant. They may be used as well for setting the tax brackets of the multiple rates. This type is similar to the single or multiple-rate lump sum tax. The latter, however, derives the estimate of the capacity to earn income from indicators that are related rather to the demand side and the environment in which the entrepreneur operates: i.e. type of product or service, location, etc. This types of taxation also applicable in Ethiopia on category “C” taxpayers whose annual revenue is less than ETB 100,000(USD 5000).(councils of Ministers regulation No. 78/2002)

Quantity indicators focus on factors that are internal for the entrepreneur, estimating individual supply capacity. A tax based on such indicators, however, is in effect a tax on the expansion of the business. Furthermore, there is the administrative of inspections verifying that actual number of employees or of seats and tables in a restaurant corresponds to the reported number. Therefore, they create

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more opportunities for corruption and tax evasion relative to audits of written accounting records. (IBD)

Value indicators: according to center of democracy working paper by Dr. Konstantin Pashev, 2005 value indicators are a further step towards more individual setting of the tax liability, and thus towards more equity and fairness. Often they are based on the value of assets, or the value of gross receipts or some combination of the two. Taxes on gross assets were introduced in Argentina and Mexico in the early 1990s Taxes on gross receipts for small enterprises are applied by Romania and Serbia on the Balkans, and Azerbaijan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan. Compared to fixed-sum and quantity indicator taxes, they seem a superior measure of individual ability to pay, as they provide indirect measures of actual business performance rather than of capacity to earn income. But they may still be inferior relative to the standard system in terms of equity. The asset based tax, for instance, ignores income spent on consumption. In the case of a tax, based on gross receipts, similar turnover may account for considerable income disparities across sectors and products. Furthermore, even within the same industry, income may vary over time. Accordingly, equity concerns expose it to pressures towards multiple rates, and their repeated adjustments and corrections. In result it may be neither simple nor a stable substitution of the standard income tax.

Deterrent effects of the value-based presumptive taxes are not to be ignored either. A tax based on the value of assets may not only discourage an increase of the equipment, but more importantly its replacement by new equipment. But on the other hand it encourages best utilization of th e existing capacity, which may have positive efficiency and employment effects. The major efficiency problem of a tax on gross receipts is its cascade effect, i.e. multiple taxation of the same base in the process of production and exchange between companies (Thuronyi 1996).

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Research Methodology

Research Design

Since this study involves the collection of views, perspectives or opinions of respondents regarding a particular issue, the study employed a survey research method which involves questionnaire, personal interview with respondents and perusal of past records and publications. This choice was made due to the fact that the survey method is effective when it comes to getting opinions, attitudes and descriptions as well as getting cause and effect relationship.

Population of the Study

This refers to the entire number of the members or elements in which the researchers are interested. In other words, it implies a set of all possible causes of interest in a given research activity. Thus, the population of the study is one hundred fifty small and medium size business taxpayers who live in Adama Town, Eastern Showa Zonal administration in Oromiya Regional State Administration.

Sample Size and Sampling Technique

Sample refers to the selected members of the entire population for use in the study. It is a sub group of observation from a large population in order to make inferences about the characteristics of the large population. Since it would not be convenient for the researchers to study the entire population, we derived our sample size statically by using Yaro Yamani

(Abdullahi, 2012) as follow:

Where:

n = Sample size

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N = Population

e = Margin of error (0.05)

Thus, the sample size is:

The sample size consists of one hundred fifty (150) small and medium size taxpayers (category “C”. Total 110 questionnaires were distributed out of which all of them were properly filed and retuned which represents 100% return rate. Because of the researcher used the house- drop off and self management system to control the respondent’s non- response rate.

Our analysis was based on the retuned questionnaires.

Method of Data Analysis

Analysis of data refers to those techniques whereby the investigator extract from data or information that was not apparently there before and which would enable a summary description of the subject studied to be made. The information being referred to here is the information that enabled the study to test the research hypotheses. Also the statistical tool of frequency tables and percentage were used to present and analyze data collected and also tested the research hypotheses with the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA).

Model specification is the analysis of variance (ANOVA) as thus:

2 SSB= r ∑ (Xij- x̅)

2 SSW=∑∑ (Xij- x̅)

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Where:

SSB= between treatment sum of square

SSW= within treat sum of square

Xij= individual observation around their column mean x̅= grand mean column df = degree of freedom (c-1) (n-1) c = number of column

N = number of observation r = Number of row

∑ = Summation Level of significance (0.05)

Data Presentation and Analysis

The data presented in this study has collected from the field survey on the evaluation of the effect of indirect taxation on Small and medium size business in Ethiopia. The data were collected mainly from Category “C” taxpayers, in Adama town Oromiya state. This will be geared towards testing the research hypotheses leading to drawing conclusions, recommendations and suggestions.

Table 1: Do you pay tax?

Code Response category Number Percentage A Regularly 70 63.6 B Mostly 30 27.3 C Occasionally 10 9 D Not at all - - Total 110 100% Source: primary data and own computation

Percentage may not be agree due to rounding

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According to the data collected from taxpayers, shown in table 1 above, 70 respondents representing 63.6% of the total sample size say they pay tax regularly. 30 respondents representing 27.3% say mostly, 10 respondents representing 9% say occasionally while only none of the respondents representing of the sample size say not at all. From the score, we deduced that small and medium size businesses are pay tax regularly given the amount of respondents that stand for it.

Table 2: How much type of taxes do you pay per a year?

Code Response category Number Percentage

A >3 types 15 13.6 B 3 types 55 50 C 2 types 32 29.1 D 1 type 8 7.3 Total 110 100% Source: primary data and own computation

Percentage may not be agree due to rounding

According to the data in table 2 above, the response rate for how much type of taxes do you pay per a year, 15 respondents representing 13.6% of the sample size said above three, 55 respondents representing 50% said three, 32 respondents representing 29.1% said two types, 8 respondents representing 7.3% said one, From the score, we deduced that at least not less than two types (representing 92.7%) of taxes are collected from small and medium size business in Ethiopia. The types of taxes frequently paid by small and medium size business are income tax, turn over tax, property tax, and Value added tax during purchasing g of commodities or goods for resale or converting it to final sale. The most terrible thing for small and medium size taxpayers in Ethiopia are the payments of income tax, and turn over tax at one assessment

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criteria and at one time , this is highly discouraging such infant business.

Table 3: indirect assessments (lump-sum) taxation affects the activities and existence of small and medium size taxpayer`s business Negatively in Ethiopia

Code Response category Number Percentage

A Strongly Agree 35 31.8 B Agree 66 60 C Disagree 9 8.2 D Strongly disagree 0 0 Total 110 100% Source: primary data and own computation

Percentage may not be agree due to rounding

Having seen table 3 above displayed that indirect assessments (lump- sum) taxation affects the activities and existence of small and medium size taxpayer`s business Negatively in Ethiopia. This is based on the opinion of respondents, at least 35 of them representing 31.8% strongly agree, 66 of the respondents representing 60% also agree while only 9 respondent representing 8.2% disagree about the statement. For the time being, no respondent strongly disagree on the statement. According to the data gathered from the category “C” tax payers’, Imposing taxes by estimation could have significant effect on the operation of business activities. As indicated in the above figure 91.8% of the respondents agreed with the indirect assessments of taxation have negative impact on the activities of business sectors,

Table 4: tax officers and tax assessment committee do not consider the potential daily sales, expenses and capitals of the business during tax assessments.

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Code Response category Number Percentage

A Strongly agree 14 12.72 B Agree 81 73.6 C Disagree 10 9.1 D Strongly disagree 5 4.5 Total 110 100% Source: primary data and own computation

Percentage may not be agree due to rounding

From the result on table 4 above, 14 respondents representing 12.72% of the total sample size strongly agrees on that tax officers and tax assessment committee do not consider the potential daily sales, expenses and capitals of the business during tax assessments. 81 respondents representing 73.6% also agree, totally 95 respondents agree that the tax they paid has not considered their daily sales, expenses and capital but, 10 respondents representing 9.1% disagree on the idea that the tax officers and tax assessment committee do not consider the potential daily sales, expenses and capitals of the business during tax assessments. While 5 respondents representing 4.5% strongly disagree. From the score, we can figure out that tax officers and tax assessment committee not consider the potential daily sales, expenses and capitals of the business during tax assessments. It accounts, 95 respondents representing 86.3% oppose the way of tax assessments on their business.

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Table 5: There is strong Relationship between Small and medium size business activities (sales, profit) and their capacity to pay tax.

Code Response category number Percentage A Strongly agree 49 44.5 B Agree 51 46.4 C Disagree 9 8.2 D Strongly disagree 1 0.9 Total 110 100% Source: primary data and own computation Percentage may not be agree due to rounding

From table 5 above, we understand that 49 respondents representing 44.5% strongly agree that there is strong Relationship between Small and medium size business activities (sales, profit) and their capacity to pay tax. 51 respondents representing 46.4% has been responding agree while, 9 respondents representing around 8.2% disagree and 1 respondents representing 0.9% strongly disagree the Relationship between Small and medium size business activities (sales, profit) and their capacity to pay tax.. According to the above results displayed in table 5 above, it is high relationship (91%) between the revenues and profit as well as the growth of small and medium size taxpayers ‘tax bearing capacity.

Table 6: the tax you pay is really not reflects your tax liability or you pay what you should not to pay?

Code Response category Number Percentage A Strongly agree 10 9.1 B Agree 93 84.55 C Disagree 5 4.5 D Strongly disagree 2 1.8 Total 110 100% Source: primary data and own computation

Percentage may not be agree due to rounding

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Table 6 above indicates respondents 10 representing 9.1% strongly agree as the tax that they pay is really not reflecting their actual tax liability or they pay the amount they should not pay, the majority of respondents 93 representing 84.55% agree, totally around 103 respondents representing 93.65% have the same opinion that the tax that they pays are not Fair. 5 respondents representing 4.5% has been responding disagree, while 2 respondents representing 1.8% strongly disagrees about the fairness of small business taxation. This fact shows us the tax that the taxpayers paid was not related to their income, sales and size, because there were the possibility of an overestimation and the results may discourage the business activities.

Test of Hypotheses

This part includes the test of the research hypotheses using the analysis of variance (ANOVA). The test is based on the data collected from the field survey on the study. The data is drawn from table 1, 2, and 3 for hypothesis 1: and 4, 5, 6 for hypothesis 2; respectively.

Test of Hypothesis One

Ho: There is no significant relationship between indirect assessments of taxation and existence of small medium size business.

Table 7 sample data 1

Code A B C D Table 1 70 30 10 0 Table 2 15 55 32 8 Table 3 35 66 9 0 X 40 50.33 17 2.7

x̅ 27.5 Adopted from questionnaires results

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ANOVA table 7

Source SS Df MS F P value Between 4213.667 3 1404.556 Groups Within groups 2611.333 8 326.4167 Total 6825 11 4.302953 0.04389 Result analysis and decision rule:

Ftab = Df under level of significance F (a1, a2) under 5%, F (3, 8) under 0.05, Standard or critical table value = 4.07 Compare F calculated value 4.3 α 4.07, 4.3 > 4.07 Since the calculated F is greater than the critical table value of F which is 4.07, that is, 4.3>4.07, we reject the null hypothesis and therefore accept the alternative hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance. This means that there is significant relationship between indirect assessments of taxation and existence of small medium size business. Hence, the continuous over assessments of taxation on small and medium size taxpayers, creates over burden on the daily activities of this business and it forced to down the existence and growth of small and medium size business in Ethiopia.

Test of hypothesis two:

 Ho2: The relationship between Small and medium size business activities and the liability to pay taxes are not significant.

Table 8: Sample Data 2

Code A B C D Table 4 14 81 10 5 Table 5 49 51 9 1 Table 6 10 93 5 2 X 24.33 75 8 2.67 x̅ 27.5

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Table 9: Test of ANOVA table 8 sample data 2

Sources of SS Df MS F P-value variation Between 9789.667 3 3263.222 treatment Within 1879.333 8 234.9167 treatment Total 11669 11 13.89098 0.001545 Source: Sample data 2 above

Decision Rule:

Ftab = df under level of significance

F(a1,a2) under 5%, F(3,8)\ under 0.05, Standard or critical table value = 4.07

Compare Fcal α F tab,α 4.07, 13.89098>4.07 From the ANOVA test statistics above, Fcal is much greater than F tab. That is, 13.89098>4.07. We therefore reject the null hypothesis (Ho) and therefore accept the alternative hypothesis (Hi) at 0.05 level of significance. The implication of this decision is that the relationship between Small and medium size business activities and the liability to pay taxes are highly significant. This means that regardless of their existence of taxing of Small and medium size taxpayers, Small and medium size taxpayers continued to stay in business if they paid relevant amount of taxes respect to their revenue, and profit, generated from their activities. Summary of Findings According to the field survey results revealed almost all the Small and medium size taxpayers business`(category “C” )in Ethiopia pay taxes to government regularly . As revealed by table .2, not less than 2 types of taxes are collected from Small and medium size business in Ethiopia.

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The types of taxes frequently paid by small and medium size business are income tax, turn over tax, property tax, and Value added tax during purchasing g of commodities or goods for resale or converting it to final sale. We found out that indirect assessments of taxation (lump-sum taxation) affects small and medium size taxpayers business activities (revenue, profit, saving, investment and growth) negatively The effects of taxation on the distribution of income and wealth among different sections of the society depend up on the natures of taxation, tax rates and kinds of taxation. And when the ability to save is adversely affected by high taxes and ability to invest of those who involve in the investment decision automatically reduced. The government has played a major role in exploiting the capacity to invest of the tax payers by adopting an appropriate tax policy. The government should consider very well in presumptive tax system because of small business are the base for big investment if they save and accumulate their daily income for future investments (Musgrave, Gupta 2001, 2004). In addition Findings from the field survey revealed that tax officers and tax assessment committee do not consider the potential daily sales, expenses and capitals of the business during tax assessments. Also, taxes are not collected in relation to the profit made by the Small and medium size business. As revealed by table 6, totally around 103 respondents representing 93.65% have the same opinion that the tax that they pays are not fair. From the test statistics, we deduced that there is a significant relationship between indirect tax assessments and small and medium size business existence. Hence, government should discontinue the excessive taxes they collect from the Small and medium size business so they can continue to exist as an entity. The test also revealed there is strong relationship between Small and medium size business daily activities and their liability to pay taxes and their daily activities,.

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Conclusion The study shows that the standard assessments of taxation have great impacts on the activities of category “C” taxpayers business in Ethiopia ; its effects has been reflected by unfair estimation of taxation on taxpayers. And the unfair estimation of taxation also negatively affects the activities of business sectors. Recommendations The study was conducted on the effects of indirect assessments of taxation on category “C” taxpayers in Ethiopia. And from the study indirect assessments of taxation has negatively affects the category C taxpayers, because the assessments of taxation on taxpayers is made by estimation and the estimated value goes beyond real value and it imposed taxpayers to discouraged from business operation . The solutions to reduce the negative effects of the indirect assessments of taxations will be suggested in this topic. The tax authority offices should reduce the subjective criteria of tax assessments by providing model financial statements as industry levels to use as bench mark during tax assessments. This is also one solution to reduce the corruptions and nepotisms during tax assessments.

The government should encourage small and medium size business in maintaining of their financial records. In addition, Category “C” taxpayers should develop self-assessment taxation system by providing essential documents to the tax authority with very simple bookkeeping and accounting that is converted with national languages to reduce unfair estimation of taxation and it develops the sense of belongingness to pay tax.

Small and medium size business are mostly categorized in category C taxpayers are the base for future big industries if they are encouraged to day, so the government should take care of those business during the establishments of tax policies and tax reforms. Taxes should he collected in relation to the revenue and profit of Small and medium

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References

1. Abdullahi, U. (2012). Effect of Customer Relationship Management on the Performance of Selected Banks in Nigeria. (M.Sc Thesis). Available from Kogi State University, Anyigba. 2. Ahmad, Ehtisham and Nicholas Stern, (1991) The Theory and Practice of Tax Reform in Developing Countries, Cambridge University Press 3. Alka Gupta (2001), Public Finance and Tax planning, 1st edition, New Delhi. 4. The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) For 2010/11-2014/15,( 2010), Ministry of Finance and Economic Development (MoFED),Addis Ababa. 5. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia tax Proclamation No 286/2002, Income Tax Proclamation, Addis Ababa. 6. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia tax Regulation No.78/2002, income tax regulation, Addis Ababa. 7. Holban, O.I. (2007). The taxation of small and medium-sized enterprises-a hindering factor influencing the European economic growth Doctoral dissertation, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi and Academy of Economies Studies from Bucharest Romania. 8. Dr. Konstantin Pashev, 2005, Presumptive taxation and gray economy, Lessons for Bulgaria, the center for the study of democracy 9. Richard E. Stern and Paul A. Barbour, Designing a Small Business Tax System that Enhances Growth: Lessons from Africa, FIAS World Bank Group, www.fias,netnsf 10. Richard A. Musgrave and Peggy B. Musgrave (2004), public finance in theory and practice, 5th edition, McGraw-Hill companies, Inc. New York. USA. 11. Victor Thuronyi(2003),Presumptive taxation of hard- to-tax , International Studies Program Working paper Georgia State University, Atlanta Georgia, USA.

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A PERSPECTIVE ON EXERCISE PRESCRIPTION

Dr. C.Kiran Chakravarthi Teaching Assistant Department of Physical Education and Sports Sciences Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapuramu

INTRODUCTION

For most of us, the meaning of a “prescription” is clear when our health is at stake. Adults usually seek, expect, and receive written directives from physicians for controlled pharmaceutical agents or services when their clinical assessments and diagnoses indicate that palliative, curative, rehabilitative, and/or protective outcomes are likely. Consumer confidence that these “traditional” prescriptions are efficacious, credible, and safe is grounded in the near certainty that competent licensed physicians, pharmacists, and other health care personnel are initiating and implementing appropriate therapies based on approved clinical trials.

Whether intended or not, the introduction of “Exercise Prescription” by the Indian College of Sports Medicine (ICSM)15 years ago is likely perceived by today’s lay public as consonant with that of a traditional prescription if for no other reason than both kinds of prescriptions have that ring of authenticity germane to ones health. The fact that the former employs exercise rather than drugs or other modalities to reach desired outcomes does not diminish its clinical rendering by consumers. By virtue of how we generically perceive the term “prescription”, it is reasonable to assume that the public accepts and has as much confidence in the efficacy, safety, and credibility of exercise prescriptions as it does in traditional prescriptions.

It is the purpose of this commentary to reason that this confidence may be misplaced and that, in fact, the dissimilarities between traditional prescriptions and exercise prescriptions are so

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great that prescribed exercise for many recipients may very well lack safety, efficacy and/or credibility and could be counterproductive. Further, it is argued that “exercise prescription” sends the wrong message to a majority of adults who should be including appropriate exercise as part of their daily lives.

EXERCISE PRESCRIPTION EFFICACY AND SAFETY

Effective and safe exercise prescriptions depend on the training, experience, and ability of the provider to specify appropriate modes, intensities, durations, frequencies, precautions, and progressions of exercise and to assure their judicious implementation by recipients. There is a broad range of “competency” of personnel who are writing exercise prescriptions for apparently healthy adults as well as for low risk, higher risk, and diseased individuals. For example, personnel could be well-trained certified ICSM Exercise Specialists and Program Directors and recently credentialed (2014) Indian Society of Exercise Physiologists ISEP) Certified Exercise Physiologists, to poorly trained unregulated self-proclaimed “exercise physiologists” or “personal trainers” with less than adequate credentials. Goals of the recently (2014) formed ISEP include the development of acceptable standards for the profession of exercise physiology, nationwide accreditation for undergraduate exercise physiology programs, and a national exam to endorse Certified Exercise Physiologists

ICSM and ISEP are not alone in credentialing skilled professionals. The Indian Physical Therapy Association, for example, beyond accrediting their academic programs that include entry-level competencies for fitness and cardiopulmonary rehabilitation, provide for a rigorous advanced specialty in the cardiopulmonary area. Nonetheless, there are a host of other widely available certifications that lack academic rigor. It would be naïve of us to believe, in the absence of legally mandated safeguards, that some self-serving or less

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competent exercise prescribers are not ill advising the public about physical activity. Hopefully, few of these individuals are responsible for higher risk patients, but we must be mindful of the fact that there are practitioners, in and out of the field of exercise science, who have not elected to obtain ICSM, ISEP, or any other certification to prescribe exercise. Thus, the potential for ineffective and/or unsafe exercise prescriptions is very real, and to whatever extent it exists, unacceptable.

THE PERCEPTION OF EXERCISE PRESCRIPTION

Although exercise prescription is a desirable and necessary therapeutic tool for patients whose well being and safety would be jeopardized in its absence, for diseased individuals with low risk and for apparently healthy adults, it may very well be unnecessary for efficacy or safety and disadvantageous because of its symbolism. The effectiveness of exercise prescriptions depends, in part, on the message its advocates send vis-à-vis traditional prescriptions. On the one hand, prescribed drugs and clinical modalities are not ends unto themselves but are means to ends, preferably short term, to cure, rehabilitate, and/or control health problems. They are not innately useful. Nor are they meant to be habit forming and self-fulfilling. Adults typically do not value unnecessary prescriptions. They prefer to be and remain healthy without them and avoid the risk of their debilitating side effects.

On the other hand, exercise is an end unto itself, it is meant to be practiced long-term and is innately useful. Exercise should be habit forming and is self-fulfilling. And we do value the very beneficial side effects of exercise. Thus, the imagery of a prescription in its traditional or clinical sense is diametrically opposed to its perception as a directive for exercise. To continue prescribing exercise for the apparently healthy and low risk adult population is to perpetuate a conflict of “having to”

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EXERCISE PRESCRIPTION ALTERNATIVES

Rather than prescribing exercise for the apparently healthy adult and low risk patient we should revert to language that has historically served us well. Terms such as exercise guidelines, principles, programs, procedures, strategies, and plans, are examples of how we can effectively communicate to the consumer without the intimidation and/or clinical overtones that “prescriptions” are likely to produce.

We must allow the exercise consumer to develop an appreciation of physical activity’s inherent worth and allow these activities to become their own messenger of value and satisfaction. We can help accomplish this by allocating more of our resources to educating and motivating rather than prescribing. We can provide instructions for exercise precautions and progressions that avoid prescriptive jargon. We can, in short, enable the exercise consumer to appreciate and value the physical activity experience without the clinical nuances. To the extent we can achieve these objectives while preserving quality and safety, we will encourage rather than deter physical activity participation and adherence for all adults.

THE CREDIBILITY GAP

If exercise consumers expect physicians who write traditional prescriptions to be qualified and licensed, might there not be the same expectation of exercise “prescribers” as well? And if there is such an expectation, might it not be misplaced, and if not appropriately addressed, misrepresented? After all, traditional prescriptions written

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Conversely, exercise prescribers, aside from physicians, physical therapists, and nurses, are not licensed, need not be college graduates, may practice without certification, and, with few exceptions, are not subject to State and/or Federal review for adhering to professional standards. Consequently, it is possible, for example, to have college students with minimal exercise physiology exposure in a related health field present themselves as exercise science professionals ready to dispense prescriptions. Further, for college baccalaureate and master degree candidates, there are no agreed upon universal minimal curriculum standards within the exercise science profession. Each institution of higher learning creates its own requirements for what constitutes a degree in exercise physiology or exercise science, subject to internal and state review. Thus, students emerge from a variety of exercise science programs with significantly different competencies and experiences. If successfully implemented, ISEP’s accreditation of undergraduate exercise physiology programs would be a major step toward assuring uniform acceptable standards in the profession of exercise physiology.

ICSM seeks to create acceptable standards for exercise “prescribers” by certifying Exercise Specialists and Program Directors. ISEP has the same objective by credentialing Certified Exercise Physiologists. Although many Exercise Specialists and Program Directors have distinguished themselves in clinical and proprietary settings, a critical review of current ICSM written and practical certification examinations will demonstrate their failure to adequately challenge ICSM’s own published “Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities”

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criteria. This results in a failure to keep pace with the increasing need for evaluating competencies that are required to advise and monitor more complex and higher risk patients. Thus, the quality and effectiveness of the exercise prescription process is compromised. Furthermore, although minimum requirements for ACSM Exercise Specialist certification include a baccalaureate degree in a “allied health field” and 600 hours of “practical experience” in a clinical exercise program, the “health field” may have very little to do with competencies needed for the Exercise Specialist certification and “practical experience” can mean anything from simply observing with few responsibilities to active participation with significant accountability. Hopefully, ISEP’s professional expectations for recently Certified Exercise Physiologists will be realized, but it is now too early to evaluate their competencies in the field.

It remains to be seen whether or not ICSM’s recently adopted Clinical Exercise Physiology Registry eligibility requirements and examinations will adequately address the problem of credibility. It is highly unlikely that any existing Exercise Science Masters Degree program can even minimally prepare candidates to meet expectations of ICSM’s own Clinical Exercise Physiology Registry “Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities” criteria. Also, the Registry’s education eligibility requirements as compared to those of the Exercise Specialist certification are illogical and need to be revisited.

The lack of credibility inherent in the exercise prescriptive process is also typified by the failure of most programs to have physicians co-sign the prescription when it is employed for the purposes of treating or alleviating disease or illness. How many programs fail in this regard is unknown, but we must question whether their numbers seriously impair the integrity and legality of the exercise prescriptive process.

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Finally, the absence of licensure, accountability, and lack of uniform standards for program and personnel evaluation allow for the proliferation and continuation of whatever ineffective and unsafe practices exist. To improve the credibility of the exercise “prescription” provider and product, these issues must be addressed.

CONCLUSION

Because of how most lay people interpret the term “prescription”, its use as an exercise directive implies a high degree of confidence that it is efficacious, credible, and safe. Unfortunately, this confidence is undermined by a lack of appropriate uniform academic standards, mandatory certification requirements, accountability, and/or legal safeguards within the field of exercise physiology. This results in the increasing probability that some exercise personnel are either misusing or abusing the practice of exercise prescription for patients who clearly require its explicitness. The clinical use of exercise prescription by the ill prepared, therefore, becomes pretentious at the very least and dangerous at its very worst.

In the absence of serious disease or injury, exercise should not be “prescribed”. The use of physical activity as a prescriptive tool should only be necessary in the presence of those diseases and injuries where the risks associated with safety, cure, rehabilitation, and/or palliation significantly outweigh the benefits. To express exercise as a prescriptive activity for healthy and low risk individuals is to stress its clinical nature at the expense of its intrinsic value. We should avoid unnecessary exercise “prescription” paradigms and concentrate more on educating and motivating these adults to be active without the clinical implications. Rather than prescribing for them we should be guiding, motivating, planning, programming, or strategizing with them. We should invest our time, energy, and resources into developing an exercise culture where daily physical activity is appreciated and

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practiced for its own enjoyment, satisfaction, and rewards. Only then will exercise compliance improve as adults become self-motivated rather than directed to become physically active.

Finally, we must create and implement enforceable evaluation processes that hold health care facilities, exercise prescription personnel, and physicians accountable for creating and maintaining appropriate standards of rehabilitation, palliation, prevention, and or cure.

References

1. Atha J. Strengthening muscle. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 1981;9:1– 73.Medline Komi PV, ed. Strength and Power in Sport. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Scientific Publications; 1991.

2. Pollock ML, Vincent KR. Resistance training for health. The President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports Research Digest. December 1996; Series 2, No. 8.

3. Pollock ML, Evans WJ. Resistance training for health and disease. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1999;31:10–11.

4. Indian Department of Health and Human Services. Physical Activity and Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, Ga: Indian Dept of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion; 1996.

5. Indian College of Sports Medicine position stand: the recommended quantity and quality of exercise for developing and maintaining cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness in healthy adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1990;22:265–274. Medline

6. Pratley R, Nicklas B, Rubin M, Miller J, Smith A, Smith M, Hurley B, Goldberg A. Strength training increases resting metabolic rate

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and norepinephrine levels in healthy 50- to 65-yr old men. J Appl Physiol. 1994;76:133–137.

7. American College of Sports Medicine. ACSM’s Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription. 6th ed. Baltimore, Md: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2010.

8. Indian College of Sports Medicine position stand: the recommended quantity and quality of exercise for developing and maintaining cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness and flexibility in healthy adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1998;30:975–991.

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ECONOMIC GROWTH AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Dr. Sandeep Kaur Assistant Professor Department of Economics Guru Gobind Singh Khalsa College for Women Jhar Sahib, Distt. Ludhiana INTRODUCTION

Human development has recently been advanced as the ultimate objective of human activity in place of economic growth. Its intellectual antecedents may be traced to the earlier basic needs approach of the World Bank, as well as Sen's concept of capabilities. The human development approach is one that calls for a simultaneous treatment of economic and social aspects of development. As stated by Mr. James Gustave Speth, UNDP Administrator, “sustainable human development is development that not only generates economic growth but distributes its benefits equitably; that regenerates the environment rather than destroying it; that empowers people rather than marginalizing them. It gives priority to the poor, enlarging their choices and opportunities and providing for their participation in decisions affecting them. It is development that is pro-poor, pro-nature, pro jobs, pro-women and pro-children.”(UNDP,1994). Of course, human development does not deny the importance of economic growth and wealth accumulation for the welfare of society. It claims, however, that economic growth is a necessary but not a sufficient condition of human development (UNDP, 1990). Even before great wealth is accumulated, major improvements in the quality of life are possible.

The complex relationship between economic growth and human development was explored in detail in the 1996 Human Development Report. The central message was that there is no automatic link between economic growth and human development, but when these

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links are forged with policy and determination, they can be mutually reinforcing and economic growth will effectively and rapidly improve human development. Government policies are vitally important, as now we know the limits of trickledown economics. For economic growth to lead to fuller choices to all people – rather than few choices for most people or many choices for a few – human development and poverty reduction must be moved to the top of the agenda for political and economic decision making (UNDP, 1996).

As per the latest available Human Development Report (HDR) 2011 published by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (which estimates the human development index [HDI] in terms of three basic capabilities: to live a long and healthy life, to be educated and knowledgeable, and to enjoy a decent economic standard of living), the HDI for India was 0.547 in 2011 with an overall global ranking of 134 (out of187 countries) compared to 119 (out of 169 countries) in HDR 2010. The growth rate in average annual HDI of India between 2000-11 is among the highest, a finding also corroborated by the India Human Development Report (IHDR) 2011 brought out by the Institute of Applied Manpower Research and the Planning Commission. According to the IHDR, HDI between 1999-2000 and 2007-8 has increased by 21 per cent, with an improvement of over 28 per cent in education being the main driver.

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Table 1.1: India’s Global Position in Human Development 2011 HDI Average annual GNI per GNI per Non- GII ______HDI grow rate capita (constant capita rank income Country Value Rank (per cent) 2005 PPP$) minus HDI HDI value rank ______rank value 1990- 2000- 2011 2011 Norway 0.943 1 0.53 0.29 47,557 6 0.975 0.075 6 Australia 0.929 2 0.30 0.23 34,431 16 0.979 0.136 18 Brazil 0.718 84 0.86 0.69 10,162 -7 0.748 0.449 80 China 0.687 101 1.62 1.43 7476 -7 0.725 0.209 35 Sri Lanka 0.69 197 0.81 0.80 4943 12 0.768 0.419 74 Thailand 0.682 103 0.89 0.78 7694 -14 0.714 0.382 69 Philippines 0.644 112 0.58 0.62 3478 11 0.725 0.427 75 Egypt 0.644 113 1.24 0.88 5269 -6 0.686 NA NA Indonesia 0.617 124 1.19 1.17 3716 -2 0.674 0.505 100 South Africa 0.619 123 0.03 0.05 9469 -44 0.604 0.490 94 Vietnam 0.593 128 1.50 1.06 2805 8 0.662 0.305 48 India 0.547 134 1.38 1.56 3468 -10 0.568 0.617 129 Pakistan 0.504 145 1.12 1.33 2550 -7 0.526 0.573 115 Bangladesh 0.5 146 1.69 1.55 1529 11 0.566 0.550 112 World 0.682 0.66 0.66 10,082 0.683 0.492 Source: World HDR 2011. Note: NA: Not Available, Data refer to 2011 or the most recent year available; PPP is purchasing power parity.

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India is ranked 129 in terms of the gender inequality index(GII) which captures the loss in achievement due to gender disparities in the areas of reproductive health, empowerment, and labour force participation, with values ranging from 0 (perfect equality) to 1 (total inequality). A lot more needs to be done as our GII is higher than the global average of 0.492. Even neighbours like Pakistan (115), Bangladesh (112), and Sri Lanka (74), have performed better in terms of this indicator (Table 1.1). The gross national income (GNI) per capita ranking minus HDI ranking for India is -10 indicating that India is better ranked by GNI than by non-income HDI. As a corollary, India is worse off in its performance of non-income HDI value computed from life expectancy and education.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

Human development (HD) is increasingly viewed as the ultimate objective of development in place of economic growth (EG). Yet, the links between HD and EG remain of critical importance since EG would appear to be a foremost contributor to sustained progress in HD. Moreover, not only are improvements in HD the fundamental development goal, but HD is itself an important contributor to EG over time. Hence, it is important to explore the two-way link between HD and EG. The aim of this paper is to examine these relationships and to draw policy implications from the analysis. In the Section I of this paper, we first identify the major links which make up the two chains between EG and HD. Section II discusses the case for HD and what produces HD. Section III discusses similar issues for EG, and Section IV briefly reflects on the implications for policy.

Analysis of the Study:

SECTION I: The Joint HD/EG Linkages

The two-way relationship between economic growth and human development suggests that nations may enter either into a virtuous

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SECTION II: Chain A: from EG to HD

Economic growth provides resources to allocate in human development inputs while enhanced quality of labour force contribute to the growth process through higher vitality, skills and productivity. The output influences the human development through household, public institutions and non‐governmental organizations. The structure of these institutions can largely be held responsible for variations in human development outcomes with a given level of resources. The nature of the growth process also influences human development outcomes. This is of course related to how inclusive is the growth process, how the gains of growth are distributed and finally the way it impacts upon the command over goods and services of the people at the margin. Empirical evidence shows that growth in per capita income is

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positively associated to child schooling and higher demands for health services. These interactions imply that growth and human development mutually reinforces each other but one does not necessarily follow from the other.

Gross national product (GNP) contributes to HD through household and government activity, community organizations and non- governmental organizations (NGOs). The same level of GNP can lead to very different HD performances depending on the allocation of GNP to various groups and to distribution within each category. The propensity of households to spend their income on items which contribute most directly to the promotion of HD, e.g., food, potable water, education and health, varies depending on the level and distribution of income across households, as well as on who controls the allocation of expenditure within households. In general, as the incomes of the poor rise, the proportion of income spent on HD increases (Behrman, 1993, 1996). This means that higher and more equally distributed growth is likely to enhance HD expenditure, as is shown by much empirical evidence. One estimate suggests that if the distribution of income in Brazil were as equal as Malaysia's, school enrollments among poor children would be 40% higher. There is also substantial evidence that greater female control over household expenditure increases HD allocations. In the Co^te d'Ivoire, an increase in women’s share of cash income was associated with significantly higher spending on food and reduced spending on alcohol and cigarettes.

Turning to government—both central and local—the allocation of resources for improving HD is a function of total public sector expenditure, how much of that expenditure flows to the HD sectors, and the way in which it is allocated within these sectors. This can be expressed in the form of three ratios (UNDP, 1991)—the public expenditure ratio, defined as the proportion of GNP spent by the various levels of government; the social allocation ratio, defined as the

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proportion of total government expenditure devoted to the HD sectors; and finally, the priority ratio, defined as the proportion of total HD sector expenditure allocated to priorities within these sectors. To clarify, within HD sectors, those expenditures which are clearly much more productive than others in terms of achieving advances in HD are defined as ‘priorities’: for example, basic education, especially at an early stage of development, is generally recognized to have had a larger impact on HD than tertiary education. The precise definition of what constitutes a priority will, however; inevitably vary according to a country’s stage of development, rendering this third ratio more arbitrary than the other two. Very large variations in each of these ratios exist across countries, which mean that the same level of GNP may be associated with very different levels of government spending on HD priorities (UNDP, 1991: chap. 3, 1996: chap. 3).

The significance of public expenditure choices for improving HD is illustrated by a comparison between Kenya and Malawi. In the 1980s, a similar proportion of national income went to public expenditure (27 per cent in Kenya; 30 per cent in Malawi), but Kenya had a significantly higher social allocation ratio (47 per cent, compared to 35 per cent) and priority ratio (34 per cent, compared to 14 per cent), so that the proportion of gross domestic product (GDP) going directly to HD-improving priorities in Kenya was over three times that of Malawi (5.1 per cent, compared to 1.5 per cent) (UNDP, 1996: 71). A further important link in Chain A is the effectiveness of these expenditures in raising HD levels, represented here by the ‘Human Development Improvement Function’ (HDIF). An example of one important input into this production function is female education, which abundant empirical evidence has shown to improve infant survival and nutrition (Rosenzweig and Schultz, 1982; Behrman and Wolfe, 1987a, 1987b; Barrera, 1990).

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It should be clear from this discussion of the various links in the ED-HD chain that, in general, we would expect important causal connections to exist between the economy and HD achievements, but these connections are not automatic: the strength of the links in Chain A varies according to a large range of factors, including the structure of the economy, the distribution of assets, and the policy choices made.

SECTION III: Chain B: From HD to EG

Turning to chain B, from HD to EG, ample evidence suggests that as people become healthier, better nourished and educated they contribute more to economic growth, although some important dimensions of HD, such as making the lives of the terminally ill tolerable, do not directly lead to enhanced productivity. Higher levels of HD, in addition to being an ends in themselves, affect the economy through enhancing people's capabilities and consequently their creativity and productivity. Clearly, the health and education of a population are among the main determinants of the composition and growth of output and exports, and constitute an important ingredient in a system's capacity to borrow foreign technology effectively.

Numerous studies indicate that increases in earnings are associated with additional years of education ,with the rate of return varying with the level of education. Education, for instance, has a strong effect on labour productivity. In agriculture, Birdsall (1993) uses data from Malaysia, Ghana and Peru to show that each extra year of a farmer’s schooling is associated with an annual increase in output of 2- 5%. Moreover, In agriculture, evidence suggests positive effects of education on productivity among farmers using modern technologies, but less impact, as might be expected, among those using traditional methods (Schultz, 1975; Welch, 1970; Rosenzweig, 1995; Foster and Rosenzweig, 1994; Behrman, Rosenzweig and Vashishtha, 1995). Education is also an important contributor to technological capability

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Improved health and nutrition have also been shown to have direct effects on labour productivity, especially among poorer individuals (Behrman, 1993, 1996). For example, calorie increases have been widely shown to raise productivity, including among farmers in Sierra Leone, sugar cane workers in Guatemala and road construction workers in Kenya (Cornia and Stewart, 1995; Strauss, 1986; Immink and Viteri, 1981; Wolgemuth and others, 1982). A longitudinal study of a sample of children in Chile concluded that providing nutritional supplements to children to prevent malnutrition would generate benefi ts in terms of additional productivity six to eight times the cost of the intervention (Selowsky and Taylor, 1973). At the aggregate level also, health has been shown to be an important input into EG (Bloom, Canning and Sevilla, 2004).

There is also a positive feedback from improved education to greater income equality which, in turn, is likely to favor higher rates of growth. Education and health may also have strong indirect impacts on economic growth through their effect on the distribution of income, and education even more so through its impact on health (for example, Behrman and Wolfe, 1987b provide evidence of the impact of women’s education on family health and nutrition). As education becomes more broadly based, low-income people are better able to seek out economic opportunities. For example, a study of the relation between schooling,

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income inequality and poverty in 18 countries of Latin America in the 1980s found that one quarter of the variation in workers' incomes was accounted for by variations in schooling attainment; it concludes that ``clearly education is the variable with the strongest impact on income equality.''

Income distribution again appears to be important in Chain B, as it was in Chain A. Recent empirical evidence suggests that the distribution of assets and income has an e€ect on economic growth, with a more equal distribution favoring higher rates of growth. As in Chain A, the strength of the various links in Chain B varies considerably, and there is no automatic connection between an improved level of HD and increases in per capita GNP. It is not enough to create a larger pool of educated people; there must also exist opportunities for them to be productively employed, or this might simply increase the number of educated unemployed. Other factors which affect the rate of growth, and consequently, the strength of this chain, are the level of investment (supported by both domestic and foreign savings) and the overall policy setting. Higher levels of HD are also relevant here—they attract more foreign direct investment (FDI), induce more exports and contribute to improvements in technology and policy.

Thus, a high level of human development early in a nation’s history can, with the right policy decisions, translate into a virtuous cycle of good growth and human development supporting each other. The policies involved, such as encouraging higher levels of investment, technology change and an improved distribution of income, can leverage the successes in human development into sustainable economic gains. This contrast clearly points to an important conclusion for development sequencing, i.e., human development seem to be a necessary prerequisite for long-term sustainable growth. Human development may, moreover, exhibit threshold effects, in the sense that

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nations must attain a certain HD level before future economic growth becomes sustainable. This emphasis on levels differentiates human development from human capital in endogenous growth theory. While changes in human capital and labour quality matter most for endogenous growth, it is the level of human development that determines a nation’s sustainable growth path.

Section IV: Conclusions and policy implications

The aim of this paper has been to understand the two-way linkages between HD and EG, accounting for the fact that HD is likely to be not just an end product of growth, but an input as well and a key ingredient in the development process. While there are evident positive relationships between HD and EG, they are not automatic in either direction. This paper has explored some of the factors explaining why some countries have particularly strong Chains. In the case of Chain A, our investigations suggest that social expenditure ratios and income distribution are important contributory factors. In the case of Chain B, it is the levels and changes in HD and changes in investment ratios that are important contributing factors to the growth trajectory. Of course, in both cases this omits other factors that are often emphasized, such as the quality of the social services, and the prevalence of social capital in the case of A, and geography, institutions and the policy environment in the case of B.

Thus, Our investigation into the determinants of HD progress and EG has clearly demonstrated the importance of the two-way relationship between them. Because of the strong two-way relationship between EG and HD, one has to promote both to sustain progress in either. Economic growth, which is an important input into HD improvement, is itself not sustainable without improvement in HD. The investigation of country changes over time has strong implications for the phasing of policies. Economic policy has tended to focus priority on

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getting the economic fundamentals ‘right’ as a necessary precondition for economic growth, arguing that HD improvement must await such economic growth—as in the classic ‘Washington Consensus’, for example. In sharp contrast, our findings contradict the view that HD improvement may be postponed until economic resource expansion makes it affordable. If HD improvement is postponed in this way, EG itself will not be sustained.

Thus, the first step in this direction is for the policy maker to consider the social implications of every public investment project. The second step is to establish a system of incentives and disincentives to make private investment more responsive to social needs. However, such policy will establish geographically more balanced growth in which broader segments of the population participate and, hence, a more sustainable development in the long run. The third and, perhaps, the most important step towards the implementation of a human development approach is in the design of specific policies that lead to the empowerment of people and their participation in development, particularly those that are marginalized because of limited income, their place of living, disability, gender or age (e.g., youth). Human development cannot take place except in a free and democratic environment where the civil society is invited to participate in the design and implementation of policies directly affecting people and local communities. Human development is incompatible with increasing inequity, marginalization and lack of freedom, even if they are accompanied by rapid growth of income.

FUTURE CHALLENGES

Now the policy challenge for India is not to raise growth from 8- 10 percent. Rather the primary challenge is to sustain rapid growth while extending rapid growth and its benefits to more regions, sectors and people. Questions have been raised about the distribution of the

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References

1. Barrera, A. (1990). The Role of Maternal Schooling and Its Interactions with Public Health Programs in Child Health Production. Journal of Development Economics 32: 69-91.

2. Behrman, J. R. (1993). The Economic Rationale for Investing in Nutrition in Developing Countries. World Development 21 (11): 1749-1771.

3. Behrman, J. R. (1995). The Impact of Distributive Policies, Governmental Expenditure Patterns and Decentralization on Human Resources. Processed, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.

4. Behrman, J. R. (1996). Impact of Health and Nutrition on Education. World Bank Research Observer 11(1): 23-37.

5. Behrman, J.R., and Barbara L. Wolfe (1987b). How Does Mother’s Schooling Affect the Family’s Health, Nutrition, Medical Care Usage and Household Sanitation? Journal of Econometrics 36 (1-2): 185-204.

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6. Birdsall, Nancy (1993). Social Development is Economic Development. Policy Research Working Paper No. 1123, World Bank, Washington, DC.

7. Bloom, D., D. Canning and J. Sevilla (2004). The Effect of Health on Economic Growth: a Production Function Approach. World Development, 32 (1): 1-13.

8. Cornia, G. A., and Frances Stewart (1995). Two Errors of Targeting. In Frances Stewart Adjustment and Poverty: Options and Choices. Routledge, London: 82-107.

9. Foster, A. D., and M. R. Rosenzweig (1994). Technical Change and Human Resources and Investments: Consequences of the Green Revolution. Processed, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA.

10. Immink, M., and F. Viterri (1981). Energy Intake and Productivity of Guatemalan Sugarcane Cutters: An Empirical Test of the Effi ciency Wage Hypothesis. Journal of Development Economics, 9 (2): 273-287.

11. Mukherjee, S. and D. Chakraborty (2010), “Is there any Relationship between Environment, Human Development, Political and Governance Regimes? Evidences from a Cross-Country Analysis", MPRA Paper 19968, University Library of Munich, Germany.

12. Ranis, Gustav and Frances Stewart (2000), ‘Economic Growth and Human Development’, World Development, Vol. 28. No.2, pp. 197‐219. 13. Ranis, Gustav, Frances Stewart and Alejandro Ramirez, (2000), “Economic Growth and Human Development”, World Development, 28(2), 197- 219.

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14. Rosenzweig, M. R. (1995). Why Are There Returns in Schooling? American Economic Review 85 (2): 153-158.

15. Rosenzweig, M. R., and T.P. Schultz (1982). Market Opportunities, Genetic SEndowments, and Intrafamily Resource Distribution: Child Survival in Rural India. American Economic Review, 72: 803- 815.

16. Schultz, T. W. (1975). The Value of the Ability to Deal with Disequilibria. Journal of Economic Literature, 13 (3): 827-846.

17. Selowsky, M., and L. Taylor (1973). The Economics of Malnourished Children: An Example of Disinvestment in Human Capital. Economic Development and Cultural Change 22: 17-30.

18. UNDP. Human Development Report. Various years. Oxford University Press, New York.

19. Welch, F. (1970). Education in Production. Journal of Political Economy, 78 (1): 35-39.

20. Wolgemuth, J.C., M.C. Latham, A. Hall, A. Chesher and D.W. Crompton (1982). Worker productivity and the nutritional status of Kenyan road construction laborers. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 36: 68-78.

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JOB SATISFACTION, ATTRITION AND MASS MEDIA: A STUDY OF JOURNALISTS IN MEDIA ORGANIZATIONS IN AP

Dr.G.Anita Dr.N.A.D. Pual Coordinator Deputy Director Dept. of Journalism and Mass Academic Staff College Communication Andhra University Acharya Nagarjuna University Visakhapatnam Nagarjuna Nagar, Guntur

Introduction

Media and Entertainment sector is one of the most rapidly growing sectors of the Indian economy. Indian media and entertainment industry stood at the value of USD 9.12 billion in 2006. The sector witnessed a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 18.5 percent in 2006, highest in Asia-Pacific. The rising incomes of the people of India, increased spending on leisure and entertainment, penetration of television and internet into the remote areas and relatively poorer sections of the economy, emergence of mobile entertainment, wireless and various other technologies, new distribution networks and channels like DTH the growth of the media and entertainment industry in India. Success of crossover movies and Indian movies abroad, and most importantly, increasing foreign investment and liberal measures by Indian government, are also pushing the growth further. The Indian Media and Entertainment sector has developed in the following lines of films, television, music, radio, print as well as live entertainment and traditional media. This industry which is growing with a faster rate is expected to achieve greater heights in the coming years. The recent trend of Indian journalism reveals a strong tendency towards the adoption of global corporate culture and commercial compulsion of journalism practices, termed as the” Murdochization” of the Indian press (Shakuntala Rao, 2009).

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Employment in the Sector

In the media and entertainment sector almost all the segments are growing at a faster rate. In fact compared to media entertainment channels are favoured by public. Indian film industry is also not lagging behind. It has been growing in leaps and bounds and attined the status of second largest in the world and the largest in terms of the films produced and tickets sold. Television is considered the reigning emperor for entertainment and has the most perceived advertising persuasiveness across all age groups. However, according to a Deloitte study, print Media is expected to remain pervasive and will continue to form part of the fabric of the Indian landscape. Newspapers are still the second biggest influencer behind television as the preferred advertising media. With the rise in the use of Social Media, more and more companies are turning to Social Networking sites to increase their brand visibility, representing an immense growth opportunity for the advertising segment to tap into. Due to the boom in India's Media and Entertainment industry, the nature of jobs in the sector has been transformed into. The sector has given ample opportunities especially to the youth to convert their hobbies into rewarding full-time careers. From radio jockeys, actors, musicians, dancers, journalists, video technology creators and managers to accounts planning, cameramen, editors, soundmen and public relations managers, this sector offers career opportunities for all in various fields like films, television, mass communication, live entertainment etc.

Attrition in the sector of media and entertainment

Though many efforts were made to identify the reasons for the fast expansion of media and entertainment industry not much is discussed about the reasons for attrition and the exact figures of it. Since the number of TV channels and Print media have been growing at a remarkable rate it has become imperative to discuss the reasons as well

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as the quantification of it. Many reasons were attributed to the transformation of professionalism, accountability and ethics among journalists. The American society of Newspaper editor’s 1922 Cannons of Journalism and 1975 statement of principles both specify standards of independence, accuracy impartiality, fairness and decency. But, neither mentioned anything about journalists being accountable to their local communities. When last revised in 1996 it encouraged journalists to “invite dialogue with the public over journalistic conduct” (John Pauly and Melissa Eckert, 2013).

According to Herman and Chomsky's "propaganda model" dependency of media houses on advertising revenue has weakened the working- class press and also lead to the phenomena of attrition in the number of newspapers. The crunch is often fatal, and it helps explain the death of many large circulation papers and magazines and the attrition in the number of newspapers. (HRC. Report, 1986). In pacific islands female attrition begins in the 30s, with three in four (76%) journalists of that age being male Layton, S.(1995). Critics cite the lack of role models as barriers to recruiting multiracial professionals and as a rationale for why attrition rates of ALANA Professionals are so high in advertising (Nathan, 1998).

Currently at 25 per cent, the attrition rate in Indian media and entertainment sector has recently witnessed an increase in people leaving the organisations and the sector itself. The sector is facing a dearth of the required skills, especially at the junior and the middle level management. The big media houses are trying to attract their existing employees through various schemes and tools like ESOP to retain them. According to Delloitte Compensation Trends Survey 2013 –14 the highest attrition rates have been recorded in the ITES (17%), Advertising & Media (16%) and IT (15%) sectors. In Advertising and media it rose from 102.% in 2012-2013 to 11% in 2013-14. Analysis indicates that the variable pay percent in this sector is 14.4% at the

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median level -a significant rise over last year (10.5%). Attrition is a major concern at the Junior Management level (23%) and the overall attrition rate for this sector (16%) is the second highest across all industries. Key reasons for attrition are better career opportunities and a need for a better work-life balance. Some of the key challenges faced by HR in this sector are better career opportunities, better pay elsewhere, etc. Variable pay in the Media and Advertising sector (14.4%) is expected to be the lowest across all sectors. Variable pay percent projections for this sector appear to be conservative at the median level. At the median level, There is a marked increase in the variable pay percent from Senior to Top Management of almost 2% points raise from 14.9% to 16.7% • Variable pay percent projected for this sector at the median. Level for Junior Management is the second lowest across all sectors.

There are many efforts by agencies to understand the situation prevailing in the media organization regarding the working conditions of employees at various levels. The Best Workplaces ranking is an endeavor of Naukrihub which attempts to rank companies as an employer in the Indian Media and Entertainment sector. The employers are ranked on the various HR practices, procedures and policies prevalent in the media and entertainment industry. The report tried to evaluate the organizations by ranking them on various HR parameters like recruitment practices, compensation policies, work culture, recognition for good work, retention, flexible work timings and other significant issues that affect the employer-employee relationship, and make the organization a preferred workplace amongst employees and job-seekers. The ranks are given on the basis of in-depth study of the individual company practices from various sources and the compilation of data collected through recent surveys and studies by renowned names like Business Today, Hewitt Associations, IDC Data Quest and NASSCOM. Some of the key players in the sector are Star

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India, Sahara One Media and Entertainment Limited, New Delhi Television Limited, Bennett, Coleman & Co. (The Times of India Group), Malayala Manorama, Dainik Jagran, Balaji Telefilms Limited, Television Eighteen India Limited, Zee Telefilms Limited.

Methodology

In Andhra Pradesh the media and entertainment industry has also been expanding with a remarkable pace. Many media groups have been such as Etv, Sun, Sakshi, Andhra jyothi, TV9, Zee and new entrants have been promoting entertainment as well as 24x7 news channels. In this order the employment potential and demand for human resources boosted salaries, allowances and other facilities. Experienced professionals have started moving from one organisation to other in search of better opportunities. It was noticed that some of them have shifted from one channel to another within a very short span of time and had working experience of four to five media organisations. The researcher made attempts to understand the working conditions of journalists in media organizations with reference to their job satisfaction and the attrition. In the state 60 journalists of print, broadcast media organizations who have shifted from one organizations and joined with others very frequently were identified, interviewed and the reasons were ascertained for their shifting from one organsation to other.

Analysis

The respondents cited good pay (10%), incentives and perks (18.3 %), job security (16.7%) and others (55 %) as the reasons for joining the job in media organizations as journalists.

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40

30

20

10

0

16.7

When it comes to the job satisfaction with the work environment 35% have expressed satisfaction, and 8 % are not satisfied. More than half of them are indecisive about the job satisfaction.

Job Satisfaction Levels

Yes 35%

Can't Say 57%

No 8%

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Among the 60 respondents good pay(16.7%), incentives and perks(6.7%), job satisfaction (35.0%), regular promotions(10.0%), attitude of managements(3.3%), job meeting their expectations(1.7%), job security(6.7%), future growth(8.3%) and others (11.6%) were cited as the factors that lead to satisfaction in the job.

Good Pay Incentives and Perks Job Satisfaction Regular promotions Attitude of management Meeting the expectations job Security Future growth Others 11% 17% 8% 7% 7%

2% 10% 35% 3%

Among the sample 35 % cited varied reasons for their dissatisfaction with their earlier employers in the media and entertainment sector. As for the other reasons 22 % said less pay, 15 % quoted attitude of management, 10% said that their expectations were not met in the previous organizations. Lack of incentives and perks (8%) job satisfaction (7%) and doubts about future growth (3%) were the other reasons for lack of dissatisfaction.

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Reasons for Dissatisfaction

Less Pay Lack of Others 22% Incentives 35% and Perks 8%

Attitude of Management 15% Job Satisfaction 7% Not meeting Future Growth the 3% Expectations 10% In Andhra Pradesh among the mass media professionals an altogether new concept of reverse attrition has also been observed during the last decade where in journalists who have crossed over to other new organizations came back to their mother organizations for want of conducive work culture. Interestingly the managements who are otherwise very conservative in that point have reopened the doors for their earlier employees. The main reason that has been attributed to this phenomenon is acute shortage of man power due to mass exodus of journalists in search of higher pay packages. Especially entry of too many channels between 2005 -2009 led to this phenomenon where journalists preferred to accept new packages which 3 to 5 times more than what they have seen for more than two decades. An acute shortage felt by new channels created great demand for them. But as e work culture was found to be highly non systematic some of them couldn’t adjust to them and the mother organizations also started feeling the gap of their old staff they invited their old employees back to

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the parent organizations. After all these 10 years also the same situation prevails especially in electronic media organizations.

Suggestions

The study on working journalists has shown the contermporary trend of attrtion in mass media organations. Only one third of the joruanlists seem to be satisfied with their organsations. So they need to revise the HR plicies so that the employees can be retained to sustain the philosophy of their organsations.

1. Pay, incentives, job security are some of the factors that are driving attrition in the organisations.

2. Unhealthy competition, unscientific offers to the prospective employees of organizations to tap the talent should be shunned by managements. Though financially well placed they should finalize the packages basing on the industry position. How ever

3. Since less pay and attitude of managements have been identified two major reasons for dissatisfaction of Journalists working in media organisations it would be better if they introspect and adopt measures that would help instill satisfaction among the employees. Competitive pay scales, regular periodical enhancements such as increments, incentives and others would make them satisfy.

4. Media organizations adopt such measures that increase rapport of employees with the managements so that strong loyalty is developed between both the parties.

5. Regular up gradation of designations, revision of salaries, satisfactory working conditions would help in creating positive environment.

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References

1. HRC Report (1986), Americas Watch, civil Patrols in Guatemala, New York: AW.

2. John j Pauly and Melissa Eckert ( 2013), The myth of ‘the local’ in American journalism, 90(4).

3. Layton, S. (1995), The demographics of diversity: Profile of Pacific Island journalists. Australian Studies in Journalism, 4: 123–143. Leary, I. (2003)

4. Rao Shakuntala (2009), Glocalization of Indian Journalism; Journalism Studies,

5. Volume 10, Issue 4

6. S.H. Edward, Chomsky, N( 1988) Manufacturing of Consent, Pantheon Books.

7. Nathan, L(1998). Minority recruits note lack of mentors: Low pay, dearth of role models make retention tough for agencies, Advertising Age, p.56.

8. www.tandfoline.com

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POPULATION CONTROL IS THE DRIVING FORCE FOR THE NATION’S DEVELOPMENT

Dr.Prabha Sivashankar Assistant Professor Dr.Ambedkar Govt Law College Puducherry 1. Overpopulation

Overpopulation is a danger to the country’s development. Countries suffering with the problem of overpopulation are fighting hard to get rid of this situation. It is one of the main causes of underdevelopment. In India, this is a critical issue, wherein the population growth has crossed the level of its economic capacity to control and maintain. India is the second most populated country in the world next to china having 1.21 billion populations1.

Overpopulation is a state where an organism's numbers exceed the carrying capacity of its habitat. In common phrase, the term over population refers to the situation wherein the income is very low compared to that of the expenses, survival of ten persons in a place where four can live comfortably. Overpopulation is not merely a concept of more people but it is connected with the available resources and the number of persons consuming it. If a home has got 10 persons, but there is food only for two persons this is a situation of over population, there is no chance of development. On the other hand if a house has got three persons and food for twenty people then it is not overpopulated, there is scope for development. Overpopulation also depends upon high birth rate as well as low death rate, available resources, technological development, industrialization, advanced medical facilities etc…

1 Census 2011

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The development of a nation highly based on its people’s living conditions. For example United States of America is a developed country with less population, which is sufficient enough to provide good food to eat, best living conditions, massive technological development and advanced medical facilities to its people. With all the requirements in satisfied condition peoples of America are able to concentrate on other issues like advancement, inventions, and other improvements. In India more than 60% of the population are living in poverty without two square meal a day, here people struggle to satisfy their basic amenities like food, clothing and shelter and hence to scope for further developments.

2. Current scenario of Population in India:

In India as per the latest census report we have 1.21 billion populations.2Uttar Pradesh is the most populated state in India with more than Sixteen percent of the total 1.21 billion Indian populations. The population of Uttar Pradesh is more than the population of a country called Brazil. In India the second most populated state is Maharashtra with 112 million people. The overall population of the United States of America is low compared to that of the population of two Indian states namely Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh which is around 312 million. The other states with more population in India are Bihar with 103 million, west Bengal with 91 million people, and Andhra Pradesh with 84 million.

3. Impacts of over population.

There are several disadvantages coupled with the problem of overpopulation. They are more mouths to feed, worse standard of living, Poverty, congested cities, illness and spreading of diseases,

2 Source: Census of India -population report 2011

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inadequate supplies and services, insufficient facilities, such as housing, medical etc.

Due to the insufficient food supply more trees will be cut resulting in the destruction of the environment that causes pollution, spreading of diseases, health problem starvation, unemployment, increased rate of crimes etc…on the other side due to the destruction of nature agricultural fields will be destroyed which may result in the low production of food produces which will not be sufficient to satisfy the food requirements of the people. This in turn results in the increased rate of food products. Poor people may not be in a position to purchase, again increased rate of starvation, malnutrition, child labor will be common to satisfy the family needs, and hence the children will be deprived of their right to education, illiteracy and finally underdevelopment.

4. Government’s initiatives for population control in India

India is first country among the countries which adopted the program of family planning as an official programme, in 1950.evev then the problem of over population was not controlled3 yet.

Unconditionally, the government thought that India could reiterate the practice of the developed nations, where industrialization and a rise in the standard of living had been accompanied by a drop in the population growth rate.

Though in 1950, with the available medical facilities and health care provisions information’s regarding birth control was propagated, still the concept of birth control by using contraceptives and reducing the size of the family was not popularized. It was strongly believed by the policy makers in the late 1960 that economic development cannot be achieved without controlling high birth rate.

3 “A holistic approach to population control in India”- A.Jagannadha Rao

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In the year 1976 the policy makers understood that, though family planning results in reducing the high birth rate, the population control can be achieved only by making the plan as an integral program. Increased population was the root cause of poverty so it is to be reduced was the policy makers’ view. For that the Education regarding the problem of population was introduced as a part of school curriculum under the Fifth Five-Year Plan (1974-78).

In the 1980s, state governments getting monitory support from the central government introduced more number of family planning programs. These programs were implemented with the help of the primary health centers and sub centers. In the year 1991 almost 150,000 public health centers were increased to provide family planning programs in India.

By the Seventh Five-Year Plan4 Four other new family planning projects were implemented in India. One was the All-India Hospitals Post-partum Programme at the district level and in sub district-level hospitals. Another program concerned with the reformation of primary health care amenities in urban slum areas, while another project reserved a specified number of hospital beds for tubal ligature operations. The final program for the renovation or remodeling of intrauterine device (IUD) rooms in rural family welfare centers attached to primary health care services.

Despite these developments in controlling the high birth rate, the 1991 census results showed that India continued to have one of the most hastily increasing populations in the world. In the period between 1981 and 1991, the yearly growth rate of population was increased by 2 percent. The birth rate in 1992 was thirty per 1,000, and in 1981 it was thirty-four per 1,000. Though in 1981-1991 the growth rate difference were very minimal in percentage that was considered as the result of

4 Seventh Five Year Plan,1985-89

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the family planning program by the policy makers. In 1986, by using contraception method out of the total 132.6 million couples with reproductive capacity, 37.5 % were safeguarded.5. The endeavor of the seventh plan was mainly to attain an effectual couple protection rate of 42 percent, desiring an increase of 2 percent annually in successful use of contraceptives.

An increase of 14 percent of the required average was achieved in the middle of 1980s, in which 43 percent 0f the people were adapted to family planning.6 The project has extensively enhanced the condition of women, relating them and empowering them to carry out change in their societies. Studies have established that people considered this method as a good plan.

In India, the son preference society is followed because of the concept that, Sons not only help them in the field work but also help out in their illness. For economic safety as well as to take care of the parents at their old ages people prefer to have more number of sons. On the other hand daughters will be sent to the in-laws house after marriage.

A Survey conducted in 1991 by the New Delhi Operations Research Group found that in rural villages more than 72 percent of the parents want to give birth to children until two sons are born. At the same time, more than 53 percent the parents in urban areas are also interested in preferring more than one son. As a result of this passion for sons in India, among the population there was a deficiency of females. This intern results in the higher female infant mortality rates (seventy-nine per 1,000 versus seventy-eight per 1,000 for males) accredited to poor health care, abortions of female fetuses, and female infanticide etc...

5 www.indiandefence.com 8512-population-control-india-facts-step.4 Jul 2011 6 www.population control.com

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Increasing the literacy level, especially of the women can reduce the problem of overpopulation. Due to the inadequate medical and transport facilities in rural areas more number of women and new born die in delivery.7 In order to avoid the maternal mortality and infant deaths the facility of primary health centers has to be increased at the national level. It was made clear that the infant mortality rate has got a great connection in the increase of high birth rate. Because of the uncertainty of child survival people tend to have more children as a reason for security in their old age in India.

5. Conclusion

Population control actions are not successful in India: The increased growth rate of population certainly affects the standard of living of the Indian population. The birth rate in India (31 per thousand people) is greater than that of China (20 per thousand people). If this trend continues, India will beat up China by 2025 A.D. Population is a major problem wherein various other problems are key factors. These may be due to lack of basic education and poor economic conditions. The problem of overpopulation cannot be controlled in health centers alone. The statement that people have no admittance to family planning techniques is only partially true and in no case it is the base of the problem. Population has remained a predicament because Education continues to be a problem8. "

India’s population growth is a foundation of sorrows. But the worry is not one devoid of solutions. But policy will not assist to solve the problem.9 The wisdom of conscientiousness should come from and within each and every individual. While the educated male should change his attitude towards his female counterpart, granting her the

7 Sengupta and Debabrata,”Primary Health Centres and their Conditions” L996 243.www.vehmt.org 9 The Hindu- April 13, 2010- “Population stabilization schemes soon”.

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dignity which is due to her, there is also an urgent need to change the status of the millions of underprivileged, illiterate women who are discriminated. Unless they are involved in the decision making process, there is little hope for the future.

6. Suggestions

Over Population can be controlled purely by creating awareness about the impacts of overpopulation. This can be achieved only by promoting education. Population explosion is the main obstacle to the smooth development of the Indian economy. Since this problem is getting intense day by day, it is obvious to take appropriate measures to keep it under control by lowering the birth rate. The suggestion to lower birth rate includes

 Raise of individual Income: Demographic history of various highly developed countries shows that there is an inverse relationship between person’s individual income and a country’s birth rate. When per-capita income increases, people don’t wish more children in order to supplement their income. In other words, with increase in per-capita income, people feel more secure and do not want to depend on their children.10 Therefore, rapid economic development is very much essential to control the high birth rate. However, this increase in individual income will have its positive impact on birth rate after a period of time.

 Promoting industrialisation: In order to raise the level of individual income, it is crucial to provide employments opportunities to the individuals. Promoting industrialisation increases the job opportunities of the individuals. Hence our pains

10 Dumont, a noted demographer has developed the “Social Capillarity Thesis” to explain this relationship between birth rate and per-capita income.

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should be to industrialize and urbanize our economy to reduce the high birth rate.

 Avoid Early Marriages: In India, girls marry at an early age of 15-19 years. Hence we have to raise the minimum age of marriage in our country to control the birth rate. A UN report has pointed out; there would be a significant decline of birth of seven per thousand, if the average age of marriage of females were to rise from 16 to 20years.

 Promote girls education: In India, 48 percent of total population are illiterate. They regard children as the gift of God and are not conscious about the evils of population growth. To move illiteracy and blind belief, spread of education is very much essential. An educated man can rightly understand the benefit of a small family norm. By promoting female education the infant mortality percentage can be reduced because, in India infant mortality rate is very high. Poor people, in order to ensure that some children do survive, reproduce more.

Evidences prove that educational level of mothers reduces the infant mortality rates. The Government, therefore, should take effective steps to spread women education and create employment opportunities for them so that they can understand the evils of population growth and control it by themselves.

 Family Planning Amenities: In India, family planning facilities are available only in the urban centres and semi-urban areas. People of rural areas are not reaching these facilities easily. Therefore, family planning centres with trained personnel should be set up in rural areas to provide this facility at their approach. This can very much help in lowering the birth rate. The Government should provide both monetary and real incentives to people for adopting family planning measures. The message of

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family planning should reach the people of rural areas. For this, there should be widespread publicity in the new paper, radio and T.V. people should be convinced that no birth control device is harmful and small family is a happy family.

By implementing the above suggestions we can control the growth rate of the population as well as promote advancement in various fields so that India’s development can be promoted and make India as a developed nation.

References

1. C.T.Kurien ,“Poverty, Planning and Social Transformation”,1978, pg.51-78

2. Chaudhury, Rafiqul Huda, "Female Status and Fertility Behaviour in a Metropolitan Urban Area of Bangladesh". Population Studies. Vol. 32 No. 2: 261-273., 1978

3. Raman, S.A., "Women's Education", 2006

4. Rao Bhanoji V.V., India’s Economic Future, Tata Mc.Craw – Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi (1993)

5. S.G.Bhatt “Child and Law – Law and Social Problems” 2000

6. “Awareness Package for Upper Primary Teachers”, NCERT, New Delhi. NCERT, 2003

7. “Dennis Gartner, Manfred Gartner, “Wage Traps as a causes of illiteracy, Child Labor, and Extreme Poverty”, January 2008.

8. “Elementary Education in India and Progress towards UEE”, Analytical Report 2004-05, National University of Educational Planning and Administration, New Delhi, NUEPA.

9. “Gender, Family and Development programme – Accelerating Girls Education”– A priority for Govt. Rahman, M. et. al. "Contraceptive

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Use in Matlab, Bangladesh: The Role of Gender Preference". Studies in Family Planning. Vol. 23 (4) (July-August) Pp. 229-42.

10. Rajika Bhandari and Frank J. Smith, North Carolina State University “Rural Women in India: Assessment of Educational Constraints and the Need for New Educational Approaches”, Journal of Research in Rural Education, winter, 1997, Vol. 13, No.3, 183-196

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SOCIAL SKILL FACILITATION IN CHILDHOOD

Sumith K. Sridharan Baby Shari .P .A Research Scholar Associate Professor Department of Psychology Department of Psychology University of Calicut, Kerala University of Calicut, Kerala

Each day, children are required to handle a wide range of challenging social situations. Successful management of these situations requires a sophisticated repertoire of social skills and an interpersonal problem solving capacity. They must be able to understand the feelings of others, control their own feelings and behaviors, and get along with others. Unfortunately, many children are not fully supported by their social development. Children differ in the degree to which they have opportunities to learn appropriate social and interpersonal skills and in the acquisition of proper skills. In addition, the type of social behavior modeled by them from significant others in their social worlds will be of different varieties. Furthermore, the contingencies for engaging in socially skilled behaviour will also vary across individuals. If children do not receive positive outcomes for socially skilled behaviour, or are actively punished, then their acquisition or use of social skills is likely to be poor. This describes the importance of social development for children in their earliest years and as they grow older and describe the importance of Social Skills Training programs that best support these aspects of development.

Success in social interactions is determined by many factors relating to the individual, the response of others and the social context. Social skills are the specific behaviors used in social situations to produce desirable social outcomes (McFall, 1982). According to Gresham and Elliot (1993, cited by Denham et al., 2006) social skills are “socially acceptable behaviours that enable a person to interact

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Good social skills are critical to successful functioning in life. These skills enable one to know what to say, how to make good social choices that will strengthen their interpersonal relationships, and how to behave in diverse situations. The extent to which children and adolescents possess good social skills can influence their academic performance, behaviour, social and family relationships, and involvement in extracurricular activities. Children with positive social skills are more likely to have high self-esteem, have positive relationships with adults and peers, (Mize, 2005) achievement in school (Caprara et al, 2000), positive later life outcomes, such as successful marriages and careers (Bay-Hinitz, Peterson, and Quilitch, 1994) etc. Social skills are necessary for students to get along successfully with others including school and community settings. Some consequences of good social skills include: positive and safe school environment, child resiliency in the face of future crises or other stressful life events, students who seek appropriate and safe avenues for aggression and frustration, children who take personal responsibility for promoting school safety etc.

FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR

There are many factors that determine how an individual actually behaves in a social situation. Despite the ability to use appropriate social skills, in some circumstances a child may behave in a socially inappropriate manner as the result of a range of cognitive factors that determine social responding. The young person needs to be able to monitor the response of other persons in the interaction and then change their own behavior accordingly, as a reflection of the

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ongoing changes in the demands of the situation. Thus, in addition to monitoring one’s own behaviour, individuals require a range of social perception skills by which they can interpret the social cues and body language of the other person. Deficits in social perception skills and social knowledge may result in inaccurate interpretation of social cues and inappropriate social responding.

Gresham (1997) distinguishes between social skill acquisition deficits and social skill performance deficits. Children are said to possess an acquisition deficit if they do not have the particular social skill in their behavioural repertoire. Alternatively, performance deficits refer to the situation where the young person possesses the skills to behave in a socially skilled manner, yet fails to demonstrate these skills in one or more social situations. Performance deficits may result from a range of cognitive deficits or distortions the way in which social information is interpreted or from cognitive deficits in information processing (Lochman and Dodge, 1994; Garber, Weiss, and Shanley, 1993). Children may also experience difficulty performing a skill due to fluency deficit that means the child knows how to perform skill and is motivated to perform, but demonstrates inadequate performance due to lack of practice or adequate feedback. Sometimes the internal or external factors (e.g., depression, anxiety, or negative motivation) interfere with the child demonstrating a learned skill appropriately.

The distinction between these deficits is clearly important to the conceptualization and subsequent treatment of a child case. However, the distinction between deficits does not suggest that one is in some way less of a social skills problem than the other. Prior to determining the best means to help a child develop better social skills, it is crucial to assess and classify how much a child acquired social skills and the nature of a child’s social skill deficit in order to device and implement the most appropriate intervention.

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NEED OF SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING

There are times when it is necessary to directly teach social skills in order to prepare students to work successfully in cooperative groups. Children who fail to develop the skills for interacting with others in a socially acceptable manner early in life are rejected by their teachers, peers (Crick, 1996; Ialongo, Vaden- Kiernan, and Kellam, 1998; Vitaro, Brendgren, Larose, and Tremblay, 2005; Bruyan, Cillessen, and Wissink, 2010) and significant others and engage in unhealthy behaviors; are more at risk for negative life outcomes, such as gang involvement, juvenile delinquency, long-term incarceration (Eddy, Reid, and Curry, 2002; Reid and Patterson, 1991), are poor in academic achievement, and evoke highly negative responses from others. Unfortunately, these rejected students may band together and start their own maladaptive social skills lessons, in a process known as deviant peer training.

Children who are having problem in social interactions and whose behavior leads to social rejection often need to learn new interpersonal skills to cope up with these issues. In such cases, specific instruction on ways to make peer interactions mutually satisfying and productive can be effective in improving the children's peer relations (Asher et al., 1982). When an individual learns all the basic skills to cope with challenges individuals will feel more confident, motivated and develop a positive attitude toward life, thus, make more mature and adult like decision, starts taking responsibility for their actions and in turn refrain from risk taking and risky behaviors and become more useful people for the next generation (Aishath, 2008). While the enhancement of skills will not “cure” and/or target every need, much literature supports the fact that it can, in fact, make a pronounced difference in those who are involved in the process of learning to hone their skills.

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Social skills training programs are usually conducted in a group setting and on individual basis, outside the classroom, and often in clinics. Each training session typically involves instruction in a new skill, modeling of the skill, guided role-plays with performance feedback, homework assignments to use the skill outside of the group setting, and some type of reinforcement for using the skill. Skills taught usually involve such themes as communication, cooperation, assertiveness, participation and step-by-step problem solving, with the goal of demonstrating these skills in real-life situations. Identification of intervention strategies and practices that promote social skills can help increase the likelihood of positive outcomes for children and adolescents, and reduce the occurrence of negative outcomes. The earlier the intervention, the more favorable the outcome will be.

PROBLEM

The need of social skill training and early intervention strategies for healthy social interaction

OBJECTIVES

1. To study the level or pattern of social skills development in Children

2. To understand the need of Life Skill Training and its intervention process.

SAMPLE

The sample consists of 40 children studying in VIth standard. Both boys and girls were included in the sample. Sample were selected from Government schools in Malappuram District, Kerala.

TOOLS

1. A Social Skills Checklist

2. Observation

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1. Social Skills Checklist

The Social Skills Checklist consists of 17 items which are categorized under the four social skills i.e. Self Awareness (4 items), Interpersonal Relationships (5 items), Effective Communication (4 items) and Empathy (4 items). Items in Self Awareness cover the data about their emotional expressions, attitudes, behaviours etc. Interpersonal relationships include items regarding their interaction with peers, play behaviour etc. Effective communication consists of items related to their social interaction, group participation etc. and the Empathy covers the information about how they feel towards their peers’ emotions.

2. Observation

Observation method was used by the investigator to verify some of the information collected using the social skill checklist. With the permission from the authorities observation was conducted. While observation special attention was given to interpersonal relationships, effective communication and interaction with peers, their participation in group activities etc.

PROCEDURE

Prior permission from the concerned institutional authorities to meet the participants was sought by the investigator through proper channel. The authorities were met and informed about the details of the study. After the identification of the participants with the help of teachers, their parental consent was taken to include their children in the study. Consent was taken from the student participants also. The date and time for the data collection and interview was fixed and were informed in advance. As per the appointment the participants were met. The data was collected by the investigator. The rapport was established through self introduction and telling a children’s story. It

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The investigator collected information related to the likes, dislikes, desire, strength, weakness, positive qualities and negative qualities of the student participants in order to assess their self awareness. Then the social skills checklist was given to the participants and data were collected thereby.

After administering the social skills checklist the respondents were left to play on their own. At that time the investigator keenly observed the interpersonal relationships the children showed with each other, the way they empathize, the way they communicate with one another, and play behavior focusing mainly on their participation in group activities.

ADMINISTRATION

The social Skills Checklist was given to the 40 participants. The respondents were told to enter their responses towards each item in the checklist by putting a ‘tick’ mark in the appropriate column. They were told to be careful while entering the responses without any omissions and ask for double if any. In order to avoid ambiguity, the investigator herself read and made clear each and every question to them.

SCORING

‘Yes’ or ‘No’ type answers were included in the checklist. The content analysis of the data was done scientifically. The collected data were classified, analyzed and interpreted both qualitatively and quantitatively.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In order to assess the level and pattern of social skills that the children have, the investigator collected data from the 40 school

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Table 1 shows the scores obtained for items in the social skills assessment checklist.

Responses Sl Item Frequency Percentage No 1 Expression of appropriate 31 77.5% Emotion 2 Act without thinking about 23 57.5% the consequences 3 Inappropriate way of 10 25% behaviour 4 Ask for help when in need 37 92.5% 5 Joining peers in activities 34 85% 6 Cooperative play 40 100% 7 Make friends easily 35 87.5% 8 Take turns in games 38 95% 9 Participate in peer 19 47.5% suggested games 10 Group participation 36 90% 11 Make problem clarifications 38 95% 12 Initiating and terminating 12 30% interaction 13 Inappropriate way of 12 30% responding 14 Try to make others happy if 37 92.5% they are sad 15 Helping peers 38 95% 16 Empathise 36 90% 17 Peer affection 40 100%

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All the 17 items in the checklist were categorized into four groups on the basis of four social skills i.e. Self Awareness, Inter personal relationships, Effective communication and Empathy.

Under the ‘Self Awareness’ comes 4 items. The table results reveal that 77.5% of the respondents express their feelings whether it is sad, happy or anger, appropriate to the situation. Meanwhile 22.5% said they conceal their emotions from others. Among the total respondents, 57.5% do things without considering the after effect of their conduct and 42.5% of them think before they act. They reported that they were not able to control their impulses sometimes and they do what they want to do. It can be seen that 25% of the participants behave inappropriately. Almost all the respondents (92.5%) are able to ask for what they need and want.

The second social skill ‘Interpersonal Relationship’ consists of 5 items. From the responses given by the 40 subjects, it could be noticed that 85% of the students expressed that they used to allow peers to join activities they were engaged with. The whole respondents reported that, they like to engage in cooperative play than individual play. 87.55% are skilful in making friends. They treat new friendships as if they were of long standing. Almost all students i.e. 95% of the respondents do not have any difficulty taking turns. 47.5% of the children reported that they like to participate in peer’s suggested games. They reported that they keep a positive relationship with their peers.

The third social skill ‘Effective Communication’ consists of 4 items. 90% of the respondents reported that they do not have inhibition in participating in group activities. From the responses given by the subjects, it is clear that, almost all the respondents i.e. 95% clarifies their doubts with teachers as well as peers. From the total respondents 30% reported that, they initiate conversations but have endurance

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problem in terminating conversations. 30% of the participants revealed that they reply inappropriately to the questions of others.

The final social skill ‘Empathy’ comprises of 4 items. Among the respondents 92.5% respondents said that they try to make their peers happy when they are in a sad mood. They used to enquire about the reason for the emotional disturbances and try and always are ready to help them. Respondents from 95% of the participants show that, they do help peers when they are in need of it. Except a few number of participants others (90%) responded that they do empathize with peers. They try to understand their peer’s problem from their point of view. All the participants reported that, they love their friends as much as they love themselves.

The result drawn from the data collected to assess the self- awareness of the children shows that majority of the participants’ self understanding was very low. One reason for this can be they are at a stage of developing concrete ideas. In order to remove the notion that the respondents’ answer may be biased, the investigator observed the respondents separately during their play time. From the observation conducted by the investigator could see that the children under study exhibited different behaviours.

Group participation among students does not take place effectively. Some were rejected by their peers and close ones while others were seen to be quite happy and content with their life. The children who were rejected were seen to withdraw from the main group under study. This was seen as a poor socialization process went through by such children. This very problems occurring in such valuable relations could prove to be costly in their later lives. Likewise, children who were very much co-operative with their peers were seen to enjoy their peer interpersonal relationships and had no problems like rejection arising from their peers. The communication factor was seen

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Empathy factor was seen to be present in majority of the participants. Those children were seen to be more involved in others i.e. their friend’s issues and took up the issues as if they were to be theirs. Taking interpersonal interactions in to account, conflict was found to be very high among the respondents especially if it is a case of deciding games. Respondents found it really difficult to solve problems by themselves. Children who were aggressive and aversive were seen to have all sorts of problems arising now and then in between their interpersonal relations with peers. They were not able to adjust with others and were not able to bring out their ideas even if they had any. The investigator sees that the children who share similar behaviours and characteristics tend to affiliate well with each other. It was seen that no initiation was taken by some of the participants to take part in group activities. Hesitation was very prominent. These were confirmed while seeing and observing the play behavior of the respondents. The investigator sees the fact that social skill training is an effective method for increasing social performance in a child and increasing the intimacy of peer relationships.

Watching any group of children, it is obvious to the observer that most reap great joy from playing with their peers. Having nobody to play with makes children miserable, but having peer relationship problems is significant for another reason. Children who do not form positive peer relationships are more likely to have problematic relationships later on. Early in the year, preschoolers who play cooperatively with peers become well liked over time, whereas preschoolers who engage in aversive behaviour with peers subsequently

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There are a number of additional reasons to initiate interventions to improve children’s social skills during the preschool years. Early intervention, compared to intervention at older ages, holds special promise because developmental trajectories are most malleable early in life. This malleability exists both within the child and within the child’s relationships. Children who have not developed social skills during preschool may become further marginalized in kindergarten and associate with other marginalized peers, so that deviant patterns are strengthened and the risks of developing more serious problems in later childhood and adolescence increase.

CONCLUSIONS

Children develop their socializing skills in the pre-schooling years. It develops gradually as the child grows. The socializing process starts from their parents. It is primarily focused and concentrated upon in the primary classes. The children at times have problems while in taking the development of proper socializing processes. Problems such as the children being rejected by their parents or closed ones hurt their overall feelings. This leads them to withdraw from the large population. If proper intervention is not given i.e. proper social skill training is absent then the overall interpersonal relationships of the child are affected. Thereby this may grow along with them to adulthood, leading them towards negative behaviours and prone to taking risk taking. Their skill such as self awareness is affected as their self esteem and assurance would be low due to rejection from their own peers. They face great difficulty in communicating their thoughts to others, fail to

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empathize with others and have great difficulty to maintain inter personal relationships. These negative behaviours will increase as they go to the phase of adolescence. Thereby, makes it difficult for any person to train social skills in later years. While training social skills in childhood is fruitful and easier.

References

3. Aishath, N. (2008). Life Skills Education for Young People; Coping with Challenges. Counseling, Psychoteherapy and Health, pp. 20-21.

4. Asher, S. R., Renshaw, P. D., and Hymel, S. (1982). "Peer Relations and the Development of Social Skills." In Moor, S. G., and Cooper, C. R. (eds.), The Young Child: Reviews of Research, Volume 3. Washington, D.C.: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

5. Bay-Hinitz, A. K., Peterson, R. F., and Quilitch, H. R. (1994). Cooperative games: A way to modify aggressive and cooperative behaviors in young children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27(3), 435-446.

6. Bruyan, E. H., Cillessen, A. H., and Wissink, I. B. (2010). Associations of peer acceptance and perceived popularity with bullying and victimization in early adolescence. Journal of early adolescence, 30 (4), 543-566.

7. Caprara, G. V., Barbaranelli, C., Pastorelli, C., Bandura, A., and Zimbardo, P. G. (2000). Prosocial foundations of children’s academic achievement. Psychological Science, 11 (4), 302-306.

8. Crick, N. R. (1996). The role of overt aggression, relational aggression, and prosocial behavior in the prediction of children’s future social adjustment. Child Development, 67, 2317–2327.

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9. Denham, A., Hatfield, S., Smethurst, N., Tan, E., and Tribe, C. (2006). The effect of Social Skills Interventions in the Primary School. Educational Psychology in Practice, 22, 33-5.

10. Eddy, J. M., Reid, J. B., and Curry, V. (2002). The etiology of youth antisocial behavior, delinquency, and violence and a public health approach to prevention. In Shinn, M. R., Walker, H. M., and Stoner, G. (Eds.), Interventions for academic and behavior problems II: Preventive and remedial approaches (pp. 27–52). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.

11. Garber, J., Weiss, B., and Shanley, N. (1993). Cognitions, depressive symptoms, and development in adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 47–57.

12. Gresham, F. M. (1997). Social competence and students with behavior disorders: Where we’ve been, where we are, and where we should go. Education and Treatment of Children, 20, 233–249.

13. Ialongo, N. S., Vaden-Kiernan, N., and Kellam, S. (1998). Early peer rejection and aggression: Longitudinal relations with adolescent behavior. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 10, 199–213.

14. Lochman, J. E., and Dodge, K. A. (1994). Social-cognitive processes of severely violent, moderately aggressive, and nonaggressive boys. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 366–374.

15. McFall, R. (1982). A review and the reformulation of the concept of social skills. Behavioral Assessment, 4, 1–33.

16. Mize, J. (2005). Social skills intervention and peer relationship difficulties in early childhood: In: Tremblay, R. E., Barr, R. G., and Peters R. DeV., (eds). Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development [online]. Montreal, Quebec: Centre of Excellence for

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